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Microbiorobotics
 Microbiorobotics
Biologically Inspired Microscale Robotic Systems
Second Edition

Edited by

MinJun Kim
Anak Agung Julius
U Kei Cheang
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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may be noted herein).
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Contributors
Walid Amokrane
HEI Centre campus, Châteauroux, France
Aaron T. Becker
University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States
Karim Belharet
HEI Centre campus, Châteauroux, France
David Cappelleri
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
U Kei Cheang
Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
Jongeun Choi
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
Sagar Chowdhury
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
Antoine Ferreira
University of Orléans, Bourges, France
Peer Fischer
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany;
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Jiwon Han
Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
Wuming Jing
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
Anak Agung Julius
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
Sunghwan Jung
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States

xi
xii Contributors

Islam S.M. Khalil

The German University in Cairo, New Cairo City, Egypt

Dal Hyung Kim

Rowland Institute at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States

Hoyeon Kim
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States

MinJun Kim
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States

Paul Seung Soo Kim

Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States

Vijay Kumar
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States

Dejan Milutinović
University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, United States

Sarthak Misra
University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Yan Ou
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States

Stefano Palagi
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany

Jong-Oh Park
Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea

Sukho Park
Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Daegu, South Korea

Tian Qiu
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany;
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Mahmut Selman Sakar

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
 Contributors xiii

Edward B. Steager
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
Debora Walker
Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
Denise Wong
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
About the editors
MinJun Kim, PhD
Dr. MinJun Kim is presently the Robert C. Womack Endowed Chair Professor at the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering of Southern Methodist University. He received his BS and MS
degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Yonsei University in Korea and Texas A&M Univer-
sity, respectively. Dr. Kim completed his PhD degree in Engineering at Brown University, where
he held the prestigious Simon Ostrach Fellowship. Following his graduate studies, Dr. Kim was
a postdoctoral research fellow at the Rowland Institute of Harvard University. He joined Drexel
University in 2006 as an Assistant Professor and was later promoted to Professor of Mechanical
Engineering and Mechanics. Since Aug. 2016, he has been the Director of the Center for Bio-
logical Actuation, Sensing and Transport (CBAST) at the Lyle School of Engineering. Dr. Kim
has been exploring biological transport phenomena including cellular/molecular mechanics and
engineering in novel nano/microscale architectures to produce new types of nanobiotechnology,
such as nanopore technology and nano/micro robotics. His notable awards include the National
Science Foundation CAREER Award (2008), Drexel Career Development Award (2008), Hu-
man Frontier Science Program Young Investigator Award (2009), Army Research Office Young
Investigator Award (2010), Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship (2011), Bionic Engineering
Outstanding Contribution Award (2013), Louis & Bessie Stein Fellowship (2014), ISBE Fel-
low (2014), ASME Fellow (2014), KOFST Brain Pool Fellowship (2015), and Netexplo Award
(2016).

Anak Agung Julius, PhD

Dr. Anak Agung Julius is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical, Computer, and
Systems Engineering at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute since December 2008. He earned
the PhD degree in applied mathematics from the University of Twente, the Netherlands in 2005.
From 2005 to 2008, he was a Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Pennsylvania.
Dr. Julius’ research interests include systems and control, systems biology, stochastic models
in systems biology, control of biological systems, hybrid systems, and mathematical systems
theory. Dr. Julius has published 21 peer-reviewed journal articles and over 60 peer-reviewed
conference articles. He is a co-author of the Best Application Paper in the 10th International
Conference on Ubiquitous Robots and Ambient Intelligence (URAI 2013), and a finalist for
the Best Paper Award at the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and
Systems (IROS 2013). Dr. Julius is serving as an Associate Editor in the IEEE Transactions
in Automation Science and Engineering, the Journal of Nonlinear Analysis: Hybrid Systems,
and the IEEE Control Systems Society Conference Editorial Board. He is also a co-editor of

xv
xvi About the editors

the book Microbiorobotics (ISBN 1455778915) and Mathematical Control Theory I: Nonlinear
and Hybrid Control Systems (ISBN 3319209876). He received an NSF CAREER award in
2010, and Rensselaer School of Engineering Research Excellence Award for Junior Faculty in
2016.

U Kei Cheang, PhD

Dr. U Kei Cheang is a post-doctoral researcher at the Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Mechanics of Drexel University. Dr. Cheang received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering
at Drexel University in 2015 where he was supported by the NSF Graduate Research Fellow-
ship Program (GRFP), the NSF IGERT Fellowship, and the NSF East Asia and Pacific Summer
Institutes (EAPSI) Fellowship. Dr. Cheang’s research is in Micro/Nanorobotics and entails the
development of mobile micro and nanoscale swimming robots. His research encompasses con-
trols, micro/nanofabrication, and micro/nanofluidics. Dr. Cheang has published 8 peer-reviewed
journal papers and was recently awarded the Best Conference Paper Award in the 13th Interna-
tional Conference on Ubiquitous Robots and Ambient Intelligence (URAI 2016). His work on
the robotics microswimmers was awarded the top 10 Netexplo Award in 2016.
Preface
Building robotics system in the microscale is an engineering task that has resulted in many
important applications, ranging from microscale assembly to cellular manipulation. However,
it is also a very challenging engineering task. One of the reasons is due to the fact that many
engineering ideas and principles which are used on larger scales do not scale well into the small
world. For example, locomotion principles in fluidic environment do not scale because of the
difference in (order of) the Reynolds numbers. The use of rotational motors is also impractical
because of the challenges related to building of the components.
Similar challenges exist in the effort to realize sensing mechanisms. Macroscale positioning
techniques such as global satellite positioning systems or acoustic positioning sensors simply
do not offer microscale resolution. The fundamental wavelengths for such operations are much
larger than the scale of the robots themselves. For vision-based sensing, components for typical
on-board robotic vision are also much larger to integrate with microscale robots.
On the other hand, microorganisms have evolved various mechanisms to thrive in such an en-
vironment. Microbial cells use various structures, such as flagella and cilia to generate motion.
They have also developed various chemical receptors and cellular signaling mechanisms to de-
tect and process sensory information from their environment. This is evident in the observed
motility behavior of microorganisms, which includes phenomena such as chemotaxis, photo-
taxis, thermotaxis, and others.
Recently, synthetic microrobots have become very common in this field. Various locomotive
mechanisms are inspired by microorganisms. With the advances in microfabrication technolo-
gies, microscale actuators can be fabricated on a massive scale which is an indication of the
feasibility to utilize artificially fabricated actuators. However, there exist technological lim-
itations in creating micro or nanoscale on-board power supply and sensors, thus, synthetic
microrobots are generally simplistic in geometry and rely on an external power sources such
as magnetic fields. Nonetheless, future advances in fabrication technologies and biocompatible
materials will enable the use of synthetic microrobots for future applications.
This book covers the use of biological and synthetic systems in microscale robotics applica-
tions. Three main topics that are covered are:
– Theoretical Microbiorobotics
– Biological Microrobots
– Synthetic Microrobots
In these topics, we have solicited contribution from leading researchers in the area so as to
provide a balanced treatment between the theoretical analysis and experimental results.

xvii
xviii Preface

Microbiorobotics is a new engineering discipline that inherently involves a multidisciplinary

approach (mechanical engineering, cellular biology, mathematical modeling, control systems,
synthetic biology, etc.). The documentation of relevant development in this field has been scat-
tered in various journals and conference proceedings in areas mentioned above. With this book,
we aim to provide the readers with a unique perspective and unified source for the fundamentals
and the recent advances in the field of microbiorobotics.
This book is aimed at engineers with a background in robotics, physics, and biological systems.
It is also aimed at teaching graduate students about the fundamentals and the recent advances
in the field of microbiorobotics.
Acknowledgments
It is obvious that the work of editing this book does not represent solely the efforts of its three
editors. Since microbiorobotics is an advanced and interdisciplinary topic, we aim to highlight
some of the most innovative and powerful developments in microrobotics that have been based
on biologically-inspired systems, and to provide a resource for research and scientists interested
in learning about the techniques themselves – their capability and limitations. We owe a great
debt to many who helped us in various ways, from sharing their understanding to providing
original research data. We do certainly appreciate all authors for their contributions. This book
would not be possible without their work. The diverse backgrounds of the authors provide
multiple perspectives of microbiorobotics that we present in this book. Special thanks should
be given to our reviewers for providing detailed suggestions on all aspects of this book.
Many people read and commented on specific chapters, provided figures and materials, and
spent much time with us in helpful discussions. We gratefully thank these people. We have
been privileged to work with many gifted graduate and undergraduate students at Drexel Uni-
versity and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, all who contributed in part to further this research:
Dr. Dalhyung Kim, Dr. Wonjin Jo, Dr. Anmiv Prabhu, Dr. Kevin Freedman, Dr. Gaurav Goyal,
Armin Darvish, Yan Ou, Rafael Mulero, William Hesse, David Casale, and Kiran Phuyal. We
would also like to acknowledge several funding agencies, National Science Foundation, Army
Research Office, Korea Institute of Science Technology (KIST), and Ministry of Trade, In-
dustry, and Energy (MOTIE) for financial support to our current microbiorobotics research
programs.

MinJun Kim
Anak Agung Julius
U Kei Cheang

xix
Motivation for
microbiorobotics
For much of the history of robotics, research has focused on systems that
have some relation in operational capability or length scale to humans. From
the perspective of the layman, the very definition of robot is most often
closely tied to the subclass of robotics relating to humanoids. Perhaps this
isn’t particularly surprising, since the methods of machining and the tools
that we first developed are correlated with our ability to easily observe and
manipulate objects at macroscopic length scales. That is, with the naked
eye we can easily see objects down to the millimeter, and our hands are not
adept at working with smaller objects. It is also not surprising that we have
developed strong capabilities at developing much larger structures such as
bridges and skyscrapers. In a sense, the bottom of the scale limits engi-
neers more than the top, and we can consider the largest structures to be
considered ‘bottom-up,’ a concept that is prevalent in nanotechnology. In
the last decade, significant advances have been made in the field of mi-
crorobotics due to relatively recent advancements in both micromachining
and microscopy. With the proliferation of several advanced tools for imag-
ing and analysis, such as atomic force, electron, and confocal microscopies,
coupled with the increasing availability of microfabrication technology, we
can expect to see tighter integration between fundamental discovery and en-
gineering applications.
Experimentalists in microscale robotics are inevitably led to consider two
fundamental questions. Firstly, what can we learn from cells in terms of
mimicking or integrating natural phenomena with robots? Secondly, how
can we apply new microrobotic technologies to the fields of cell biology
and medicine?
Cells are, in a sense, highly optimized and specialized microrobots. If we
look at the function of a cell from the perspective of a beginning robotics
course, we find striking analogs between cells and robots. Motor proteins
perform as actuators, neurons and ion channels act as wiring, DNA and
RNA act as memory and software, etc. The cellular systems are composed
of elements that are self-assembled in the truest, atomistic sense from the
bottom up. Proteins are the functional subunit of the cellular machinery, as-
Microbiorobotics
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. xxiii
xxiv Motivation for microbiorobotics

sembled into myriad actuators and sensors. In the current state of micro-
and nanorobotics, we either mimic behaviors that are otherwise performed
by these proteins, or we use whole, intact cells. For example, the behavior
of the flagellum is currently replicated not by proteins, but by external mag-
netic fields [1–4], and the sensing of chemical compounds may be interfaced
with mechanical measurements and solid-state microelectronics [5]. In the
long view, however, it is only reasonable to expect that cellular subsystems
will be successfully integrated with microfabricated, inorganic elements. In-
deed, there is a significant progress being made in the effort to harness the
power of motor proteins as microactuators.
The branches of bioengineering related to genetic engineering and synthetic
biology will also inevitably be interfaced with microbiorobotics, from both
the standpoint of sensors and actuators, or even combinations. In the field of
optogenetics, we see a step toward this combination, the coupling of light
exposure with muscle actuation [6]. If we’re willing to expand our definition
of robotics, another viable option is to reprogram whole cells to suit our
needs. Bacterial and yeast cells have been reprogrammed to perform basic
operations such as counting and timing [7,8].
One of the great challenges in microrobotics is expanding the current control
capabilities from single or few-robot systems to many-robot systems. Since
many of the current techniques are field based, it is no small task to accom-
plish. That is, individual control is limited by the divergence or resolution
of the applied fields. In many current systems, sensing and control are per-
formed at a much larger scale using the microscope as an interface. Despite
the current limitations on the ability to create systems of independent mi-
crorobots, it is easy to imagine how such capabilities would greatly enable
otherwise difficult tasks, such as the collective propulsion of large objects
relative to the robot size, or collecting data in from disparate locations.
From the biomimetic point of view, multirobot systems seem like an obvi-
ous step along the continuum of technological advancement. Although there
are certainly countless examples of microorganisms that go about their life
cycle in a largely independent manner, there are also many examples of
single-cell organisms that demonstrate collective behaviors, such as swarm-
ing bacteria [9].
Passive, circulating multirobotic systems can also easily be envisioned. Al-
though much of the focus to date has been on actuation methods, sensing
networks of passively flowing, perhaps even communicating robots. For in-
stance, leukocytes detect and defend against infection in the human body.
Although many of these cells circulate freely in the blood, they are able
 References xxv

to sense and respond to foreign bodies. One can imagine another layer of
robotic protection tasked with monitoring or even responding to disease.
As described, there are clearly myriad options for fundamental study on
several levels with direct applicability to microbiorobotics. While the fun-
damental research by itself serves to motivate the subject as a whole, the
application of microbiorobots to cellular research, drug delivery, or as work-
ing tools for other microscale tasks should prove to be fascinating.

REFERENCES
[1] U.K. Cheang, et al., Minimal geometric requirements for micropropulsion via mag-
netic rotation, Phys. Rev. E 90 (3) (2014) 033007.
[2] L. Zhang, et al., Artificial bacterial flagella: fabrication and magnetic control, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 94 (2009) 064107.
[3] A. Ghosh, P. Fischer, Controlled propulsion of artificial magnetic nanostructured pro-
pellers, Nano Lett. 9 (6) (2009) 2243–2245.
[4] W. Gao, S. Sattayasamitsathit, K. Manian Manesh, D. Weihs, J. Wang, Magnetically-
powered flexible metal nanowire motors, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (2010) 14403–14405.
[5] N.V. Lavrik, M.J. Sepaniak, P.G. Datskos, Cantilever transducers as a platform for
chemical and biological sensors, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75 (2004) 2229.
[6] T. Bruegmann, et al., Optogenetic control of heart muscle in vitro and in vivo, Nat.
Methods 7 (2010) 897–900.
[7] A.E. Friedland, et al., Synthetic gene networks that count, Science 324 (5931) (2009)
1199–1202.
[8] T. Ellis, X. Wang, J.J. Collins, Diversity-based, model-guided construction of synthetic
gene networks with predicted functions, Nat. Biotechnol. 27 (5) (2009) 465–471.
[9] M.F. Copeland, D.B. Weibel, Bacterial swarming: a model system for studying dy-
namic self-assembly, Soft Matter 5 (2009).
Historical overview
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the development
of micro-scale robotic systems. Researchers have explored numerous ways
and techniques to provide systems capable of performing micro-scale tasks.
Many micro-scale systems have been biologically inspired or based. For
effective micro-scale systems, it is critical to understand cellular mechan-
ics and their interaction with low Reynolds number environments. Cellular
swimming has led researchers to mimic biological motors such as flagella
for bacteria-inspired microrobots. Others have used biological phenomena
and external stimuli for micro-scale robotic systems such as magnetotac-
tic bacteria. Using bacteria as well as other microorganisms as a power
source for a microrobot has also been investigated. Furthermore, mathe-
matical modeling has been used to characterize cell behavior for control of
microbiorobotic systems. Microbiorobotics has vast potential for creating
robust micro-scale robotic systems.

LOW REYNOLDS NUMBER SWIMMING

The first step to building micro-scale robotic systems is to understand fluid
mechanics at low Reynolds numbers. In low Reynolds number environ-
ments, viscosity is the dominating force, as inertia plays no role whatsoever.
Motion at very low Reynolds number is entirely determined by the forces
exerted on the organism at that moment and by nothing in the past [1].
Purcell’s scallop theorem says that to achieve propulsion at low Reynolds
numbers, reciprocal motion cannot be used. Purcell describes reciprocal
motion as, “I change my body into a certain shape and then I go back to
the original shape by going through the sequence in reverse. So, if the an-
imal tries to swim by a reciprocal motion, it can’t go anywhere.” [1] The
scallop theorem forms the basis of aquatic locomotion for micro-swimming
devices [2].
To create efficient propulsion at low Reynolds numbers, the mechanics of
biological motors such as flagella and cilia have been examined. Many bac-
teria, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella, have several flagella attached
at points distributed over the surface of the cell. The flagella, which are
typically helical in shape, rotate in a corkscrew-like motion. While bac-
teria are swimming, the flagella come together in a synchronous flagellar
bundle, which propels the cell [3]. For microorganisms with cilia, such as
Microbiorobotics
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. xxvii
xxviii Historical overview

■ FIGURE 1 The swimming motion of bacterial flagellum and cilium. From

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flagellum-beating.svg.

Tetrahymena pyriformis and Paramecium, the locomotive cilium motion can

be described in terms of two swimming strokes, effective (forward) and re-
covery (back). The cilia are aligned in arrays along the cell body and beat
in a phase relationship with neighboring cilia [4]. The mechanics of flagella
and cilia are shown in Fig. 1. These biological motors are efficient in low
Reynolds number environments and are a source of inspiration for micro-
biorobotics.

TAXIS OF MICROORGANISMS
For the control of microbiorobots for micro-scale applications, external
stimuli can be utilized. Many biological microorganisms respond to stim-
uli, such as magnetotaxis (magnetic fields), galvanotaxis (electric fields),
phototaxis (light), and chemotaxis (chemicals). Based on the characterized
behavior of microorganisms, these taxes can be applied to produce a de-
sired response from the micro-scale robot. Responses from microbiorobots
can be used as a method for chemical detection [5] or the manipulation of
objects [6].
Magnetotaxis is used to change the direction of locomotion in motile organ-
isms by inducing a magnetic stimulus [7,8]. Two different magnetotactic
mechanisms, polar and axial, are found in different magnetotactic bacteria
strains. Strains that swim in only one direction along the magnetic field are
polar magnetotactic. These magnetotactic bacteria always swim towards ei-
ther the north or south direction of the magnetic field, and will only reverse
direction if exposed to a more powerful magnetic field. They always move
 Artificial bio-inspired microrobots xxix

in the same magnetic direction, relative to the dominant field. Axial mag-
netotactic bacteria move along either direction of magnetic field lines with
frequent reversals of swimming direction and make no distinction between
north and south poles. The magnetic field provides only an axis of motility
for axial magnetotactic bacteria, while both an axis and a direction are spec-
ified for polar magnetotactic bacteria. These two magnetotactic mechanisms
can be utilized to control micro-scale robotic systems.
Electrical current can be used to produce directional movement of motile
cells; this is known as galvanotaxis. Bacteria strains will only swim in one
direction, either towards the anode or cathode. When the electric field is
reversed the cell will turn around, so that the same end of the cell is leading
towards the new anode or cathode [9]. Researchers have established which
direction bacteria strains, Escherichia coli and Salmonella, will swim based
on surface structure [10]. Rough bacteria swam towards the anode, while
smooth bacteria moved toward the cathode. Galvanotaxis has been shown
to be applicable to numerous microorganisms [11,12].
Phototaxis is the movement of an organism in response to light, which can
vary with light intensity and direction. The organism’s reaction to light can
either be negative or positive. Negative phototaxis causes swimming away
from the light source, while in positive phototaxis movement occurs to-
wards light. There are two types of positive phototaxis that are observed
in bacteria, scotophototaxis and true phototaxis. Scotophototaxis is a phe-
nomenon found underneath a microscope. Once the bacterium moves out-
side the illuminated area, it reverses direction and reenters the light. In true
phototaxis cells follow a gradient of increasing light intensity [13]. Pho-
totactic responses are observed in many microorganisms such as Serratia
marcescens [14] and Tetrahymena pyriformis [12]. Similar to phototaxis,
chemotaxis can either be positive (chemoattractants) or negative (chemore-
pellents) based on the cell’s motility response to a chemical concentration
gradient. Chemotaxis is more commonly used for research in biology and
medicine, as there are some disadvantages for controlling organisms as mi-
crobiorobots. There is a significant delay in response and release time when
compared to taxes such as photo, galvano, and magnetic. Also, there are
challenges in the introduction and removal of chemicals as well as the cre-
ation of fluidic disturbances.

ARTIFICIAL BIO-INSPIRED MICROROBOTS

Microrobots have vast potential in many engineering applications, such
as micromanipulation, microassembly, and minimally invasive procedures.
However, locomotion at the microscopic level is challenging. One source of
xxx Historical overview

inspiration for microfluidic propulsion has been found in motile organelles,

such as flagella [15] and cilia [16]. The capabilities of these organelles at
low Reynolds numbers are intriguing to researchers in the design of micro-
robots.
In recent years, mimicking flagella for purposes such as biomedical appli-
cations have been studied extensively [17]. It has been shown that helical
propellers can be manufactured at the microscale [18–21]. A notable exam-
ple of the helical swimmers is the helical micro- and nanopropellers which
were fabricated using the nano-GLAD technique [22]. Magnetic fields ro-
tate the swimmers to produce propulsive forces [20]. It was demonstrated
that the micro- and nanopropellers can be controlled in 3D space and fluids
with complex rheological properties such as biological fluids. These pro-
pellers are the smallest known helical swimmer with a length scale down
to a few hundred nanometers which are small enough to be controllably
navigated through the macromolecular mesh of biological fluids or gels
[23]. Nanopropellers had been shown to move through hyaluronan solu-
tions, which is an important step toward the goal of operating micro- and
nanorobots inside biological media and living organisms [23].
In another technique to mimic the spiral swimming of bacteria, it was shown
that rigid chains of micro- and nanoparticles can produce propulsion at low
Reynolds number when rotated by a magnetic field. These are called par-
ticle based microswimmer. When actuated, the microswimmers exhibit a
spiral motion resulting in forward propulsion. These microswimmers are
fabricated using avidin biotin conjugation and magnetic self-assembly [24].
They can consist of any number of particles with 13 being the longest sus-
tainable chain. The smallest number of particles is three, which makes up
an achiral shape with two planes of symmetry. Interestingly, this achiral
structure does not require chirality or flexibility to swim [24,25]. Further-
more, these particle-based microswimmers have been demonstrated in au-
tonomous control [26,27] and multiple robot control [28], and can be scaled
to nano-size [29].

BIOLOGICAL MICROROBOTS
Constructing artificial microrobots creates many challenges for engineers.
Due to the differences between the physics of the macro- and micro-scale,
it is difficult to design and manufacture microrobots. The costs are great for
the microrobots that can be constructed. Also, there is a lack of sufficient
power sources for microrobots making them unsuitable for time-consuming
tasks. Some researchers have turned to microorganisms, such as magneto-
tactic bacteria, Serratia marcescens and Tetrahymena pyriformis, to be used
 Biological microrobots xxxi

as biological microrobots. Biological organisms are easily and cheaply cul-

tured in labs with little equipment. They can draw chemical energy from
their environment eliminating the need for external power sources. Mi-
croorganisms also respond to various external stimuli allowing them to be
controlled as biological microrobots.
Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are geomagnetically sensitive and orient
themselves along the earth’s magnetic field lines. MTB have organelles
called magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals, which allow them to
be directed by magnetic fields. Magnetotaxis has been used to show the
controllability of MTB by manipulating microbeads [30,31]. MTB has been
proposed as a micro-carrier as individual MC-1 bacteria were measured to
produce a thrust of 4 pN [32]. Designs to utilize the thrust from a swarm
of MTB to provide propulsion and steering for a microrobot have also
been presented [33,34]. In this case, MTB are embedded in special reser-
voirs within the microrobot structure. An embedded microcircuit powered
through photovoltaic cells is used to control the swimming direction of the
bacteria and consequentially the microrobot.
Another method for using flagellated bacteria as microrobot has been shown
using Serratia marcescens. Negative photoresist SU-8 microstructures were
fabricated using simple microfabrication techniques. Serratia marcescens
are then blotted on the surface of the microstructure, allowing the flagella
to randomly propel and rotate the structure without stimulus. Phototactic
control is demonstrated by exposing ultraviolet rays to localized regions
of the swarm bacteria [14]. Within a few seconds, exposed areas become
inactive, eliminating random motion. When combined with galvanotaxis,
the microbiorobot’s position and orientation can be controlled [11]. The
microbiorobot could then be utilized for applications such as single cell
manipulation [6]. Recent development had also demonstrated the feasibility
to implement autonomous control, including feedback control, and obstacle
avoidance [35].
Eukaryotes that are significantly larger than bacteria such as Tetrahymena
pyriformis have also been employed as cellular microrobots. Tetrahymena
pyriformis uses locomotive cilia for propulsion. Galvanotactic and phototac-
tic control have been validated in past research [12]. Tetrahymena pyriformis
is also capable of internalizing magnetic iron-oxide particles using oral cilia
located at the anterior part of the cell [36]. After magnetization of the parti-
cles, the cell’s swimming direction can be controlled using magnetic fields.
Using magnetotaxis feedback control with real-time path planning was im-
plemented for micro-scale tasks such as object manipulation or transport
[37]. They can also be manipulated en mass using swarm control by global
xxxii Historical overview

inputs [38,39]. This validates Tetrahymena pyriformis as a useful cellular

microrobot.

CONCLUSION
Much effort has been put into the study of biologically inspired microscale
robotic systems. To design a robust system, it is important to understand
cellular mechanics as well as the stimuli needed for control of micro-
biorobots. Both artificial bio-inspired and biological microrobots exhibit
great promise. Microbiorobots have the potential to revolutionize many re-
search disciplines including biology and medicine.

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[17] B.J. Nelson, I.K. Kaliakatsos, J.J. Abbott, Microrobots for minimally invasive
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About this book
With this book, we present the reader with a mosaic of topics that cover
multiple aspects of microbiorobotics research. The chapters in this book
are independently written by the authors. Together, they cover theoretical,
biological, and synthetic microrobotics.

THEORETICAL MICROBIOROBOTICS
In theoretical microbiorobotics, we explore the swarm control and optimiza-
tion. One of the challenges in deploying microrobots is direct control of a
large number of actuators at the cellular level. In relation to that, several
chapters in this book are devoted to control at the “colony” level. Chapter 1
by Becker addresses the control of swarms of robots at the microscale using
global inputs for breaking symmetry. Chapter 2 by Amokrane, Belharet, and
Ferreira reviews the optimization of magnetic forces for guiding magnetic
nanoparticles for drug delivery in the inner ear.

BIOLOGICAL MICROROBOTS
In Biological microrobotics, we explore the current development of biolog-
ical microrobots that are manipulated using various external stimuli, includ-
ing magnetic field, electric field, and chemical cues. These microrobots are
classified based on their direct incorporation of live microorganisms for ac-
tuation and sensing. In Chapter 3, Han et al. discuss the development of an
active controllable tumor targeting bacteriobot. Khalil and Misra, in Chap-
ter 4, present the culturing methods of Magnetospirillum Magnetotacticum
for the fabrication of magnetotactic bacteria and the directional control of
such bacteria using external magnetic fields. Chapter 5 by Kim et al. reviews
the autonomous control of the bacteria-powered microrobots to achieve ob-
stacle avoidance. In Chapter 6, Jung reviews microorganism interaction with
boundary for the understanding of natural bio-locomotion and development
of bio-inspired microrobots.

SYNTHETIC MICROROBOTS
For synthetic microrobotics, we review microrobots with artificially fabri-
cated actuators. The development of synthetic microrobots is largely depen-
dent on micro- and nanofabrication technologies. While they do not possess
Microbiorobotics
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. xxxv
xxxvi About this book

the complicated structures of microorganisms for propulsion and sensing,

synthetic microrobotics has the potential to create optimized microscale
manipulation tool for specific purposes without having to deal with the un-
certainties that are innate to microorganisms. In Chapter 7, Cheang et al.
present the implementation of a nonlinear feedback controller for the three
bead achiral robotic microswimmers. In Chapter 8, Palagi et al. review the
control of helically shaped microrobots in viscoelastic fluids. In Chapter 9,
Steager et al. discuss the fabrication and control ferromagnetic composite
microtransporters for microbiology. In Chapter 10, Jing et al. review the de-
velopment of a microforce sensing mobile microrobot for mechanobiology
and automated biomanipulation.
 Controlling swarms of robots with global
Chapter
1
inputs: Breaking symmetry
Aaron T. Becker
University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Breaking symmetry 6
1.3 Breaking symmetry with robot inhomogeneity 7
1.4 Breaking symmetry with obstacles 10
1.4.1 Nonprehensile manipulation 11
1.4.2 B LOCK W ORLD abstraction 11
1.4.3 Position control 11
1.5 Conclusion 14
References 15

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Micro- and nanorobotics hold great promise for precision material delivery
and for micro construction. According to Sitti et al. “One of the highest
potential scientific and societal impacts of small-scale (millimeter and sub-
millimeter size) untethered mobile robots would be their healthcare and
bioengineering applications” [1].
The flagship application for precision delivery is targeted therapy [2–6].
The current dominant practice in cancer treatment uses chemotherapy ap-
plied systemically, but has associated collateral damage to hair follicles and
other fast-growing tissue. Successful precision delivery would steer toxins
directly to tumors.
Health care is also a driver for micro construction, which includes mini-
mally invasive surgery [7–10], and tissue engineering [11–15]. The surgical
industry is rapidly switching to minimally invasive surgery, which places
Microbiorobotics
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 CHAPTER 1 Controlling swarms of robots with global inputs: Breaking symmetry

■ FIGURE 1.1 Scaling laws show that microrobots loose volume faster than surface area and much faster
than length as length decreases. This is significant because onboard power and computation is proportional to
volume, while forces required for propulsion are proportional to length and surface area.

surgical instruments at the end of long, slender kinematic chains and inserts
this apparatus through small incisions, called ports, in the body. There is
a desire to shrink the size and number of ports, but as the ports decrease
in size, the kinematic chain to the external world becomes less rigid. This
flexibility makes dexterity difficult and limits surgical forces.
Long before the advent of minimally invasive surgery, authors dreamed
of doing away with incisions and kinematic chains by shrinking the sur-
geon and tools into a compact submarine-like vehicle that could be piloted
through the many fluid-filled lumens of the body. This dream is in its in-
fancy. There has been notable progress with pill cameras, tiny cameras that
record a passage through the digestive track, from swallowing to expelling.
Shrinking the surgeon to make a capable autonomous robot is hard for two
main limitations: power and computation. As the length of the axis  de-
creases, the surface area decreases as 2 , but the volume at 3 . This relation-
ship is plotted in Fig. 1.1. Nanocars are perhaps the smallest possible robots,
but at 1.4×1.7 nm they are smaller than the smallest transistors currently in
production (14 nm, beginning in 2014 by Intel). This limited volume ef-
fectively prevents onboard computation in nanorobots and severely limits
computation in microrobots. Power is limited for the same reason because
stored power is also a function of volume.
In the 2014 Disney movie Big Hero 6, the protagonist Hiro offers a pro-
found view into the future by manufacturing a swarm of 105 microbots.
Hiro controls them to self-assemble, build structures, and transport goods
and materials. While the “microrobots” of the film are fantasy, the ideas
 1.1 Introduction 5

■ FIGURE 1.2 Uniform control inputs are ubiquitous in micro-/nanorobotics. (Top) Differential-drive robots
with broadcast control [38], microrobots controlled by shared electrical signal [17], light-driven nanocars [21].
(Bottom) r-one swarm under broadcast control [39], photophile kilobot robots [40], and magnetically steered
protozoa [41].

are rooted in reality. Today, micro- and nanorobots can be produced in ex-
tremely large quantities. Once a manufacturing process is developed, the
marginal cost of producing one additional robot is small. Microrobots can
be fabricated using microelectromechanical system (MEMS) techniques,
e.g. scratch-drive microrobots [16–19]. These robots are 60 by 250 mi-
crons in size, and can be mass-produced with many robots tiled on a single
silicon wafer. Perhaps the best examples of large populations are robotic
nanocars—synthetic molecules with integrated axles, rolling wheels, and
light-driven molecular motors, that are 1.4×1.7 nm in size [20–30]. These
are routinely produced in tremendous quantities—a batch the size of an as-
pirin tablet contained ≈ 4 × 1019 nanocars [21]. This dwarfs the number of
automobiles produced in the history of the world—90 million automobiles
were manufactured in 2014 [31]. Also, biological agents such as bacte-
ria [32–34,3,35] and paramecium [36,37] can be grown to achieve large
swarms.

Ideally, we would design a system that would allow each robot to be con-
trolled individually. However, next-generation micro- and nanorobotic sys-
tems have minimal onboard processing and communications bandwidth.
The lack of significant onboard computation makes autonomous operation
infeasible. Sending individual control signals to each robot requires com-
munications bandwidth that scales with population sizes. Because these
systems are only useful when their populations are immense, the bandwidth
required for individual unit control is impractical.
6 CHAPTER 1 Controlling swarms of robots with global inputs: Breaking symmetry

■ FIGURE 1.3 Example of uniform control inputs. (A) After feeding iron particles to ciliate eukaryon
(Tetrahymena pyriformis) and magnetizing the particles with a permanent magnet, the cells can be turned by
changing the orientation of an external magnetic field (B). Using two orthogonal Helmholz electromagnets, Kim
et al. demonstrated steering many living magnetized T. pyriformis cells [41,57]. All cells are steered by the same
global field (C). (D) Target applications are in biological vascular networks, such as the vasculature in this
cottonwood leaf. Photo: Royce Bair/Flickr/Getty Images.

Instead, this chapter focuses on systems with uniform control inputs. Some
representative systems are shown in Fig. 1.2: light-driven nanocars are
uniformly actuated by a certain wavelength of light, scratch-drive micro-
robots are uniformly actuated by varying the electric potential across a
substrate, and multi-robot systems are uniformly controlled by a broadcast
radio signal. Other uniform input examples include the magnetic resonant
microrobots of Tung et al. [42]; the magnetic helical swimming micro- and
nanorobots of Ghosh and Fischer [43], Tottori et al. [44], and Schürle and
Nelson et al. [45,46]; the magnetic microparticles of Diller and Floyd et
al. [47–49]; the magnetic milli-scale capsules of Vartholomeos et al. [50];
the magnetic particles studied by Snezhko et al. and Orduño et al. [51–54];
and the tumbling magnetic microrobots of [55]. Biological examples in-
clude the electric-field controlled paramecium studied by Hashimoto et
al. [36] and Hasegawa et al. [37], the electrokinetic and optically con-
trolled bacteria demonstrated by Steager et al. [32], the magnetic-field
controlled bacteria demonstrated by Martel et al. [33,34,3,35] and magnetic-
field steered protozoa demonstrated by Ou et al. [56]. Fig. 1.3 shows an
example of bacteria steered by a global control input provided by an exter-
nal magnetic field.

1.2 BREAKING SYMMETRY

A swarm of robots controlled by a 2 DoF (degree of freedom) signal is inher-
ently under-actuated since each robot has 2 to 6 DoF. To make robots behave
differently requires a mechanism to break symmetry from the control input.
Breaking symmetry enables the same control input to steer individual robots
to different locations.
Our previous work applied ensemble control theory [58–69] and control
Lyapunov functions [70] to steer swarms of robots. Our work [39,41,57,
Another random document with
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Now, mother,” continued Sir John, “the wife I should like is one
whose heart, whose inmost nature, should be at once open to my
view, unwarped and undisguised by the customs and fashions of the
world.”
“Upon my word, John, you are more than usually eloquent this
morning,” said Lady Gowan, laughing. “But pray now, do tell me,
John, shortly and unequivocally, what is the drift of this long,
flowery, and very sensible speech of yours? for that there is a drift in
it I can clearly perceive. You are aiming at something which you do
not like to plump upon me at once.”
Sir John looked a good deal confused on finding that his mother’s
shrewdness had detected a latent purpose in his remarks, and
endeavoured to evade the acknowledgment of that purpose, until he
should have her opinion of the observations he had made; and in this
he succeeded. Having pressed her on this point—
“Well, my son,” replied Lady Gowan, “if you think that you cannot
find a woman in a station of life corresponding to your own that will
suit your taste, look for her in any other you please; and, when
found, take her. Consult your own happiness, John, and in doing so
you will consult mine. I will not object to your marrying whomsoever
you please. All that I bargain for is, that she be a perfectly virtuous
woman, and of irreproachable character; and I don’t think this is
being unreasonable. But do now, John, tell me at once,” she added,
in a graver tone, and taking her son solemnly by the hand, “have you
fixed your affections on a woman of humble birth and station? I
rather suspect this is the case.”
“I have then, mother,” replied Sir John, returning his mother’s
expressive and affectionate pressure of the hand; “the daughter of a
humble yeoman, a woman who——” But we will spare the reader the
infliction of the high-flown encomiums of all sorts which Sir John
lavished on the object of his affections. Suffice it to say, that they
included every quality of both mind and person which go to the
adornment of the female sex.
When he had concluded, Lady Gowan, who made the necessary
abatements from the panegyric her son had passed on the lady of his
choice, said that, with regard to his attachment, she could indeed
have wished it had fallen on one somewhat nearer his own station in
life, but that, nevertheless, she had no objection whatever to accept
of Miss Harrison as a daughter-in-law, since she was his choice.
“Nay,” she added, smiling, “if she only possesses one-tenth—ay, one-
tenth, John—of the good qualities with which you have endowed her,
I must say you are a singularly fortunate man to have fallen in with
such a treasure. But, John, allow me to say that, old woman as I am, I
think that I could very easily show you that your prejudices, vulgar
prejudices I must call them, against the higher classes of society, are
unreasonable, unjust, and, I would add, illiberal, and therefore
wholly unworthy of you. Does the elegance, the refinement, the
accomplishments, the propriety of manner and delicacy of
sentiment, to be met with in these circles, go for nothing with you?
Does——”
“My dear mother,” here burst in Sir John, “if you please, we will
not argue the point; for, in truth, I do not feel disposed just now to
argue about anything. I presume I am to understand, my ever kind
and indulgent parent, that I have your full consent to marry Miss
Harrison—that is, of course, if Miss Harrison will marry me?”
“Fully and freely, my child,” said the old lady, now flinging her
arms around her son’s neck, while a tear glistened in her eye; “and
may God bless your union, and make it happy!”
Sir John with no less emotion returned the embrace of his
affectionate parent, and, in the most grateful language he could
command, thanked her for her ready compliance with his wishes.
On the day following that on which the preceding conversation
between Sir John Gowan and his mother took place, the inmates of
Todshaws were surprised at the appearance of a splendid equipage
driving up towards the house.
“Wha in a’ the world’s this?” said Jeanie to her father, as they both
stood at the door, looking at the glittering vehicle, as it flashed in the
sun and rolled on towards them. “Some travellers that hae mistaen
their road.”
“Very likely,” replied her father; “yet I canna understand what kind
o’ a mistake it could be that should bring them to such an out-o’-the-
way place as this. It’s no a regular carriage road—that they micht hae
seen; an’ if they hae gane wrang, they’ll find some difficulty in getting
richt again. But here they are, sae we’ll sune ken a’ about it.”
 As Mr Harrison said this, the carriage, now at the distance of only
some twenty or thirty yards from the house, stopped; a gentleman
stepped out, and advanced smiling towards Mr Harrison and his
daughter. They looked surprised, nay confounded; for they could not
at all comprehend who their visitor was.
“How do you do, Mr Harrison?” exclaimed the latter, stretching
out his hand to the person he addressed; “and how do you do, Miss
Harrison?” he said, taking Jeanie next by the hand.
In the stranger’s tones and manner the acute perceptions of Miss
Harrison recognised something she had heard and seen before, and
the recognition greatly perplexed her; nor was this perplexity
lessened by the discovery which she also made, that the countenance
of the stranger recalled one which she had seen on some former
occasion. In short, the person now before her she thought presented
a most extraordinary likeness to the fiddler—only that he had no
fiddle, that he was infinitely better dressed, and that his pockets were
not sticking out with lumps of cheese and cold beef. That they were
the same person, however, she never dreamed for a moment.
In his daughter’s perplexity on account of the resemblances
alluded to, Mr Harrison did not participate, as, having paid little or
no attention to the personal appearance of the fiddler, he detected
none of them; and it was thus that he replied to the stranger’s
courtesies with a gravity and coolness which contrasted strangely
with the evident embarrassment and confusion of his daughter,
although she herself did not well know how this accidental
resemblance, as she deemed it, should have had such an effect upon
her.
Immediately after the interchange of the commonplace civilities
above mentioned had passed between the stranger and Mr Harrison
and his daughter—
“Mr Harrison,” he said, “may I have a private word with you?”
“Certainly, sir,” replied the former. And he led the way into a little
back parlour.
“Excuse us for a few minutes, Miss Harrison,” said the stranger,
with a smile, ere he followed, and bowing gallantly to her as he
spoke.
 On entering the parlour, Mr Harrison requested the stranger to
take a seat, and placing himself in another, he awaited the
communication of his visitor.
“Mr Harrison,” now began the latter, “in the first place, it may be
proper to inform you that I am Sir John Gowan of Castle Gowan.”
“Oh!” said Mr Harrison, rising from his seat, approaching Sir
John, and extending his hand towards him; “I am very happy indeed
to see Sir John Gowan. I never had the pleasure of seeing you before,
sir; but I have heard much of you, and not to your discredit, I assure
you, Sir John.”
“Well, that is some satisfaction, at any rate, Mr Harrison,” replied
the baronet, laughing. “I am glad that my character, since it happens
to be a good one, has been before me. It may be of service to me. But
to proceed to business. You will hardly recognise in me, my friend, I
daresay,” continued Sir John, “a certain fiddler who played to you at
a certain wedding lately, and to whose music you and your family
danced on the green in front of your own house the other night.”
Mr Harrison’s first reply to this extraordinary observation was a
broad stare of amazement and utter non-comprehension. But after a
few minutes’ pause thus employed, “No, certainly not, sir,” he said,
still greatly perplexed and amazed. “But I do not understand you.
What is it you mean, Sir John?”
“Why,” replied the latter, laughing, “I mean very distinctly that I
was the musician on both of the occasions alluded to. The
personification of such a character has been one of my favourite
frolics; and however foolish it may be considered, I trust it will at
least be allowed to have been a harmless one.”
“Well, this is most extraordinary,” replied Mr Harrison, in great
astonishment. “Can it be possible? Is it really true, Sir John, or are ye
jesting?”
“Not a bit of that, I assure you, sir. I am in sober earnest. But all
this,” continued Sir John, “is but a prelude to the business I came
upon. To be short, then, Mr Harrison: I saw and particularly marked
your daughter on the two occasions alluded to, and the result, in few
words, is, that I have conceived a very strong attachment to her. Her
beauty, her cheerfulness, her good temper, and simplicity, have won
my heart, and I have now come to offer her my hand.”
 “Why, Sir John, this—this,” stammered out the astonished farmer,
“is more extraordinary still. You do my daughter and myself great
honour, Sir John—great honour, indeed.”
“Not a word of that,” replied the knight, “not a word of that, Mr
Harrison. My motives are selfish. I am studying my own happiness,
and therefore am not entitled to any acknowledgments of that kind.
You, I hope, sir, have no objection to accept of me as a son-in-law;
and I trust your daughter will have no very serious ones either. Her
affections, I hope, are not preengaged?”
“Not that I know of, Sir John,” replied Mr Harrison; “indeed, I may
venture to say positively that they are not. The girl has never yet, that
I am aware of, thought of a husband—at least, not more than young
women usually do; and as to my having any objections, Sir John, so
far from that, I feel, I assure you, extremely grateful for such a
singular mark of your favour and condescension as that you have just
mentioned.”
“And you anticipate no very formidable ones on the part of your
daughter?”
“Certainly not, Sir John; it is impossible there should.”
“Will you, then, my dear sir,” added Sir John, “be kind enough to
go to Miss Harrison and break this matter to her, and I will wait your
return?”
With this request the farmer instantly complied; and having found
his daughter, opened to her at once the extraordinary commission
with which he was charged. We would fain describe, but find
ourselves wholly incompetent to the task, the effect which Mr
Harrison’s communication had upon his daughter, and on the other
female members of the family, to all of whom it was also soon
known. There was screaming, shouting, laughing, crying, fear, joy,
terror, and amazement, all blended together in one tremendous
medley, and so loud that it reached the ears of Sir John himself, who,
guessing the cause of it, laughed very heartily at the strange uproar.
“But, oh! the cauld beef an’ the cheese that I crammed into his
pockets, father,” exclaimed Jeanie, running about the room in great
agitation. “He’ll never forgie me that—never, never,” she said, in
great distress of mind. “To fill a knight’s pockets wi’ dauds o’ beef
and cheese! Oh! goodness, goodness! I canna marry him. I canna see
him after that. It’s impossible, father—impossible, impossible!”
“If that be a’ your objections, Jeanie,” replied her father, smiling,
“we’ll soon get the better o’t. I’ll undertake to procure ye Sir John’s
forgiveness for the cauld beef and cheese—that’s if ye think it
necessary to ask a man’s pardon for filling his pockets wi’ most
unexceptionable provender. I wish every honest man’s pouches war
as weel lined, lassie, as Sir John’s was that nicht.” Saying this, Mr
Harrison returned to Sir John, and informed him of the result of his
mission, which was—but this he had rather made out than been told,
for Jeanie could not be brought to give any rational answer at all—
that his addresses would not, he believed, be disagreeable to his
daughter, “which,” he added, “is, I suppose, all that you desire in the
meantime, Sir John.”
“Nothing more, nothing more, Mr Harrison; she that’s not worth
wooing’s not worth winning. I only desired your consent to my
addresses, and a regular and honourable introduction to your
daughter. The rest belongs to me. I will now fight my own battle,
since you have cleared the way, and only desire that you may wish
me success.”
“That I do with all my heart,” replied the farmer; “and, if I can lend
you a hand, I will do it with right good will.”
“Thank you, Mr Harrison, thank you,” replied Sir John; “and now,
my dear sir,” he continued, “since you have so kindly assisted me
thus far, will you be good enough to help me just one step farther?
Will you now introduce me in my new character to your daughter?
Hitherto she has known me only,” he said, smiling as he spoke, “as
an itinerant fiddler, and I long to meet her on a more serious footing
—and on one,” he added, again laughing, “I hope, a trifle more
respectable.”
“That I’ll very willingly do, Sir John,” replied Mr Harrison, smiling
in his turn; “but I must tell you plainly, that I have some doubts of
being able to prevail on Jane to meet you at this particular moment.
She has one most serious objection to seeing you.”
“Indeed!” replied Sir John, with an earnestness that betokened
some alarm. “Pray, what is that objection?”
 “Why, sir,” rejoined the latter, “allow me to reply to that question
by asking you another. Have you any recollection of carrying away
out of my house, on the last night you were here, a pocketful of
cheese and cold beef?”
“Oh! perfectly, perfectly,” said Sir John, laughing, yet somewhat
perplexed. “Miss Harrison was kind enough to furnish me with the
very liberal supply of the articles you allude to; cramming them into
my pocket with her own fair hands.”
“Just so,” replied Mr Harrison, now laughing in his turn. “Well,
then, to tell you a truth, Sir John, Jane is so dreadfully ashamed of
that circumstance, that she positively will not face you.”
“Oh ho! is that the affair?” exclaimed the delighted baronet. “Why,
then, if she won’t come to us, we’ll go to her; so lead the way, Mr
Harrison, if you please.” Mr Harrison did lead the way, and Jane was
caught.
Beyond this point our story need not be prolonged, as here all its
interest ceases. We have only now to add, then, that the winning
manners, gentle dispositions, and very elegant person of Sir John
Gowan, very soon completed the conquest he aimed at; and Jeanie
Harrison, in due time, became Lady Gowan.
 PEAT-CASTING TIME.

By Thomas Gillespie.

In the olden times, there were certain fixed occasions when labour
and frolic went hand in hand—when professional duty and
kindhearted glee mutually kissed each other. The “rockin’”
mentioned by Burns—
On Fasten e’en we had a rockin’—

I still see in the dim and hazy distance of the past. It is only under the
refractive medium of vigorous recollection that I can again bring up
to view (as the Witch of Endor did Samuel) those images that have
been reposing, “’midst the wreck of things that were,” for more than
fifty years. Yet my early boyhood was familiar with these social senile
and juvenile festivities. There still sits Janet Smith, in her toy-mutch
and check-apron, projecting at intervals the well-filled spindle into
the distance. Beside her is Isabel Kirk, elongating and twirling the yet
unwound thread. Nanny Nivison occupies a creepy on the further
side of the fire (making the third Fate!), with her shears. Around, and
on bedsides, are seated Lizzy Gibson, with her favoured lad; Tam
Kirkpatrick, with his jo Jean on his knee; Rob Paton the stirk-herd;
and your humble servant. And “now the crack gaes round, and who
so wilful as to put it by?” The story of past times; the report of recent
love-matches and miscarriages; the gleeful song, bursting unbid
from the young heart, swelling forth in beauty and in brightness like
the waters from the rock of Meribah; the occasional female
remonstrance against certain welcome impertinences, in shape of,
“Come now, Tam—nane o’ yer nonsense.” “Will! I say, be peaceable,
and behave yersel afore folk. ’Od, ye’ll squeeze the very breath out o’
a body.”
Till, in a social glass o’ strunt,
They parted off careering
On sic a night.

I’ve heard a lilting at our ewe-milking.

How few of the present generation have ever heard of this “lilting,”
except in song. It is the gayest and sunniest season of the year. The
young lambs, in their sportive whiteness, are coursing it, and
bleating it, responsive to their dams, on the hill above. The old ewes
on the plain are marching—
The labour much of man and dog—

to the pen or fold. The response to the clear-toned bleat of their

woolly progeny is given, anon and anon, in a short, broken, low bass.
It is the raven conversing with the jackdaw! All is bustle, excitement,
and badinage.
“Weer up that ewe, Jenny, lass. Wha kens but her woo may yet be a
blanket for you and ye ken wha to sleep in!”
“Haud yer tongue, Tammie, and gang hame to yer books and yer
schoolin. Troth, it will be twa days ere the craws dirty your kirk
riggin!”
Wouf, wouf, wouf!—hee, hee, hee!—hoch, hoch, hoch!—there in
they go, and in they are, their horny heads wedged over each other,
and a trio of stout, well-made damsels, with petticoats tied up “à la
breeches,” tugging away at their well-filled dugs.
“Troth, Jenny, that ewe will waur ye; ’od, I think ye hae gotten
haud o’ the auld tup himsel. He’s as powerfu, let me tell ye, as auld
Francie, wham ye kissed sae snug last nicht ayont the peat-mou.”
“Troth, at weel, Tam, ye’re a fearfu liar. They wad be fonder than I
am o’ cock birds wha wad gie tippence for the stite o’ a howlet.”
“Howlet here, howlet there, Jenny, ye ken weel his auld brass will
buy you a new pan.”
At this crisis the crack becomes general and inaudible from its
universality, mixed as it is with the bleating of ewes, the barking of
dogs, together with the singing of herd-laddies and of your humble
servant.
Harvest is a blithe time! May all the charms of “Sycorax, toads,
beetles, bats, light on him” who shall first invent a reaping-machine!
The best of all reaping-machines is “the human arm divine,” whether
brawny or muscular, or soft and rounded. The old woman of sixty
sits all year long at her domestic occupations—you would deem her
incapable of any out-door exertions; but, at the sound of the harvest-
horn, she renews her youth, and sallies forth into the harvest-field,
with hook over shoulder, and a heart buoyant with the spirit of the
season, to take her place and drive her rig with the youngest there.
The half-grown boy and girl of fourteen are mingled up in duty and
in frolic, in jest and jibe, and jeer and laugh, with the stoutest and the
most matured. Mothers and daughters, husbands and wives, and,
above and beyond all, “lads and lasses, lovers gay!” mix and mingle
in one united band, for honest labour and exquisite enjoyment; and
when at last the joyous kirn is won—when the maiden of straw is
borne aloft and in triumph, to adorn for twelve months the wall of
the farmer’s ben—when the rich and cooling curds-and-cream have
been ramhorn-spooned into as many mouths as there are persons in
the “toun”—then comes the mighty and long-anticipated festival, the
roasted ox, the stewed sheep, the big pot enriched with the cheering
and elevating draught, the punch dealt about in ladles and in jugs,
the inspiring fiddle, the maddening reel, and the Highland fling.
We cannot but remember such things were,
And were most dear to us!

Hay harvest, too, had its soft and delicate tints, resembling those
of the grain harvest. As the upper rainbow curves and glows with
fainter colouring around the interior and the brighter, so did the hay
harvest of yore anticipate and prefigure, as it were, the other. The
hay tedded to the sun; the barefooted lass, her locks floating in the
breeze, her cheeks redolent of youth, and her eyes of joy, scattering
or collecting, carting or ricking, the sweetly-scented meadow
produce, under a June sun and a blue sky!
Oh, to feel as I have felt,
Or be what I have been!—
the favoured lover, namely, of that youthful purity, now in its
fourteenth summer—myself as pure and all unthinking of aught but
affection the most intense, and feelings the most soft and
unaccountable.
Ah, little did thy mother think,
That day she cradled thee,
What lands thou hadst to travel in,
What death thou hadst to dee!

Poor Jeanie Johnston! I have seen her, only a few weeks ago, during
the sittings of the General Assembly, sunk in poverty, emaciated by
disease, the wife of an old soldier, himself disabled from work,
tenanting a dark hovel in Pipe’s Close, Castlehill of Edinburgh.
In the upper district of Dumfriesshire—the land of my birth, and of
all those early associations which cling to me as the mistletoe to the
oak, and which are equally hallowed with that druidical excrescence
—there are no coals, but a superabundance of moss; consequently
peat-fires are very generally still, and were, at the time of which I
speak, universally, made use of; and a peat-fire, on a cold, frosty
night of winter, when every star is glinting and goggling through the
blue, or when the tempest raves, and
There’s no a star in a’ the cary,

is by no means to be despised. To be sure, it is short-lived—but then

it kindles soon; it does not, it is true, entertain us with fantastic and
playful jets of flame—but then its light is full, united, and steady; the
heat which it sends out on all sides is superior to that of coals. Wood
is sullen and sulky, whether in its log or faggot form. It eats away
into itself, in a cancer ignition. But the blazing peat—
The bleezing ingle, and the clean hearth-stane—

is the very soul of cheerfulness and comfort. But then peats must be
prepared. They do not grow in hedges, nor vegetate in meadows.
They must be cut from the black and consolidated moss; and a
peculiarly-constructed spade, with a sharp edge and crooked ear,
must be made use of for that purpose; and into the field of operation
must be brought, at casting-time, the spademen, with their spades;
and the barrowmen, and women, boys, and girls, with their barrows;
and the breakfast sowans, with their creamy milk, cut and crossed
into circles and squares; and the dinner stew, with its sappy potatoes
and gusty-onioned mutton fragments; and the rest at noon, with its
active sports and feats of agility; and, in particular, with its jumps
from the moss-brow into the soft, marshy substance beneath—and
thereby hangs my tale, which shall be as short and simple as
possible.
One of the loveliest visions of my boyhood is Nancy Morrison. She
was a year or so older than me; but we went and returned from
school together. She was the only daughter of a poor widow woman,
who supported herself in a romantic glen on the skirts of the
Queensberry Hills, by bleaching or whitening webs. In those days,
the alkalies and acids had not yet superseded the slower progress of
whitening green linen by soap-boiling, trampling, and alternate
drying in the sun, and wetting with pure running water. Many is the
time and oft that Nanny and I have wielded the watering-pan, in this
fairy, sunny glen, all day long. Whilst the humble-bee boomed past
us, the mavis occupied the thorn-tree, and the mother of Nanny
employed herself in some more laborious department of the same
process, Nanny and I have set us down on the greensward—in tenaci
gramine—played at chucks, “head him and cross him,” or some such
amusement. At school, Nanny had ever a faithful defender and
avenger in me; and I have even purloined apples and gooseberries
from the castle garden—and all for the love I bore “to my Nanny, oh!”
I know not that any one has rightly described a first love. It is not
the love of man and woman, though that be fervent and terrible; it is
not the love of mere boy and girlhood, though that be disinterested
and engrossing; but it is the love of the period of life which unites the
two. “Is there a man whose blood is warm within him” who does not
recollect it? Is there a woman who has passed through the novitiate
of fifteen, who has not still a distinct impression of the feeling of
which I speak? It is not sexual, and yet it can only exist betwixt the
sexes. It is the sweetest delusion under which the soul of a created
being can pass. It is modest, timid, retiring, bashful; yet, in absence
of the adored—in seclusion, in meditation, and in dreams—it is bold,
resolute, and determined. There is no plan, no design, no right
conception of cause; yet the effect is sure and the bliss perfect. Oh,
for one hour—one little hour—from the thousands which I have
idled, sported, dreamed away in the company of my darling school-
companion, Nancy!
Will Mather was about two years older than Nancy—a fine youth,
attending the same school, and evidently an admirer of Nancy. Mine
was the love of comparative boyhood; but his was a passion gradually
ripening (as the charms of Nancy budded into womanhood) into a
manly and matrimonial feeling. I loved the girl merely as such—his
eye, his heart, his whole soul were in his future bride. Marriage in no
shape ever entered into my computations; but his eager look and
heaving bosom bespoke the definite purpose—the anticipated
felicity. I don’t know exactly why, but I was never jealous of Will
Mather. We were companions; and he was high-souled and
generous, and stood my friend in many perilous quarrels. I knew that
my pathway in life was to be afar from that in which Nancy and Will
were likely to walk; and I felt in my heart that, dear as this beautiful
rosebud was to me, I was not man enough—I was not peasant
enough to wear it in my bosom. Had Nancy on any occasion turned
round to be kissed by me, I would have fled over muir and dale to
avoid her presence; and yet I had often a great desire to obtain that
favour. Once, indeed, and only once, did I obtain, or rather steal it.
She was sitting beside a bird’s nest, the young ones of which she was
feeding and cherishing—for the parent birds, by the rapacity of a cat,
had recently perished. As the little bills were expanding to receive
their food, her countenance beamed with pity and benevolence. I
never saw even her so lovely; so, in a moment, I had her round the
neck, and clung to her lips with the tenacity of a creature drowning.
But, feeling at once the awkwardness of my position, I took to my
heels, becoming immediately invisible amidst the surrounding
brushwood.
Such was Will Mather, and such was Nancy Morrison, at the
period of which I am speaking. We must now advance about two or
three years in our chronology, and find Will possessed of a piece of
information which bore materially on his future fortunes. Will was
an illegitimate child. His mother had kept the secret so well that he
did not know his father, though he had frequently urged her to reveal
to him privately all that she knew of his parentage. In conversing,
too, with Nancy, his now affianced bride, he had expressed similar
wishes; whilst she, with a becoming and feminine modesty, had
urged him not to press an aged parent on so delicate a point. At last
the old woman was taken seriously ill, and, on her death-bed and at
midnight, revealed to her son the secret of his birth. He was the son
of a proprietor in the parish, and a much-respected man. The youth,
so soon as he had closed his mother’s eyes, hurried off, amidst the
darkness, to the abode of his father, and, entering by a window, was
in his father’s bed-chamber and over his body ere he was fully awake.
“John Scott!” said the son, in a firm and terrible tone, grasping his
parent meantime convulsively round the neck, “John Scott of
Auchincleuch, I am thy son!”
The conscience-stricken culprit, being taken by surprise, and
almost imagining this a supernatural intimation from Heaven,
exclaimed, in trembling accents:
“But who are you that makes this averment?”
“I am thy son, father—oh, I am thy son!”
Will could say no more; for his heart was full, and his tears
dropped hot and heavy on a father’s face.
“Yes,” replied the parent, after a convulsive solemn sob—(O
Heaven! thou art just!)—“yes, thou art indeed my son—my long-
denied and ill-used boy—whom the fear of the world’s scorn has
tempted me, against all the yearnings of my better nature, to use so
unjustly. But come to my bosom—to a father’s bosom now, for I
know that voice too well to distrust thee.”
In a few months after this interesting disclosure, John Scott was
numbered with his fathers, and Will Scott (no longer Mather)
became Laird of Auchincleuch.
Poor Nancy was at first somewhat distressed at this discovery,
which put her betrothed in a position to expect a higher or genteeler
match. But there was no cause of alarm. Will was true to the
backbone, and would as soon have burned his Bible as have
sacrificed his future bride. After much pressing for an early day on
the part of the lover, it was agreed, at last, that the marriage should
take place at “Peatcasting Time,” and that Nancy should, for the last
time, assist at the casting of her mother’s peats.
I wish I could stop here, or at least proceed to give you an account
of the happy nuptials of Will Scott and Nancy Morrison, the
handsomest couple in the parish of Closeburn. But it may not be!
These eyes, which are still filled (though it is forty-eight years since)
with tears, and this pen, which trembles as I proceed, must attest and
record the catastrophe.
Nancy, the beautiful bride, and I (for I was now on the point of
leaving school for college) agreed to have a jump for the last time
(often had we jumped before) from a suitable moss-brow.
“My frolicsome days will sune be ower,” she cried, laughing; “the
Gudewife of Auchincleuch will hae something else to do than jump
frae the moss-brow; and, while my name is Nancy Morrison, I’ll hail
the dules, or jump wi’ the best o’ my auld playmates.”
“Weel dune, Nancy!” cried I; “you are now to be the wife o’ the
Laird o’ Auchincleuch, when your jumping days will be at an end;
and I am soon to be sent to college, where the only jump I may get
may be from the top of a pile of old black-letter folios—no half sae
gude a point of advantage as the moss-brow.”
“There’s the Laird o’ Auchincleuch coming,” cried Peggy Chalmers,
one of the peat-casters, who was standing aside, along with several
others. “He’s nae langer the daft Will Mather, wha liked a jump as
weel as the blithest swankie o’ the barnyard. Siller maks sair
changes; and yet, wha wad exchange the Will Scott of Auchincleuch,
your rich bridegroom, Nancy, for the Will Mather, your auld lover?
Dinna tempt Providence, my hinny! The laird winna like to see his
bride jumpin frae knowe to knowe like a daft giglet, within a week o’
her marriage.”
“Tout!” cried Nancy, bursting out into a loud laugh; “see, he’s awa
round by the Craw Plantin, and winna see us—and whar’s the harm if
he did? Come now, Tammie, just ae spring and the last, and I’ll wad
ye my kame against your cravat, that I beat ye by the length o’ my
marriage slipper.”
“Weel dune, Nancy!” cried several of the peat-casters, who, leaning
on their spades, stood and looked at us with pleasure and
approbation.
The Laird had, as Nancy said, crossed over by what was called the
Craw Plantin, and was now out of sight. To make the affair more
ludicrous (for we were all bent on fun), Nancy took out, from among
her high-built locks of auburn hair, her comb—a present from her
lover—and impledged it in the hands of Billy Watson, along with my
cravat, which I had taken off, and handed to the umpire.
“Here is a better moss-brow,” cried one, at a distance.
And so to be sure it was, for it was much higher than the one we
had fixed upon, and the landing-place was soft and elastic. Our
practice was, always to jump together, so that the points of the toes
could be measured when both the competitors’ feet were still fixed in
the moss. We mounted the mossbrow. I was in high spirits, and
Nancy could scarcely contain herself for pure, boisterous, laughing
glee. I went off, but the mad girl could not follow, for she was still
holding her sides, and laughing immoderately. I asked her what she
laughed at. She could not tell. She was under the influence of one of
those extraordinary cachinations that sometimes convulse our
diaphragms, without our being able to tell why, and certainly without
our being able to put a stop to them. Her face was flushed, and the
fire of her glee shone bright in her eye. I took my position again.
“Now!” cried I; and away we flew, and stuck deeply in the soft and
spongy moss.
I stood with my feet in the ground, that the umpire might come
and mark the distance. A loud scream broke on my ear. I looked
round, and, dreadful sight! I saw Nancy lying extended on the
ground, with the blood pouring out at her mouth in a large stream!
She had burst a blood-vessel. The fit of laughing which preceded her
effort to leap had, in all likelihood, distended her delicate veins, and
predisposed her to the unhappy result.
The loud scream had attracted the notice of the bridegroom, who
came running from the back of the Craw Plantin. The sight appalled
and stupefied him. He cried for explanation, and ran forward to his
dead or dying bride, in wild confusion. Several voices essayed an
explanation, but none were intelligible. I was as unable as the rest to
satisfy the unhappy man; but, though we could not speak intelligibly,
we could act, and several of us lifted her up. This step sealed her fate.
The change in her position produced another stream of blood. She
opened her eyes once, and fixed them for a moment on Will Scott.
She then closed them, and for ever.
I saw poor Nancy carried home. Will Scott, who upheld her head,
fainted before he proceeded twenty yards, and I was obliged to take
his place. I was almost as unfit for the task as himself; for I
reproached myself as the cause of her death. I have lived long. Will
the image of that procession ever pass from my mind? The blood-
stained moss-ground, the bleeding body, the trailing clothes, the
unbound locks, are all before me. I can proceed no further. Would
that I could stop the current of my thoughts as easily as that of this
feathered chronicler of sorrow! But—
There is a silent sorrow here,
A grief I’ll ne’er impart;
It breathes no sigh, it sheds no tear,
But it consumes my heart.

I have taken up my pen to add, that Will Mather still remains a

bachelor, and that on every visit I make to Dumfriesshire, I take my
dinner, solus cum solo, at Auchincleuch, and that many tears are
annually shed, over a snug bottle, for poor Nancy.
 AN ADVENTURE WITH THE PRESS-GANG.

How goes the press? was, as usual, our first and most anxious
inquiry when the pilot boat came alongside to the westward of Lundy
Island. The brief but emphatic reply was, “As hot as blazes.” Knowing
therefore what we had to expect, the second mate and I, and one or
two others, applied to the captain to set us ashore at Ilfracomb, but
he would not listen to us. A double-reefed topsail breeze was blowing
from the westward, and a vigorous flood-tide was setting up channel,
enabling us to pass over the ground about fifteen knots. Such
advantages the captain was no way disposed to forego, so that there
was nothing for us but to trust to Providence and our stow holes. The
breeze flagged towards sunset, and it was not until an hour after
dusk that we dropped anchor in Kingroad.
As soon as the ship was brought up, I stepped in the main rigging
to lend a hand to furl the topsail, but had not reached the top, when I
heard the cabin boy calling out in an Irish whisper, “Bobstay, down,
down, the press-boat is alongside.” I was on deck in a twinkling, and
was springing to the after scuttle, when I found myself seized
violently by the arm. I trembled. It was the same boy that had called
me down. “They are already in the mizen chains,” said he; “to the
fore scuttle, or you are a gone man.”
Down the fore peak I went with the rapidity of lightning, and down
jumped three of the gang after me with little less velocity.
“Oho, my tight little fellow,” said one of them, thrusting his cutlass
down a crevice over my head; “I see you; out you must come, or here
goes an inch or two of cold steel into your bread-bag.”
I knew well that I was beyond his reach, and took care to let him
have all the talk to himself. They rummaged about all over the hold,
thrusting their cutlasses down every chink they could perceive, but
no one could they find give a single squeak. In about half an hour I
heard the well-known voice of the cabin boy calling me on deck. On
reaching the deck, I found that the gang had carried off three of our
hands, and had expressed their determination to renew their search
next day. Of course my grand object was to get ashore without delay.
The moment we anchored, the captain had gone off to Bristol to
announce his arrival to his owners; and as the mate and I were not
on good terms, he refused to allow me the use of the ship’s boat.
None of the watermen whose boats we hailed would come alongside,
because if they had been found assisting the crew of merchant vessels
to escape the press, they themselves would have been subjected to its
grasp. About midnight, however, one waterman came alongside, with
whom the love of money overcame the fear of danger, and he agreed
to pull the second mate, boatswain, and myself ashore, for half a
guinea each. I had brought from the West Indies a small venture in
sugar, a cask of which, about a hundredweight, I took into the boat
with me, to clear present expenses.
Shortly after we had shoved off, we found ourselves chased by a
long boat, which the waterman knew, by the sound of the oars, to be
the guard-boat. How we did pull! But it seemed in vain; we found it
would be impossible to reach the landing-place, so we pulled for the
nearest point of land. The moment the boat touched the ground, I
took the cask of sugar on my shoulder, and expecting solid ground
under the boat’s bows, jumped ashore. Instead of solid ground, I
found myself above the knees in mud. The guard-boat was within a
hundred yards of the shore, and what was to be done! All that a man
has will he give for his liberty, so away went the cask of sugar. Thus
lightened, I soon scrambled out, when the three of us scampered off
as fast as it was possible for feet to carry us. What became of the
waterman, or his boat, or my cask of sugar, we never knew; nor did
we think of stopping to breathe or look round us, till we reached the
town of Peel, where by a blazing fire and over a dish of beef-steaks,
and a few tankards of brown stout, we soon forgot our dangers and
our fears.
Our residence here, as far as liberty was concerned, was pretty
nearly on a par with prison residence. The second mate and I lodged
together, and during daylight we never durst show our faces, except,
perhaps, between four and six in the morning, when we sometimes
took a ramble in a neighbouring burying-ground, to read epitaphs;
and this, from the love of the English to poetical ones, was equivalent
to the loan of a volume of poetry. But Time’s pinions seemed in our
eyes loaded with lead, and we were often inclined to sing with the
plaintive swain,
Ah! no, soft and slow
The time it winna pass,
The shadow of the trysting thorn,
Is tether’d on the grass.

And had it not been for the kindly attentions of our landlord’s two
handsome daughters, to whose eyebrows we indited stanzas, I know
not how we would have got the time killed.
Snug as we thought ourselves, the press-gang had by some means
or other been put on the scent, and one day very nearly pounced on
us. So cautious had they been in their visit, that their approach was
not perceived until they were actually in the kitchen. Fortunately we
were at this time in an upper room, and one of the daughters rightly
judging of the purpose of their visit, flew upstairs to warn us of our
danger, and point out a place of safety. This place was above the
ceiling, and the only access to it was through a hole in the wall a little
way up the vent. It was constructed as a secure place to lodge a little
brandy or geneva, that sometimes found its way to the house,
without having been polluted with the exciseman’s rod. It was
excellently adapted to our purpose, and the entrance to it was
speedily pointed out by our pretty little guardian angel. Up the vent
we sprung like a brace of chimney sweeps, and had scarcely reached
our place of concealment, when the gang rushed upstairs, burst open
the door, and began to rummage every corner of the room. The bed
was turned out, the presses all minutely examined, and even the vent
itself underwent a scrutiny, but no seamen could be found.
“Tell us, my young lady, whereabout you have stowed away them
there fellows, for we knows they are in the house?”
“What fellows?” said the dear little girl, with a composure which
we thought it impossible for her to assume so soon after her violent
trepidation.
“Why, them there fellows as came ashore from one of the West
Indiamen t’other day; we knows they are here, and are determined to
have ’em.”