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Refraction Short Course
Refraction Short Course
Valëve të Thyera
Teoria, matjet dhe interpretimi
Bazat e valëve sizmike
4
K
Vp 3
Vs
A. Uji nuk ka ngurtësi. Forca (rezistenca) e
tij në prerje është zero.
Pyetje. Si lëviz vala S në ujë?
A. Vala S nuk lëviz në ujë.
Fluidet nuk lejojnë valën S të lëvizë në
ta. Kjo njohuri, e kombinuar me
vrojtimet nga tërmetet, çoi në zbulimin
se bërthama e brendshme e tokës
është në gjendje likuide dhe jo solide,
nisur nga zona hije e valëve S
Shpejtësia e valëve P kundrejt
shpejtësisë së valëve S
Shpejtësia e valës P duhet të jetë më
e madhe se e valës S. PSE?
4
K
3
Vp 2 K 4 Vp K 4
Vs 2
3 Vs 3
• Fronti valor
• rrezja sizmike
• Parimi i Hygensit
• Ligji i Snellit
• Reciprociteti
Çfarë është fronti valor?
sin ic V 1
sin 90 V 2
V1
sin ic (2)
V2
V1
ic sin 1 (3)
V2
Ligji i Snellit
Thyerja kritike
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
T2i
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos(ic )
bc de h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
h
cos i
T2
c
V1
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
h
T2
cos i c x 2h tan ic
V1 V2
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
h h
cos i x 2 h tan i cos i
T2
c c c
V1 V2 V1
T 1 x /V 1 (4)
ac cd df
T2
V1 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
h
T2i ac df
cos ic
bc de h tan ic
cd x bc de x 2h tan ic
h h
cos i x 2 h tan i cos i
T2
c c c
V1 V2 V1
h x 2h tan ic h
T2
V 1 cos ic V2 V 1 cos ic
2h x 2h tan ic
T2
V 1 cos ic V2
2h 2h tan ic x
T2 (5)
V 1 cos ic V2 V2
Dhe marrim
1 tan ic x
T 2 2h
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2
1 sin ic x
T 2 2h
V 1 cos ic V 2 cos ic V 2
Shumëzojmë termin e parë me V2/V2 dhe termin e dytë me V1/ për të
marrë një përcaktor të njëjtë
V2 V 1 sin ic x
T 2 2h
V 1V 2 cos ic V 1V 2 cos ic V 2
V 2 V 1 sin ic x
T 2 2 h
V 1V 2 cos ic V 2
V2
sin ic
x
T 2 2hV 1 V 1
V 1V 2 cos ic V 2
Duke zëvendësuar nga Ekuacioni 2 shprehjen
V1
sin ic (2)
V2
marrim:
1
sin ic
x
T 2 2hV 1 sin ic
V 1V 2 cos ic V 2
sin ic
sin ic sin ic
sin i x
T 2 2hV 1 c
V 1V 2 cos i c V2
ose
1 sin 2 ic x
T 2 2hV 1
V 1V 2 sin ic cos ic V 2
ose
cos ic cos ic x
T 2 2hV 1
V 1V 2 sin ic cos ic V 2
cos ic x
T 2 2 h
V 2 sin ic V 2
Again from Equation 2,
V 1 V 2 sin ic
Substituting, we get
2h cos ic x
T2 (6)
V1 V2
2h cos ic T 2 iV 1
T 2i and h
V1 2 cos ic
Substituting from Equation 3,
V1
ic sin 1 (3)
V2
We finally get
T 2 iV 1
h
1 V 1
2 cos sin
V2
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
Intercept-time Method
T2i (layers parallel to the surface)
T 2 iV 1
h
1 V 1
2 cos sin
V 2
T2i
Observation:
T 1xc T 2 xc
Derivation of Crossover Distance Method
x
T1 (4)
V1
2h cos ic x
T2 (6)
V1 V2
xc 2h cos ic xc
T 1xc T 2 xc
V1 V1 V2
Now, since cos2x+sin2x=1, cos ic 1 sin 2 ic and
xc 2h 1 sin 2 ic xc
V1 V1 V2
V1
sin ic (2)
V2
we get:
2
V1
2h 1
xc V 2 xc
V1 V1 V2
or
2
V1
2h 1
xc xc V 2
V1 V 2 V1
V1
2
2
2 4 h 1 2
xc xc V2
V 1 V 2 V 12
and
4h 2V 12
2
2 4h
xc xc V 2
2
V1 V 2 V 12
Multiplying the left side of the numerator by V22/V22, we get
4h 2V 2 2 4h 2V 12
2
xc xc V 2
V 2
2 2
V1 V 2 V 12
and
4h 2V 2 2 4h 2V 12
2
xc xc V 2
2
V1 V 2 V 12
and
2
xc xc 4h 2V 2 2 4h 2V 12
V1 V 2 V 12 V 2 2
Factoring out 4h2
4h 2 V 2 2 V 12
2
xc xc
V1 V 2 V 12 V 2 2
xc xc 2h V 2 2 V 12
V1 V 2 V 1V 2
xc xc V 1V 2
2h
V 1 V 2 V 2 V 1
2 2
Factoring Xc out of the numerator in the first term,
1 1 V 1V 2
2h xc
V 1 V 2 V 2 V 1
2 2
and multiplying the left side of the first term by V2/V2, and the right side by
V1/V1, we get
V2 V 1 V 1V 2
2h xc
V 1V 2 V 1V 2 V 2 V 1
2 2
and
V 2 V 1 V 1V 2
2h x c
V 1V 2 V 2 V 1
2 2
Cancelling
V 2 V 1 V 1V 2
2h x c
V 1V 2 V 2 V 1
2 2
2h V 2 V 1
xc V 2 V 1
2 2
2h
2
V 2 V 1V 2 V 1
xc V 2 2 V 12
and recognize that V22 – V12 factors into (V2-V1)(V2+V1), so
2h
2
V 2 V 1V 2 V 1
xc (V 2 V 1)(V 2 V 1)
and
2h
2
V 2 V 1
xc (V 2 V 1)
2h V 2 V 1
xc V 2 V1
and solving for h, we finally get
xc V 2 V 1
h
2 V 2 V1
Refracted arrivals from layer 2
Crossover Distance Method
T2i (layers parallel to the surface)
xc V 2 V 1
h
2 V 2 V1
Xc V 2 V 1
Depth
2 V 2 V1
Depth {
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the Subsurface
Xc V 2 V 1 TiV 1
Depth
2 V 2 V1 V1
2 cos sin 1
For layer parallel to V2
Surface!!
Depth {
Three Layers or More
Three Layers or More
Ti 2V 1
h1
1 V 1
2 cos sin
V2
Three Layers or More
cos sin 1 V 1 / V 3
V 2
T i 3 Ti 2
cos sin 1V 1 / V 2
h2 h1
1
2 cos sin V 2 / V 3
Three Layers or More
cos sin 1 V 1 / V 4 2h 2 cos sin 1 2 / V 4 V
Ti 4 Ti 2 cos sin 1 V 1 / V 2
V2 3
h3 h1 h 2
2 cos sin 1 V 3 / V 4
Crossover Distance vs.
Depth
The greater the velocity contrast, the
smaller the crossover distance for
any given depth.
Depth/Xc vs. Velocity
Contrast
Important Rule of Thumb
The Length of the Geophone
Spread Should be 4-5 times
the depth of interest.
Spread length = 5x depth (velocity contrast = 3)
Spread length = 2x depth (velocity contrast = 3)
Dipping Layer
Defined as Velocity Boundary
that is not Parallel to Ground Surface
V 1mu sin(ic )
ic sin 1 V 1md
ic sin 1 V 1mu
1
ic (sin 1 V 1md sin 1 V 1mu )
2
1
(sin 1 V 1md sin 1 V 1mu )
2
Dipping Layer
From Snell’s Law,
V1
V2
sin ic
V 1Tiu
Du 2 cos ic
cos
V 1Tid
Dd 2 cos ic
cos
Dipping Layer
The true velocity V2 can also be calculated
by multiplying the harmonic mean of the up-
dip and down-dip velocities by the cosine of
the dip.
2V 2UV 2 D
V2 cos
V 2U V 2 D
What if V2 < V1?
What if V2 < V1?
sin i V 1
Snell’s Law
sin r V 2
What if V2 < V1?
sin i V 1
Snell’s Law
sin r V 2
What if V2 < V1?
If V1>V2, then as i increases, r
increases, but not as fast.
If V2<V1, the energy
refracts toward the
normal.
Actual Velocity
Section
Actual Travel-
time plot
Calculated Velocity
Section
Travel-time Plot
Flat Refractor
Travel-time Plot
Lumpy Refractor
Best-fit Lines for
Velocity and Ti
or Xc
Lumpy Refractor
Best-fit Lines for
Velocity and Ti
or Xc
Result Using
Intercept-time or
Crossover Distance
Method
Intercept-time / Crossover Distance Methods Assume
Flat Refractors. Any Refractor Topography is Lost.
Input
Output
Delay Time Method
• Allows Calculation of Depth
Beneath Each Geophone
V2
V1
V2
hA hB
AB AB hA tan ic hB tan ic
cos ic cos ic
V1
V2
hA hB
AB AB hA tan ic hB tan ic
cos ic cos ic
hA hP
AP AP hA tan ic hP tan ic
cos ic cos ic
V1
V2
hA hB
AB AB hA tan ic hB tan ic
cos ic cos ic
hA hP
AP AP hA tan ic hP tan ic
cos ic cos ic
hB hP
BP BP hB tan ic hP tan ic
cos ic cos ic
V1
V2
V2
hA AP hA tan ic hP tan ic hP
TAP (8)
V 1 cos ic V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos ic
V1
V2
hA AP hA tan ic hP tan ic hP
TAP (8)
V 1 cos ic V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos ic
hB BP hB tan ic hP tan ic hP
TBP (9)
V 1 cos ic V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos ic
V1
V2
Definition:
hP
u v hP tan ic
cos ic
hP
u cos ic hP
tu
V1 V1 V 1 cos ic
v hP tan ic
tv
V2 V2
t 0 2(tu tv )
hP hP tan ic
t 0 2
V 1 cos ic V2
hA AP hA tan ic hP tan ic hP
t 0P
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos ic
hB BP hB tan ic hP tan ic hP
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos ic
hA AB hA tan ic hB tan ic hB
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos ic
hA AP hA tan ic hP tan ic hP
t 0P
V 1 cos ic V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos ic
hB BP hB tan ic hP tan ic hP
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos ic
hA AB hA tan ic hB tan ic hB
V 1 cos ic V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos ic
AP BP AB 2 hp 2hP tan ic
t 0P
V2 V 1 cos ic V2
But from the figure above, AB AP BP. Substituting, we get
or
V2 V 1 sin ic
t 0 2hp
V 1V 2 cos ic V 1V 2 cos ic
V2
V
sin i c
t 0 2hpV 1
1
V 1V 2 cos ic V 1V 2 cos ic
V1
Substituting from Equation 2 sin ic , we get
V2
1
sin i sin i c
t 0 2hpV 1
c
V 1V 2 cos ic V 1V 2 cos ic
1
sin ic
sin i c
t 0 2hpV 1
V 1V 2 cos ic V 1V 2 cos ic
cos 2 ic
t 0 2hpV 1
V 1V 2 sin ic cos ic
cos ic
t 0 2h p
V 2 sin ic
cos ic
t 0 2h p
V 2 sin ic
V1
Substituting again from Equation 2 sin ic , we get
V2
2hp cos ic
t 0P
V1
Definition:
t oP
Delay time at point P DTP (12)
2
toP hp cos ic
DTP (13)
2 V1
What is DTP Physically?
toP hp cos ic
DTP (13)
2 V1
What is DTP Physically?
T’AP=TAP’
a b
{
{
Delay Time =
time required to
-
time required to
travel along the red travel along the
path at V1 green path at V2.
a
b
T ' AP TAP DTP TAP a
b
T ' AP TAP DTP TAP a
b
T ' AP TAP DTP TAP a
T A B T A P T B P
T ' AP (16)
2 2
toP
T ' AP TAP (14)
2
According to Equation 13
toP hp cos ic
(13)
2 V1
t 0P hp cos ic
T ' AP TAP TAP (17)
2 V1
Now, referring back to Equation 6
2h cos ic x
T2 (6)
V1 V2
2hp cos ic x
TAP (18)
V1 V2
hp cos ic
DTp (13)
V1
x
T ' AP DTp
V2
or
x (20)
DTp T ' AP
V2
DTPV 1
hP (21)
cos ic
From equation 3,
V1
1
ic sin (3)
V2
DTpV 1
hp
cos(ic) (21)
we get
DTpV 1
hp (22)
1 V 1
cos sin
V 2
In summary, to determine the
depth to the refractor h at any
given point P:
1.Measure V1 directly from the
travel-time plot.
2.Measure the difference in refracted
travel-times to point P from
opposing shots.
3.Measure the reciprocal time TAB.
T A B T A P T B P
4. Per equation 11, T ' A P ,
2 2
divide the reciprocal time TAB by 2.
T A B T A P T B P
5. Per equation 11, T ' A P
,
2 2
add ½ the difference time at each
point P to TAB/2 to get the reduced
travel-time at P, T’AP.
6. Fit a line to the reduced travel-
times, compute V2 from slope.
7. Using equation 15,
x
DTp T ' AP (15)
V2
DTpV 1
hp (16)
1 V 1
cos sin
V 2
• Absolute minimum
• Should be placed between
end phones
• Will not give overlap at ends
of spread
Calculated result
Actual (blue) vs.
calculated
Calculated result
How good are your picks?
Perfect
(No freaking
way)
How good are your picks?
Really good
(On a good
day with a tail
wind)
How good are your picks?
Typical
Actual Travel-
Times
Actual Velocity
Section
Actual Picks
Calculated
Result
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
More Data are Better Than Less
How many layers do you see?