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HOW LIVING THINGS
REPRODUCE
PREPARED BY: JOHN REY L. LAWIG
 OBJECTIVES

• KNOW THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STRUCTURES OF

FLOWERS, FRUITS, AND SEEDS
• KNOW THE PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING AND HOW
IT IS USED TO PRODUCE NOVEL PRODUCTS
• KNOW THE CURRENT USES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISMS
 REPRODUCTION

• IS ONE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE. IT IS A

BIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN WHICH NEW INDIVIDUAL
ORGANISMS ARE PRODUCED, MAY IT BE SEXUAL OR
ASEXUAL. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION INVOLVES THE UNION
OF GAMETES (EGG CELL AND SPERM CELL) THROUGH
FERTILIZATION. MEANWHILE, ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INVOLVES THE CREATION OF CLONED OFFSPRING FROM A
PARENT ORGANISM
 PLANT REPRODUCTION
• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• IT INVOLVES THE UNION OF MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES, OR
SEX CELLS, IN THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION THAT RESULT IN
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ORGANISMS.
• ACCORDING TO WIKIPEDIA, SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF MALE
AND FEMALE GAMETES, THE TRANSFER OF THE MALE
GAMETES TO THE FEMALE OVULES IN A PROCESS CALLED
POLLINATION. AFTER POLLINATION OCCURS, FERTILIZATION
HAPPENS AND THE OVULES GROW INTO SEEDS WITHIN A FRUIT.
 FLOWER

• A FLOWER, SOMETIMES KNOWN AS A BLOOM OR

BLOSSOM, IS THE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE FOUND
IN FLOWERING PLANTS (PLANTS OF THE DIVISION
MAGNOLIOPHYTA, ALSO CALLED ANGIOSPERMS). ... THIS
POLLINATION DOES NOT REQUIRE AN INVESTMENT FROM
THE PLANT TO PROVIDE NECTAR AND POLLEN AS FOOD
FOR POLLINATORS.
 POLLINATION

• PLANTS CAN TRANSFER POLLEN THROUGH SELF-POLLINATION;

HOWEVER, THE PREFERRED METHOD IS CROSS-POLLINATION,
WHICH MAINTAINS GENETIC DIVERSITY.
• IN ANGIOSPERMS, POLLINATION IS DEFINED AS THE PLACEMENT
OR TRANSFER OF POLLEN FROM THE ANTHER TO THE STIGMA OF
THE SAME OR A DIFFERENT FLOWER. IN GYMNOSPERMS,
POLLINATION INVOLVES POLLEN TRANSFER FROM THE MALE CONE
TO THE FEMALE CONE. UPON TRANSFER, THE POLLEN GERMINATES
TO FORM THE POLLEN TUBE AND THE SPERM THAT FERTILIZE THE
EGG.
 SELF-POLLINATION AND CROSS-
POLLINATION
• SELF-POLLINATION OCCURS WHEN THE POLLEN FROM
THE ANTHER IS DEPOSITED ON THE STIGMA OF THE SAME
FLOWER OR ANOTHER FLOWER ON THE SAME PLANT.

• CROSS-POLLINATION IS THE TRANSFER OF POLLEN FROM

THE ANTHER OF ONE FLOWER TO THE STIGMA OF
ANOTHER FLOWER ON A DIFFERENT INDIVIDUAL OF THE
SAME SPECIES.
 SELF-POLLINATION AND CROSS-
POLLINATION
• SELF-POLLINATION OCCURS IN FLOWERS WHERE THE STAMEN AND
CARPEL MATURE AT THE SAME TIME AND ARE POSITIONED SO THAT
THE POLLEN CAN LAND ON THE FLOWER’S STIGMA. THIS METHOD OF
POLLINATION DOES NOT REQUIRE AN INVESTMENT FROM THE PLANT
TO PROVIDE NECTAR AND POLLEN AS FOOD FOR POLLINATORS. THESE
TYPES OF POLLINATION HAVE BEEN STUDIED SINCE THE TIME OF
GREGOR MENDEL. MENDEL SUCCESSFULLY CARRIED OUT SELF-
POLLINATION AND CROSS-POLLINATION IN GARDEN PEAS WHILE
STUDYING HOW CHARACTERISTICS WERE PASSED ON FROM ONE
GENERATION TO THE NEXT.
 SELF-POLLINATION AND CROSS-
POLLINATION
• THERE ARE DIFFERENT METHODS ON HOW POLLEN IS
TRANSFERRED FROM ONE ANTHER TO ONE STIGMA.
MAINLY, POLLINATION IS THROUGH BIOTIC MEANS (80%)
AND AMONG ABIOTIC METHODS OF POLLINATION, WIND
(98%) AND WATER (2%) ARE THE MAIN AGENTS.
 BIOTIC POLLINATORS

• BEES.
• MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIE
• BATS
• FLIES
• BIRDS
 FERTILIZATION
• FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS OCCURS WHEN HAPLOID GAMETES
MEET TO CREATE A DIPLOID ZYGOTE, WHICH DEVELOPS INTO AN
EMBRYO. IN GYMNOSPERMS (CONIFERS) AND ANGIOSPERMS
(FLOWERING PLANTS), THE MEETING OF THE GAMETES OCCURS
IN THE FOLLOWING WAY: MALE GAMETES ARE ENCLOSED IN
POLLEN GRAINS AND ARE CARRIED BY WIND OR INSECTS TO THE
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. THE FINAL PRODUCT OF
FERTILIZATION--THE EMBRYO--IS ENCASED IN A SEED. FOR THIS
REASON, THESE TWO TYPES OF TRACHEOPHYTES ARE TERMED
 FRUITS AND SEEDS
• THE SEEDS AND FRUITS ARE THE RESULTS OF FERTILIZATION
OR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS. AS THE SEED
MATURES, THE EMBRYO DEVELOPS AS WELL. THIS EMBRYONIC
PLANT HAS A SHORT ROOT OR RADICLE. IT HAS ALSO A SHOOT,
A HYPOCOTYL, AND A SINGLE PAIR OF COTYLEDONS, THE
EMBRYONIC LEAVES. THE COTYLEDONS SERVE AS FOOD
STORAGE FOR THE PLANT EMBRYO SINCE IT IS STILL NOT ABLE
TO PERFORM PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
• A MATURE OVARY DEVELOPS INTO A FRUIT. FRUITS HAVE
DIFFERENT SHAPES, SIZES, COLORS, AND OTHER PHYSICAL
 FRUITS AND SEEDS
• PLANTS MAKE SEEDS THAT CAN GROW INTO NEW PLANTS, BUT
IF THE SEEDS JUST FALL TO THE GROUND UNDER THE PARENT
PLANT, THEY MIGHT NOT GET ENOUGH SUN, WATER OR
NUTRIENTS FROM THE SOIL. BECAUSE PLANTS CANNOT WALK
AROUND AND TAKE THEIR SEEDS TO OTHER PLACES, THEY
HAVE DEVELOPED OTHER METHODS TO DISPERSE (MOVE)
THEIR SEEDS. THE MOST COMMON METHODS ARE WIND,
WATER, ANIMALS, EXPLOSION AND FIRE.
 Type of Asexual
Definition Examples
Reproduction
Rhizomes Modified stems that grow underground. They Ginger and
grow horizontally in different directions and asparagus
over a period of time the old portion dies,
leaving behind two branches that grow into
different plants.
Tubers They are thicken ends of rhizomes. When Sweet potato
portion attaching the tubers to the plain break, and potato
they grow into entirely separate plants.
Bulbs They are round, modified underground buds Onion and
covered with bulb scales that are modified garlic
leaves. Frequently bulblets, or small auxiliary,
initially attach to the parent bulb, developing
into separate plants when the parent bulb dies.
Corms They are short, vertical, swollen underground Taro
plant stems that serve as storage organs for
some plants.
Runners Also called as solons are horizontal stems that Strawberry
grow above the ground. Buds develop along plants
the stolon and eventually root themselves in the
round.
Suckers Similar to stolons but develop from roots Apple, elm
instead of stems, and are found underground. and banana
PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING

• THE IMPROVEMENT OF CROPS WITH THE USE OF

GENETICS HAS BEEN OCCURRING FOR YEARS.
TRADITIONALLY, CROP IMPROVEMENT WAS
ACCOMPLISHED BY SELECTING THE BEST LOOKING
PLANTS/SEEDS AND SAVING THEM TO PLANT FOR
THE NEXT YEAR’S CROP.
 PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING

• ONCE THE SCIENCE OF GENETICS BECAME BETTER

UNDERSTOOD, PLANT BREEDERS USED WHAT THEY KNEW
ABOUT THE GENES OF A PLANT TO SELECT FOR SPECIFIC
DESIRABLE TRAITS. THIS TYPE OF GENETIC MODIFICATION,
CALLED TRADITIONAL PLANT BREEDING, MODIFIES THE
GENETIC COMPOSITION OF PLANTS BY MAKING CROSSES AND
SELECTING NEW SUPERIOR GENOTYPE COMBINATIONS.
TRADITIONAL PLANT BREEDING HAS BEEN GOING ON FOR
PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING

• PLANT BREEDING IS AN IMPORTANT TOOL, BUT HAS

LIMITATIONS. FIRST, BREEDING CAN ONLY BE DONE
BETWEEN TWO PLANTS THAT CAN SEXUALLY MATE WITH
EACH OTHER. THIS LIMITS THE NEW TRAITS THAT CAN BE
ADDED TO THOSE THAT ALREADY EXIST IN THAT SPECIES.
SECOND, WHEN PLANTS ARE MATED, (CROSSED), MANY
TRAITS ARE TRANSFERRED ALONG WITH THE TRAIT OF
INTEREST INCLUDING TRAITS WITH UNDESIRABLE
 PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING

• GENETIC ENGINEERING IS A NEW TYPE OF GENETIC MODIFICATION.

IT IS THE PURPOSEFUL ADDITION OF A FOREIGN GENE OR GENES TO
THE GENOME OF AN ORGANISM. A GENE HOLDS INFORMATION THAT
WILL GIVE THE ORGANISM A TRAIT. GENETIC ENGINEERING IS NOT
BOUND BY THE LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL PLANT BREEDING.
GENETIC ENGINEERING PHYSICALLY REMOVES THE DNA FROM ONE
ORGANISM AND TRANSFERS THE GENE(S) FOR ONE OR A FEW TRAITS
INTO ANOTHER. SINCE CROSSING IS NOT NECESSARY, THE 'SEXUAL'
BARRIER BETWEEN SPECIES IS OVERCOME. THEREFORE, TRAITS
FROM ANY LIVING ORGANISM CAN BE TRANSFERRED INTO A PLANT.
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING

• THE ENTIRE GENETIC ENGINEERING PROCESS IS BASICALLY

THE SAME FOR ANY PLANT. THE LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO
COMPLETE ALL FIVE STEPS FROM START TO FINISH VARIES
DEPENDING UPON THE GENE, CROP SPECIES, AVAILABLE
RESOURCES AND REGULATORY APPROVAL. IT CAN TAKE
ANYWHERE FROM 6-15+ YEARS BEFORE A NEW TRANSGENIC
HYBRID IS READY FOR RELEASE TO BE GROWN IN PRODUCTION
FIELDS.
WHAT IS A EXAMPLE OF GENETIC
ENGINEERING?
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING
STEP 1: DNA EXTRACTION
• THE PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING REQUIRES THE
SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF A SERIES OF FIVE STEPS.
• DNA EXTRACTION IS THE FIRST STEP IN THE GENETIC
ENGINEERING PROCESS. IN ORDER TO WORK WITH DNA,
SCIENTISTS MUST EXTRACT IT FROM THE DESIRED ORGANISM. A
SAMPLE OF AN ORGANISM CONTAINING THE GENE OF INTEREST
IS TAKEN THROUGH A SERIES OF STEPS TO REMOVE THE DNA.
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING
STEP 2 : GENE CLONING
• THE SECOND STEP OF THE GENETIC ENGINEERING
PROCESS IS GENE CLONING. DURING DNA EXTRACTION,
ALL OF THE DNA FROM THE ORGANISM IS EXTRACTED AT
ONCE. SCIENTISTS USE GENE CLONING TO SEPARATE THE
SINGLE GENE OF INTEREST FROM THE REST OF THE
GENES EXTRACTED AND MAKE THOUSANDS OF COPIES
OF IT.
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING

STEP 3: GENE DESIGN

• ONCE A GENE HAS BEEN CLONED, GENETIC ENGINEERS
BEGIN THE THIRD STEP, DESIGNING THE GENE TO WORK
ONCE INSIDE A DIFFERENT ORGANISM. THIS IS DONE IN A
TEST TUBE BY CUTTING THE GENE APART WITH ENZYMES
AND REPLACING GENE REGIONS THAT HAVE BEEN
SEPARATED.
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING
STEP 4: TRANSFORMATION
• THE MODIFIED GENE IS NOW READY FOR THE FOURTH STEP IN
THE PROCESS, TRANSFORMATION OR GENE INSERTION.
• SINCE PLANTS HAVE MILLIONS OF CELLS, IT WOULD BE
IMPOSSIBLE TO INSERT A COPY OF THE TRANSGENE INTO EVERY
CELL. THEREFORE, TISSUE CULTURE IS USED TO PROPAGATE
MASSES OF UNDIFFERENTIATED PLANT CELLS CALLED CALLUS.
THESE ARE THE CELLS TO WHICH THE NEW TRANSGENE WILL BE
 THE PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC
ENGINEERING
• STEP 5: BACKCROSS BREEDING
• THE FIFTH AND FINAL PART OF PRODUCING A GENETICALLY ENGINEERED
CROP IS BACKCROSS BREEDING. TRANSGENIC PLANTS ARE CROSSED WITH
ELITE BREEDING LINES USING TRADITIONAL PLANT BREEDING METHODS TO
COMBINE THE DESIRED TRAITS OF ELITE PARENTS AND THE TRANSGENE
INTO A SINGLE LINE. THE OFFSPRING ARE REPEATEDLY CROSSED BACK TO
THE ELITE LINE TO OBTAIN A HIGH YIELDING TRANSGENIC LINE. THE
RESULT WILL BE A PLANT WITH A YIELD POTENTIAL CLOSE TO CURRENT
HYBRIDS THAT EXPRESSES THE TRAIT ENCODED BY THE NEW TRANSGENE.
 BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

• SOME BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING IN

AGRICULTURE ARE INCREASED CROP YIELDS, REDUCED
COSTS FOR FOOD OR DRUG PRODUCTION, REDUCED
NEED FOR PESTICIDES, ENHANCED NUTRIENT
COMPOSITION AND FOOD QUALITY, RESISTANCE TO
PESTS AND DISEASE, GREATER FOOD SECURITY, AND
MEDICAL BENEFITS TO THE WORLD'S GROWING
POPULATION.
 WOULD YOU AGREE TO HAVE GENETIC
ENGINEERING HERE IN THE PHILIPPINES?