Ly Thuyet Mo Rong Truong Va Galois - Nguyen Chanh Tu

NGUYN CHNH T
Khoa Ton, i Hc S Phm Hu
Gio trnh in t
L THUYT M RNG TRNG V

GALOIS
Hu 12-2006

T
THUA
DAC TNH KY
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C the dng de trnh chie u voi chu
ii
MUC LUC
`
Ì NI DA
LO
U
ix
NG DA
N SU DUNG
HUO
` LICH SU
VI NT VE
c .
a) Lich su giai phuong trnh da thu
b) Cuoc doì cua Evariste Galois . . . .
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0 KIE
0.1
Truo`ng. Dac so cua truo`ng.
c . . . . . . .
0.2
Vnh da thu
iii
xiii
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Mot so nhm hu
u han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hm Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
0.3
0.4
RO
NG TRUO
` NG
Chuong 1 MO
1
Mo rong truo`ng. Bac cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . .
1.1
Mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Bac cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Mo rong don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
Vnh con v truo`ng con sinh ra boi mot tap . . . .

2.2
Cau trc cua mo rong don . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Mo rong hu
u han v mo rong dai so . . . . . . . . . . .
t cua mo rong hu
3.1
Tnh cha
u han v mo rong dai so
iv
37
45
. . . . .
45
. . . . .
45
. . . . .
48
. . . . .
50
. . . . .
53
. . . . .
53
. . . . .
55
. . . . .
61
. . . . .
69
. . . . .
69
Truo`ng con cc pha`n tu dai so . Truo`ng dng dai so . Bao dng
dai so. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dung hnh ba` ng thuoc ke v compa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
Ba bi ton dung hnh co dien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`
`
4.2
Dieu kien can de da gic deù p canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc
ke v compa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Da thu
c tch duoc
Truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
5.1
Truong phn r cua mot da thuc . . . . . . . .
c tch duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
Da thu
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
74
77
77
81
. . . . . . .
86
. . . . . . .
91
. . . . . . .
91
. . . . . . .
98
. . . . . . .
103
T GALOIS
Chuong 2 L THUYE
109
u v truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . 109
6
Tu dang ca
u cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . . . 110

6.1
Nhm cc tu dang ca
Truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Mo rong tch duoc, chuan tac v Galois . . . . . . . . .
7.1
Mo rong tch duoc v dinh l pha`n tu nguyn thuy
7.2
Tiu chuan cua mo rong Galois v chuan ta c . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
Dinh l co ban cua L thuye t Galois . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ng dung cua L thuye t Galois . . . . . . . . . .

9
Mot so u
9.1
Truo`ng hu
u han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c chia duo`ng trn . . . . . . . . .

9.2
Truo`ng v da thu
9.3
Da gic deù dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa . .
9.4
Dinh l co ban cua dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Nhm Galois cua da thu
6.2
10.1
. . . . .
114
. . . . .
120
. . . . .
124
. . . . .
124
. . . . .
127
. . . . .
133
. . . . .
137
. . . . .
151
. . . . .
156
. . . . .
156
. . . . .
160
. . . . .
169
. . . . .
171
. . . . .
173
. . . . .
179
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biet thu
179
vi
10.2
10.3
10.4
c bac 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nhm Galois cua da thu
Da thuc ba c 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c tong qut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Da thu
181
184
191
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
c cua da thu
c . . . . . . . . . 201
11 Tiu chuan giai duoc ba` ng can thu
11.1 Mo rong can v tiu chuan giai duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
c c bac lon hon bo n . . . . 211

11.2 Tnh khng giai duoc cua da thu
c cua cc da thu
c tong qut c bac khng qu 4213
11.3 Nghiem can thu
Bi tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
PHU LUC
A
Nhm giai duoc v nhm don . .
B
Dinh l Sylow v Dinh l Cauchy
C
Bao dng dai so cua mot truo`ng
D
So luoc ve` Maple . . . . . . . .
NG DA
N GIAI BI TA
P
HUO
vii
223
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
239
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
242
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
245
250
NG K HIE
C
U V QUY UO
BA
O
U THAM KHA
TI LIE
CHI MUC
302
305
307
viii
Ì NI DA
`
LO
U
t cua dai so , tap hop
L thuye t Galois l mot trong nhu
ng l thuye t dep de nha
`
c v phuong php cua cc lnh vuc ton hoc khc nhau, nham giai
nhieu kien thu
quyet cc bi ton co dien v nhu

ng van de quan trong khc cua dai so hien dai.
ng dung chu ye u cua L thuye t Galois l giai quye t bi ton

Mot trong nhu
ng u
c cua phuong trnh da thu

c, dac biet ch ra ra` ng phuong trnh
tm nghiem can thu
u
bac lon hon bon khng the giai d oc bang can thuc. Mat khc, L thuye t Galois cho
php xc dinh da gic deù n canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa. Bn canh
d, chng ta nhan duoc tu` L thuyet Galois loì giai cho ba bi ton dung hnh co
p di hnh lap
dien, d l khng the (ba` ng thuoc ke v compa) chia ba mot gc, ga
`
phuong hoac cau phuong duo`ng trn.
`
Do tam quan trong cua L thuye t Truo`ng v Galois m tu` nam 1986, mn hoc
c cua
ny d duoc Bo Gio duc v do tao dua vo trong chuong trnh chnh thu
khoa Ton cc truo`ng Dai hoc v Cao dang, dac biet l cho khoa Ton cc Truo`ng

Su pham. Hon the , L thuye t Galois cung duoc giang day cho cc lop Cao Hoc, xem
c co ban de tu` d mo rong cho nhu

u l thuyet v u
ng
nhu kien thu
ng nghin cu
dung su sac hon.

ix
Gio trnh ny ra doì trn co so bi giang cua tc gia cho sinh vin Khoa Ton,
Truo`ng Dai hoc su pham Hue suo t hon 10 nam truc tie p giang day mn hoc ny.
Trong qu trnh d, ban thao duoc chnh sua v bo sung sao cho vuà ph hop voi
chuong trnh cua Bo Gio duc v Do tao, vua dp ung nhu cau su dung cc cng
c lin quan kh c the

cu moi cua dai so tnh ton, vuà bo sung nhu
ng kie n thu
tm du trong mot vi quyen sch tham khao. V the , gio trnh ra doì, truoc he t,
ng nhu caù su dung cua sinh vin dai hoc, cao dang v hoc vin cao
nha` m dp u
hoc ngnh ton. Bn canh d, gio trnh c the l mot ti lieu tham khao bo ch cho
y trong gio trnh

gio vin pho thng trung hoc v hoc sinh gioi. Ho c the tm tha
c cua phuong trnh da

ny co so ton hoc chat che cho viec tm nghiem can thu
c, cua cc bi ton dung hnh ba` ng thuoc ke v compa, nhu

c ve` lich
thu
ng kie n thu
su ton hoc lin quan. Ngoi ra, gio trnh so luoc gioi thieu ve` Maple, mot trong
nhu
ng he thong tnh ton dai so manh me v pho bien nhat hien nay. Thng qua
nhu
ng v du minh hoa, gio trnh ch ra kha nang tnh ton manh me cua Maple
`
`
cung nhu viec ho tro dac luc cua phan mem ny cho cc gio vin pho thng, cho
u v hoc tap ton.

sinh vin v hoc sinh trong hoat dong giang day, nghin cu
Gio trnh duoc bin soan trn nguyn ta c dam bao da`y du v chat che cua kie n
c. De lm viec voi gio trnh ny, doc gia ch can mot so kien thu
c co so cua dai
thu
t v thu
nha
hai
so tuye n tnh, lgic, dai so dai cuong nhu d hoc trong nam thu
c d, nhu
cua Dai hoc hoac Cao dang. Ngoi nhu
ng kien thu
ng khi niem moi duoc

ng minh da`y du. Pha`n kie n thu

c
dinh ngha v nhu
ng ke t qua moi deù duoc chu
bo sung, neu chua duoc hoc trong nhu

ng nam daù tin cua chuong trnh Dai hoc,
Cao dang, se duoc gioi thieu chi tiet trong Phu luc. Cuoi moi tiet (), gio trnh

p mot he tho ng phong ph cc bi tap tu` de de n kh, ba t daù tu` bi tra c
cung ca

nghiem l thuyet nham gip doc gia nam mot cch cha c cha n nhu
ng khi niem v
ke t qua chu ye u. Ga`n 150 bi tap trong gio trnh deù c pha`n huong dan giai da`y
du trong no luc gip doc gia c the tu hoc. Qua thuc te giang day, tc gia cho ra` ng
viec day-hoc ton hien nay ni chung, o dai hoc ni ring, nguoì day v nguoì hoc
ca`n khai thc su ho tro hieu qua cua cc pha`n me`m ton hoc. C su ho tro ny,
viec day-hoc c nhu

ng thay doi tch cuc v chat luong gio duc duoc cai thien r
c l thuye t, c kha nang giai quye t cc bi

ret. Cng voi viec na m vu
ng kie n thu
ng dung, nguoì hoc ca`n bie t su dung cc pha`n me`m ho tro cho cc muc dch
ton u
xi
t kh v phu
c tap truoc dy nay tro nn
tnh ton cu the. C nhieù tnh ton ra
v cng don gian voi su tro gip cua cc pha`n me`m ton hoc. Trn tinh tha`n d,

o nhu
ng vi tr thch hop, tc gia bo sung cc lenh v v du minh hoa cho viec su
dung Maple.
De hon thnh gio trnh ny, tc gia d nhan duoc su ho tro cua nhieù the he
sinh vin v hoc vin cao hoc trong viec pht hien, sua chu
a sai st trong gio
trnh. Nhieù tha`y c, do`ng nghiep v ban b cung d dng gp nhieù kie n qu
bu trong qu trnh bin soan. Nhn dip gio trnh ny ra doì, tc gia, mot la`n
nu
a, goi loì cam on su sa c de n cc tha`y c, do`ng nghiep, ban b v sinh vin ve`
nhu
ng gip do v gi trn.
Mac d d co gang, gio trnh ny khng the trnh khoi nhu
ng thie u st. Tc
gia v cng bie t on ne u nhan duoc nhu

ng kie n dng gp, bnh luan v nhu
ng
pht hien loi trong gio trnh ny cua doc gia ga`n xa. Moi kie n dng gp, trao doi
xin gui ve` dia ch : TS. Nguyen Chnh T, Khoa Ton, Truo`ng Dai hoc su pham
Hue, 32 L Loi, Thnh pho Hue, email: nctu2000@yahoo.com.
Hue ngy 25 thng 4 nam 2007.

xii
NG DA
N SU DUNG
HUO
L thuye t Galois c nhieù cch tie p can khc nhau. Mot cch tie p can c nhieù
uu diem l trnh by L thuyet Galois trn co so L thuyet mo rong truo`ng. Quan
t trong viec bin

diem d cua Bo Gio duc v do tao duoc chng ti tho ng nha
ng voi L thuyet mo rong truo`ng v

soan gio trnh ny. Gio trnh c 2 chuong, u
u
L thuyet Galois. Moi chuong d oc chia ra thnh cc tiet () tuong ung voi 4-5 gio`
c chuan bi (Chuong
hoc tap trn lop. Ngoi ra, gio trnh c bo sung pha`n Kie n thu

c cu chu yeu c lin quan sau ny. Gio trnh co

0), nham nhac lai nhu
ng kien thu
t cua viec giang day-hoc tap mn hoc. Tuy

tu hop l nha
ga ng trnh by theo thu

tu ph hop khc.
nhin ty theo muc dch m doc gia c the su dung theo mot thu
Sau khi doc xong pha`n l thuye t cua tie t, doc gia ca`n tu mnh giai quye t cc bi
tap cuoi tiet v tra loì bi tap trac nghiem (c the tham khao pha`n huong dan, ne u
can). Cc bi tap duoc sap xep tu de den kh ; nhu

ng bi tap (*) di hoi su tu duy
cao hon. Nhu d trnh by, ne u c dieù kien, doc gia nn khai thc su dung Maple
thng qua cc v du v noi dung cu the trong gio trnh.
c su sac hon cua dai so dai cuong.

Tu` ( 8), gio trnh su dung thm cc kie n thu
xiii
c ny duoc trnh by chi tie t trong Phu luc.

Nhu
ng kie n thu
`
`
Cc dinh l, menh de, he qua, bo de duoc dnh so theo tu`ng tie t, v du Menh de`
2.3 na` m trong 2 v duoc trch dan l Menh de` 2.3 hoac gon hon l 2.3. Cc
c hoac phuong trnh duoc dnh so tu` dau den cuoi gio trnh ve` bn phai,
cng thu
v du
Df = 4p3 27q 2
(1)
duoc trch dan l (1). Ring pha`n Phu luc, moi dinh l, menh de`,...duoc dnh so
ng truoc, v du Menh de A.2. duoc trch dan l Menh de` A.2.

voi mot chu
ci du
hay don gian l A.2.. Gio trnh c bang cc k hieu su dung trong gio trnh v
`
`
u duoc noi dung khi

phan Ch Muc (307) (Index) nham gip doc gia de dng tra cu

c ca`n thie t.
niem hoac kie n thu
xiv
` LICH SU 1
VI NT VE
GIAI PHUONG TRNH DA THU

C
A) LICH SU
c bac hai d duoc cc

Ngy nay, nguoì ta tin ra` ng, viec giai phuong trnh da thu
m da
t st
nh ton hoc co dai Babilon quan tm cch dy ga`n 4000 nam. Nhu
ng ta
y cua ne`n van minh Babilon cn ghi lai viec tm

c nin dai 1600 BC duoc tm tha
nghiem cua nhu

ng phuong trnh bac hai cu the. Tuy nhin, nhu
ng loì giai trn
`
duoc m ta bang phuong php hnh hoc v do d ch lin quan de n nhu
ng phuong
trnh bac hai c he so lon hon 0.
Nhu
ng phuong php hnh hoc de giai phuong trnh bac hai tie p tuc duoc nh
7,
ton hoc v dai Hy Lap Euclid (325 BC-265 BC) de` cap de n. Mi de n the k thu
n Do Brahmagupta (598-665), moi trnh by mot cch giai phuong

nh ton hoc A
trnh bac hai c su dung so m v cc k hieu, dnh dau su pht trien cua dai so .
`
`
Viec xt mot cch day du nghiem cua phuong trnh bac hai bang phuong php
dai so ch duoc thuc hien boi cc nh ton hoc Arab, tiu bieu l al-Khwarizmi
Thng tin trong pha`n ny duoc tham khao chu ye u tu` [5] v [7].
` lich su
Vi nt ve
(780-880). Tuy nhin, cc nh ton hoc Arab lai chua bie t de n so m, do d trong
cuon sch cua mnh c tn Hisabal-jabrwal-muqaba, al-Khwarizmi d phn

ng voi 6 chuong trong cuo n sch v trnh
thnh 6 loai phuong trnh bac hai, u
by cch giai cho tu`ng loai. Dy duoc xem l cuo n sch daù tin ve` dai so v tu`
Algebra (dai so ) ra doì tu` tn cua cuo n sch ny. De n nam 1145, cuo n sch noi
tieng cua nh ton hoc Ty Ban Nha, Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi (1070-1136)
duoc xuat ban o chu u c tn Latinh l Liber ambadorum cung trnh by da`y
du nghiem cua cc phuong trnh bac hai.
Truo`ng phi ton hoc Italy khoi daù khoang nam 1500 voi cuo n sch cua Luca
t ban nam 1494, duoc bie t de n voi tn vie t ta t l Suma,

Pacioli (1445-1517) xua
u
trong d loi giai cua phuong trnh bac hai d oc trnh by chi tie t ba`ng ngn ngu
dai
c bac ba nhung
so hien dai. Pacioli khng de` cap de n viec giai phuong trnh da thu
c bac bon. ng viet, theo ngn ngu

ng lai nhac den viec giai phuong trnh da thu
cua dai so ngy nay, phuong trnh bac bo n x4 = a + bx2 giai duoc ba`ng phuong
php nhu doi voi phuong trnh bac hai, nhung cc phuong trnh x + ax2 = b v
x4 + a = bx2 th khng the giai duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
c bac ba l Scipione
Nguoì daù tin tm duoc nghiem cua phuong trnh da thu
del Ferro (1465-1526), mot gio su noi tieng cua Dai hoc Bologna, Italy. Ferro tm

t nhin, ne u bie t su
c cua phuong trnh x3 + mx = n. Ta
duoc nghiem can thu
n Do, th cng thu

c nghiem d l
dung khi niem so m cua cc nh ton hoc A

t ca cc dang cua phuong trnh bac ba. Tuy nhin, lc ba

y gio`, Ferro
du de giai ta
`
khng biet dieu d. Ferro giai duoc phuong trnh bac ba nu trn vo nam 1515,
nhung giu
b mat cho den truoc lc qua doi nam 1526 moi tie t lo cho mot nguoì hoc
tr cua mnh l Antonio Fior. Fior l mot nguoì hoc ton bnh thuo`ng v ngay lap
`
`
`
c lm r r loì giai cua thay mnh ra ngoi. Tin don ve loì giai cua phuong trnh
tu
bac ba lan rong kha p Bologna v cc vng ln can, kch thch nh ton hoc nghiep
du Niccolo Fontana(1499-1557) tm ra loì giai cua phuong trnh x + mx = n

khng lu sau d. N. Fontana (duoc bie t de n voi tn Tartaglia) quye t dinh cng
bo thnh cng cua mnh. Mot cuoc thch do khoa hoc no ra giu
a Tartaglia v Fior
nam 1535. Luat cua cuoc thi don gian l moi nguoì se dua ra 30 phuong trnh bac
t ca cc
ba cho do i thu, hen trong 50 ngy, ai giai duoc nhieù hon th tha ng. Ta
`
phuong trnh m Fior dua ra cho Tartaglia deu c dang x3 + mx = b v Fior tin
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Hnh 1: Chn dung Tartaglia
chac l Tartaglia khng the giai duoc. Truoc thoì han cuo i cng 8 ngy, Tatarlia
t ca phuong trnh bac ba. Truoc cng

d tm duoc phuong php tong qut giai ta
chng, Tartaglia dua ra loì giai cua 30 bi ton trong vng 2 gio` v duoc cng nhan
l nguoì tha ng cuoc. Tuy nhin, ng khng cng bo loì giai chi tie t.
Chie n tha ng cua Tartaglia lan de n Milan, kch thch mot nh ton hoc nghiep
c moì Tartaglia
du khc, bc s Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576). Cardano lap tu
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
de n tham Milan vo nam 1539 v tm cch thuye t phuc Tartaglia tie t lo loì giai
`
phuong trnh bac ba cho mnh. Tartaglia dong voi giao uoc Cardano phai giu
t ban cng trnh d. Nhung

b mat ve` loì giai cho de n khi Tartaglia tu mnh xua
Cardano khng giu

giao uoc, loì giai cua phuong trnh bac ba v bac bo n d duoc
t hien chi tie t trong quyen sch Ars Magna noi tie ng cua Cardano, xua
t ban
xua
t ban sau
c gian v trong mot bi bo cua mnh xua
nam 1545. Tartaglia v cng tu
d, Tartaglia khang dinh lai cng lao cua mnh v ln n su phan boi cua Cardano.
Trong Ars Magna, cuo n sch tie ng Latinh daù tin trn the gioi ve` dai so ,
c
Cardano c de cap den cng lao cua Tartaglia chnh l tc gia cua cng thu
ng
nghiem cua phuong trnh bac ba, nhung ng cung giai thch thm ra`ng viec chu
c cung nhu trnh by loì giai chi tie t l cua ng cng cc hoc tr cua
minh cng thu
`
`
mnh. Dac biet, cuon sch cua Cardano lan dau tin trnh by loì giai cho 20 loai
c bac bo n. Cc loì giai ny deù c chung phuong php l tm

phuong trnh da thu
c bac ba),
nghiem cua mot phuong trnh phu bac ba (ngy nay ta goi l giai thu
roì su dung n de giai phuong trnh bac bo n d cho. Tc gia cua ke t qua ny l
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Hnh 2: Chn dung G. Cardano
t sa c nha
t cua Cardano.
Lodovico Ferari (1522-1565), mot trong nhu
ng hoc tr xua
Mot l do nu
a de giai thch cho quyet dinh cua Cardano l ng pht hien ra ra`ng
Ferro l nguoì d giai duoc cc phuong trnh bac ba truoc d 30 nam.
`
ng cho nhieù nh ton hoc trn the
Su ra doì cua Ars Magna truyen cam hu
`
u ve phuong trnh da thu
c nhu Bombelli (1526-1572, Italy),
gioi tiep tuc nghin cu
Vite (1540-1603, Php), Descartes (1596-1650, Php), Harriot (1560-1621, Anh),

Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Hnh 3: Chn dung N. Abel
c), Euler (1707-1783, Thuy S), Bezout (1730-1783,

Tschirnhaus (1651-1708, Du
n de` tm nghiem
c bac ba v bo n, va
Php). Sau khi giai duoc phuong trnh da thu
c cho phuong trnh da thu

c bac nam duoc dat ra mot cch tu nhin v thu
can thu
t bai
ht su quan tm cua nhieù nh ton hoc trong mot thoì gian di. Euler tha
trong no luc cua mnh nhung dat duoc mot phuong php moi giai phuong trnh
bac bo n. Lagrange (1736-1813), mot nh ton hoc Italy-Php, d dat duoc buoc
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
t qu trnh tm nghiem cua phuong

u ban cha
tie n quan trong trong viec nghin cu
trnh bac nho hon nam ; qu trnh d phu thuoc vo viec xc dinh cc hm nghiem
m chng khng doi duoi tc dong cua cc hon vi dac biet trn tap nghiem cua
c ; ng cung d ch ra rang qu trnh d khng the thuc hien duoc doi voi da
da thu
c bac nam. Tu` d, gia thuye t ve` viec khng the giai duoc phuong trnh bac nam
thu
`
c tro thnh mot thch thu
c cho cc nh ton hoc. Nam 1813, Ruffini
bang can thu
t tie c
(1765-1822, Italy) d co gang dua ra mot chung minh cho gia thuye t trn, ra
n de` ch duoc giai quye t

ng minh cua ng cn nhieù diem khng chnh xc. Va
chu
`
`
tron ven boi than dong ton hoc nguoì Na Uy, Niels Henrik Abel (1802-1829) vo
nam 1824. Abel chua kip giai quye t bi ton tong qut hon l khi no mot phuong
c bac n c the giai duoc bang can thu

c th ng qua doì lc chua trn
trnh da thu
t ban sau d, nam 1830.

27 tuoi. Cng trnh cua Abel ch duoc cng nhan v xua
Ba nam sau, mot bi kich tuong tu cung xay ra voi Evariste Galois (1811-1832),
mot tha`n do`ng ton hoc khc. Su ra di dot ngot cua ng d khng kip cho the gioi
ton hoc nhan ra mot trong nhu

ng l thuyet dep de nhat cua dai so, m tu` d de
dng c cu tra loì cho bi ton tong qut trn. Phai doi de n nam 1843, muoì mot
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Hnh 4: Chn dung Galois lc 15 tuoi
nam sau ngy ng qua doì, nhu

ng tuyn bo sau cua nh ton hoc Php Joseph
c thu gui cho Vien Hn Lm Khoa Hoc Php moi

Liouville (1809-1882) trong bu
u su thuà nhan chnh thu

c cua cong do`ng ton hoc dnh cho E. Galois.
dnh da
Liouville vie t :
Hy vong ti se mang de n cho Vien Hn Lm mot su quan tm dac biet ba`ng
viec cng bo ra`ng ti d pht hien duoc trong cc cng trnh cua Evariste
Nguyen Chnh T
10
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Galois loì giai hon hao v su sac cho bi ton noi tie ng: khi no th
c giai duoc ba`ng can thu
c.
phuong trnh da thu
t hanh voi nhieù diem tuong do`ng k la, xua

t hien
Abel v Galois, hai so phan ba
t nhu hai vet sao bang sng chi trn baù troì ton hoc. Su to`n tai nga n
v bie n ma
ngui cua ho d de lai nhu

ng di san v dai cho van ha nhn loai. Cng trnh cua
c v mo
Abel v Galois khp lai mot chuong cua lich su giai phuong trnh da thu
ra nhieù chuong moi cua dai so hien dai, khoi nguo`n cho nhu
ng l thuye t dep de
ng dung quan trong khc.

cng nhieù u
C DO
`
B) CUO
I CUA EVARISTE GALOIS
Evariste Galois sinh ngy 25 thng 10 nam 1811 tai Bourg-la-Reine, mot vng
c. Bo Galois l mot
ngoai cuathu d Paris nuoc Php, trong mot gia dnh tr thu
nguoì noi tieng, nhieu nam l thi truong cua Bourg-la-Reine. Me ng am hieu
nhieù lnh vuc nhu trie t hoc, ngn ngu

, tha`n hoc. Galois duoc me day tie ng Hy
lap, Latinh, than hoc cho den nam 12 tuoi.
Thng 10 nam 1823, Galois bat daù de n truo`ng v vo hoc lop 4, Truo`ng Louis
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
11
ng kie n su noi day cua hoc sinh huong u

ng cuoc
le-Grand. Tai dy, Galois som chu
cch mang cho ng lai vua Louis XVIII v sau d l vua Charles X. Ga`n 40 hoc sinh
cua truo`ng bi duoi hoc trong nam hoc dau tin cua Galois. Viec hoc cua Galois
trong nam hoc daù tin dien ra thuan loi. Galois dat diem so to t v nhan duoc hoc
bong. Tuy nhin, viec hoc trn lop ngy cng tro nn km hap dan v Galois phai
luu ban vo nam 1826 do thie u diem mn tu tu` hoc.
Nam 1827, Galois tham gia kha hoc ton daù tin voi gio su M. Vernier, v
som say m mn hoc ny. Nam 1828, Galois thi vo truo`ng cole Polytechnique,
truo`ng dai hoc danh gi hng daù cua Php nhung khng do. Quay tro ve` Louis
le-Grand, anh tham gia kha hoc ton voi gio su Louis Richard (1795-1849) v
`
`
a
e
bat d u nghin cuu nhu
ng d ti ring biet cua mnh. Galois tm doc cc gio trnh
p nhu Hnh hoc cua Legendre, l thuye t Langrange...Richard vie t ve`

ton cao ca
ng lnh vuc kh nha t cua ton hoc.

Galois Sinh vin ny ch quan tm de n nhu
c ht cua ton hoc lm anh chenh mang hon voi viec hoc trn lop. Phie u nhan
Su
`
`
xt ve Galois nhu
ng nam d deu m ta anh l mot hoc sinh khc thuo`ng, lap
di, doc do v khp kn. Thng 4 nam 1829, Galois c cng trnh ton daù tin

Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
12
Hnh 5: Chn dung Galois duoc anh trai ve lai nam 1848
t ban trn tap ch Annales de Mathmatiques ve` lin phn so . Cuo i thng 5 v
xua
`
u
dau thng 6, Galois gui cho Vien hn lm khoa hoc Php cc ke t qua nghin cu
ve` nghiem cua phuong trnh dai so . Cauchy (1789-1857) l nguoì duoc phn cng
phan bien v ng d bc bo cc ket qua ny.
Tham kich ba t daù xay ra voi Galois khi cha anh tu tu tu` mot su vu co c hiem

cua vi tha`y te vng Bourg-la-Reine. Cha cua Galois l mot chnh khch theo phi
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
13
y gio` giu
c tap thoì ba
cong ha. Nhu
ng xung dot chnh tri phu
a phi cong ha v
bao hong d li cuon v gp phan day den nhu

ng bi kich lin tiep cho Galois
v gia dnh anh. Ci che t cua cha gy so c manh me v tc dong lon de n cuoc doì
Galois sau ny.

hai vo Truo`ng
Ch vi tua`n sau ci che t cua cha, Galois phai trai qua la`n thi thu
cole Polytechnique. V Galois lai rot ! Khng nan ch, thng 12 nam 1829, Galois
thi v do vo truo`ng cole Normal. Trong k thi d, vi gim khao mn ton d c
nhan xt ve` Galois nhu sau :
Hoc sinh ny nhieù khi dien ta mot cch ro i ram tuong cua mnh nhung
u.
l mot hoc sinh thng minh v c kha nang dac biet trong nghin cu

Cn nhu
ng nhan xt cua vi gim khao mn van hoc l :
Dy l hoc sinh duy nha t tra loì ra t toì cu hoi cua ti v to ra khng bie t
g ca. Truoc dy, nhieù nguoì ni voi ti ra`ng hoc sinh ny c nang khie u
`
`
dac biet ve ton hoc. Ti that su ngac nhin ve dnh gi d v sau k thi
ny, ti cho ra`ng anh ta khng thng minh lam.

Nguyen Chnh T
14
` lich su
Vi nt ve
Cuo i nam 1829, Galois lai gui mot cng trnh khc ve` l thuye t phuong trnh cho
`
Cauchy. Mot lan nu
a Cauchy khng thuà nhan ke t qua cua Galois. Thng 2 nam
1830, Galois gui cng trnh Ve` dieù kien mot phuong trnh giai duoc ba`ng can
c cho Vien hn lm khoa hoc Php de tham du giai thuong ton hoc cua Vien.
thu
Thu k Vien, gio su noi tie ng J. Fourier (1768-1830), l nguoì phan bien cng
trnh cua Galois. Nhung Fourier qua doì dot ngot vo thng 4 nam 1830. V cng
trnh cua Galois khng bao gio` duoc tm thay nu

a. Khoang thoì gian ny, Galois
t ban trn Bulletin

bie t ra` ng mot bi bo cua nh ton hoc qu co Abel duoc xua
de Frussac c mot phan ket qua giong cua mnh. Sau khi tm doc cc bi bo cua
c), Galois d hon thnh cc nghin cu

u ve` cc hm
Abel v Jacobi (1804-1851, Du
elliptic v tch phn aben. Galois d dang 3 cng trnh trn Bulletin de Frussac
trong thng 4 nam 1830. Trong thng 6, Galois bie t tin giai thuong ton hoc cua
Vien hn lm d duoc trao do`ng thoì cho Abel v Jacobi.
Thng 6 nam 1830, nuoc Php suc si voi nhu

ng xung dot giu
a phe cong ha
v bao hong. Vua Charles X bi truc xuat khoi Php, nhuo`ng ngai vng cho vua

Louis-Phillipe. Cc cuoc bieu tnh, bao loan, dn p tie p tuc xay ra thuo`ng xuyn
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
15
trn cc duo`ng pho Paris. Hieu truong truo`ng cole Normal, GS. M. Guigniault,
nhot hoc sinh trong truo`ng de trnh khng cho hoc sinh tham gia xuo ng duo`ng.
Tro tuong ra ngoi khng thnh, Galois viet mot bi bo dang trn Gazette des
coles de phan do i viec kha cua nho t hoc sinh trong truo`ng cua hieu truong.
Galois bi duoi hoc v tham gia vo pho binh, mot binh chung trong qun doi
hong gia. Tuy nhin, de n thng 12 nam 1830, pho binh bi giai tn boi sa c lenh
cua nh vua do lo so binh chung ny l moi de doa cho ngai vng.
p thu
Galois co gang quay tro lai lm ton. Anh mo mot lop hoc ve` dai so cao ca
ht khoang 40 sinh vin. Nhung sau buoi hoc daù tin, so sinh vin giam mot cch
nhanh chng v cuoi cng lop hoc tan r. Nhu

ng cng trnh cuoi cng trong doì
Galois l 2 bi bo nho dang trn Annales de Gergonne (thng 12 nam 1830) v

trn Gazette des coles (thng 1 nam 1831).
Thng 1 nam 1831, theo goi cua vien s Vien hm lm khoa hoc Php Poisson
ba, Galois gui cng trnh nghin cu

u ve` phuong trnh cua
(1781-1840), la`n thu
mnh cho Vien hn lm.
Chnh su nuoc Php lai li cuo n Galois, nguoì dang mang tm trang nang ne`
Nguyen Chnh T
16
` lich su
Vi nt ve
t hanh do`n dap. Nguoì thanh nin ny lin tie p roi

khi phai do i mat voi nhu
ng ba
vo vng xoy cua nhu

ng ngh v hnh dong tiu cuc. Cuo i nam 1830, muoì chn
s quan pho binh bi ba t ve` toi m luu lat do ngai vng, nhung duoc tha bong sau
c mot bu
d. Ngy 9 thng 5 nam 1831, nhu
ng nguoì cong ha to chu
a tiec cho
n khch tu` khng kh cua bu

mu`ng su kien ny v ph truong thanh the . Pha
a
tiec, Galois deo knh, tay ca`m dao gam ku goi moi nguoì cho ng lai nh vua. Sau
bu
a tiec, Galois bi bat giam o nh t Sainte-Plagie. Ra ta, Galois duoc tha bong
vo ngy 15 thng 6 nam 1831. Ngy 14 thng 7, k niem su kien nguc Bastille,
`
`
Galois lai xuat hien o hng dau trong cuoc bieu tnh ram ro cua nhu
ng nguoì cong
ha, voi trang phuc pho binh, tay ca`m sng v kie m. Galois lai bi to ng giam vo
Sainte-Plagie. Lan ny Galois bi ket n 6 thng t giam. Trong t, Galois nhan
3 cho
duoc tin ve` so phan ham hiu cua cng trnh khoa hoc m anh gui la`n thu
Vien hn lm khoa hoc Php. Poisson nhan xt ve` cng trnh cua Galois :
ng minh cua Galois. Ra t tie c, lap luan

Chng ti d co gang de hieu chu
ng ket qua dat duoc chua du de chng ti

cua tc gia khng r rng v nhu
khang dinh duoc tnh dng dan cua cng trnh...Ti cho ra`ng tc gia nn
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
17
bin soan lai ton bo ke t qua cua mnh trong mot cng trnh tho ng nha t de

c tnh thuye t phuc lon hon.
Thng 3 nam 1832, dich ta honh hnh o Paris. Galois cng cc t nhn duoc
chuyen de n nh an duong Sieur Faultrier. Tai dy, mot con gi mt tuong chu`ng
`
c the lm diu di nhu
ng dau buon v tan trong lng nguoì t tre. Galois dem lng
t hanh
yu Stephanie-Felice du Motel, con gi cua mot nh vat l trong vng. Ba
thay, day l mot moi tnh don phuong v lai l khoi dau cho bi kich lon nhat cua
Galois. Sau khi duoc tu do vo ngy 29 thng 4 nam 1832, Galois tie p tuc theo

duoi c gi no, nhung c lun tm cch tu` cho i tnh cam cua anh.
Trong thoì gian ny, nghe theo loì khuyn cua Poisson, Galois lang le xu chuoi
lai nhu
ng pht minh cua mnh ba`ng nhu
ng trang vie t voi vng (Hnh 6).
The roi, Galois bi li vo cuoc dau sng dinh menh vo ngy 30 thng 5 nam
u sng van chua thuc
1832 voi Perscheux dHerbinville. Nguyn nhn cua cuoc da
su r rng nhung cha c cha n l c lin quan truc tie p de n Stephanie-Felice du
c tron de vie t bu
c
Motel. Nhu tin don duoc ket cuc, dm 29 thng 5, Galois thu
thu cuo i cng cho nguoì ban Auguste Chevalier, tm tat lai ton bo pht minh
Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
18
Hnh 6: Mot trang ban thao cua Galois
t nhieù doan trong bu

c thu bi bi xa nhieù la`n voi ch thch ti
cua mnh. Ra
u truo`ng v ke t cuc
khng c du thoì gian. Sng hm sau, Galois buoc chn de n da
tin lieu d xay ra. Cuo i ngy, mot nguoì nng dn trong vng pht hien Galois
`
`
bi trong thuong nam trn cnh dong v dua anh vo benh vien. Ngy 31 thng 5

nam 1832, Galois trt hoi tho cuo i cng tai benh vien Cochin v duoc an tng tai

Nguyen Chnh T
` lich su
Vi nt ve
19
Montparnasse 2 ngy sau d.

c thu cng ton bo nhu
Anh cua Galois v Chavalier gui bu
ng ban thao dang
c) v Jacobi nhu di chc cua anh. Khng

do cua Galois cho Gauss (1777-1855, Du
ng hoac kie n no tu` Gauss v Jacobi. May
hieu v l do g, khng c mot phan u
man l sau d, cng trnh cua Galois den duoc tay Liouville. Muoì mot nam sau,
Liouville d vie t thu thng bo cho Vien hn lm Php ve` su dng da n v su sa c
trong ket qua cua Galois ; ng d cho xuat ban nhu

ng pht minh cua Galois trn
tap ch Revue Encyclopdia cua mnh vo nam 1846.
c thu dinh menh cua mnh ba` ng nhu

Galois ke t thc bu
ng dng :
Xin gui cho Gauss v Jacobi de ho dnh gi cng khai, khng phai ve` tnh
`
ng dinh l ny. Ti hi vong hau
dng dan m l tam quan trong cua nhu
the se c nguoì tha y duoc su su sac cua chng cung nhu giai m duoc ta t

ng b an hien thoì.
ca nhu
Pht minh m Galois dem lai cho khoa hoc de tu` d hau the d, dang v se tie p
t Galois.
tuc giai m l l thuye t mang tn ng : L thuye
Nguyen Chnh T
20
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
Nguyen Chnh T
Chuong 0
KIEN THUC CHUAN BI
t cua dai
c chuan bi, ta nha c lai cc kie n thu
c co ban nha
Trong pha`n Kie n thu
a
u
so d i cuong se d oc su dung trong cuon sch ny. Chung minh cua cc ket qua
y trong cc gio trnh dai so o Cao dang v Dai hoc. Cc kie n

ny de dng tm tha
c su sac hon ve L thuyet nhm can thiet se duoc trnh by chi tie t trong Pha`n
thu
Phu luc. Dac biet, viec giai quye t cc bi tap cuo i tie t ny tao dieù kien cho doc gia

nam tot hon cc tnh chat v phuong php co ban su dung trong L thuyet truo`ng
c.
v vnh da thu
21
22
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
CU
A TRUO
` NG. DA
C SO
` NG.
0.1 TRUO
Truo`ng l mot vnh giao hon c don vi khc 0 v moi pha`n tu
Dinh ngha.
khc 0 deù kha nghich.
Nhan xt 0.1. Truo`ng l mot mie`n nguyn, dac biet truo`ng khng c uoc cua 0.
V du 1. Q l truo`ng cc so hu
u t voi cc php ton cong v nhn thng thuo`ng.
c C.
Tuong tu, ta c truo`ng R cc so thuc v truo`ng cc so phu
V du 2. Vnh thuong Zn = Z/nZ l mot truo`ng khi v ch khi n nguyn to .
Truo`ng Zp voi p nguyn to l truo`ng hu

u han c p pha`n tu.
u truo`ng l mot do`ng ca

u vnh bie n don vi thnh don
Mot do`ng ca
u v dang
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
vi. Tuong tu nhu vnh, ta c khi niem don cau, ton ca
u truo`ng.
ca
u (dang ca
u) truo`ng tu` F vo F goi l mot tu
Cho F l mot truo`ng. Mot do`ng ca
`
dong cau (tu dang cau) truong. Tap tat ca cc tu dang cau truo`ng voi php ton
tch cc nh xa tao thnh mot nhm, k hieu Aut(F ).

u truo`ng deù l don ca

u.
Nhan xt 0.2. Moi do`ng ca
Nguyen Chnh T
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
23
a pha`n tu 1 cua truo`ng F duoc goi l truo`ng

Mot vnh con A chu

Dinh ngha.
y pha`n tu nghich dao.
con ne u A on dinh voi php la
Nhan xt 0.3.
(i) Mot truo`ng con cua F l mot truo`ng voi cc php ton cam sinh.
(ii) Giao cua mot ho khc rong cc truo`ng con l mot truo`ng con.

Cho F l mot truo`ng. Xt nh xa
: Z
F
m 7 m 1F .
u vnh. Xt Ker(), ta c cc truo`ng
ng minh ra`ng l mot do`ng ca
De dng chu
hop sau:
Ker() 6= 0. Do Z l mie`n nguyn chnh, ta c Ker() = (p) voi p > 0 l so

t thoa p 1F = 0. R rng p l mot so nguyn to . Suy ra
nguyn duong nho nha
u tu` Zp vo F , do d F chu
u
a mot truo`ng con dang ca
cam sinh mot don ca
a trong tat ca cc truo`ng con cua F . So nguyn to

voi Zp. Truo`ng con ny chu
p duoc goi l dac so cua truo`ng F .

Nguyen Chnh T
24
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
t de m 1F = 0. Khi d mo rong duy

c l 0 l so nguyn duy nha
Ker() = 0, tu
u truo`ng tu` Q vo F dinh boi

t thnh mot do`ng ca
nha
1
a mot truo`ng con dang cau voi Q v

m/n 7 (m)(n) . Do d F chu
t ca cc truo`ng con cua F . Khi d ta ni F l

a trong ta
truo`ng con ny chu
truo`ng c dac so 0.
t ca cc truo`ng con cua F goi l

Cho F l mot truo`ng. Giao cua ta
Dinh ngha.
truo`ng con nguyn to cua F .

Tu` ke t qua trn, ta c:
Menh de` 0.4. Mot truo`ng dac so p c truo`ng con nguyn to dang ca u voi Zp xc
dinh boi m 7 m1F . Mot truo`ng dac so 0 c truo`ng con nguyn to dang ca u voi Q
m
1
xc dinh boi n 7 (m1F )(n1F ) .
t mot do`ng ca
u tu` Q hay Zp vo mot
Nhan xt 0.5. Ch ra` ng ch c duy nha
u d xc dinh nhu trong menh de` trn. That vay, gia

truo`ng cho truoc F v do`ng ca
su F c dac so 0 v : Q F l mot dong cau truo`ng. Khi d m N,
(m) = (1 + + 1) = m(1) = m1F .

Nguyen Chnh T
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
25
Hon nu
a, (m) = (m) = (m1F ) = (m)1F . Hay
(m) = m1F , m Z.
Do d
(m/n) = (m1F )(n1F )1 voi moi m/n Q.
u, ta lun
Tuong tu voi truo`ng hop F c dac so p v : Zp F l mot do`ng ca
c (m) = m1F .
C
0.2 VNH DA THU
c
Cho A l mot vnh giao hon c don vi 1 6= 0. K hieu A[x] l vnh cc da thu
c
bie n x siu viet c he tu trong A. Mot da thu
f = a0 + a1x + + anxn A[x], an 6= 0

a trong A[x] nhu mot vnh con.
goi l c bac n, k hieu deg(f ). Khi d vnh A chu
c A[x] v
c). Cho vnh da thu
Menh de` 0.6 (Tnh pho dung cua vnh da thu
R l mot vnh giao hon v R. Khi d moi do`ng ca u vnh : A R mo
Nguyen Chnh T
N THU
C CHUA
N BI
Chuong 0. KIE
26
rong duy nha t thnh do`ng ca u vnh tu` A[x] vo R thoa
(x) = v (a) = (a), a A.

Menh de` 0.7. Cho f, g A[x] v g 6= 0 c he tu dan daù kha nghich. Khi d, to`n
tai duy nha t q, r D[x] sao cho f = gq + r voi r = 0 hay deg(r) < deg(g). Da
c q (tuong u
ng r) goi l thuong (tuong u
ng du) cua php chia (Euclide) f cho g.
thu
c trn truo`ng dng mot vai tr dac biet quan trong trong L thuye t
Vnh da thu
mo rong truo`ng v Galois. Suo t trong cuo n sch ny, ta k hieu F l mot truo`ng
ne u khng c giai thch khc.

He qua 0.8. Moi idan cua F [x] deù l idan chnh. Hon the idan (f ) F [x] l
toi dai khi v ch khi f ba t kha quy.
t cua 2 da thu
c cho truoc
Thuat ton Euclide cho php ta tm uoc chung lon nha
c s, t trong he qua sau:

v hon the , cho php ta tm cc da thu
c
He qua 0.9. Cho f, g F [x]. K hieu d = (f, g). Khi d to`n tai cc da thu
s, t F [x] sao cho sf + tg = d.

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Voi Maple, cc thuat ton trn trong Q[x] duoc cho boi cc lenh the hien trong
v du sau:
c
Su dung Maple 1. De tnh du v thuong cua php chia da thu
f = x5 + 2 x4 + x3 + x 1
cho g = x3 x + 3, ta c the dng lenh rem hoac quo:
>
rem(x^5+2*x^4+x^3+x-1,x^3-x+3,x,q);
7 3 x x2
>
q;
x2 + 2 x + 2
Nhu the khi chia f cho g ta duoc thuong l x2 + 2x + 2 v du l
2
7 3x x .
t trong Q[x], ta dng lenh
De tnh uoc chung lon nha
>
gcdex(x^5+2*x^4+x^3+x-1,x^3-x+3,x);
1
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c s, t sao cho sf + tg = d nhu v du sau

Lenh trn cung cho ta tnh duoc da thu
dy.
>
gcdex(x^5+2*x^4+x^3+x-1,x^3-x+3,x,s,t);
1
>
s,t;
64
511
24
511
1
511
x2 ,
149
511
18
511
x2 +
79
511
22
511
x3 +
1
511
x4
ng.
Tnh ton trong vnh Zp[x], ta dng lenh Rem v Gcdex tuong u
Menh de` 0.10. Cho f Z[x] ba t kha quy trn Z. Khi d f ba t kha quy trn Q.
c thuoc vnh D[x]

Cho D l mot mie`n nguyn Gauss. Mot da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
`
`
goi l chuan tac neu he tu dan dau cua f bang 1.
c chuan tac. Ne u g Q[x] l mot uoc

Menh de` 0.11. Cho f Z[x] l mot da thu
chuan tac cua f trong Q[x] th g Z[x].

ng minh. Xem BT 0. 14.
Chu
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29
t kha quy cua Eisenstein).

Menh de` 0.12 (Tiu chuan ba
Cho f = anxn + + a0 Z[x]. Ne u to`n tai mot so nguyn to p sao cho:
p - an, p|ai, i = 0, . . . , n 1 v p - a0 th f bat kha quy trong Q[x].

r
Menh de` 0.13. Cho f = a0 + + anxn Q[x]. Ne u pha`n tu
Q, voi
s
(r, s) = 1, l nghiem cua f th r | a0 v s | an.
c khc 0
Su dung Maple 2. Maple c the tm dang nhn tu ha cua mot da thu
t ky` trong Q[x] hay Zp[x] ba` ng lenh factor hay Factor.
ba
>
factor(2*x^4+4*x^3+11*x^2+2*x+5);
(2 x2 + 1) (x2 + 2 x + 5)
>
Factor(2*x^4+4*x^3+11*x^2+2*x+5) mod 13;

2 (x + 4) (x2 + 7) (x + 11)
u chnh ta c Z Zm mo rong ta`m thuo`ng thnh

Xt vnh thuong Zm. Ton ca
u vnh Z[x] Zm[x] bie n f = anxn + +a0 thnh f := anxn + +a0.

ton ca
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Menh de` 0.14. Cho f Z[x]. Ne u to`n tai mot so nguyn to p khng chia he t he tu
cao nha t cua f v f ba t kha quy trong Zp[x] th f ba t kha quy trong Q[x].
ng minh. Xem Bi tap 0. 8.
Chu
t kha
c ba
Ch ra` ng, menh de` trn ch cho mot dieù kien du. C nhu
ng da thu
quy trong Q[x] nhung anh cua n trong Zp[x] l kha quy voi moi so nguyn to p,
xem Bi tap 0. 6.
NHM HU
T SO
U HAN
0.3 MO
p cua mot nhm (nhn) hu

Ca
u han G l so pha`n tu cua nhm, k hieu (G : 1) hay
p cua mot pha`n tu a G l ca

p cua nhm con cyclic sinh ra boi a. Ta gioi
|G|. Ca
thieu mot so nhm hu

u han quan trong se gap trong noi dung cua cuo n sch ny.
a) Nhm dihedral D2n

ng cua da gic deù n canh
Nhm dihedral D2n cn goi l nhm cc php do i xu
c l nhm cc php bien doi dang cu cua mat phang bien Pn thnh chnh n.
Pn, tu
Goi l php quay c tm l tm cua Pn v gc quay l 2/n (gc dinh huong).
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p n. Goi l php do i xu
ng truc voi truc do i xu
ng di qua mot dnh
R rng c ca
chon truoc cua Pn. Cap cua bang 2. Khi d
D2n = { i j | i = 0, 1 ; j = 1, . . . , n}
p ba` ng 2n.
c ca
De dng ch ra ra`ng
D2n =< , | n = 2 = 1, = 1 > .
ng Sn
b) Nhm do i xu
ng Sn l nhm cc php hon vi n pha`n tu cua tap
Nhm do i xu
`
`
= {1, . . . , n}, c cap bang n!. Moi phan tu cua Sn goi l mot php the. Nhm
o
d i xung Sn voi n 3 l mot nhm khng giao hon.
Mot vng xch = (a1 a2 . . . am) go`m cc so tu nhin phn biet cua bieu dien
mot php the cua Sn dinh boi (ai) = ai+1 voi 1 i m 1, (am) = a1 v
giu
nguyn cc pha`n tu cn lai cua .
a m pha`n tu. Hai vng xch goi l doc

Vng xch goi l c do di m ne u n chu
lap ne u chng khng c pha`n tu chung. Tch cua 2 vng xch doc lap c tnh giao

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ng minh de dng ke t qua sau.

hon. C the chu
Menh de` 0.15. Moi php the deù c the bieu dien mot cch duy nha t (sai khc thu
tu) duoi dang tch cua cc vng xch doc lap. Bieu dien ny duoc goi l bieu dien
vng xch cua php the.

V du 3. Trong S12, cho php the dinh boi:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 2 3 1 11 9 5 10 6 4
Ta c = (1 12 8 10 4)(5 11 7)(6 9).

Khi duoc bieu dien ba` ng tch cua cc vng xch doc lap, nghich dao cua php the
duoc xc dinh mot cch de dng ba`ng cch vie t dao nguoc cc pha`n tu trong cc vng
xch doc lap cua n. V du, voi php the o trn, ta c
1
= (4 10 8 12 1)(7 11 5)(6 9).
ng minh duoc ke t qua sau.
Ta cung de dng chu
Menh de` 0.16. Ca p cua php the ba`ng boi chung nho nha t cua do di cua cc
vng xch trong bieu dien vng xch cua .

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Chu
Mot vng xch c do di ba` ng 2 goi l mot php chuyen tr. Moi vng xch deù
duoc bieu dien (khng duy nhat) bang tch cua cc php chuyen tr, chang han :
= (a1 a2 . . . am) = (a1 am) (a1 a3)(a1 a2).

(1)
Tu` d suy ra :
Menh de` 0.17. Moi php the deù bieu dien duoc duoi dang tch cua cc php

chuyen tr.
t ca cc php chuyen tr cua Sn sinh ra Sn. Ke t qua sau
Nhu the tap hop T ta
cung duoc su dung sau ny.
ng Sn duoc sinh boi vng xch (1 2 . . . n) v php

Menh de` 0.18. Nhm do i xu
chuyen tr (1 2).
ng minh. Cho c = (1 2 . . . n) v t = (1 2). Goi G l nhm con sinh boi t v
Chu
a pha`n tu c tc1 = (2 3), nn chu

a
c. Khi d G chu
c(2 3)c1 = (3 4), . . .
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a cc php chuyen tr dang (m m + 1). Suy ra G chu

a cc pha`n tu
v do d chu
(1 2)(2 3)(1 2) = (1 3) ;
(1 3)(3 4)(1 3) = (1 4) ; ...
a cc php chuyen tr dang (1 m). Do d G chu

a cc pha`n tu dang
nhu the G chu
(1 m)(1 r)(1 m) = (m r) voi moi m, r {1, . . . , n}. Tat ca cc php chuyen tr
y o menh de` trn. Do d G = Sn.

sinh ra Sn nhu d tha
u cua php the v gioi thieu nhm thay phin An.

Ta nha c lai khi niem da
Dat
Y
n =
(xi xj ).
1i<jn
Voi Sn, tc dong cua trn n dinh boi:
x(i) x(j) .
(n) =
1i<jn
t hien dng mot la`n voi

Do l mot song nh, moi nhn tu (xi xj ) cua n xua
u + hay trong (n). Nhu the , ta c (n) = n.

da
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Dat
35
sign() =
(n)
n
{1}
u cua php the .

goi l da
Php the goi l php the cha n ne u sign() = 1, l php the le
Dinh ngha.
neu sign() = 1.
Menh de` 0.19. nh xa sign : Sn {1} l mot ton ca u nhm.
ng minh. Ta c
Chu
Q
Q
x (i) x (j)
x(i) x(j)
1i<jn
1i<jn
sign( ) =
Q
Q
x(i)(j)
(xi xi)
1i<jn
1i<jn
= sign( ) sign().
y ra` ng sign l mot ton nh v anh cua php chuyen tr (1 2) ba` ng 1. Nhu
De tha
u nhm.
the sign l mot ton ca
He qua 0.20. Tap hop ta t ca cc php the chan trong Sn l mot nhm con chuan
tac cua Sn c ch so ba`ng 2, goi l nhm thay phin (trn n pha`n tu), k hieu An.
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u cua php chuyen tr ty (i j). Ta d bie t php chuyen tr

V du 4. Ta tnh da
(1 2) l mot php the le. Goi = (1 i)(2 j) l php the hon vi 1 cho i v 2 cho j.
Khi d ta c (i j) = (1 2) . V sign l dong cau nhm, ta c

sign(i j) = (1) sign( )2 = 1.
Vay php chuyen tr l php the le.
Menh de` 0.21. Mot vng xch do di m l php the le khi v ch khi m l so chan.
Suy ra, mot php the l le khi v ch khi so cc vng xch do di chan trong bieu
dien vng xch cua l mot so le.
ng minh. Mot vng xch do di m c the bieu dien nhu tch cua m 1 php
Chu
ng minh.
chuyen tr (xem (1)). Do moi php chuyen tr l le, suy ra dieù phai chu
c) Nhm quaternion
Nhm quaternion Q8 l nhm c 8 pha`n tu, xc dinh nhu sau. Cho
Q8 = {1, 1, i, i, j, j, k, k},
voi php nhn dinh boi:
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37
1a = a1 = a voi moi a Q8 ;
(1)(1) = 1 ; (1)a = a(1) = a voi moi a Q8 ;
ii = jj = kk = 1 ;
ij = k ;
ji = k ;
jk = i ;
kj = i ;
ki = j ;
ik = j.
t ca cc tin de` cua nhm deù thoa mn.

De dng kiem tra ta
0.4 HM EULER
t quan trong cua n. Pha`n
Ta nha c lai khi niem hm Euler v mot so tnh cha
t ny duoc thuc hien trong pha`n Bi tap.

ng minh cc tnh cha
chu
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Hm Euler l mot nh xa tu` N vo N dinh boi
Dinh ngha.
(n) = #{m N | m n, (m, n) = 1}.

Ngha l (n) l so cc so tu nhin khng lon hon n v nguyn
to cng nhau voi n.
t cua hm Euler duoc pht bieu trong menh de` sau.

Mot so tnh cha
Menh de` 0.22. K hieu l hm Euler. Khi d:
(i) (p) = p 1 voi p l so nguyn to ;

(ii) (pm) = (p 1)pm1 ;
(iii) (ab) = (a)(b) voi moi (a, b) = 1 ;
mr
1
(iv) Ne u a = pm
1 pr th
(a) = a(1
(v)
1
p1
) (1
1
pr
);
(d) = n.
d|n
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39

Chu
p
Bi ta
` sau:
e
),
sai
(S)
cho
cc
me
nh
d
0. 1 . Chon dng (D
t ky` cua F [x] deù to`n tai uoc chung lon nha
t.
c ba
a) Hai da thu
u vnh.
ng tu` F [x] vo Z cho boi f 7 deg(f ) l mot do`ng ca
b) Tuong u
u voi truo`ng cc thuong cua n.

c) Moi truo`ng deù dang ca
d) Vnh Zn l mot mie`n nguyn khi v ch khi n l mot truo`ng.
c trn truo`ng F deù c mot nghiem trong F .

e) Moi da thu
t kha quy trn Q deù ba

t kha quy trn Z.
c ba
f) Moi da thu
t kha quy trn Q th ba

t kha quy trn R.
c ba
g) Moi da thu
t kha quy bac n trn Q (trn R, trn C).

c ba
h) C v han cc da thu
c nguyn to cng nhau th c bac khc nhau. (Xem HD 250)

i) Nhu
ng da thu
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40
0. 2 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p > 0. Xt nh xa
: F F
a
7 ap.
u truo`ng. Suy ra
ng minh ra` ng l mot do`ng ca
goi l nh xa Frobenius. Chu
neu F l truo`ng hu
(Xem HD 250)
u han th l mot tu dang cau.

0. 3 . Cho D l mie`n nguyn v FD l truo`ng cc thuong cua n. Cho K l mot
u vnh. Chu
ng minh ra` ng to`n tai duy
truo`ng v : D K l mot don ca
nhat mot dong cau truo`ng : FD K sao cho (a) = (a), a D. Suy
t cua truo`ng cc thuong cua D.

ra tnh duy nha
(Xem HD 250)
u cua truo`ng cc so hu
0. 4 . Xc dinh cc tu do`ng ca
u ty. Tuong tu, xc dinh cc tu
p
`
c Fermat a a mod p vi moi a Z. (Xem

dong cau cua Zp; suy ra cng thu
HD 251)
ng minh ra` ng mot truo`ng F c dac so 0 (tuong u
ng p nguyn to ) khi v
0. 5 . Chu
`
`
ng Zp) vo F . Hon
ch khi ton tai mot dong cau (don cau) truo`ng tu` Q (tuong u
u truo`ng d l duy nha

t.
nu
a, do`ng ca
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41
(Xem HD 252)
t kha quy trn Z nhung
ng minh ra`ng f ba
0. 6 . Cho f = x4 10x2 + 1 Z[x]. Chu
c trong Zp[x] voi moi p nguyn to .
kha quy khi xt nhu mot da thu
(Xem HD 252)
ng minh He qua 0.8.
0. 7 . Chu
(Xem HD 252)
ng minh Menh de` 0.14.

0. 8 . Chu
(Xem HD 253)
0. 9 . Tm d = (f, g) voi f, g Z11[x] cho boi f = x5 +2x4 +3x3 +3x2 5x+2, g =

2x3 + 7x2 + 5x 2. Tm s, t Z11[x] sao cho sf + tg = d. Nn su dung Maple.
(Xem HD 253)
ng minh dang tong qut cua MD
0. 10 . Chu
. 0.10: cho D l mie`n nguyn Gauss v
FD l truo`ng cc thuong cua D. Ne u f D[x] ba t kha quy trn D th ba t kha

quy trn FD .
(Xem HD 253)
t kha quy cua cc da thu

c sau dy. Trong truo`ng hop kha quy,
0. 11 . Xc dinh tnh ba
c trn truo`ng ch ra.

tm dang nhn tu ha cua da thu
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42
a) x4 + 1 trn Q.
e) x3 7x2 + 3x + 3 trn Q.
b) x4 + 1 trn R.
f) x4 + 15x3 + 7 trn Q.
c) x7 + 11x3 33x + 22 trn Q.
g) x4 + 7 trn Z17.
d) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 trn Q.
h) x3 5 trn Z11.
(Xem HD 253)
c sau dy (truoc tin trong Q sau d trong R, C).

0. 12 . Tm nghiem cua cc da thu
a) x3 + 1.
d) x2 + 1.
b) x3 6x2 + 11x 6.
e) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.
c) x5 + x + 1.
f) x4 6x2 + 11.
(Xem HD 254)
t ca cc da thu
t kha
c chuan tac x2 + bx + c Z5[x]. Da thu
c no ba
0. 13 . Tm ta
ng minh tiu
quy ? Trong moi truo`ng hop, tnh := b2 4c. Du don v chu
t kha quy theo .

chuan ba
(Xem HD 254)
ng minh Menh de` 0.11.
0. 14 . Chu
(Xem HD 254)
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43
p2 p
ng minh ra` ng trong Zp[x] c dng

0. 15 . Cho p l mot so nguyn to . Chu
da
2
t kha quy bac 2.
c chuan ta c ba
thu
(Xem HD 255)
ng minh Menh de` 0.16 ba` ng cch chu

ng minh cc khang dinh sau.
0. 16 . Chu
Ne u = (a1 a2 . . . am) th voi moi i {1, 2, . . . , m}, ta c i(ak ) = ak+i
y thang du theo modulo m.

voi k + i duoc la
Trong mot nhm nhn G, cho a, b l 2 pha`n tu giao hon duoc, khi d
n n
n
(ab) = a b voi moi n Z.
ng minh ra` ng
0. 17 . Cho l hm Euler. Chu
a) ne u q | n th (qn) = q(n) ;
b) ne u (p, n) = 1 v p nguyn to th (pn) = (p 1)(n) ;
c) suy ra ne u p nguyn to v (p, n) = 1 th
(pmn) = (p 1)pm1(n) ;
d) suy ra (ab) = (a)(b), (a, b) = 1 ;
Nguyen Chnh T
44
e)
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(d) = n.
(Xem HD 255)
d|n
ng minh ra` ng moi nhm con hu

* 0. 18 . Cho F l mot truo`ng. Chu
u han cua nhm
nhn F = F {0} l mot nhm cyclic. Suy ra neu F l truo`ng hu

u han th
F l nhm cyclic.
(Xem HD 256)
u cua truo`ng R.
* 0. 19 . Xc dinh tap cc tu do`ng ca
(Xem HD 257)
Nguyen Chnh T
Chuong 1
RO
NG TRUO
` NG
MO
RO
RO
`NG. BA
`NG
NG TRUO
C CUA MO
NG TRUO
1 MO
RO
` NG
NG TRUO
1.1 MO
Cho truo`ng K v F l mot truo`ng con cua K. Khi d F K goi
`
u
l mot mo rong truong v K d oc goi l mot mo rong (truong) cua
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
F . Mot mo rong truo`ng F K cn duoc k hieu l K : F hay
K/F .
45
46
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
Nhan xt 1.1. (i) Moi truo`ng deù l mo rong cua truo`ng con nguyn to cua n.
(ii) Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng. Khi d truo`ng con nguyn to cua chng
trng nhau.
V du 5. Q R, Q C, R C l cc mo rong truo`ng.
c hu
V du 6. Cho F l mot truo`ng v F (x) l truo`ng cc phn thu
u ty bie n x siu
`
t F voi cc phn thu
c ha` ng, ta c F F (x) l mot mo rong
viet trn F . Dong nha
truo`ng.
u
Cho K : F v L : F l cc mo rong truo`ng cua F . Mot do`ng ca
u) truo`ng : K L thoa (a) = a, a F goi l

(dang ca
u
F -dong cau (F -dang cau). Mo rong K : F duoc goi l F -dang ca

Dinh ngha.
`
u tu` K vo L, k
voi mo rong L : F neu ton tai mot F -dang ca
u (F -dang ca
u) goi
hieu K
=F L. Ne u K = L th cc F -do`ng ca
l F -tu dong cau (F -tu dang cau).
Tong qut hon, ta c:

Nguyen Chnh T
`ng. Ba
`ng
ng truo
c cua mo ro
ng truo
1. Mo ro
L l cc mo rong truo`ng,
u) truo`ng. Do`ng
u (dang ca
: F E l mot do`ng ca
Dinh ngha.
(dang cau) : K L goi l mot mo rong cua
(a) = (a), a F .
Cho F
K v E
47
cho
u
ca
ne u
u voi mo rong E L ne u to`n tai

Mo rong F K goi l dang ca
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
cc dang cau i : F E v mot mo rong cua n j : K L,
ngha l j(a) = i(a), a F.

u cua cc mo rong truo`ng l mot quan he tuong
Nhan xt 1.2. Quan he dang ca
duong. Dac biet, quan he

=F l mot quan he tuong duong.
Menh de` 1.3. Cho K : F v L : F l cc mo rong truo`ng, cho : K L l mot
F -dong cau. Cho K l mot nghiem cua f F [x]. Khi d () L l mot
nghiem cua f .
ng minh. Goi f = anxn + + a0. Ta c

Chu
f () = ann + + a0 = 0.
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
48
Suy ra
0 = (f ()) = an()n + + a0 = f (()).
Ngha l () l mot nghiem cua f .
Ta c dang tong qut cua menh de` trn, xem Bi tap 1. 8.
A MO
RO
C CU
NG TRUO
` NG
1.2 BA
u trc cua mot khng gian vc

Cho K : F l mot mo rongtruo`ng. Khi d K c ca
to trn F voi php nhn v huong l php nhn trn K. Mot co so cua F khng
`
gian vc to K cung duoc goi l co so cua mo rong truong K : F .

Bac cua mo rong truo`ng K : F l chieù cua F khng gian vc to
K, k hieu [K : F ]. Ne u [K : F ] hu
u han th ta goi K : F l mot
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
mo rong hu
u han. Neu mo rong K : F khng hu
u han th goi l
mo rong v han.
V du 7. Xt mo rong truo`ng C : R. Ta bie t moi pha`n tu cua C duoc vie t mot cch
duy nhat duoi dang a + bi voi a, b R. Do d {1, i} l mot co so cua C : R. Suy
ra [C : R] = 2.
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng. Ba
`ng
ng truo
c cua mo ro
ng truo
1. Mo ro
49
V du 8. Cc mo rong truo`ng R/Q, C/Q, K(x)/K l cc mo rong v han.
`
Nhan xt 1.4. Bac cua mo rong F K bang 1 khi v ch khi F = K. Ni cch
`
khc bac cua mo rong truong ba`ng 1 khi v ch khi mo rong l ta`m thuo`ng. That
vay, ne u K = F. th 1 = a, ko theo = a1 F . Do d F = K.
ng truo`ng. Khi d L : F l mot mo

Dinh l 1.5. Cho K : F v L : K l cc mo ro
rong truo`ng v
[L : F ] = [L : K][K : F ].
Hon the ne u {ei}iI v {fj }jJ la`n luot l co so cua K : F v L : K th
{eifj }iI,jJ l mot co so cua L : F .
ng minh.
Chu
K hieu E = {ei}iI , S = {fj }jJ v ES = {eifj }iI,jJ . Cho u L. Khi d
P
u=
aj fj voi aj K. Do aj bieu thi tuye n tnh qua E nn thay aj trong bieu
dien cua u boi cc to hop tuye n tnh cua S , ta c bieu dien tuye n tnh cua u qua
ES. Do d ES l he sinh cua khng gian vc to L trn F .
Ta chung minh ra`ng ES doc lap tuye n tnh. Xt mot to hop tuye n tnh trong L

P
P P
cho boi i,j aij eifj = 0 voi aij F . Ta vie t j ( i aij ei)fj = 0 nhu mot quan he
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
50
P
tuye n tnh ta`m thuo`ng cua S. Do S doc lap tuye n tnh, ta c i aij ei = 0 voi moi

j. Mat khc, do E doc lap tuyen tnh, ta c aij = 0 voi moi i, j. Vay ES doc lap

tuye n tnh.
y ra` ng L : F l mo rong hu
Nhan xt 1.6. Dinh l trn cho tha
u han khi v ch
khi L : K v K : F l cc mo rong hu
u han.
p
Bi ta
1. 1 . Trong cc truo`ng hop sau, du l mo rong truo`ng ?

a) Q A := {a + b 2 | a, b Q} ;
b) Q B := {a + b | a, b Q} voi N ;
c) Q C := {a + b 3 2 | a, b Q} ;
d) Q D := {a + bi | a, b Q} ?
(Xem HD 257)
1. 2 . Xc dinh bac cua cc mo rong truo`ng tm duoc trong bi tap trn.
257)
(Xem HD
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng. Ba
`ng
ng truo
c cua mo ro
ng truo
1. Mo ro
51
ng minh ra` ng Q[ 3]
1. 3 . Chu
:=
{a + b 3
|
a, b
Q} v
Q[ 5] := {a + b 5 | a, b Q} deù l cc mo rong truo`ng bac 2 cua Q
u voi nhau.
nhung khng dang ca
(Xem HD 257)
ng minh ra` ng mo rong R : Q l v han.
1. 4 . Chu
(Xem HD 258)
u truo`ng : K K deù l P tu do`ng

ng minh ra` ng moi tu do`ng ca
1. 5 . Chu

u voi P l truo`ng con nguyn to cua K.

ca
(Xem HD 258)
u cua cc mo rong truo`ng l mot quan he
ng minh ra` ng quan he dang ca
1. 6 . Chu
tuong duong.
1. 7 . Cho F K l mot mo rong truo`ng. Mot truo`ng E thoa F E K duoc
ng minh ra` ng moi mo rong

goi l truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong F K. Chu
truo`ng bac nguyn to khng c truo`ng trung gian no khc F v K. (Xem HD
258)
u truo`ng. Khi d mo rong thnh mot don
1. 8 . a) Cho : F E l mot do`ng ca
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
52
u vnh : F [x] E[x] dinh boi:

ca
(a0 + + anxn) = (a0) + + (an)xn.

u truo`ng th l dang ca
u vnh v
Dac biet, ch ra ra` ng ne u l dang ca
t kha quy trn F th (f ) ba
t kha quy trn E. De
khi d, ne u f F [x] ba
don gian, ta thuo`ng vie t f thay cho (f ).
b) Cho F K v E L l cc mo rong truo`ng; cho : F E l mot do`ng
ng minh rang ne u
cau truo`ng v : K L l mot mo rong cua . Chu
K l nghiem cua f F [x] th () L l nghiem cua f.
(Xem HD 258)
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
53
RO
NG DON
2 MO
I MO
` NG CON SINH RA BO
T TA
P
2.1 VNH CON V TRUO
t ca
Cho K l mot truo`ng v S l mot tap con cua K. Giao cua ta
a S l mot vnh con (truo`ng

cc vnh con (truo`ng con) cua K chu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
`
con)
cu
a
K,
go
i
l
vnh
con
(tru
o
ng
con)
sinh
ra boi S. Vnh con
t cua
(truo`ng con) sinh ra boi S l vnh con (truo`ng con) nho nha
a S.
K chu
Cho F K l mot mo rong truo`ng, cho S l mot tap con cua K.

Vnh con (truo`ng con) sinh ra boi F S trong K duoc goi l vnh

Dinh ngha.
ng
con (truo`ng con) sinh ra boi S trn F , k hieu F [S] tuong u
F (S) .
Ne u S = {s1, . . . , sn} th ta k hieu F [s1, . . . , sn] cho F [S]. Tuong tu k hieu
F (s1, . . . , sn) cho F (S).

Nhan xt 2.1.
(i) Ta c F (s1, . . . , sn) = F (s1, . . . , sn1)(sn), n 2.

Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
54
(ii) Ne u S F , dac biet khi S = th F [S] = F (S) = F . Trong truo`ng hop
S 6= ta c ket qua sau:

Menh de` 2.2. Cho mo rong truo`ng F K v 6= S l mot tap con cua K. Khi d
n P
o
i1
(i) F [S] =
ai1in s1 sinn | ai1in F, sj S, n N voi quy uoc
0
hu
u han
s = 1, s S ;
nf
o
1
(ii) F (S) =
:= f g
| f, g F [S], g 6= 0 . Ni cch khc, tap F (S) l
g
truo`ng cc thuong cua F [S].
ng minh. (i) Dat
Chu
n X
o
i1
in
E=
ai1in s1 sn | ai1in F, sj S, n N .
hu
u han
t chu
ng minh ra` ng E l vnh con nho nha
a F S. R rng F E do
Ta chu
quy uoc trn. Tap E l mot vnh con v n l mot nhm con v dng kn voi
a F S deù chu
a cc pha`n tu
php nhn. Cuoi cng moi vnh con cua K chu
cua E.
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
55
t cua truo`ng cc thuong.

(ii) Hien nhin do tnh nho nha
V du 9. C = R[i] = R(i). Tuong tu, ta c Q[ 2] = Q( 2).
U TRC CU
A MO
RO
NG DON
2.2 CA
Mo rong truo`ng F K goi l mo rong don ne u to`n tai K
`
`
sao cho K = F (). Phan tu goi l phan tu nguyn thuy cua
Dinh ngha.
mo rong don. Ch ra` ng mot mo rong don c the c nhieù pha`n
tu nguyn thuy khc nhau.

V du 10. Cc mo rong R C, Q Q(), Q Q(i), F F (x) l cc mo rong
don.
Cho K : F l mo rong truo`ng. Pha`n tu u K duoc goi l dai so
c f khc 0 trong F [x].

trn F neu n l nghiem cua mot da thu
Dinh ngha.
Mot pha`n tu u K khng dai so trn F duoc goi l siu viet trn
F.
Nguyen Chnh T
56
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
Mo rong K : F duoc goi l mo rong dai so ne u moi pha`n tu cua
Dinh ngha.
K deù dai so trn F .

V du 11. Cc pha`n tu i, 2, 2 + 3 5 deù dai so trn Q.
ng minh su to`n tai cua

Nhan xt 2.3. Nam 1844, Liouville (1809-1882, Php) chu
ng minh so e siu
so siu viet (trn Q). Nam 1873, Hermite (1822-1901, Php) chu
c) chu
ng minh nam
viet. Sau d, so siu viet duoc Lindemann (1852-1939, Du
ng minh ra`ng tap cc so dai so

1882. Nam 1874, Cantor (1845-1918, Php) chu
trn Q l dem duoc v tap cc so thuc R l khng dem duoc. Nhu the, so cc so
t kh
a
thuc siu viet l nhieu hon so cc so thuc d i so. Tuy nhin, ni chung, ra
ng minh mot so thuc cu the l siu viet.

de chu
ng minh bi ton
Nam 1934, Gelfond (1906-1968, Nga) v Schneider doc lap chu

7 noi tie ng cua Hilbert (1862-1943), ra` ng cc so l siu viet, trong d ,
thu
dai so trn Q, 6= 0, 1 v
/ Q.
u trc cua cc mo rong don F (u)

By gio`, chng ta se phn tch su hon ve` ca
ng voi cc truo`ng hop u dai so hoac siu viet trn F .

u
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
57
u vnh :
Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u K. Xt do`ng ca
: F [x] F [u]
f
7 f (u).
u. Xt Ker(), c 2 truo`ng hop nhu sau :

R rng l mot ton ca
u, do d
Ker() = 0. Ngha l u siu viet trn F . Khi d l mot dang ca
F (x)
= F (u).
Ker() 6= 0. Ngha l u dai so trn F . Do F [x] l mie`n nguyn chnh nn
c c bac nho
Ker() = (f ), voi 0 6= f F [x]. Khi d f chnh l da thu
t nhan u lm nghiem. Suy ra f ba

t kha quy v do d Ker() l idan to i
nha
u vnh, ta c F [x]/Ker()
dai (xem 0.8). Theo dinh l do`ng ca
= F [u]. Do
F [x]/Ker() l mot truo`ng nn F [u] = F (u).
ng minh ke t qua sau dy :

Nhu the , ta d chu
Menh de` 2.4. Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u K.
c hu
u ty trn F .
(i) Ne u u siu viet trn F th F (u)
=F F (x), truo`ng cc phn thu
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
58
(ii) Ne u u dai so trn F th
F (u) = F [u]
=F F [x]/(f )
c c bac nho nha t nhan u lm nghiem.
voi f 6= 0 l mot da thu
Nhan xt 2.5. Cho K : F l mo rong truo`ng v u K dai so trn F . Khi d :
t nhan u lm nghiem khi v ch khi f

c 0 6= f F [x] c bac nho nha
(i) Da thu
bat kha quy nhan u lm nghiem. Dieu d tuong duong voi f (u) = 0 v f chia
c nhan u lm nghiem.
he t moi da thu
t nhan u lm nghiem th
c cua F [x] c bac nho nha
(ii) Ne u f v g l 2 da thu
c c bac nho nhat nhan

deg(f ) = deg(g) v hon the f g. Trong cc da thu
t mot da thu
c c he tu dan daù ba` ng 1, da thu
c
u lm nghiem, to`n tai duy nha
c to i tieu cua u. Bac cua f duoc goi l bac cua u (trn F ).

d duoc goi l da thu

He qua 2.6. Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u K dai so trn F c bac n.
Khi d moi pha`n tu cua F (u) duoc vie t duy nha t duoi dang
a0 + a1u + + an1un1, ai F
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
59
voi moi i = 0, . . . , n 1. Ni cch khc tap {1, u, , un1} l mot co so cua
u han.
F (u) : F . Suy ra mo rong don F (u) : F l mot mo rong hu
ng minh. Goi f l da thu

c to i tieu cua u. Cho F (u). Goi
Chu
m
m
`
= b0 + b1u + + bmu . Xt g = b0 + b1x + + bmx . Ton tai q, r F [x]
sao cho g = f q + r voi r = a0 + a1x + + atxt, voi t < n. R rng

= g(u) = r(u) = a0 + a1u + + atut.
Hon nu
a, ne u c 2 bieu dien
= a0 + a1u + + an1un1 = c0 + c1u + + cn1un1,
th chng trng nhau, ngha l ai = ci, i = 0, . . . , n 1. That vay, ne u khng

n1
tri voi gia thiet u c bac n.

th 0 = (a0 c0) + + (an1 cn1)u
Moi mo rong don dai so deù l mo rong hu

u han. Dieù nguoc lai ni chung khng

dng. Sau ny, ta se xc dinh dieù kien de mot mo rong hu
u han l mo rong don
dai so.
Nguyen Chnh T
60
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
He qua 2.7. Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u, v K dai so trn F . Ne u
c toi tieu th ton tai duy nhat mot F -dang ca u truo`ng

u v v c cng mot da thu
: F (u) F (v) sao cho (u) = v.

u voi F [x]/(f )
ng minh. That vay cc mo rong don F (u) v F (v) deù dang ca
Chu

c toi tieu cua u v v.

voi f l da thu
y ra` ng, u
t
ng voi mot mo rong don dai so trn F c mot lop cc da thu
c ba
Ta tha
ng minh
kha quy lin ket voi nhau trn F nhan u lm nghiem. Nguoc lai, ta chu

ra` ng :
c ba t kha quy. Khi
Menh de` 2.8. Cho F l mot truo`ng v f F [x] l mot da thu
o
a
d ton tai mot mo rong d n d i so F () : F sao cho l mot nghiem cua f .
t a F voi a K, ta c K : F
ng minh. Dat K := F [x]/(f ). Theo (0.8), nha
Chu
l mot mo rong truo`ng. Dat = x. R rng f () = f = 0 v K = F ().
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
61
p
Bi ta
2. 1 . Xc dinh tnh dng, sai cho cc menh de` sau :
a) Moi truo`ng deù c mot mo rong khng ta`m thuo`ng.
b) Moi truo`ng deù c mot mo rong dai so khng ta`m thuo`ng.
c) Moi mo rong don deù l mo rong dai so .
d) Moi mo rong truo`ng deù l mo rong don.
u.
e) Moi mo rong don dai so deù dang ca
u.
f) Moi mo rong don siu viet cua mot truo`ng cho truoc deù dang ca
t kha quy.
c to i tieu deù ba
g) Moi da thu
t kha quy thuoc F [x] nhan u K F lm nghiem deù c

c ba
h) Moi da thu
cng bac.
t kha quy thuoc F [x] nhan u K F lm nghiem deù l

c ba
i) Moi da thu
c to i tieu cua u.
da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
62
t kha quy thuoc F [x] nhan u K F lm nghiem goi

c ba
j) Bac cua da thu
l bac cua u.
(Xem HD 258)
c x3 x2 + x + 2. Bieu dien
2. 2 . Cho K = Q[] voi C l nghiem cua da thu
c theo
cc pha`n tu (2 + + 1)(2 ) v ( 1)1 cua K nhu cc da thu
c bac khng qu 2.
(Xem HD 258)
c sau trn
2. 3 . M ta cc mo rong don F () voi l mot nghiem cua cc da thu
truo`ng ch ra :
a) x2 5 Q[x] ;
b) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 Q[x] ;
c) x2 + x + 1 Z2[x] ;
d) x3 + 2 Q[x].
(Xem HD 259)
t kha quy
c ba
2. 4 . Cho K : F l mot mo rong hu
u han v f F [x] l mot da thu
ng minh rang neu [K : F ] v deg(f ) nguyn to cng nhau

c deg(f ) > 1. Chu
th f khng c nghiem trong K.
(Xem HD 259)
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
63
c
2. 5 . Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v [K : F ] = n. Cho f F [x] l da thu
t kha quy bac m thoa (m, n) = 1. Chu

t kha quy trn K.
ng minh ra`ng f ba
ba
(Xem HD 259)
2. 6 . Xc dinh bac v ch ra mot co so cua cc mo rong truo`ng :
a) Q Q( 2, i) ;
b) Q Q( 3 5, 2) ;
c) Q Q( 18, 3 2) ; d) Q Q( 27, 3 + 12) ;
4
e) Q Q( 18, 2) ; f ) Q Q(u, 3 2) voi u l
nghiem cua x4 + 6x2 + 3.
(Xem HD 260)
2. 7 . Xc dinh tat ca tu dong cau cua cc truo`ng Q(i), Q( 3 2).

(Xem HD 260)
`
ng minh rang Q( a, b) = Q( a + b), a, b N.
2. 8 . Chu
(Xem HD 260)
2. 9 . Bieu dien cc truo`ng con sau cua Z2(x) :
a) Z2(x2) ;
b) Z2(x + 1).
Nguyen Chnh T
(Xem HD 260)
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
64
c to i tieu cua cc pha`n tu sau dy trn truo`ng ch ra :

2. 10 . Tm da thu
5+1
a)
trn Q ;
2
i 31
b)
trn Q ;
2
c) Z3(t)() voi thoa 2 = t + 1 trn Z3(t) ;
d) 4 5 + 5 trn Q ;
3
e) 2 + 3 4 trn Q ;
f) u2 + u voi u l nghiem cua x3 + 3x2 3 ;
6
2i/7
g) + voi = e
trn Q ;
h) + 2 + 4 voi = e2i/7 trn Q ;
i) 2 + 5 voi = e2i/7 trn Q.
(Xem HD 260)
ng
2. 11 . Cho v la`n luot l nghiem cua x2 2 v x2 4x + 2 thuoc Q[x]. Chu
(Xem HD 261)
minh ra` ng Q()
=Q Q().
c bac 2 c he tu trong
2. 12 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so khc 2 v f l mot da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
65
ng minh ra` ng ca 2 nghiem cua f deù thuoc mot mo rong don F (u) voi
F . Chu
c bac 2 deu giai duoc trn mo rong truo`ng

u F . Suy ra tnh chat moi da thu
cua F nhan duoc ba` ng cch ghp vo cc can bac 2 cua cc pha`n tu cua F .
ng to rang tnh chat d khng dng voi truo`ng c dac so 2. (Xem HD 261)
Chu
`
`
ng minh rang moi mo rong bac 2 trn Q deu dang cau voi Q( d) voi
2. 13 . a) Chu
d Z l mot so khng chnh phuong.
u voi C.
ng minh ra` ng moi mo rong bac 2 trn R deù dang ca
b) Chu
(Xem HD 262)
ng minh ra` ng bac cua
2. 14 . Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v [K : F ] = n. Chu
phan tu u K l mot uoc cua n. Suy ra neu n nguyn to th K = F (u) voi
moi u K \ F .
(Xem HD 262)
t ca cc da thu
t kha quy bac 2 trn Z3. M ta cc mo rong don bac 2
c ba
2. 15 . Tm ta
ng minh tat ca cc mo rong don d l dang cau voi nhau.

trn Z3. Chu
(Xem HD 262)
Nguyen Chnh T
66
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
2. 16 . Cho E = F () l mot mo rong thuc su cua F voi l nghiem chung cua x 1
c to i tieu cua .
v x4 + x2 + 1. Xc dinh da thu
(Xem HD 262)
u truo`ng. Goi l nghiem cua mot da thu

c
2. 17 . Cho i : F E l mot dang ca
t kha quy. Goi l mot nghiem cua da

f = a0 + a1x + + anxn F [x] ba
c
thu
if := i(a0) + i(a1)x + + i(an)xn E[x].
ng minh to`n tai mot mo rong j : F () E() cua i sao cho j() = .
Chu
Ket qua trn mo rong cho He qua 2.7.

(Xem HD 262)
c to i tieu cua . Cho K : F

2. 18 . Cho mo rong don dai so F () voi f F [x] l da thu
ng minh ra`ng
l mot mo rong truo`ng. Chu
u th () l mot nghiem cua f .

a) Neu : F () K l mot F -do`ng ca
u tu` F ()
b) nh xa 7 () xc dinh mot song nh giu
a tap cc F -do`ng ca
u ba` ng so
vo K v tap cc nghiem cua f trong K. Suy ra so cc F -do`ng ca
nghiem phn biet cua f trong K.

(Xem HD 262)
c to i tieu cua . Cho

2. 19 . Cho mo rong don dai so F () voi f F [x] l da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
ng don
2. Mo ro
67
u truo`ng. Chu
ng minh:
: F K l mot do`ng ca
a) Ne u : F () K l mot mo rong cua th () l mot nghiem cua
f trong K. Xem Bi tap 1. 8 ve dinh ngha cua f .
b) nh xa 7 () l mot song nh giu

a tap cc mo rong cua voi tap cc
nghiem phn biet cua f trong K.
Bi tap ny l dang tong qut cua bi tap trn.

(Xem HD 263)
ng minh cc mo rong Q R v Q C deù khng phai l cc mo rong don.

* 2. 20 . Chu
(Xem HD 263)
* 2. 21 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so khc 2 v cho E : F l mot mo rong truo`ng c bac
ba` ng 2. Dat
S(E) = {a F | a = b2, voi b E}.

ng minh ra` ng:
Chu
a (F )2;
a) S(E) l mot nhm con cua F chu
Nguyen Chnh T
68
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
u khi v ch khi S(E) =

b) Hai mo rong bac hai E, E 0 cua F l F -dang ca
S(E 0);
c) To`n tai v han cc mo rong bac hai E1, E2 . . . cua Q sao cho
Ei Ej , i 6= j.
t (sai khc dang ca
u) mot truo`ng c dng p2 pha`n tu.
d) To`n tai duy nha
(Xem HD 264)
Nguyen Chnh T

ng hu
u han v mo ro
ng dai so
3. Mo ro
69
RO
RO
NG HU
U HAN V MO
NG DAI SO
MO
T CU
A MO
RO
RO
NG HU
NG DAI SO
U HAN V MO
3.1 TNH CHA
Ta bie t ra` ng mot mo rong don dai so l mo rong hu

u han. Ta c ke t qua tong qut
hon sau dy :
3
Menh de` 3.1. Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u1, . . . , un K sao cho u1 dai
so trn F v uj dai so trn F (u1, . . . , uj1), j = 2, . . . , n. Khi d F (u1, . . . , un)
u han trn F .
l mo rong hu
ng minh. Ta chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap trn n. Voi n = 1 ta c mo rong don
Chu
dai so nn l mo rong hu
u han. Gia thie t ke t qua dng cho k. Dat
E = F (u1, . . . , uk ). Ta c
[F (u1, . . . , uk+1) : F ] = [F (u1, . . . , uk+1) : E][E : F ].
Theo gia thie t quy nap, ta c [E : F ] hu
u han. Mat khc, ta c mo rong
F (u1, . . . , uk+1) : E = E(uk+1) : E c uk+1 dai so trn E nn l mo rong
hu
u han. Suy ra F (u1, . . . , uk+1) : F l mo rong hu
u han.
Nguyen Chnh T
70
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
u han bac n deù dai so v c bac

Menh de` 3.2. Moi pha`n tu cua mot mo rong hu
l mot uoc cua n.
ng minh. Cho K : F l mo rong hu

Chu
u han v dat n = [K : F ]. Xt u K.
n
`
`
Tap hop {1, u, . . . , u } l mot tap gom n+1 phan tu trong K nn phu thuoc tuye n
tnh. Do d to`n tai quan he tuye n tnh khng ta`m thuo`ng a0 +a1u+ +anun = 0.
c f = a0 + a1x + + anxn F [x] khc

Ni cch khc u l nghiem cua da thu
0. Do d u dai so trn F . Mat khc, ta c
[K : F ] = [K : F (u)][F (u) : F ] = n.
Do d [F (u) : F ] | n. Vay bac cua u l uoc cua n.
Sau ny (xem 3.6) ta se ch ra ra` ng to`n tai cc mo rong dai so khng hu

u han.
u han khi v ch khi to`n tai

He qua 3.3. Mot mo rong K : F l mo rong hu
u1, . . . , un K dai so trn F sao cho K = F (u1, . . . , un).
ng minh. Gia su [K : F ] = n. Goi {u1, . . . , un} l mot co so cua mo rong

Chu
K : F . Theo menh de trn u1, . . . , un dai so trn F . R rng K = F (u1, . . . , un).
`
`
u
u
e
D
ie
u
kie
n
d
c
d
o
c
do
Me
nh
d
3.1.
Nguyen Chnh T

ng hu
u han v mo ro
ng dai so
3. Mo ro
71
Menh de` 3.4. Cho F K L l cc mo rong truo`ng. Khi d L : F l mo rong
dai so khi v ch khi L : K v K : F l cc mo rong dai so.
ng minh. Ne u L : F dai so th r rng cc mo rong L : K v K : F dai so .

Chu
Nguoc lai, gia su L : K v K : F dai so . Xt u L. Do u dai so trn K nn ta

n
`
c b0 + b1u + + bnu = 0 voi bi K khng dong thoì ba` ng 0. Xt mo rong
F (b0, . . . , bn, u) : F , theo Menh de` 3.1, d l mot mo rong hu

u han. Do d u dai
so trn F .
. TRUO
. BAO
DAI SO
` NG CON CC PHA
` N TU
` NG DNG DAI SO
3.2 TRUO
DNG DAI SO.
`
Menh de 3.5. Cho K : F l mot mo rong truo`ng. Tap hop
E = {u K | u dai so trn F }
a F , goi l truo`ng con cc pha`n tu dai so cua K trn

l mot truo`ng con cua K chu
F . Suy ra E : F l mot mo rong dai so.
ng minh. V moi pha`n tu thuoc F deù dai so trn F nn F E. Cho

Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
72
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
u, v E. Xt mo rong F (u, v) : F . Theo (3.1) v (3.2), ta c F (u, v) l dai so trn
F . Suy ra F (u, v) E. Suy ra u v, uv F (u, v) E v neu u 6= 0 ta c

u1 F (u, v) E. Vay E l truo`ng.
Nhan xt 3.6. Truo`ng con E cc pha`n tu dai so cua R trn Q l mot mo rong v
han trn Q. That vay, neu [E : Q] = n th de dng ch ra mot phan tu dai so thuoc

R c bac lon hon n. Dieù ny mu thuan voi Menh de` 3.2.
c bac lon
Mot truo`ng K duoc goi l dng dai so ne u moi da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
hon 0 deu c t nhat mot nghiem trong K.
c C l mot truo`ng dng dai so . Dy l mot ke t qua co

V du 12. Truo`ng cc so phu
ng minh
dien thuo`ng duoc goi l Dinh l co ban cua dai so . Ta se dua ra mot chu

cua dinh l ny trong 9.
Nhan xt 3.7. Cho K l mot truo`ng. Cc menh de` sau l tuong duong :
(i) K dng dai so ;
c thuoc K[x] c bac lon hon khng deù phn tch thnh tch cc
(ii) moi da thu
t ;
nhn tu bac nha
Nguyen Chnh T

ng hu
u han v mo ro
ng dai so
3. Mo ro
73
t kha quy trong K[x] deù l da thu

t ;
c ba
c bac nha
(iii) moi da thu
(iv) moi mo rong dai so cua K deù trng voi K.
Cho mo rong truo`ng K : F . Truo`ng K duoc goi l bao dng dai
Dinh ngha.
so cua F ne u K dng dai so v K : F l mo rong dai so .
V du 13. Truo`ng C l bao dng dai so cua R nhung khng phai l bao dng dai so
cua Q.
Menh de` 3.8. Cho K : F l mo rong truo`ng, trong d K dng dai so. K hieu E l
truo`ng con cc pha`n tu dai so cua K : F . Khi d E l mot bao dng dai so cua F .
ng minh. Ta d bie t F E l mo rong dai so . Cho

Chu
f = a0 + a1x + + anxn E[x]

c bac lon hon 0. Do K dng dai so , da thu
c f c nghiem u K. R
l mot da thu
rng F (a0, . . . , an, u) : F l mot mo rong dai so (Menh de 3.1) nn u dai so trn
F . Suy ra u E. Vay E dng dai so .
Nhan xt 3.9. Moi truo`ng con cua C deù to`n tai mot bao dng dai so .Sau ny ta se
`
`
`
ch ra rang moi truong deu ton tai mot bao dng dai so, xem (C.1) trong Phu luc.
n Chnh T
Nguye
74
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
p
Bi ta
3. 1 . Chon dng, sai cho cc menh de` sau :
u.
a) Moi mo rong hu
u han cng bac deù dang ca
u voi nhau th c cng

b) Cc mo rong trn cng mot truo`ng F v F -dang ca
bac.
c) Moi mo rong dai so deù l mo rong hu

u han.
d) Moi mo rong siu viet deù l mo rong v han.
`
`
e) Moi phan tu cua C deu dai so trn R.
f) Moi mo rong cua R deù l mo rong hu

u han.
`
g) Moi mo rong dai so cua Q deu l mo rong hu
u han.
t cua C
h) Truo`ng con A cc pha`n tu dai so cua C trn Q l truo`ng con lon nha
sao cho n l mo rong dai so cua Q.

(Xem HD 264)
u voi R hoac voi C.

ng minh ra` ng moi mo rong dai so cua R deù dang ca
3. 2 . Chu
(Xem HD 265)
Nguyen Chnh T

ng hu
u han v mo ro
ng dai so
3. Mo ro
75
3. 3 . Xt mo rong truo`ng F F (x) voi bie n x siu viet trn F . Cho mo rong
`
a F nhu mot truo`ng con thuc su. Chu
ng minh rang
M F (x) voi M chu
M F (x) l mot mo rong dai so .

(Xem HD 265)
t kha quy cc da thu

c sau trn truo`ng duoc ch ra :
3. 4 . Xt tnh ba
3
a) x + 4 trn Q( 11) ;
b) x2 + 1 trn Q( 2) ;

5
2
c) x + 5x 25x 5 trn Q( 2, 3, 1 i).
(Xem HD 265)
3. 5 . Trong moi truo`ng hop sau, xt xem u c sinh ra mo rong duoc ch ra cua truo`ng
Q hay khng ?

a) u = 2 + 5 trong Q( 2, 5) ;
2
3
b) u = + 3 trong Q( 3 3) ;
3
21
c) u =
trong Q( 2) ;
1+ 2
d) u = v 2 + v + 1 trong Q(v), voi v l nghiem cua f = x3 + 5x 5.
(Xem HD 265)
Nguyen Chnh T
76
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
c khc 0. Chu
ng minh
3. 6 . Cho F K l mo rong dai so v f K[x] l mot da thu
ra` ng to`n tai g F [x] khc 0 sao cho f l uoc cua g.
(Xem HD 265)
ng minh ra` ng E l bao dng dai so cua
3. 7 . Cho E : F l mot mo rong dai so . Chu
c f F [x] c bac lon hon 0 deu phn r trong E.

F neu moi da thu
(Xem HD 266)
ng minh ra` ng
* 3. 8 . Cho K : F l mot mo rong hu
u han voi F l truo`ng v han. Chu
a F .
K : F l mo rong don khi v ch khi K ch c hu
u han cc truo`ng con chu
(Xem HD 266)
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
77
C KE V COMPA
` NG THUO
DUNG HNH BA
ng dung l thuye t ve` mo rong truo`ng de tm cu tra loì cho 3 bi ton

Ta se u
dung hnh xuat hien thoi Hy Lap co dai v xt bi ton dungda gic deù n-canh
ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.

DIE
N
4.1 BA BI TON DUNG HNH CO
Ba bi ton dung hnh co dien l: dng thuoc ke v compa de
chia 3 mot gc cho truoc ;
p di mot hnh lap phuong, tu

c l dung mot hnh lap phuong c the tch
ga
p di the tch mot hnh lap phuong cho truoc ;

ga
c l dung mot hnh vung c dien tch ba`ng dien

caù phuong duo`ng trn, tu
tch cua mot hnh trn cho truoc.
Ta xy dung cc khi niem co ban ve` diem v so dung duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
78
mat phang R2, cho 2 diem P0

=
(0, 0),
P1 = (1, 0). Mot diem P R2 duoc goi l dung duoc
(bang thuoc ke v compa) neu ton tai dy hu

u han P0, P1, . . . , Pn
sao cho P = Pn v voi moi j 2, diem Pj xc dinh tu`
Sj1 := {P0, P1, . . . , Pj1} boi mot trong 3 php dung sau :
giao cua 2 duo`ng thang phn biet, trong d moi duo`ng thang
`
i
ie
S
;
d
qua
2
d
m
ba
t
ky
cu
a
j1
Dinh ngha.
giao cua mot duo`ng thang qua 2 diem cua Sj1 v mot duo`ng
`
trn c tm tai mot diem cua Sj1 v c bn knh bang khoang
cch giu
a 2 diem trong Sj1 ;
Trong
giao cua 2 duo`ng trn phn biet, trong d moi duo`ng trn c
tm tai mot diem cua Sj1 v c bn knh ba` ng khoang cch
giu
a 2 diem trong Sj1.
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
79
Mot duo`ng thang goi l dung duoc ne u n di qua 2 diem dung
duoc. Mot doan thang goi l dung duoc neu 2 diem mt dung
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
duoc. Mot duong trn goi l dung duoc neu c tm l mot diem
dung duoc v c bn knh ba` ng khoang cch giu

a 2 diem dung
duoc.
Mot so thuc x duoc goi l dung duoc (ba` ng thuoc ke v compa)
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
ie
u
ne
u
d
m
(x,
0)
R
du
ng
d
o
c.
R
rng, do di cua mot doan
thang dung duoc l mot so thuc dung duoc.
Mot gc goi l dung duoc ne u cos (tuong duong sin ) l so
Dinh ngha.
thuc dung duoc.
2
t diem dung duoc. Khi d
Dinh l 4.1. Cho P = (, ) R l mo
[Q(, ) : Q] = 2r voi r N.
ng minh. Cho P0, P1, . . . , Pn = P l mot dy hu
Chu
u han nhu trong dinh ngha
cua diem dung duoc . Dat K0 = K1 = Q v Kj = Kj1(j , j ) voi 2 j n
y ra`ng cc so thuc j , j l nghiem cua mot da thu

c
v Pj = (j , j ). De dng tha
Nguyen Chnh T
80
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
bac 1 hoac bac 2 c he tu trong Kj1. Do d [Kj : Kj1] = 2 voi t N. Suy ra
[Kn : Q] = [Kn : Q(, )][Q(, ) : Q] = 2m

voi m N. Do d [Q(, ) : Q] = 2r voi r N.
He qua 4.2. Khng the chia ba gc /3 ba`ng thuoc ke v compa.
ng minh. Diem (1/2, 3/2) = cos(/3), sin(/3) l dung duoc. Dat

Chu
u = cos(/9), v = sin(/9). Chia ba gc /3 tuong duong voi viec diem (u, v)
dung duoc. Ta c
cos(/3) = cos(3./9) = 4 cos3(/9) 3 cos(/9).

t kha
c 8x3 6x 1 ba
Hay 1/2 = 4u3 3u. Suy ra 8u3 6u 1 = 0. Da thu
quy trn Q nn [Q(u) : Q] = 3. Tu` Dinh l 4.1, suy ra (u, v) khng dung duoc. Ni
cch khc khng the chia ba gc /3 bang thuoc ke v compa.

Dng phuong php tuong tu, ta c cc ke t qua sau dy :
He qua 4.3. Khng the dung duoc diem ( 3 2, 0). Ni cch khc khng the ga p di
hnh lap phuong c canh ba`ng 1.
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
81

Chu
He qua 4.4. Khng the dung duoc diem ( , 0). Ni cch khc khng the dung
duoc hnh vung c dien tch ba`ng dien tch hnh trn bn knh 1.

Chu
` U KIE
N CA
` N DE
DA GIC DE
`
`
4.2 DIE
U P CANH DUNG DUOC BANG
C KE
THUO
V COMPA
p quen thuoc trong dung hnh.
Ta nha c lai cc ke t qua so ca
Bo de` 4.5.
(i) Trung diem cua doan thang dung duoc l dung duoc.
(ii) Ne u 3 dnh cua mot hnh bnh hnh dung duoc th dnh cn lai dung duoc
(tuong duong voi php dung duo`ng thang song song voi mot duo`ng thang cho
truoc qua mot diem cho truoc).
ng minh. Xem Bi tap 4. 6

Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
82
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
Bo de` 4.6. Ne u (a, 0) l diem dung duoc th (0, a) v (a, 0) l diem dung duoc.
ng minh. Truoc tin ta dung truc tung. Diem (1, 0) dung duoc v n l giao
Chu
cua truc honh voi duo`ng trn tm (0, 0) v di qua (1, 0). Truc tung l duo`ng
`
thang di qua giao diem cua 2 duo`ng trn lan luot c tm (1, 0) v (1, 0) bn knh
bang 2.
Diem (0, a) dung duoc v n l mot trong 2 giao diem cua truc tung voi duo`ng
trn tm (0, 0) di qua (a, 0). Ngoi ra duo`ng trn ny ca t truc honh tai diem
(a, 0) nn diem (a, 0) dung duoc.
Menh de` 4.7. Diem (a, b) dung duoc khi v ch khi a v b dung duoc.
ng minh. Ne u a v b dung duoc, tu

c l cc diem (a, 0) v (b, 0) dung duoc.
Chu
tu cua hnh
Suy ra diem (0, b) dung duoc. Diem (a, b) dung duoc v n l diem thu
bnh hnh c 3 diem (0, 0), (a, 0) v (0, b) dung duoc.
Nguoc lai, ne u (a, b) l diem dung duoc. Xt 2 duo`ng trn tm (0, 0) v (1, 0) di

qua (a, b). Giao diem cua chng l (a, b) v (a, b). Duo`ng thang di qua 2 diem
ny cat truc honh tai (a, 0) nn (a, 0) dung duoc. Diem (0, b) dung duoc v n
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
83
tu cua hnh bnh hnh c 3 diem (0, 0), (a, 0) v (a, b) dung duoc.
l diem thu
ie
ie
u
D
e
n
lu
o
t
d
m
(b,
0)
du
ng
d
o
c
v
n
l
mo
t
trong
cc
giao
d
m
cu
a
tru
c
honh
v duo`ng trn tm (0, 0) di qua (b, 0).

p ta t ca cc so dung duoc l mot truo`ng con cua R. Hon nu
a, ne u c
Dinh l 4.8. Ta
u
u
dung d oc v c > 0 th c dung d oc.
t ca cc so dung duoc. Cho a, b E. Ta d chu

ng minh. Goi E l tap ta
ng
Chu
a+b
minh a E. Do (a, 0) v (b, 0) dung duoc, diem giu
a Q = 2 , 0 dung duoc.
Giao diem cua truc honh v duo`ng trn tm Q qua (0, 0) l (a + b, 0). Do d
a + b dung duoc.
ng minh ab E, ta ch ca`n xt truo`ng hop ab 6= 0 v b 6= 1. Do (b 1)

De chu
u
ie
u
dung d oc nn d m (0, b 1) dung d oc. Theo Bo de` 4.5, diem (a, b 1) dung
duoc. Giao diem cua duo`ng thang qua (0, b) v (a, b 1) voi truc honh l diem
(ab, 0). Vay ab dung duoc.
ng minh ra` ng a1 E ne u a 6= 0. Do a E, ta c 1 a E, hay diem

Ta chu
(0, 1 a) dung duoc. Theo Bo de` 4.5, diem (1, 1 a) dung duoc. Duo`ng thang qua
(0, 1) v (1, 1 a) cat truc honh tai (a1, 0). Vay a1 E.
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
84
Cho c E v c > 0. Do 12 (1 c) dung duoc, diem Q = (0, 1c

) dung duoc.
2
ie
o
ie
D
u
o
ng
trn
tm
Q
qua
d
m
(0,
1)
ca
t
tru
c
honh
ta
i
2
d
m
c
to
a
d
(u,
0)
v

(u, 0) voi u > 0. Theo Dinh l Pythagore, ta c u2 + 14 (1 c)2 = 41 (1 + c)2. Suy

ra u2 = c, do d u = c. Vay c dung duoc.
Ta xt bi ton dung da gic deù n canh. R rng da gic deù n canh dung duoc
2
`
ngha l diem cos( n ), sin( n ) dung duoc. Dieu d tuong duong voi cos( n ) l
mot so dung duoc. Trong pha`n ny ta ch dua ra dieù kien ca`n cua bi ton cho
truo`ng hop n = p nguyn to. Ket qua day du se duoc xt trong pha`n sau (xem 9).
t kha quy trn Q. Do

c xp1 + + x + 1 ba
Ta bie t ra`ng voi p nguyn to , da thu
2
c to i tieu cua e2i/p = cos( 2
d n l da thu
)
+
i
sin(
). Xt cc mo rong truo`ng
p
p
2
2i/p
Q Q cos( p ) Q(e
). Ta c
[Q(e2i/p) : Q cos(2/p) ].[Q cos(2/p) : Q] = [Q(e2i/p) : Q]

= p 1.
1
Do cos( 2
)
=
(e2i/p + e2i/p), ta c
p
2
2 cos(2/p)e2i/p = (e2i/p)2 + 1.
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
85
Ngha l bac cua e2i/p trn Q cos( 2

)
ba` ng 2. Do d
p
2i
p
[Q(e ) : Q cos(2/p) ] = 2.
2
Suy ra [Q cos( p ) : Q] = p1
. Do cos( 2
) dung duoc, ta c p = 2t + 1. Hon the ,
2
p
ne u t c mot uoc le r > 1 th
p = 2t + 1 = 2rt1 + 1 = (2t1 + 1)(2t1(r1) 2t1(r2) + + 1).

m
Do d t c dang 2m. Vay p = 22 + 1 voi m N. So nguyn to c dang ny goi l
so nguyn to Fermat1.
ng minh ke t qua sau:
Nhu the ta d chu
Menh de` 4.9. Ne u da gic deù p canh (p nguyn to ) dung duoc th p l so nguyn
to Fermat.
ng minh ra`ng da gic deù 17
Nhan xt 4.10. Nam 19 tuoi, Gauss (1777-1855) chu
1
2
m
t ca nhu
Nam 1640, Fermat (1601-1665) cho ra` ng ta
ng so c dang Fm := 2 + 1 voi m N deù nguyn to . Tuy nhin hon 100 nam sau,
t ca nhu
Euler (1707-1783) ch ra ra`ng F5 = 232 + 1 = 641.6700417. C the de dng kiem tra ke t qua d voi Maple. Thuc ra ta
ng so Fm voi
ng minh boi Crandall nam 1999). Cho de n nay,

5 m 16 deu l hop so. Cc so F20 , F22 , F24 cung l cc hop so (F24 l hop so duoc chu
ng voi m > 4.
chng ta van chua bie t nhu
ng so nguyn to Fermat no u
Nguyen Chnh T
86
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
c:
canh dung duoc ba` ng cch ch ra cng thu
2
1
1
1
cos
=
+
17 +
34 2 17 +
17
16
16
16
r
q
q
1
17 + 3 17 34 2 17 2 34 + 2 17.
8
p
Bi ta
a) So khng the dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa;
b) Gc khng the chia 3 ba` ng thuoc ke v compa;

p 3 mot hnh lap phuong ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
c) Khng the ga
d) Ne u diem (0, ) R khng the dung duoc ba`ng thuoc ke v compa th
siu viet trn Q.
e) Toa do cua mot diem dung duoc na` m trong truo`ng con cua R v c bac trn
Q l mot luy thuà cua 2.
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
87
f) Mot doan thang do di khng the dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
g) Ne u da gic deù n canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa th n l so
nguyn to.
h) Ne u da gic deù p (nguyn to ) canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa th
p l so nguyn to Fermat.
i) Da gic deù 65537 canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
(Xem HD 267)
ng to ra` ng trong chu

ng minh Dinh l 4.1, ta c [Kj : Kj1] 2. Suy
4. 2 . Chu
ra neu (, ) l diem dung duoc th , Q( 1, . . . , n1) voi j
Q( 1, . . . , j1), j = 1, . . . , n 1.
(Xem HD 267)
ng minh chieù nguoc lai cua pht bieu trn: ne u ,
4. 3 . Dng Dinh l 4.8 de chu

Q( 1, . . . , n1) trong d j Q( 1, . . . , j1), voi moi 1 j n 1
th (, ) l diem dung duoc.

(Xem HD 269)
ng minh Bo de` 4.3.

4. 4 . Chu
(Xem HD 269)
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
88
ng minh Bo de` 4.4.

4. 5 . Chu
(Xem HD 269)
ng minh Bo de` 4.5.

4. 6 . Chu
(Xem HD 269)
ng minh ra` ng truo`ng cc so dung duoc l mot mo rong dai so trn Q nhung
4. 7 . Chu
khng phai l mo rong hu

(Xem HD 269)
u han.
ng minh ra` ng da gic deù nam canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
4. 8 . Chu
(Xem HD 270)
2
ng minh ra` ng c the chia 3 gc
4. 9 . Chu
ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
5
(Xem HD 270)
ng minh ra`ng khng the dung da gic deù 18 canh ba`ng thuoc ke v compa.
4. 10 . Chu
ng minh ra`ng khng the dung da gic deù 9 canh ba`ng thuoc ke v compa.
4. 11 . Chu
ng minh ra` ng gc c the chia 3 ba` ng thuoc

4. 12 . Cho l mot gc dung duoc. Chu
c 4x3 3x cos kha quy trn truo`ng

ke v compa khi v ch khi da thu
Q(cos ).
(Xem HD 270)
Nguyen Chnh T
c ke v compa
` ng thuo
4. Dung hnh ba
89
ng minh ra` ng ta c the chia 3 mot gc cho truoc ba` ng compa v mot thuoc
4. 13 . Chu
u nhu sau (xem Hnh 1).

dnh da
A
M
N
B
/3
u
Hnh 1: Chia 3 mot gc ba`ng compa v thuoc dnh da
u 2 diem N, D c do di ba` ng r.
Gia su trn thuoc, ta dnh da
\ ba` ng .
Dung gc AOB
Dung duo`ng trn tm O bn knh ba`ng r, cat OA tai M .
Nguyen Chnh T
90
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
u D na` m trn BO, diem

Dat thuoc ke di qua M , sao cho 1 diem dnh da
\ chnh l gc ca`n dung.

u cn lai N na` m trn duo`ng trn. Gc ODN
dnh da
(Xem HD 271)
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
91
`NG PHN R CUA MO

C. DA THU
C TCH DUOC
T DA THU
TRUO
A MO
` NG PHN R CU
T DA THU
C
5.1 TRUO
Cho f F [x] v K l mot mo rong truo`ng cua F . Ta ni
f phn r trong K hay K phn r f ne u f c the vie t
Dinh ngha.
duoc duoi dang f = a(x u1) (x un) voi a, ui K,
i = 1, . . . , n.
c cua
V du 14. Ne u K l mot bao dng dai so cua F th K phn r moi da thu
F [x].
V du 15. Cho f = x3 2 Q[x]. Ba nghiem cua f trong C l 3 2, 3 2 v 2 3 2
2
1
t ca cc truo`ng con cua C
voi = e 3 = 2 + i 23 (ch ra` ng 3 = 1). R rng ta
3
3
3
3
2
`
chua 3 nghiem cua f deu phn r f . Dac biet Q( 2,
t phn r f . Ta c dinh ngha :

truo`ng nho nha
Nguyen Chnh T
2,
2) = Q( 2, ) l
92
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
Cho 0 6= f F [x]. Mot mo rong truo`ng K cua F duoc goi l
truo`ng phn r (hay truo`ng nghiem) cua f trn F ne u K phn
Dinh ngha.
r f v f khng phn r trong bat ky` truo`ng con thuc su no cua

K.
Nhan xt 5.1.
(i) Cho f = a(x u1) (x un) voi a, ui K. Khi d K l truo`ng phn r

cua f ne u K = F (u1, . . . , un).
c f trn F l mot mo rong hu
(ii) Truo`ng phn r Ef cua da thu
u han cua F . Ni
`
`
ring, moi phan tu cua Ef deu dai so trn F .
V du 16. Ta xy dung truo`ng phn r cua f = x2 +x+1 trn Z2. Trong truo`ng hop
t kha quy
ny ta khng the dng nghiem trong C nhu trong V du 15. R rng f ba
trn Z2. Goi Z2() l mo rong don sao cho l mot nghiem cua f . Khi d Z2() c 4
pha`n tu 0, 1, v 1 + . Ta c 2 + + 1 = 0. R rng (1 + )2 + (1 + ) + 1 = 0,
nn f c 2 nghiem trong Z2(), do d f phn r trong Z2(). Suy ra Z2() l
`
truong phn r cua f trn Z2.
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
93
c khc nhau c the c cng mot truo`ng phn r. Cho

V du 17. Nhieù da thu
f = (x2 3)(x3 + 1) Q[x]. Tap nghiem cua f trong C l {1, 3, , 2}, voi
= (1 + 3i)/2. Do d mot truo`ng phn r cua f trn Q l Q( 3, i). De dng
y ra`ng Q( 3, i) cung l truo`ng phn r cua g = (x2 2x 2)(x2 + 1) trn Q.

tha
c f F [x] bac n. To`n tai mot truo`ng phn r Ef cua f
Menh de` 5.2. Cho da thu
trn F sao cho [Ef : F ] l uoc cua n!.

ng minh. Ta chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap theo n. Voi n = 1, ke t qua l hien
Chu
c c bac nho hon n.

nhin. Gia su ket qua dng voi moi da thu
t kha quy, ta vie t f = gh voi deg(g) = m < n v

Ne u f khng ba
deg(h) = n m. Theo gia thie t quy nap, ta c [Eg : F ]|m!, voi Eg l truo`ng
`
phn r cua g trn F . Goi Eh l truong phn r cua h trn Eg v c [Eh :
Eg ]|(n m)!. Khi d Eh cung l truo`ng phn r cua f = gh trn F . Hon the
[Eh : F ] = [Eg : F ][Eh : Eg ] l uoc cua m!(n m)!, do d [Eh : F ] l uoc cua n!.
t kha quy. Goi l mot nghiem cua f . Dat F1 = F (). Ta
Xt truo`ng hop f ba
viet f = (x )f1 voi f1 F1[x]. Do deg(f1) = n 1 nn theo gia thie t quy

nap, to`n tai truo`ng phn r Ef1 cua f1 trn F1 v [Ef1 : F1]|(n 1)!. R rng Ef1
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
94
l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Hon nu

a,
[Ef1 : F ] = [Ef1 : F1][F1 : F ]|(n 1)!n = n!.
c trn mot mo rong hu

Su dung Maple 3. Maple cho php phn tch mot da thu
u
c trn Q
han cua Q hay Zp. Do d, c the tm duoc truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
hay Zp.
c f = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 4 Q[x].
V du 18. Cho da thu
>
f:=x^3+3*x^2+3*x+4;
f := x3 + 3 x2 + 3 x + 4
Ta xc dinh dang nhn tu ha cua f trn Q.
>
factor(f);
x3 + 3 x2 + 3 x + 4
t kha quy. Goi l mot nghiem cua f . Phn tch f trong vnh
Nhu the f ba
ng minh cua menh de` trn.

Q()[x] nhu trong chu
>
alias(alpha=RootOf(f,x)):
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
>
factor(f,alpha);
(x ) (x2 + 3 x + x + 3 + 3 + 2)
D l dang nhn tu ha cua f trong Q()[x], tie p tuc goi l mo t nghiem cua
hai trong bieu dien trn. Sau d phn tch f trong Q(, )[x].
nhn tu thu
>
g:=factor(f/(x-alpha));
g := x2 + 3 x + x + 3 + 3 + 2
>
alias(beta=RootOf(g,x)):
>
factor(f,{alpha,beta});
(x ) (x + 3 + + ) (x )
c h = x4 + x2 + 2 Z3[x].
V du 19. Xt da thu
>
h:=x^4+x^2+2;
h := x4 + x2 + 2
Ta xc dinh dang nhn tu ha cua h trong Z3[x].
>
Factor(h) mod 3;
x4 + x2 + 2
Nguyen Chnh T
95
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
96
t kha quy trn Z3. Goi l mot nghiem cua h v tm dang nhn
Nhu the h ba
tu ha cua h trog Z3()[x]

>
alias(gamma=RootOf(h,x) mod 3):
>
Factor(h,gamma)mod 3;
(x + 2 ) (x + ) (x + 3) (x + 2 3)
Vay h phn r trong Z3(), nn truo`ng phn r cua h trn Z3 l Z3().
t, sai khc dang

c trn mot truo`ng l duy nha
Truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
u, nhu duoc the hien sau dy.

ca
Menh de` 5.3. Cho : F1 F2 l mot dang ca u truo`ng v f F1[x]. Goi K1 v
`
K2 tuong ung l truong phn r cua f trn F1 v cua
f = (an)xn + + (a0) F2[x] trn F2. Khi d mo rong thnh mot
dang cau : K1 K2, ngha l (a) = (a), a F1.

ng minh. Ta chu
ng minh quy nap theo bac cua f . Ke t qua l hien nhin ne u
Chu
c c bac nho hon n.

deg(f ) = 1. Gia thiet deg(f ) = n v menh de dng voi da thu
c to i tieu cua .
Goi K1 l mot nghiem cua f v k hieu m F1[x] l da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
97
t kha quy trn F2[x]. Goi K2 l mot nghiem cua m. Dang

R rng m ba
u
u F1[x] F2[x], theo dinh l phn tch do`ng ca
u, mo rong thnh dang ca
ca
: F1() = F1[x]/(m) F2[x]/(m) = F2()

thoa (a) = (a), a F1. Goi f = (x 1)f1 voi f1 F1()[x] c bac n 1.
ng
Ta c K1, K2 lan luot l truo`ng phn r cua f1 v f1 trn cc truo`ng tuong u
u : K1 K2 thoa
F1() v F2(). Theo gia thie t quy nap, to`n tai dang ca
(b) = (b), b F1(). Dac biet (a) = (a) = (a), a F1.
t th menh de` trn c ngha l

Nhan xt 5.4. Ne u F1 = F2 v l php do`ng nha
t sai khc boi F1-dang ca

u.
c trn F1 l duy nha
truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
He qua 5.5. Cho f F [x] v K l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Cho , K.
Ton tai mot F -tu dang ca u cua K bie n thnh khi v ch khi v c cng
c to i tieu trn F .
mot da thu
u. Goi g F [x] l da thu

ng minh. Ne u c : K K l F -tu dang ca
c to i
Chu
c
tieu cua . Khi d () = cung l nghiem cua g nn g cung chnh l da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
98
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
c to i tieu g F [x]. Khi

to i tieu cua . Nguoc lai ne u v deù c chung da thu

u tu` F () vo F () thoa () = (). Khi d K chnh
d to`n tai F -dang ca
u mo
l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F () v F (). Theo menh de` trn, dang ca
u cua K, bie n thnh .

rong thnh F -tu dang ca
C TCH DUOC
5.2 DA THU
Bo de` 5.6. Cho F K l mot mo rong truo`ng v f, g F [x]. Goi d1 = (f, g)
c l d1 = ad2
trong F [x] v d2 = (f, g) trong K[x]. Khi dd1 d2 trong K[x], tu
voi a K. Suy ra ne u f v g nguyn to cng nhau trong F [x] th chng khng c
mot mo rong truo`ng no cua F .
nghiem chung trong ba t cu
ng minh. R rng d1|d2 trong K[x]. Mat khc, to`n tai k, h F [x] sao cho
Chu
f h + gk = d1. Suy ra d2|d1 trong K[x].
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
99
Cho f F [x] v f = ani=1(x ui)mi voi ui 6= uj , mi 1

trong mot truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Do cc truo`ng phn r
u, tap cc so mu {m1, . . . , mn} khng
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
cu
a
f
trn
F l dang ca
phu thuoc vo truo`ng phn r. So mu mi duoc goi l so boi cua
nghiem ui.
c f goi l c nghiem boi ne u to`n tai mi > 1. Nghiem ui

Da thu
ng voi mi > 1 goi l nghiem boi cua f . Nghiem u

ng voi mi = 1
Dinh ngha. u
goi l nghiem don.
V du 20. Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p v a F thoa dieù kien khng c can bac
c hu
c
p trong F (v du a = t trong truo`ng cc phn thu
u t Zp(t)). Ta c da thu
t kha quy (Bi tap 5. 10) trong F [x]. Goi b l mot nghiem cua f .
f = xp a ba
Khi d,
xp a = xp bp = (x b)p
t kha quy c the c
c ba
trong truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Nhu the mot da thu
nghiem boi.
Nguyen Chnh T
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
100
c cua
Cho f = anxn + + a1x + a0 F [x]. Dao hm hnh thu
i
a
f
,
k
hie
u
f
,
l
d
thu
c
d
nh
bo
i
Dinh ngha.
f = nanxn1 + + a1 F [x].
c tnh dao hm cua

Ch ra` ng tu` dinh ngha trn, de dng suy ra cc cng thu
c tong v tch quen thuoc

da thu
(f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0 ;
(f g)0 = f 0g + f g 0.
c f c nghiem boi khi v ch khi (f, f 0) 6= 1.

Bo de` 5.7. Da thu
ng minh. Ne u f c nghiem boi trong truo`ng phn r K cua n, th de dng

Chu
thay rang cung l nghiem cua f . Do d (f, f 0) 6= 1 (xem 5.6). Nguoc lai, ne u

(f, f 0) 6= 1 th f v f 0 c nghiem chung trong truo`ng phn r cua f . Ne u
ng minh ra` ng khng phai l nghiem cua f 0. V

l nghiem don th de dng chu
l.
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
101
c ba t kha quy. Cc pht bieu sau l

Menh de` 5.8. Cho f F [x] l mot da thu
tuong duong :
(i) f c nghiem boi ;
(ii) (f, f 0) 6= 1 ;
c cua xp ;
(iii) F c dac so p > 0 v f l mot da thu
(iv) moi nghiem cua f deù l nghiem boi.
ng minh. (i) = (ii) Xem (5.7).

Chu
t kha quy v (f, f 0) 6= 1 ta c f 0 = 0. Do d F c dac so
(ii) = (iii) V f ba
c cua x .
p > 0 v f l mot da thu
(iii) = (iv) Ta c f (x) = g(xp) voi g(x) F [x]. Dat
g(x) = (x ui)mi , mi 1.
Khi d
f (x) = g(xp) = (xp ui)mi = (x i)pmi ,
Nguyen Chnh T
102
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
t ca cc nghiem cua f deù l nghiem boi.

voi pi = ui. Do pmi > 1 nn ta
(iv) = (i) Hien nhin.

c f F [x] goi l tch duoc trn F ne u moi nhn tu
Mot da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
bat kha quy cua f deu khng c nghiem boi. Mot truo`ng F goi l
c c he tu trong F deù tch duoc.

hon chnh ne u moi da thu
Menh de` 5.9. Mot truo`ng c dac so 0 l hon chnh. Mot truo`ng c dac so p l
`
`
hon chnh khi v ch khi moi phan tu cua F deu c can bac p trong F .
ng minh. Ke t qua hien nhin cho truo`ng c dac so 0 (xem 5.8). Xt truo`ng
Chu
`
`
hop F c dac so p. Neu ton tai mot phan tu a F khng c can bac p trong F . Khi
c xp a khng tch duoc. Nguoc lai, gia thie t moi pha`n tu cua F deù c
d da thu
c bat kha quy f khng tch duoc th

can bac p. Neu ton tai mot da thu
X
X p
X
f =
ai(xp)i =
bi (xp)i = (
bixi)p.
t kha quy. Mu thuan ny ko theo F hon chnh.
Nhu vay f khng ba
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
103
u
V du 21. Moi truo`ng hu
u han deù l truo`ng hon chnh. That vay, tu do`ng ca
Frobenius:
: F F
a
7 ap
u v n l mot don ca
u. Do d moi pha`n tu cua F deù c can bac p
l mot dang ca
trong F .
V du 22. Moi truo`ng dng dai so deù hon chnh.
p
Bi ta
`
c deu phn r trong mot mo rong no d.
a) Moi da thu
c c he tu thuoc mot trong cc truo`ng Q, R, C deù tch duoc.

b) Moi da thu
c c he tu thuoc Zp deù tch duoc.

c) Moi da thu
c c nghiem boi th khng tch duoc.

d) Mot da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
104
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
c trn truo`ng c dac so p deù khng tch duoc.

e) Moi da thu
t kha quy deù tch duoc.

c ba
f) Moi da thu
t kha quy f F [x] khng tch duoc th F c dac so p.

c ba
g) Mot da thu
t kha quy f F [x] khng tch duoc khi v ch khi F c dac

c ba
h) Mot da thu
c cua x .
so p v f l mot da thu
c trn mot truo`ng cho truoc deù c cng so boi.

i) Moi nghiem cua mot da thu
t kha quy trn mot truo`ng cho truoc deù c

c ba
j) Moi nghiem cua mot da thu
cng so boi.
c (x3 + 5)2 tch duoc trn Z7.

k) Da thu
t sai khc dang ca

u.
l) Truo`ng phn r xc dinh duy nha
(Xem HD 271)
5. 2 . Cho f F [x] c deg(f ) = n > 0 v E = F (1, . . . , r ) voi 1, . . . , r l
ng minh ra`ng :
nghiem cua f voi r n. Cho K l mot truo`ng phn r f . Chu
u tu` E vo K.
a) To`n tai mot F -do`ng ca
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
105
u tu` E vo K khng vuot qu [E : F ] v ba` ng voi [E : F ]

b) So cc F -do`ng ca
neu f c n nghiem phn biet trong K.
t cua truo`ng phn r cua f F [x] trn F .

c) Suy ra tnh duy nha
(Xem HD 271)
ng minh ra` ng ne u mot truo`ng vie t duoc nhu hop cua cc truo`ng hon chnh
5. 3 . Chu
l mot truo`ng hon chnh. Suy ra moi mo rong dai so trn Zp l mot truo`ng
hon chnh.
(Xem HD 272)
c
5. 4 . Xy dung truo`ng phn r cua cc da thu
x3 1, x4 + 5x2 + 6, x6 8, x5 2
ng trn Q.
trn Q v tnh bac cua cc mo rong tuong u
c x3 + 2x + 1 v x3 + x2 + x + 2 trn
5. 5 . Xy dung truo`ng phn r cua cc da thu
u voi nhau khng ?

Z3. Chng c dang ca
(Xem HD 272)
ng
5. 6 . Cho F K L trong d L l truo`ng phn r cua f F [x] trn F . Chu
minh ra`ng L cung l truo`ng phn r cua f trn K.
Nguyen Chnh T
106
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
ng minh ra` ng ne u da thu

c
5. 7 . a) Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p v a F . Chu
xp x a kha quy trong F [x] th phn r trong F .

t kha quy
ng minh ra` ng da thu
c xp x 1 ba
b) Voi moi so nguyn to p, chu
(Xem HD 272)
trn Q.
ng minh ra` ng
5. 8 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so 0, cho f, g F [x] v d = (f, g). Chu
tap nghiem cua f v h = f /d l trng nhau.

(Xem HD 273)
t kha quy. Chu

ng minh ra` ng
5. 9 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p v f F [x] ba
pe
t kha quy, tch duoc. Suy ra,
c ba
f = g(x ) voi e 0 v g F [x] l da thu
moi nghiem cua f deù c chung so boi trong truo`ng phn r cua f .
(Xem HD 273)
ng minh
5. 10 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p v a F khng c can bac p trong F . Chu
t kha quy trn F .

ra` ng f = xp a ba
(Xem HD 274)
u truo`ng. Cho
* 5. 11 . (Tong qut cua Bi tap 5. 2) Cho : F K l mot do`ng ca
E = F (1, . . . , r ) voi 1, . . . , r l cc nghiem cua f F [x] c bac n r.
Nguyen Chnh T
`ng phn r cua mo

c. Da thu
c tch duoc
t da thu
5. Truo
107
ng minh ra` ng :
Chu
u, |F = } [E : F ]
]{ : E K | l F -do`ng ca
c xay ra khi K chu
a n nghiem phn biet cuaf .
v dang thu
Nguyen Chnh T
(Xem HD 274)
108
RO
`NG
NG TRUO
Chuong 1. MO
Nguyen Chnh T
Chuong 2
T GALOIS
L THUYE
U V TRUO
RO
`NG TRUNG GIAN CUA MO
`NG
NG CA
NG TRUO
TU DA
u cua mo rong
u nhm Aut(E/F ) cc tu dang ca
Trong bi ny, ta nghin cu
c trn F .
truo`ng E : F , dac biet voi truo`ng hop cua truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
Aut(E/F
) v tap
D
o
ng
tho
i,
ta
nghin
cu
u
tu
o
ng
u
ng
giu
a
ta
p
cc
nhm
con
cu
a
a F , goi l cc truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong E : F .

cc truo`ng con cua E chu
109
110
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
U CU
A MO
RO
NG CA
NG TRUO
` NG
6.1 NHM CC TU DA
`
`
`
Ta bat dau bang mot so bo de don gian sau dy :
Bo de` 6.1. Cho E : F l mot mo rong truo`ng. Tap ta t ca cc F -tu dang ca u cua E
l nhm con cua nhm Aut(E), goi l nhm cc F -tu dang cau cua E : F , k hieu
Aut(E/F ).
t. Tch cua hai F -dang
ng minh. Tap Aut(E/F ) 6= do chu
a php do`ng nha
Chu
u l F -dang ca
u. Do d Aut(E/F ) l nhm con
u v nghich dao cua F -dang ca
ca
cua Aut(E).
Bo de` 6.2. Cho E : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v u E dai so trn F . Goi m F [x]
c toi tieu cua u. Cho : E E l mot F dong cau. Khi d (u) cung
l da thu
l nghiem cua m.
ng minh. Dy ch l truo`ng hop dac biet cua Menh de` 1.3.

Chu
Bo de` 6.3. Cho f F [x] c deg(f ) = n > 0 v E = F (1, . . . , r ) voi 1, . . . , r

l cc nghiem cua f . Cho K l mot truo`ng phn r f . Khi d to`n tai mot F -do`ng
Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng trung gian cua mo ro
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
111
ca u tu` E vo K ; so cc F -do`ng ca u tu` E vo K khng vuot qu [E : F ] v ba`ng
voi [E : F ] neu f c n nghiem phn biet trong K.

Chu
Ta mo rong ke t qua trn ba` ng bo de` sau dy.
Bo de` 6.4. Cho : F K l mot do`ng ca u truo`ng. Cho E = F (1, . . . , r ) voi
1, . . . , r l cc nghiem cua f F [x] c bac n r. Khi d
]{ : E K | l F -do`ng ca u, |F = } [E : F ]
a n nghiem phn biet cua f .
c xay ra khi K chu
v dang thu

Chu
V du 23. Cho G = Aut(Q( 2)/Q). Neu G th ( 2) = 2 hay ( 2) =
t ko theo (a + b 2) = a + b 2 hay = id. Truo`ng

nha
2. Truo`ng hop thu
`
2 ton tai do 2 deù c cng mot da thu
c to i tieu v cc mo rong don cua
hop thu
chng trn Q chnh l Q( 2).

Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
112
c toi tieu cua 3 2 l f = x3 2. Cc

V du 24. Cho G = Aut(Q( 2)/Q). Da thu
2i
nghiem cn lai cua f l 3 2 v 2 3 2, voi = e 3 , deù khng thuoc Q( 3 2). Do
d G = 1.
Nhan xt 6.5.
u bie n
(i) Cho E = F (u1, . . . , ur ) voi ui dai so trn F . Khi d moi F -tu do`ng ca
c to i tieu cua ui. Dac biet, Aut(E/F ) l mot

ui thnh mot nghiem cua da thu
nhm hu
u han. Hon the, mot F -tu dong cau hon ton xc dinh khi biet tap
anh cua u1, . . . , ur .

c f F [x] c deg(f ) = n
(ii) Dac biet, khi E l truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
u se cam sinh mot hon vi cua cc nghiem cua f . Do d

th moi F -tu do`ng ca
ng Sn.
Aut(E/F ) l mot nhm con cua nhm doi xu
Menh de` 6.6. Cho Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f F [x]. Khi d
(Aut(Ef /F ) : 1) [Ef : F ].
Da u = xay ra khi f tch duoc.
u han G.
Ch , ta k hieu (G : 1) hay |G| cho ca p cua mot nhm nhn hu
Nguyen Chnh T
u v trUo
`ng
ng ca
ng trUo
6. Tu Da
113
u cua Ef cung l F -tu dang ca

u v
ng minh. Ch ra` ng moi F -tu do`ng ca
Chu
hon vi cc nghiem cua f trong K nn bie n co so cua Ef : F thnh co so. Mat
m1
m
r
khc, neu f = f1 fr l dang nhn tu ha cua f th truo`ng phn r cua f
trn F cung chnh l truo`ng phn r cua g := f1 fr trn F . Do d, tu` Bo de`

u = xay ra khi f tch duoc.
6.3, ta c (Aut(Ef /F ) : 1) [Ef : F ] v da
u han trn F .
Menh de` 6.7. Cho E : F v L : F l cc mo rong truo`ng voi E hu
Khi d
(i) So F -do`ng ca u tu` E vo L khng vuot qu [E : F ]. Dac biet
(Aut(E/F ) : 1) [E : F ].
u han K trn L v mot F -do`ng ca u tu` E vo K.
(ii) To`n tai mot mo rong hu
ng minh. Goi E = F (u1, . . . , un) voi u1, . . . , un dai so trn F . Goi

Chu
ng l cc da thu
c toi tieu cua u1, . . . , un. Dat
m1, . . . , mn F [x] tuong u
f = m1 mn v goi K l truo`ng phn r cua f trn L. Theo Bo de` 6.3, to`n
u tu` E vo K khng qu [E : F ].
tai mot F -dong cau tu` E vo K v so F -do`ng ca
u tu` E vo L K khng qu [E : F ].
t, so cc F -do`ng ca
D
a
c
bie

Nguyen Chnh T
114
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
A MO
RO
` NG TRUNG GIAN CU
NG TRUO
` NG
6.2 TRUO
a F goi
Cho E : F l mo rong truo`ng. Cc truo`ng con cua E chu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
l cc truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong E : F . K hieu F l tap tat
ca cc truo`ng trung gian cua E : F .

Bo de` 6.8. Cho 6= H Aut(E/F ). Tap
T (H) = {b E| (b) = b, H}
l mot truo`ng trung gian cua E : F , goi l truo`ng trung gian co dinh boi H.
ng minh. R rng F T (H). Ne u a, b T (H) v H, ta c

Chu
(a + b) = a + b, (ab) = ab. Mat khc, ne u 0 6= a T (H) th (a1) = a1.
Do d T (H) l mot truo`ng trung gian cua E : F .
Bo de` 6.9. Cho K l truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong E : F . Khi d Aut(E/K) l
mot nhm con cua Aut(E/F ), goi l nhm con co dinh K, k hieu N (K).
ng minh. Su dung Bo de` 6.1 v Aut(E/K) Aut(E/F ).

Chu
t ca cc nhm con cua Aut(E/F ). Hai nh xa sau :

K hieu H l tap ta
Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
N : F
K 7
H
N (K)
115
T : H
H 7
F
T (H)
ng Galois cua mo rong E : F .

goi l cc tuong u
t sau dy :
Nhan xt 6.10. Ta de dng kiem tra cc tnh cha
(i) N (F ) = Aut(E/F ), N (E) = {1} v T ({1}) = E.

tu bao hm. Ngha l:
(ii) Cc nh xa N v T dao nguoc thu
Ne u F K1 K2 E th N (K1) N (K2).
Ne u H1 H2 l 2 nhm con cua Aut(E/F ) th T (H1) T (H2).
(iii) H N (T (H)), H H ; tuong tu K T (N (K)), K F .
V du 25. Trong mo rong Q Q( 3 2), ta bie t ra` ng Aut(Q( 3 2)/Q) = 1. Suy ra
3
T (N (Q)) = Q( 2). Do d Q ( T (N (Q)).
y ra` ng H = N (T (H)), voi moi H hu
Tuy nhin, ta se tha
u han.
Nguyen Chnh T
116
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
ng truo`ng v H Aut(E/F ) l mot

Dinh l 6.11 (Artin). Cho E : F l mo ro
u han. Khi d :
nhm con hu
[E : T (H)] (H : 1).
ng minh. Goi H = {1, . . . , m} voi 1 = 1. Cho 1, . . . , n voi n > m l
Chu
ng minh ra`ng 1, . . . , n phu thuoc tuye n tnh trn

n phan tu ty cua E. Ta chu
t:
T (H). Xt he phuong trnh tuye n tnh thua`n nha
1(1)x1 + + 1(n)xn = 0
...
(2)
m(1)x1 + + m(n)xn = 0.
Do n > m, he phuong trnh trn c nghiem khng ta`m thuo`ng trong E. Goi
t. Sau khi
v = (c1, . . . , cn) l mot nghiem cua (2) c so pha`n tu khc 0 nho nha
`
hon vi cc ci neu can, ta c the gia thie t c1 6= 0. Ta c the gia thie t c1 = 1 T (H)
ba` ng cch nhn v voi mot v huong thch hop. Ch ra` ng do 1 = 1, nn phuong
t ca
`
ng minh ra` ng ta
trnh dau cua (2) cho ta c11 + + cnn = 0. Ta ca`n chu
thnh pha`n cj cua v thuoc T (H).
Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
117
t
Ne u to`n tai ci
/ T (H) th c k H sao cho k (ci) 6= ci. Tc dong k vo ta
ca cc phuong trnh cua he (2) voi ch rang
{k 1, . . . , k m} = {1, . . . , m},
ta c v 0 := (c1, k (c2), . . . , k (cn)) cung l nghiem cua (2). Suy ra
v v 0 = (0, . . . , ci k (ci), . . . , cn k (cn))

cung l nghiem cua (2). R rng nghiem vv 0 khng ta`m thuo`ng do ci k (ci) 6= 0
t ca cc
v c so pha`n tu khc 0 t hon so pha`n tu khc 0 cua v. V l ! Nhu the ta
ng minh.
ci thuoc T (H), ta c dieù phai chu
u han. Khi d
He qua 6.12. Cho H Aut(E/F ) l mot nhm con hu
[E : T (H)] = (H : 1) v H = N (T (H)).
ng minh. Ta c [E : T (H)] (H : 1) do dinh l Artin. Mat khc
Chu
`
(N (T (H)) : 1) [E : T (H)] do Menh de 6.7. Suy ra
[E : T (H)] (H : 1) (N (T (H)) : 1) [E : T (H)].

Do d [E : T (H)] = (H : 1) v H = N (T (H)).
Nguyen Chnh T
118
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
Tu` ke t qua trn, ta suy ra, ne u E : F hu

u han th T l don nh v N l ton
nh. Ta se xt mot mo rong truo`ng trong d cc nh xa T v N deù l song nh
v do d l nghich dao cua nhau.

c f = (x2 2)(x2 3).
V du 26. Xt Q( 2, 3), l truo`ng phn r cua da thu

Cho G = Aut(Q( 2, 3)/Q) th ta c ( 2) = 2, ( 3) = 3.

Nhu the c 4 truo`ng hop nhu sau :

(
(
2 7
2
2 7 2
;
3 7
3
3 7
3
(
(
2 7
2
2 7 2
.
3 7 3
3 7 3
Theo Menh de` 6.6, ta c

(Aut(Q( 2, 3)/Q) : 1) = [Q( 2, 3) : Q] = 4.
ng voi 4 truo`ng hop nu trn. Dat
Nhu the 4 pha`n tu cua G tuong u
(
(
2 7 2
2 7
2
:
;
.
3 7
3
3 7 3
Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
2
2
119
Ta c = = 1 v G =< , >. Suy ra G

= Z2 Z2 (goi l nhm Klein). Ta
ng cng so do` bao hm cua chng

liet k cc nhm con v truo`ng trung gian tuong u
ng minh ra` ng ne u mot truo`ng trung

nhu trong Hnh 7. Ngoi ra, ba` ng cch chu
G }
6
=
<>
o
< >
6
< >
Q( 3)
?
Q( 6)
s
Q( 2)
? =
Q( 2,
3)

ng Galois cua mo rong Q( 2, 3).
Hnh 7: Tuong u
gian K c bac 2 trn Q, th K l mot trong cc truo`ng Q( 2), Q( 3), Q( 6). Do
d cc nh xa N v T l song nh v l nghich dao cua nhau.
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
120
p
Bi ta
6. 1 . Xc dinh tnh dng, sai cua cc menh de` sau :
u cua mo rong E : F deù l mot tu dang ca

u cua E.
a) Moi F -tu dang ca
u cua E deù l F -tu dang ca

u cua mo rong E : F .
b) Moi tu dang ca

t.
u cua F deù l nh xa do`ng nha
c) Moi F -tu dang ca
d) Nhm Aut(E/F ) lun l nhm aben.

e) Nhm Aut(C/R) l nhm cyclic.
ng Galois lun l song nh.
f) Cc tuong u
ng Galois bao ton thu
tu bao hm.
g) Cc tuong u
h) Ne u Aut(E/F ) = 1 th E = F .
i) Ne u E = F th Aut(E/F ) = 1.
u.
j) Truo`ng K(x) ch c mot K-tu dang ca
u voi Aut(C/R).
k) Nhm Aut(K(x)/K(x2)), voi K c dac so khc 2, dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
121
l) H = N (T (H)) voi moi nhm con hu

u han H cua Aut(E/F ).
m) Cho mo rong truo`ng E : F th T (N (F )) = F .
n) Cho mo rong truo`ng E : F th T (N (E)) = E.

(Xem HD 276)
u cua cc mo rong truo`ng sau dy v

6. 2 . Ve so do` bao hm cc nhm tu dang ca
ng Galois N v T c phai l cc song nh khng.

xt xem cc tuong u
a) C : R ;
b) Q() : Q voi = e2i/5 ;
c) Ef : Q voi Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f = x4 2 ;
Q() voi
f = x3 2 trn Q() ;

e) Q( 2, 3, 5) : Q ;
d) Ef
2i
3
v Ef
l truo`ng phn r cua
c (x3 5)(x3 7) trn Q ;

f) Truo`ng phn r cua da thu
c (x6 5) trn Q v trn R.
g) Truo`ng phn r cua da thu
(Xem HD 276)
p cua G v xt
c x5 2 trn Q. Xc dinh ca
6. 3 . Cho G l nhm Galois cua da thu
xem G c phai l nhm aben hay khng ?

(Xem HD 280)
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
122
p cua nhm Galois cua da thu

c (x3 5)(x3 2) trn Q v R.
6. 4 . Xc dinh ca
(Xem HD 281)
ng minh ra`ng Aut(Q()/Q) l nhm aben voi = e
6. 5 . Chu
2i
n
v n N.
(Xem HD 281)
6. 6 . Cho f = xp a F [x] v goi Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Xc dinh
truo`ng phn r cua f trn F trong cc truo`ng hop :
a) F = Q ;
b) F = Zp .
(Xem HD 281)
ng minh hoac bc bo cc menh de` sau dy :
6. 7 . Chu
a) Ne u E : F l mot mo rong bac 2 th to`n tai Aut(E) sao cho
(a) = a, a F .
b) Gio ng nhu trn voi gia thuye t thm l truo`ng E hu
u han.
(Xem HD 281)
6. 8 . Cho K l truo`ng phn r cua x5 1 trn Q. M ta nhm Aut(K/Q) v ch ra

ra`ng K : Q ch c mot truo`ng trung gian thuc su l Q( + 4) voi = e2i/5.

Nguyen Chnh T
u v truo
`ng
ng ca
ng truo
6. Tu da
123
c to i tieu cua + 4. Xc dinh cc truo`ng phn r cua cc da

Xc dinh da thu
c sau trn Q :
thu
a) (x2 5)(x5 1) ;
b) (x2 + 3)(x5 1).
(Xem HD 281)
c x3 5 trn Q( 7). Chu

ng minh ra`ng
6. 9 . Cho K l truo`ng phn r cua da thu
Aut(K/Q( 7))
(Xem HD 282)
= S3 .
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
124
RO
C V GALOIS
NG TCH DUOC, CHUA
N TA
MO
Trong bi ny, ta xt cc mo rong truo`ng dac biet hon nha` m tm dieù kien de
ng Galois l cc song nh.

cc tuong u
NGUYN THU
Y
RO
` N TU
NG TCH DUOC V DINH L PHA
7.1 MO
c to i tieu
Mot mo rong dai so E : F goi l tch duoc ne u da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
cua moi pha`n tu thuoc E deù tch duoc.
Nhu the, mo rong E : F l khng tch duoc neu cc truo`ng c dac so p v da
c to i tieu cua mot pha`n tu no d cua E c dang g(xp) voi g F [x].

thu
c to i tieu x2 t2
V du 27. Mo rong Z2(t2) Z2(t) l khng tch duoc v da thu
cua t l khng tch duoc.
Menh de` 7.1. Cho F M E l cc mo rong truo`ng. Ne u F E l mo rong
u
u
tch d oc th F M v M E l cc mo rong tch d oc.
ng minh. R rng F M l mo rong tch duoc. Cho E. Goi f F [x]

Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
125
ng l cc da thu
c to i tieu cua trn F v M . R rng g | f .
v g M [x] tuong u
c f l tch duoc. Suy ra g l tch duoc.
Do F E tch duoc, da thu
t ra
t dac biet duoc the hien sau dy.
Mo rong tch duoc c mot tnh cha
t mo rong
Dinh l 7.2 (Pha`n tu nguyn thuy). Cho E = F (1, , n) l mo
u han cua F sao cho 2, , n tch duoc trn F . Khi d to`n tai E sao cho
hu
E = F ().
ng minh. Ne u F l truo`ng hu
Chu
u han th E hu
u han v do d nhm nhn E
cc pha`n tu khc 0 l nhm cyclic (xem Bi tap 0. 18). Goi u l mot pha`n tu sinh
cua E . R rng E = F (u).

ng minh quy nap trn n. Ne u n = 1,
Ta ch ca`n xt truo`ng hop F v han. Ta chu
ket qua l hien nhin. Neu ket qua dng voi n = 2 th tu` gia thie t quy nap, ta c
F (1, . . . n) = F (1, . . . n1)(n) = F (t, n)

ng minh. Do d bi ton quy ve` viec chu
ng minh ke t qua
v suy ra dieù phai chu
cho n = 2.
Nguyen Chnh T
126
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
c to i
Xt E = F (v, w) voi w tch duoc trn F . Goi f, g F [x] la`n luot l da thu
tieu cua v, w. Goi K l truo`ng phn r cua f g. Khi d f c cc nghiem trong K l
c g c cc nghiem phn biet trong K l w, w1, . . . , ws. Do F

v, v1, . . . , vr ; da thu
`
v han, ton tai c F sao cho
vi v
c 6=
, i = 1, . . . , r, j = 1, . . . , s.
w wj
Dat u = v + cw. Ta se ch ra ra` ng v, w F (u), do d F (v, w) = F (u).
Dat h = f (u cx) F (u)[x]. Ta c
h(w) = f (u cw) = f (v) = 0.
Ne u c wj voi 1 j s no d l nghiem cua h th
h(wj ) = f (u cwj ) = 0.
Nhu the to`n tai i thoa 1 i r sao cho u cwj = vi. Hay c(w wj ) = vi v.
t trong tap {w, w1, . . . , ws}.

V l do cch chon c. Vay h ch c w l nghiem duy nha
Suy ra (h, g) = x w trong K[x]. Suy ra x w F (u)[x] (xem Bo de` 5.6), dac
ng minh.
biet w F (u). Ta c dieù phai chu
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
127
u han, tch duoc l mo rong don. Dac biet moi mo

He qua 7.3. Moi mo rong hu
u han trn truo`ng c dac so 0 hoac truo`ng hu

u han deu l mo rong don.
rong hu
C
A MO
RO
N CU
NG GALOIS V CHUA
N TA
7.2 TIU CHUA
c to i tieu
Mot mo rong dai so E : F goi l chuan ta c ne u da thu
Dinh ngha.
`
cua moi phan tu thuoc E phn r trong E.
Nhan xt 7.4. Cho E : F l mot mo rong chuan tac v tch duoc. Cho f F [x]
t kha quy bac m. Ne u f c nghiem trong E th f c dng m

c ba
l mot da thu
nghiem phn biet trong E.
`
Ta d biet rang voi mot mo rong truo`ng E : F th ni chung
F ( T (N (F )) = T (Aut(E/F )).
u dang thu
c xay ra.
Ta xt nhu
ng mo rong truo`ng m da
Mot mo rong hu
u han E : F duoc goi l mo rong Galois ne u
Dinh ngha. F = T (N (F )). Khi d Aut(E/F ) goi l nhm Galois cua mo
rong truong v duoc k hieu l Gal(E/F ).
Nguyen Chnh T
128
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
ng truo`ng E : F . Cc
Dinh l 7.5 (Tiu chuan cua mo rong Galois). Cho mo ro
menh de` sau l tuong duong :
c tch duoc trn F ;

(i) E l truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
(ii) [E : F ] = (Aut(E/F ) : 1) < ;

(iii) E : F l mo rong Galois ;
u han cua Aut(E/F ) ;

(iv) F = T (G) voi G l mot nhm con hu
u han trn F .
(v) E : F l mo rong chuan tac, tch duoc v hu
ng minh.
Chu
(i) = (ii) Xem Menh de` 6.6.
(ii) = (iii) Theo Dinh l Artin, ta c
[E : T (N (F ))] = (N (F ) : 1) = |Aut(E/F )|.

Suy ra [E : T (N (F ))] = [E : F ]. Do d F = T (N (F )), hay E : F l mo rong
Galois.
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
129
y G = Aut(E/F ).
(iii) = (iv) La
(iv) = (v) Theo Dinh l Artin (6.11), ta c [E : F ] [G : 1]. Suy ra E : F hu
u
y E. Goi f F [x] l da thu

c to i tieu cua . Ta chu
ng minh ra` ng
han. La
f phn r trong E thnh cc nhn tu phn biet.
c
Dat N = { | G} = {1, . . . , m}. Xt da thu
m
Y
(x i) = xm + a1xm1 + + am E[x].
g=
i=1
Voi moi G, nh xa hon vi cc pha`n tu trong N . Do cc he tu ai cua g
c do i xu
ng cua 1, . . . , m, ta c (ai) = ai, i = 1, . . . , m.
deù l cc da thu
c to i tieu cua , ta c f | g. Mat
Suy ra ai F hay g F [x]. V f l da thu
`
`
khc, cc phan tu i deu l nghiem cua f nn g| f . Vay g = f , do d f phn
r thnh cc nhn tu phn biet.
(v) = (i) V E : F l mo rong hu

u han, ta c E = F (1, . . . , n) voi i dai so
c toi tieu cua i voi moi i = 1, . . . , n. Do E : F chuan

trn F . Goi mi l da thu
Q
c mi phn r trong E, do d E l truo`ng phn r cua f = mi
tac, cc da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
130
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
c f l tch duoc.
trn F . Hon the , do mo rong E : F l tch duoc, da thu
c tch duoc f F [x] l nhm Galois

Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
cua truo`ng phn r cua f .

a trong mot mo rong Galois.
u han, tch duoc deù chu
He qua 7.6. Moi mo rong hu
ng minh. Cho F E l mo rong hu

Chu
u han v tch duoc, ta c
c toi tieu cua i

E = F (1, . . . , n) voi i dai so trn F . Goi mi l da thu
Q
c f = mi l tch duoc. Truo`ng E
voi moi i = 1, . . . , n. Do mi tch duoc, da thu
a trong truo`ng phn r cua f F [x].

chu
He qua 7.7. Cho F M E l cc mo rong truo`ng. Ne u F E l mo rong
Galois th M E l mo rong Galois.
ng minh. E l truo`ng phn r cua da thu

c f F [x]. R rng E cung l
Chu
truo`ng phn r cua f trn M . Hon the M E l mo rong tch duoc (xem Menh
de` 7.1). Do d M E l mo rong Galois.
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
131
Dinh l 7.5 cho ta tiu chuan cua mot mo rong Galois. Ke t qua sau cho ta tiu
chuan cua mo rong chuan ta c.
u han v chuan tac khi v ch khi E l

Menh de` 7.8. Mot mo rong E : F l hu
truong phn r cua mot da thuc trn F .
ng minh. Dieù kien ca`n cua menh de` duoc chu

ng minh tuong tu nhu trong
Chu
ng minh dieu kien du. Cho E l truo`ng phn r cua da thu

c
Dinh l 7.5. Ta chu
c to i tieu cua E. Ta chu

ng minh ra`ng
f F [x] trn F . Goi g F [x] l da thu
moi nghiem cua g deù thuoc E.
Goi K l truo`ng phn r cua g trn E v l mot nghiem cua g trong K. Xt
so do` nhu trong Hnh 8.

Ta se ch ra ra` ng [E() : E] = [E() : E] v do [E() : E] = 1, ta c
t kha quy trn
[E() : E] = 1, nn E. Do v deù l nghiem cua g ba
F nn ton tai F dang cau F () F (). R rng E() v E() la`n luot l
u
truo`ng phn r cua f trn F () v F () nn mo rong thnh F dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
132
> K k
6
E()
6
3 E()
6
E
6
F ()
F ()
F
u voi E().
Hnh 8: So do` ch ra E() dang ca
0 : E() E(). Nhu the [E() : F ] = [E() : F ]. Suy ra

[E() : E] = [E() : E].
ng minh.
Ta c dieù ca`n chu
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
133
p
Bi ta
a) Moi mo rong hu
u han deù l mo rong chuan ta c.
b) Moi mo rong chuan tac deù l mo rong Galois.
c) Moi mo rong tch duoc deù l mo rong hu

u han.
d) Moi mo rong Galois deù l mo rong chuan tac v tch duoc.
e) Moi mo rong tch duoc deù l mo rong chuan ta c.
f) Moi mo rong chuan tac v hu

u han deù l mo rong Galois.
c.
g) Moi mo rong chuan ta c deù l truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
c.
h) Moi mo rong Galois deù l truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
i) Mot mo rong hu
u han l Galois khi v ch khi n l truo`ng phn r cua mot
c tch duoc.
da thu
j) Moi mo rong Galois deù l mo rong don.
k) Moi mo rong hu
u han deù l mo rong don.
Nguyen Chnh T
134
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
l) Ne u F M E c F E l mo rong tch duoc th F M v M E
tch duoc.
m) Ne u F M E c F E l mo rong chuan tac th F M v M E
chuan ta c.
n) Ne u F M E c F E l mo rong Galois th F M v M E
Galois.
(Xem HD 283)
7. 2 . Cho F E K l cc mo rong truo`ng. Ne u F E v E K l cc mo
rong Galois th F K c phai l mo rong Galois khng ?
(Xem HD 283)
ng to ra` ng moi mo rong bac 2 trn truo`ng c dac so khc 2 deù l cc mo
7. 3 . Chu
`
rong Galois. Khang dinh trn c dng cho truong c dac so 2 khng ?
(Xem HD 283)
7. 4 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so p v f = xp x a F [x]. Xc dinh truo`ng phn
r Ef cua f trn F v xt xem n c phai l mo rong Galois trn F khng ?
Xc dinh cc pha`n tu cua nhm Aut(Ef /F ).

(Xem HD 283)
Nguyen Chnh T
c v Galois
ng tch duoc, chua
n ta
7. Mo ro
n
7. 5 . Cho f = xp x Zp[x] v
135
Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f trn Zp. Xc dinh
nhm Aut(Ef /Zp) v ve so do bao hm cua cc nhm con cua n.

(Xem HD 283)
7. 6 . Tm cc mo rong truo`ng Q F1 F2 F3 voi F1, F3 Galois trn Q nhung F2
khng Galois trn Q.

(Xem HD 284)
p
7. 7 . Chung minh rang Q Q( 2 + 2) l mo rong Galois v xc dinh nhm
Galois cua mo rong d.

(Xem HD 284)
7. 8 . Trong cc mo rong o Bi tap 6. 2, mo rong no l mo rong Galois, chuan ta c ?
c sau trn Q.
7. 9 . M ta nhm Galois cua cc da thu
a) f = (x2 2)(x2 3)(x2 5) ;
b) g == xp 2 voi p nguyn to ;
c) h = x4 14x2 + 9.
(Xem HD 284)
u voi nhm nhn cc

ng minh ra`ng nhm Galois cua xp 2 trn Q dang ca
7. 10 . Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
136
ma tran
!
a b
0 1
voi a, b Zp v a 6= 0.
(Xem HD 285)
ng minh ra` ng ne u nhm Galois cua mot da thu

c bac 3 l mot nhm cyclic
7. 11 . Chu
(Xem HD 285)
cap 3 th tat ca cc nghiem cua f deu l nghiem thuc.
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
8. Dinh l co ban cua L thuye
137
T GALOIS
N CUA L THUYE
8 DINH L CO BA
Nha c lai, voi mot mo rong F E cho truoc, k hieu F l tap cc truo`ng trung
gian cua mo rong v H l tapcc nhm con cua Aut(E/F ). Giu

a F v H c cc
ng Galois.
nh xa N v T , goi l cc tuong u
ng Galois voi G = Gal(E/F ). Khi d cc tuong

Dinh l 8.1. Cho F E l mo ro
ng Galois N : F H v T : HF l cc song nh v l nghich dao cua

u
nhau. Hon the :

(i) H1 H2 T (H1) T (H2), H1, H2 H ;
(ii) ch so cua nhm ba`ng bac cua mo rong truo`ng, ngha l voi moi H1, H2 H,
H1 H2 = (H2 : H1) = [T (H1) : T (H2)] ;

(iii) T (H 1) = T (H) v
N (M ) = N (M ) 1, G, H H, M F ;
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
138
(iv) H C G khi v ch khi T (H) : F l mo rong chuan tac (do d Galois) v
Gal(T (H)/F )
= G/H.
ng minh. Do E : F l mo rong hu
Chu
u han nn G hu
u han. Khi d H H,
ta c N (T (H)) = H. Mat khc M F , ta c E : M l mo rong Galois, do d
T (N (M )) = M . Suy ra N v T l cc song nh v l nghich dao cua nhau.
(i) Ta c
T (H1) T (H2) = H1 = N (T (H1)) N (T (H2)) = H2.
(ii) Voi H H, ta c E : T (H) l mo rong Galois. Do d
[E : T (H)] = (H : 1).
Cho H1 H2 l cc nhm con cua G. Suy ra
F T (H2) T (H1) E.
Ta c(H2 : 1) = (H2 : H1)(H1 : 1). Suy ra
[E : T (H2)] = (H2 : H1)[E : T (H1)]
= [E : T (H1)][T (H1) : T (H2)].
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
139
Do d (H2 : H1) = [T (H1) : T (H2)].

(iii) Cho y = x T (H). Voi moi 1 H 1, ta c
1(y) = (x) = x = y.
Suy ra y T (H 1). Do d T (H) T (H 1).
Nguoc lai, cho y T (H 1). Khi d, voi moi H, ta c ( 1)(y) = y.
1
Dat x = (y), ta c
( 1)(y) = (x) = y = x.
Nhu the (x) = x, H. Suy ra x T (H), do d y = x T (H).
Vay T (H 1) = T (H).
ng minh N (M ) 1 = N (M ). Voi moi 1 N (M ) 1,

Ta chu
cho y = x M , ta c
1(y) = 1(x) = (x) = x = y.
Suy ra 1 N (M ).
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
140
ng minh N (M ).
Nguoc lai, voi moi N (M ), dat = 1. Ta chu

That vay, voi moi x M , ta c

(x) = 1(x) = 1(x) = 1(x) = x.

Do d N (M ). Vay = 1 N (M ) 1.
(iv) Gia thie t F T (H) l mo rong chuan ta c. Goi T (H) = F (1, . . . , m).
c to i tieu cua j ,
Voi moi G, ta c (i) cung l nghiem cua da thu
u, ta c
nn (i) T (H). Do d T (H) T (H). Do l dang ca
T (H) = T (H). Suy ra
N (T (H)) 1 = N ( T (H)) = N (T (H)) = H.
Hay H 1 = H, ngha l H C G.
Nguoc lai, gia thie t H C G. Do H 1 = H, G, suy ra

T (H) = T (H 1) = T (H).
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
141
u nhm :
Ta c do`ng ca
g : G Aut(T (H)/F )
|T (H) .
Ta c
Ker(g) = { G | |T (H) = id} = N (T (H)) = H.
0
0
0
ng Galois
Dat H = Im(g) Aut(T (H)/F ). K hieu T v N l cc tuong u
cua mo rong F T (H). Ta c T 0(H 0) = T (G) = F do g : G H 0 l ton
0
cau. V H hu
u han, theo tiu chuan cua mo rong Galois, ta c T (H) : F l
ng Galois u
ng voi mo rong Galois T (H) : F
mo rong Galois. Mat khc, tuong u
cho ta
H 0 7 F 7 Gal(T (H)/F ) = H 0.
Nhu the , Gal(T (H)/F )
= G/H.
c f = x4 2 Q[x]. Cc nghiem cua f l

V du 28. Xt nhm Galois cua da thu

4
2, 4 2, i 4 2 v i 4 2. Truo`ng phn r cua f trn Q l Q(i, 4 2).
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
142
1) De dng kiem tra [Q(i, 4 2) : Q] = 8.
2) Dat G = Gal(Q(i, 4 2)/Q). Ta c (G : 1) = 8.
3) To`n tai cc pha`n tu , trong G xc dinh boi
4
4
4
4
n
n
2 7 i 2
2
7
2
:
v
:
.
i
7 i
i
7
i
y ra` ng 4 = 2 = 1. Ngoi pha`n tu don vi 1 v , , cc pha`n tu
De dng tha
cn lai cua G l :
4
4
4
4
n
n
2
2
2
7
i
2
2
3
:
;
:
;
i
7 i
i
7 i
4
4
4
n
n
2 7 i 4 2
2
2
2
:
;
:
;
i
7 i
i
7 i
v
3 :
4
n
2 7 i 4 2
i
7 i
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
143
4) So do` bao hm cc nhm con cua G nhu trong Hnh 9.
G
6o
( 2 , )
7
( 2 )
}
6]
()
6
( )
( 2 )
( 2 , )
7 6 o
( )
( 3 )
3
Hnh 9: So do` cc nhm con cua Aut(Q( 4 2, i)/Q).
t ca cc truo`ng trung gian

ng Galois l song nh, ta c so do` ta
5) Do cc tuong u
cua mo rong nhu trong Hnh 10.
y ra`ng cc mo rong bac 2

6) Trong so do` bao hm cc truo`ng trung gian, de tha
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
144
Q
?

Q( 2)
Q(i 4 2)
Q(i)
Q( 4 2)
Q(i,
2)
?+
Q(i 2)
Q((1 + i) 4 2)
Q((1 i) 4 2)
)
Q(i, 4 2)
ng.
Hnh 10: So do` cc truo`ng trung gian tuong u
p 4 tuong u
ng ( 2, ), () v
cua Q l cc mo rong Galois. Cc nhm con ca
( 2, ) l cc nhm con chuan ta c. Mat khc, mo rong Q Q(i, 2) l mo

2
ng ( ) cung l mot nhm con chuan ta c

rong Galois nn nhm con tuong u
cua G. Cc mo rong cn lai deù khng phai l mo rong Galois do cc nhm con
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
145
ng cua n khng phai l nhm con chuan ta c.

tuong u
Cho M1, . . . , Mr l cc truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong
truo`ng E : F . Truo`ng hop thnh cua M1, . . . , Mr , k hieu
Qr
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
M
M
hay
,
l
tru
o
ng
con
nho
nha
t
cu
a
E
chu
M
a
1
r
i
M1, . . . , Mr (ni cch khc n l truo`ng con cua E sinh ra boi

r1Mi).
ng Galois cua mot mo rong Galois E : F cho ta cc tnh
Nhan xt 8.2. Cc tuong u
t sau :
cha
(i) Cho M1, . . . , Mr l cc truo`ng trung gian. Khi d truo`ng hop thnh M1 Mr
t chu
ng voi nhm con lon nha
a trong cc N (Mi), tu
c l u
ng voi nhm
u
r1 N (Mi).
(ii) Cho H l mot nhm con cua G = Gal(E/F ). Goi M = T (H). Khi d nhm
t cua G chu
a trong H l N = H 1. Truo`ng trung
con chuan ta c lon nha
G
t cua F chu
t ca M , voi
ng voi N l mo rong Galois nho nha
a ta
gian tuong u
Q
Q
y ra`ng
c l
G, tu
M . Sau ny, (xem Dinh ngha 11.1) ta tha
M
G
G
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
146
chnh l bao dng chuan tac cua M .

t cua cc truo`ng hop thnh.
Cc ke t qua sau cho ta tnh cha
Menh de` 8.3. Cho M, N l cc truo`ng trung gian cua E : F . Ne u M : F l mo
rong Galois th cc mo rong M N : N v M : (M N ) cung Galois. Hon the, nh
xa
Gal(M N/N ) Gal(M/M N )
|M
l mot dang ca u nhm.
ng minh. Xt so do` nhu Hnh 11. V M : F l mo rong Galois, ta c M l

Chu
c f tch duoc trn F . Do d M N l truo`ng phn

truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
r cua da thuc f trn N . Tuong tu M l truo`ng phn r cua f trn M N . V
the , M N : N v M : M N l cc mo rong Galois.
u Gal(M N/N ) bie n nghiem cua f thnh nghiem cua f , v the

Moi do`ng ca
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
147
MN
=
N
M
=
M N
F
Hnh 11:
u nhm :
M = M . Do d, ta c do`ng ca
: Gal(M N/N ) Gal(M/F )
|M .
Xt Gal(M N/N ) thoa |M = 1. Khi d co dinh moi pha`n tu cua M v N
u l mot don ca
u.
nn co dinh moi pha`n tu cua M N . Do d do`ng ca
K hieu H l anh cua . Goi MH 0 l truo`ng con cua M co dinh boi H 0. R rng
ng Galois, truo`ng hop thnh MH 0 N u

ng voi nhm
M N MH 0 . Theo tuong u
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
148
Galois Gal(M N/N ). Do d MH 0 N = N . Hay MH 0 N . Do d MH 0 = M N .

ng Galois trong M : F cho ta H 0 = Gal(M/M N ). Ta c dieù phai
Tuong u
ng minh.
chu
u han. Khi d :
He qua 8.4. Voi gia thie t nhu menh de` trn v N : F l mo rong hu
[M : F ][N : F ]
[M N : F ] =
.
[(M N ) : F ]
ng minh. Ta c
Chu
[M N : F ] = [M N : N ][N : F ] = [M : (M N )][N : F ].
Thay [M : (M N )] =
[M : F ]
[M N : F ]
ng minh.
, ta c dieù phai chu
Menh de` 8.5. Cho M, N l cc truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong truo`ng trn F thoa
M : F v N : F l cc mo rong Galois. Khi d M N v M N l cc mo rong
Galois cua F . Hon the :

Gal(M N/F ) Gal(M/F ) Gal(N/F )
( |M , |N )
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
149
l mot dang ca u tu` Gal(M N/F ) vo nhm con
H = {(1, 2) | 1 |M N = 2 |M N }
cua nhm Gal(M/F ) Gal(N/F ).
ng minh. Cho M N , goi f F [x] l da thu
c to i tieu cua . Goi
Chu
c f c dng n nghiem phn biet

n = deg(f ). V M v N Galois trn F , da thu
c f c toi da n nghiem, do
trong M v N . Trong truo`ng hop thnh M N , da thu
ng
d f c d
n nghiem phn biet trong M N . Nhu the M N Galois trn F .
c g (tuong
ng N ) l truo`ng phn r cua mot da thu
Mat khc, truo`ng M (tuong u
ng h) tch duoc trn F . Khi d M N l truo`ng phn r cua gh trn F . Do d

u
M N Galois trn F .
u
Xt do`ng ca
: Gal(M N/F ) Gal(M/F ) Gal(N/F )
( |M , |N ).
Ne u Gal(M N/F ) co dinh moi pha`n tu cua M v N th co dinh moi pha`n tu
cua M N . Do d l don nh.

Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
150
ng minh
R rng Im() H, voi H = {(1, 2) | 1 |M N = 2 |M N }. Ta chu
chng trng nhau ba` ng cch ch ra ra` ng so pha`n tu cua chng ba` ng nhau. Ta c
theo dinh l co ban:
Gal(N/F )
= Gal(M N/F ).
Gal(N/(M N ))
u Gal(M/F ) cho truoc, do`ng ca
u han che |M N c
Suy ra, voi mot do`ng ca
dng [N : (M N )] mo rong trong Gal(N/F ). Do d
(H : 1) = [M : F ][N : (M N )].
Mat khc, theo he qua trn, ta c
[M : F ][N : (M N )] =
[M : F ][N : F ]
[M N : F ]
= [M N : F ]
= |Gal(M N/F )|.
He qua 8.6. (i) Cho M, N nhu trong he qua trn. Ne u M N = F th
Gal(M N/F )
= Gal(M/F ) Gal(N/F.
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
151
(ii) Nguoc lai, cho mot mo rong E : F c Gal(E/F ) = G1 G2 voi G1, G2 l

2 nhm con cua Gal(E/F ). Khi d to`n tai cc truo`ng trung gian M, N cua
E : F sao cho M, N l cc mo rong Galois trn F v E = M N .
t suy ra ngay tu` he qua trn. Goi M v N tuong

ng minh. Pha`n thu
nha
Chu
ng l cc truo`ng trung gian co dinh boi G1 v G2. Khi d truo`ng trung gian
u
ng voi nhm con nho nhat chu

a G1 v G2. Nhm d chnh l G. Do d
M N u
M N = F . Theo he qua trn, ta c M N Galois trn F v c nhm Galois dang
u voi G1 G2 = Gal(E/F ). Suy ra M N = E.

ca
p
Bi ta
ng Galois l cc song nh, bao ton

a) Neu mo rong l Galois th cc tuong u
quan he bao hm.
ng Galois l song
b) Mot mo rong hu
u han l Galois khi v ch khi cc tuong u
nh.
Nguyen Chnh T
152
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
c) Trong mot mo rong Galois F E, truo`ng co dinh boi mot nhm con cua
nhm Galois l mot mo rong Galois trn F .
d) Trong mot mo rong Galois F E, truo`ng co dinh boi mot nhm con chuan
tac cua nhm Galois l mot mo rong Galois trn F .
e) Trong mot mo rong Galois F E c nhm Galois G, truo`ng trung gian M
ng voi nhm con H cua G c bac trn F l (H : 1).

u
f) Trong mot mo rong Galois F E c nhm Galois G, truo`ng trung gian M
ung voi nhm con H cua G c bac trn F l (G : H).
g) Trong mot mo rong Galois F E c nhm Galois G, goi M l truo`ng trung
ng voi nhm con H cua G. Khi d [E : M ] = (H : 1).

gian u
c bac 3 lun l nhm aben.
h) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
i) Nhm Galois cua mot mo rong Galois bac 4 lun l nhm aben.
t chu
a
j) Truo`ng hop thnh cua 2 truo`ng trung gian l truo`ng con nho nha
chng.
(Xem HD 285)
ng Galois cua mo rong truo`ng Q() : Q voi = e2i/7. Ch
8. 2 . Ch ra cc tuong u
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
153
ra cc truo`ng trung gian no l Galois trn Q. Trong truo`ng hop truo`ng trung
ng g Q[x] sao cho M l truo`ng

c tuong u
gian M l Galois trn Q, tm da thu
phn r cua g trn Q
(Xem HD 285)
ng minh cc ke t luan o Nhan xt 8.2.
8. 3 . Chu
(Xem HD 286)
ng Galois cua truo`ng phn r cua da thu

c x3 2 trn Q
8. 4 . Phn tch cc tuong u
v ch ra cc truo`ng trung gian l mo rong Galois trn Q.
(Xem HD 287)
ng Galois cua mo rong o cc Bi tap 6. 2, 7. 7 v 7. 9.

8. 5 . Phn tch tuong u
(Xem HD 287)
ng minh ra`ng
a
8. 6 . Cho K l truong phn r cua d thuc x 5 trn Q( 7). Chu
a Q( 7), sao cho Gal(K/M )

to`n tai truo`ng con M cua K chu
= Z3. (xem bi
(Xem HD 288)
tap 6. 9 )
c f = x5 6x4 + 3 trn F voi

8. 7 . Xc dinh nhm Galois cua da thu
a) F = Q ;
b) F = Z2.
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
154
Trong moi truo`ng hop, goi K l truo`ng phn r cua f , xc dinh c bao nhiu
truo`ng trung gian M cua F K sao cho [M : F ] = 2.

(Xem HD 288)
8. 8 . Cho K = Q( 5, 7) v L l truo`ng phn r cua f = x3 2.

a) Xc dinh nhm Galois cua K : Q v L : Q.
a nghiem no cua f hay khng ?

b) Truo`ng K c chu
c) Xc dinh bac cua mo rong Q K L.
(Xem HD 288)
8. 9 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so khc 2.
ng minh
a) Cho a, b F sao cho a, b v ab khng c can bac 2 trong F . Chu
ra` ng truo`ng F ( a, b) l mot mo rong Galois trn F v Gal(K/F )

=
Z2 Z2.
ng
b) Dao lai, cho F K l mot mo rong bac 4 c Aut(K/F )
= Z2 Z2. Chu

minh ra` ng K = F ( a, b) voi a, b v ab khng c can bac 2 trong F .
(Xem HD 289)
Nguyen Chnh T
t Galois
155
8. 10 . Cho E = Q( 8 2, i), M1 = Q(i), M2 = Q( 2), M3 = Q( 2). Xc dinh cc
nhm Aut(E/Mi) voi 1 i 3.

(Xem HD 289)
8. 11 . Cho f = x4 2x2 2 Q[x].
t kha quy trn Q.
ng to f ba
a) Chu
p
p
ng to v deù l nghiem cua

b) Dat = 1 + 3 v = 1 3. Chu
f . Tm cc nghiem cn lai cua f .
ng to K1 6= K2 v
c) Dat K1 = Q(), K2 = Q(). Chu
K1 K2 = Q( 3) = F.
ng minh ra` ng K1, K2 v K1K2 l cc mo rong Galois trn F . M ta
d) Chu
`
nhm Galois Gal(K1K2/F ), ve so do bao hm cc nhm con v cc truo`ng
ng.
trung gian tuong u
u voi nhm cc php do i xu
ng minh ra` ng nhm Galois cua f dang ca
ng
e) Chu
cua hnh vung.
(Xem HD 290)
Nguyen Chnh T
156
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
U
T GALOIS
NG DUNG CUA L THUYE
T SO
9 MO
` NG HU
U HAN
9.1 TRUO
u han pha`n tu th goi l truo`ng hu

u han.
Dinh ngha. Mot truo`ng c hu
Nhan xt 9.1.
(i) Truo`ng hu
u han E c dac so p nguyn to . Do d truo`ng con nguyn to cua E,
k hieu Fp, dang cau voi Zp.
(ii) Truo`ng hu
u han E c dac so p th c q = pn pha`n tu, voi n = [E : Fp].
u han deù l mo rong don trn truo`ng con nguyn to

Menh de` 9.2. Moi truo`ng hu
cua n.
ng minh. Cho E l mot truo`ng hu
Chu
u han c truo`ng con nguyn to Fp. Ta bie t
ra`ng nhm nhn E = E\{0} l mot nhm cyclic. Goi l pha`n tu sinh. R rng
E = Fp().
u han E c pn pha`n tu (p nguyn to ) dang ca u voi
Menh de` 9.3. Mot truo`ng hu
n
truo`ng phn r cua xp x trn Fp, c nhm Galois l nhm cyclic ca p n sinh boi
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
157
nh xa Frobenius : a 7 ap. Suy ra voi moi n N, to`n tai duy nha t (sai khc
u han c p phan tu, k hieu Fpn .

dang cau) mot truo`ng hu
p pn 1 nn apn1 = 1, voi
ng minh. Do E = E\{0} l nhm nhn ca
Chu
n
c xp x. Hon
moi a E . Suy ra, moi pha`n tu cua E deù l nghiem cua da thu
n
c xp x khng the c qu pn nghiem, do d E l truo`ng phn r cua
nu
a, da thu
n
pn
p
c x x tch duoc trn Fp nn E l mo rong Galois trn
x x trn Fp.V da thu
p n. Goi E l pha`n tu c ca
p pn 1 trong
Fp v nhm Galois G cua n c ca
i
p l n. Do
nhm cyclic E . Do i() = p 6= i < n v n() = nn c ca
d G l nhm cyclic sinh ra boi .
He qua 9.4. Cho Fpn l truo`ng c pn pha`n tu. Moi truo`ng trung gian cua Fpn : Fp
deu l mo rong Galois cua Fp v tuong ung 1-1 voi tap cc uoc cua n.
ng minh. V mo rong l Galois, cc truo`ng trung gian cua Fpn : Fp tuong u

ng
Chu
p n. Do d chng tuong u
ng 1-1 voi
1-1 voi cc nhm con cua nhm cyclic () ca
t bac d trn Fp (dang ca
u voi
cc uoc cua n. Voi d | n, truo`ng trung gian duy nha
Fpd ) l truo`ng co dinh boi nhm cyclic ( ).
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
158
He qua 9.5. Cho f Fp[x] ba t kha quy bac d n. Khi d f l mot nhn tu cua
pn
x x khi v ch khi d | n.
n
ng minh. Goi l mot nghiem cua f . V f l nhn tu cua xp x nn

Chu
n
p
`
nam trong truo`ng phn r cua x x. Do d d = [Fp() : Fp] l mot uoc cua n.
d
u voi Fpd l truo`ng phn r cua xp x trn

Nguoc lai, ta c Fp() dang ca

d
d
Fp. Suy ra l nghiem cua xp x. Do d f l uoc cua xp x nn l uoc cua
pn
x x.
t ca cc da thu
t
c chuan tac, ba
Su dung Maple 4. He qua trn cho ta xc dinh ta
d
kha quy bac d (v bac d0 | d) trn Zp ba` ng cch tm dang nhn tu ha cua xp x.
Voi Maple, ta de dng thuc hien dieu d.
t kha quy chuan ta c bac 1, bac 2 v 4 trn

c ba
V du sau tm tat ca cc da thu
truo`ng Z3.
>
Factor(x^(3^4)-x)mod 3 ;
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
159
(x4 + x2 + x + 1) x (x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1) (x + 1) (x2 + 1)

(x4 + 2 x3 + x2 + 1) (x4 + 2 x + 2) (x4 + 2 x3 + x2 + x + 2)
(x4 + 2 x3 + 2) (x4 + x3 + 2 x + 1) (x4 + 2 x2 + 2)
(x4 + 2 x3 + x + 1) (x4 + x2 + 2) (x4 + x3 + x2 + 2 x + 2)
(x4 + 2 x3 + 2 x2 + x + 2) (x2 + x + 2) (x4 + x3 + 2) (x + 2)
(x4 + x2 + 2 x + 1) (x4 + x + 2) (x4 + x3 + 2 x2 + 2 x + 2)
(x2 + 2 x + 2) (x4 + x3 + x2 + 1) (x4 + 2 x3 + x2 + 2 x + 1)
c ba t kha quy f trn truo`ng hu
u han E deù phn r trong
He qua 9.6. Moi da thu
mo rong E() voi l mot nghiem cua f .
ng minh. Truo`ng E() l mo rong Galois trn Fp nn l mo rong Galois trn

Chu
c to i tieu cua (do d f ) phn r trong E().

E. Suy ra da thu
u han. To`n tai bao dng dai so cua E.
Menh de` 9.7. Cho E l mot truo`ng hu
u voi Fpn . Dat

ng minh. Goi p l dac so cua E. Khi d E dang ca
Chu
S
y ra`ng n l mot mo rong dai so
Fp =
Fpr . Khi d Fp l mot truo`ng. De tha
r1
cua Fp, v do d l mo rong dai so cua E. Cuo i cng n l mot truo`ng dng dai so
Nguyen Chnh T
160
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
v voi moi f Fp[x], to`n tai l de f Fpl [x]. Truo`ng phn r cua f trn Fpl l mo
a trong Fp.
rong hu
u han cua Fp do d c dang Fpm nn chu
t k, xem Dinh l C.1 trong Phu

Viec to`n tai bao dng dai so cua mot truo`ng ba
luc.
` NG V DA THU
C CHIA DUO
` NG TRN
9.2 TRUO
Cho F l mot truo`ng v n N khng chia he t cho dac so cua
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
`
u
F
.
Tru
o
ng
phn
r
E
cu
a
x
1
trn
F
d
o
c
go
i
l
tru
o`ng chia

duo`ng trn bac n (trn F ).
t ca cc
Nhan xt 9.8. Mot nghiem cua xn 1 goi l can bac n cua don vi. Tap ta
can bac n cua don vi tao thnh mot nhm nhn Cn trong truo`ng chia duo`ng trn
bac En. Nhm Cn c n pha`n tu do xn 1 tch duoc. Nhu the nhm Cn l nhm
cyclic (xem Bi tap 0. 18). Mot phan tu sinh cua Cn goi l can nguyn thuy bac
n cua don vi. So cc can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi ba` ng (n) voi l hm
Euler.
Menh de` 9.9. Truo`ng chia duo`ng trn En l mo rong don Galois trn F .
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
161
ng minh. Goi n l mot can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi. Khi d
Chu
c xn 1 tch duoc trn F nn En Galois trn F .

En = F (n). Da thu
u cua nhm Cn. Do d

Cho Gal(En/F ). Khi d cam sinh mot tu dang ca

t i {1, . . . , n1},
(n) cung l mot pha`n tu sinh cua Cn. Suy ra, to`n tai duy nha
thoa (i, n) = 1 de (n) = ni . Nhu the , ta c mot nh xa tu` Gal(F (n)/F ) vo
i
Zn , nhm nhn cc phan tu kha nghich cua Zn, xc d nh boi 7 i. De dng
y ra` ng nh xa ny l mot don ca

u nhm. Do d ta c ke t qua sau.
tha
t don
Menh de` 9.10. nh xa tu` Gal(F (n)/F ) vo Z
n xc dinh boi 7 i l mo
ca u nhm. Suy ra nhm Galois Gal(F (n)/F ) dang ca u voi mot nhm con cua
Z
.
n
u nhm Gal(F (n)/F ) Z nu trn khng nha
t thie t
Nhan xt 9.11. Don ca
n
u. V du ne u F = R, nhm Gal(R(n)/R) hoac l nhm ta`m
phai l mot ton ca
thuo`ng hoac ch c 2 pha`n tu. Mat khc, ne u F = Q v n = p, nhm Gal(Q(p)/F )
`
`
u trn l mot dang ca

u. Ta se
c p 1 phan tu, bang voi cap cua Z

p , nn don ca
y ra`ng dieù d dng voi moi n khi F = Q.

tha
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
162
Cho 1, . . . , (n) l (n) can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi trong
c chia duo`ng trn

truo`ng chia duo`ng trn bac n trn F . Da thu
n l da thu
c dinh boi
thu
Dinh ngha.
(n)
Y
n(x) =
(x i).
i=1
t don gian sau dy lin quan de n (n) :

Ta c cc tnh cha
Menh de` 9.12.
Q
n
(i) x 1 = d(x).
d|n
(ii) Ne u F c dac so 0 v do`ng nha t Z voi anh cua n trong F qua don ca u dinh
boi n 7 n.1F th n(x) Z[x].

(iii) Ne u F c dac so p v do`ng nha t Zp voi truo`ng con nguyn to cua F th
c nhan duoc o (ii) modulo p.

n(x) Zp[x], ba`ng voi da thu
ng minh. (i) Hien nhin.

Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
163
ng minh ba` ng quy nap theo n. Ne u n = 1 ke t qua l hien nhin. Ta c

(ii) Ta chu
Y
Y
n
x 1=
d(x) = n(x) d(x).
d|n
dkn
Theo gia thie t quy nap d(x) Z[x], dkn (ngha l d l uoc cua n v d < n).
Dat
Y
G=
d(x) Z[x].
dkn
Ta c
n(x) =
xn 1
G
c c he tu thuoc Z nn n(x) Z[x].
l thuong cua hai da thu
ng minh cua (ii).

(iii) Hien nhin tu` chu
V du 29. (i) Voi moi p nguyn to , ta c
p(x) = xp1 + + x + 1.
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
164
(ii) Tu` menh de` trn, ta de dng tnh duoc (n), chang han :
1(x) = x 1 ;
2(x) =
3(x) =
4(x) =
6(x) =
8(x) =
9(x) =
x2 1
x1
x3 1
=x+1;
= x2 + x + 1 ;
x1
x4 1
(x 1)(x + 1)
= x2 + 1 ;
x6 1
(x 1)(x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)
x8 1
(x 1)(x +
1)(x2
+ 1)
x9 1
(x
10(x) =
1)(x2
+ x + 1)
= x2 x + 1 ;
= x4 + 1 ;
= x6 + x3 + 1 ;
x10 1
(x 1)(x + 1)5(n)
= x4 x3 + x2 x + 1 ;
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
12(x) =
165
x12 1
= x4 x2 + 1 ;
1(x)2(x)3(x)4(x)6(x)
c chia duo`ng trn, ta c the dng cng thu
c dao
Nhan xt 9.13. De tnh da thu
nguoc Mobius sau dy. Goi : N N l hm Mobius dinh boi :

neu n = 1,
1
(n) =
a mot uoc chnh phuong,
0
ne u n chu
(1)r ne u n = p1 pr , pi 6= pj nguyn to .
y gi tri trong 1 nhm nhn aben. Cho
Dat f l hm xc dinh trn N v la
Q
c dao nguoc Mobius cho boi :
F (n) = f (d). Khi d cng thu
d|n
Y
n
F (d)( d ).
f (n) =
d|n
p dung cho hm f (n) = n(x) c gi tri trong nhm nhn F (x) v
Q
n
F (n) = xn 1. Ta c n(x) = (xd 1)( d ).
d|n
p cho ta lenh de tnh da thu

c chia duo`ng trn
Su dung Maple 5. Maple cung ca
nhu sau :
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
166
>
with(numtheory):
cyclotomic(n,x); voi n l mot so tu nhin xc dinh.
c chia duo`ng trn d bie t:

V du, Maple cho lai ta cc da thu
>
>
for i to 12 do Phi[i]:=cyclotomic(i,x) od;

1 := x 1
2 := x + 1
3 := x2 + x + 1
4 := x2 + 1
5 := x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
6 := x2 x + 1
7 := x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
8 := x4 + 1
9 := x6 + x3 + 1
10 := x4 x3 + x2 x + 1
11 := x10 + x9 + x8 + x7 + x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
167
12 := x4 x2 + 1
Ta c ke t qua don gian sau dy :
Menh de` 9.14. Cho F l truo`ng c dac so 0 hoac khng chia he t n. Goi F (n) l
`
`
u
truong chia d ong trn bac n trn F , voi n l mot can nguyn thuy bac n cua don
vi. Cc menh de` sau l tuong duong :
c chia duo`ng trn n(x) ba t kha quy trn F ;

(i) da thu
(ii) [F (n) : F ] = (n) ;
t dang ca u.
(iii) don ca u Gal(F (n)/F ) Z
n xc dinh nhu trong (9.10) l mo
ng minh. Da thu
c to i tieu cua n trn F l uoc cua n(x), v n(x) c bac
Chu
t kha quy khi v ch khi [F (n) : F ] = (n). Ch ra` ng

l (n). Do d n(x) ba
p cua Gal(F (n)/F ) ba` ng voi [F (n) : F ], nn [F (n) : F ] = (n) khi v ch
ca
u Gal(F (n)/F ) Z l dang ca
u.
khi don ca
n
c chia duo`ng trn n(x) ba t kha quy trn Q.

Dinh l 9.15. Da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
168
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
t kha quy cua n(x). Ta c

ng minh. Goi f Z[x] l mot uoc ba
Chu
n(x) = f g, voi g Z[x]. Goi n l mot nghiem cua f . R rng n l mot
ng minh n(x) = f ba` ng cch ch ra

can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi. Ta chu
rang voi moi m nguyn to cng nhau voi n th nm cung l mot nghiem cua f . Thuc
ra, ta ch ca`n ch ra ra`ng voi moi p nguyn to khng chia he t n, pha`n tu np cung
l mot nghiem cua f .
Gia su c p nguyn to khng chia he t n sao cho np khng phai l nghiem cua
p
p
f . Suy ra n l nghiem cua g. Ni cch khc n l nghiem cua g(x ). Nhu vay n
l nghiem chung cua f v g(xp). Nhu the (f, g(xp)) 6= 1 trong Q[x]. Goi f , g(xp)
p
p
l anh cua f v g(x ) trong vnh Zp[x]. Suy ra (f , g(x )) 6= 1 trong Zp[x]. Trong
p
Zp[x], ta c g(xp) = g(x) . Nhu the (f , g) 6= 1 trong Zp[x]. Ni cch khc, n(x)
c nghiem boi trong truo`ng phn r cua n trn Zp. Dieù ny v l.
t thie t
c n(x) khng nha
Nhan xt 9.16. Trn truo`ng c dac so lon hon 0, da thu
bat kha quy. V du
12(x) = x4 x2 + 1 = (x2 + 6x + 1)(x2 + 5x + 1)

Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
169
trong Z11[x].
` NG THUO
` U DUNG DUOC BA
C KE V COMPA
9.3 DA GIC DE
ng minh ra`ng ne u R dung duoc ba`ng thuoc ke v compa

Trong Bi 4, ta d chu
th [Q() : Q] = 2r voi r N. Nguoc lai, ta c :

Bo de` 9.17. Cho E R voi E l mot mo rong Galois cua Q. Ne u
r
`
[E : Q] = 2 th dung duoc bang thuoc ke v compa.
ng minh. Gia su ta c [E : Q] = 2r . Goi G = Gal(E/Q). Ta c (G : 1) = 2r .

Chu
To`n tai dy chuye`n cc nhm con (A.17)
{1} = G0 G1 Gr = G
thoa (Gi : Gi1) = 2, voi moi i = 1, . . . , r. Ta c dy chuye`n cc truo`ng trung
ng:
gian tuong u
E = T (G0) T (G1) T (Gr ) = Q
voi [T (Gi1) : T (Gi)] = 2, voi moi i = 1, . . . , r. Suy ra
T (Gi1) = T (Gi)( d),

Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
170
voi d T (Gi). Do d ne u moi pha`n tu cua T (Gi) dung duoc th moi pha`n tu cua
T (Gi1) cung dung duoc, voi moi i = 1, . . . , r. Suy ra dung duoc.
nh dung duoc khi v ch khi n = 2r p1 ps voi

Dinh l 9.18. Da gic deù n ca
p1, , ps l cc so nguyn to Fermat khc nhau.

ng minh. Da gic deù dung duoc khi v ch khi
Chu
n = e2i/n C = R2
l mot diem dung duoc. Tuong duong voi so = cos( 2
) dung duoc. Ta c
n
1
2
= (n + n )/2. Suy ra n 2n + 1 = 0. Do d [Q(n) : Q()] = 2.
u
Mat khc ta bie t ra` ng Q(n) : Q l mo rong Galois c nhm Galois G dang ca
voi Z
.
Tru
o
ng
trung
gian
Q()
cu
ng
l
mo
t mo rong Galois trn Q. Do d dung
(n)
duoc khi v ch khi [Q() : Q] = 2 l mot luy thuà cua 2. Tuong duong (n)
l mot luy thuà cua 2. Dieù d xay ra khi v ch khi n c dang nhu d ch ra (xem
Menh de` 0.22).
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
171
A DAI SO
9.4 DINH L CO BAN CU
ng minh cho Dinh l co ban cua

Ta se p dung L thuye t Galois de dua ra mot chu
dai so .
). Moi da thu
c bac lon hon 0 trn truo`ng
inh l co ban cua dai so
Dinh l 9.19 (D
c C c mot nghiem trong C.

so phu
t co ban sau ve` truo`ng so thuc v phu

ng minh. Ta dng 2 tnh cha
c.
Chu
t 1. Moi da thu
c he so thuc c bac le deù c mot nghiem thuc. Suy ra R
Tnh cha
t ny suy ra de dng tu` Dinh l gi

khng c mot mo rong thuc su bac le. Tnh cha
c f (x) trn R chuan tac bac le th c gi tri m voi x

tri trung bnh. Mot da thu
t mot nghiem thuc. Voi

du b v c gi tri duong voi x du lon. V the f c t nha
mot mo rong E : R bac le, do E l mo rong don cua R nn E = R(). Goi f l da
t kha quy v c nghiem trong R, nn f c bac 1. Suy ra

c to i tieu cua th f ba
thu
E = R.
t 2. Moi da thu
t ny duoc suy
c bac 2 trn C c nghiem trong C. Tnh cha
Tnh cha
c deù c mot can bac 2. That vay, ne u z = re voi

ra ne u ta ch ra ra`ng moi so phu

Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
172
c a =
0 r R. Khi d so phu
/2
re
thoa a2 = z.
y lin hop. Cho

ng minh dinh l. Goi Aut(C) l php la
By gio` ta chu
c nhan duoc ba` ng tc dong ln cc

f C[x] c bac n lon hon 0. Goi f l da thu
c f f c cc he so bat bien boi nn thuoc vo R[x]. Do d, de

he so cua f . Da thu
c, ta ch ca`n chu
ng minh cho f R[x]. Xt n = 2mk
ng minh f c nghiem phu
chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap trn m. Ne u m = 0 th n le,

voi k le v m 0. Ta chu
nn dinh l duoc chung minh. Xt m > 0. Goi 1, . . . , n l cc nghiem cua f v
dat K = R(1, . . . , n, i). Khi d K l mo rong Galois cua R v C K. Voi moi
c :
t R, xt da thu
Y
Lt =
[x (i + j + tij )].
1i<jn
R rng, voi moi Gal(K/R), khi tc dong ln f , cc nhn tu cua L hon vi
cho nhau nn (Lt) = Lt. Ni cch khc Lt R[x]. Bac cua Lt l
n(n 1)
= 2m1k(2mk 1) = 2m1k0
2
c Lt c
voi k0 le. Do so mu cua 2 nho hon m nn theo gia thuye t quy nap, da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
173
c. Nhu the voi moi t R, to`n tai i, j thoa 0 i < j n sao cho
nghiem phu
i + j + tij C. Do t c the lay v han trong khi so cap (i, j) hu

u han, nn
to`n tai s 6= r trong R v cap i, j de
i + j + tij , i + j + sij C.
Suy ra (s t)ij C. Nn ij v do d ca i + j thuoc C. Nhu the i v
c bac 2 trn C do d thuoc C. Ta c dieù phai

j l 2 nghiem cua cng mot da thu
ng minh.
chu
p
Bi ta
a) Moi truo`ng hu
u han deù l mo rong Galois trn truo`ng nguyn to cua n.
t (sai khc dang ca

u) mot truo`ng hu
b) C duy nha
u han c n pha`n tu.
t (sai khc dang ca

u) mot truo`ng hu
c) C duy nha
u han c pn pha`n tu voi p
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
174
nguyn to .
n
t kha quy bac d trn Zp deù l uoc cua xp x.

c ba
d) Moi da thu
c bat kha quy bac n trn mot truo`ng hu

e) C hu
u han da thu
u han cho truoc.
f) C truo`ng hu
u han go`m 124 pha`n tu.
g) C truo`ng hu
u han m nhm nhn cc pha`n tu khc 0 go`m 124 pha`n tu.
u.
h) Moi truo`ng c 121 pha`n tu deù dang ca
u cua truo`ng hu
u.
i) Moi tu do`ng ca
u han deù l tu dang ca

`
j) Nhm cong cc phan tu trong truo`ng hu
u han l nhm cyclic.
k) Nhm con hu
u han cua nhm nhn cc pha`n tu khc 0 cua mot truo`ng hu
u
han l mot nhm cyclic.
l) Moi truo`ng chia duo`ng trn deù l mo rong Galois.
m) Nhm Galois cua truo`ng chia duo`ng trn l nhm cyclic.

n) Nhm Galois cua truo`ng chia duo`ng trn l nhm aben.
o) C dng (n) can nguyn thuy bac n > 0 cua don vi trn truo`ng F c dac
so khng chia he t n.
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
175
t kha quy trn truo`ng nguyn to cua

c chia duo`ng trn lun lun ba
p) Da thu
n.
c chia duo`ng trn lun tch duoc.
q) Da thu
2006
r) Da gic deù c 2
.3.5.17.257.65537 canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v
compa.
s) Da gic deù c 30 canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
t) Da gic deù c 18 canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
u) Da gic deù c 14 canh dung duoc ba` ng thuoc ke v compa.
(Xem HD 291)
t ca da thu
t kha quy bac 2, 3, 4, 5 trn truo`ng Z2, Z3, Z5 (c the su
c ba
9. 2 . Tm ta
dung Maple).
(Xem HD 291)
t kha quy cng bac trn truo`ng hu

c ba
9. 3 . Cho f, g l 2 da thu
u han E. Goi ,
ng minh ra` ng cc truo`ng E() v E()

la`n luot l nghiem cua f v g. Chu
dang cau voi nhau.

(Xem HD 291)
Nguyen Chnh T
176
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
t kha quy
ng minh ra` ng voi moi so nguyn duong n, to`n tai mot da thu
c ba
9. 4 . Chu
bac n trn Fp.

(Xem HD 292)
ng minh ra` ng da thu

c x4 + 1 l kha quy trn Zp voi moi p nguyn to .
9. 5 . Chu
(Xem HD 292)
ng Galois cua truo`ng chia duo`ng trn Q(12) trn Q.
9. 6 . Xc dinh cc tuong u
(Xem HD 292)
9. 7 . Lm tuong tu cho Q(13).
(Xem HD 293)
ng minh ra` ng E = F () khi v ch

9. 8 . Cho E : F l mot mo rong hu
u han. Chu
khi E : F ch c hu
u han cc truo`ng trung gian. Suy ra moi mo rong hu
u han
v tch duoc deù l mo rong don. (xem Bi tap 3. 8)

(Xem HD 293)
ng minh ra`ng mo rong Fp(x, y) khng

9. 9 . K hieu Fp l bao dng dai so cua Fp. Chu
phai l mo rong don cua Fp(xp, y p) ba` ng cch ch ra ra` ng c v han truo`ng
trung gian, (xem bi tap 9. 8).

(Xem HD 293)
Nguyen Chnh T
u
t Galois
ng dung cua L thuye
t so
9. Mo
177
c
9. 10 . Cho F l truo`ng c 16 pha`n tu. Xc dinh so nghiem trong F cua cc da thu
sau dy :
a) x3 1 ;
b) x4 1 ;
c) x15 1 ;
d) x17 1.
(Xem HD 294)
ng minh ra` ng phuong trnh x2 = 1 c

9. 11 . Cho F l truo`ng c dac so khc 2. Chu
nghiem trong F khi v ch khi |F | = 4k + 1 voi k N.

(Xem HD 294)
9. 12 . Goi l mot can nguyn thuy bac 12 cua don vi trn Q. C bao nhiu truo`ng
trung gian thuc su cua mo rong Q( ) Q() ?

(Xem HD 294)

c
9. 13 . Cho F l truo`ng c 81 pha`n tu. Xc dinh so nghiem trong F cua cc da thu
sau :
a) x80 1 ;
b) x81 1 ;
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
178
c) x88 1.
(Xem HD 294)
c f = x4 + 1 trn F5, F25 v F125. Xc dinh

9. 14 . Tm dang nhn tu ha cua da thu
truo`ng phn r cua f trong cc truo`ng hop trn.
(Xem HD 294)
Nguyen Chnh T
c
10. Nhm Galois cua da thu
179
C
10 NHM GALOIS CUA DA THU
c dac biet trn
Trong bi ny, ta se tnh ton nhm Galois cua mot so lop da thu
mot truo`ng F ty .
T THU
C
10.1 BIE
c tch duoc. Goi 1, . . . , n

Cho f = xn + a1xn1 + + a0 F [x] l mot da thu
t ca cc nghiem cua f . Dat :

l ta
Y
Df =
(i j )2
1i<jn
c cua f . K hieu
goi l biet thu
Df =
(i j ).
1i<jn
Ch ra` ng Df 6= 0 khi v ch khi f khng c nghiem boi. Goi Gf l nhm Galois
ng Sn.
cua f trn F v xem Gf l nhm con cua nhm do i xu
Bo de` 10.1. Cho f xc dinh nhu trn v khng c nghiem boi. Voi moi Gf ,
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
180
(i) (
p
p
Df ) = sign() Df ;
(ii) (Df ) = Df .
u sign.
ng minh. Suy ra truc tie p tu` dinh ngha cua do`ng ca
Chu
Menh de` 10.2. Cho f nhu trong bo de` trn. Goi Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f trn
F . Khi d :
c Df l mot pha`n tu cua F ;
(i) Biet thu
p
(ii) Truo`ng con cua Ef co dinh boi Gf An l F ( Df ), trong d An l nhm thay
phin. Suy ra
p
Gf An Df F Df chnh phuong trong F.
ng minh. (i) Do Df co dinh boi moi pha`n tu cua Gf v Ef : F Galois nn
Chu
Df F .
p
(ii) Do f ch c nghiem don nn Df 6= 0. Tu` bo de` trn, ta c Gf co dinh
p
p
Df khi v ch khi An. Do d Gf An chnh l nhm co dinh F ( Df ).
Nguyen Chnh T
c
181
c bac hai f = x2 + bx + c F [x] tch duoc. Goi 1, 2 l 2

V du 30. Cho da thu
nghiem cua f . Ta c
Df = (1 2)2 = (1 2)2 412 = b2 4c.

u voi
c Df = 0 khi v ch khi f c nghiem kp. Nhm Galois Gf dang ca
Biet thu
nhm con cua S2. Neu Df chnh phuong trong F th Gf = 1 = A2 v Gf = S2

ne u Df khng chnh phuong trong F .
A DA THU
C BA
C 3
10.2 NHM GALOIS CU
Trong muc ny v muc (10.3) sau, de don gian trong bien luan, ta gia thie t F c
c bac 2, 3, 4 trn F deù tch duoc.

dac so khc 2, 3. Khi d moi da thu
3
2
c theo y
Cho f = x + ax + bx + c F [x]. Thay x = y a/3, ta c da thu
g = y 3 + py + q F [y]
voi
p=
Nguyen Chnh T
1
3
(3b a ),
q=
1
27
(2a3 9ab + 27c).
(3)
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
182
c cua chng
R rng truo`ng phn r cua f v g trn F l nhu nhau v biet thu
cung trng nhau. Goi 1, 2, 3 l 3 nghiem cua g. Ta c
g = (y 1)(y 2)(y 3).

c cua g l :
Dao hm hnh thu
g 0 = (y 1)(y 2) + (y 2)(y 3) + (y 1)(y 3).
Do d
g 0(1) = (1 2)(1 3)
g 0(2) = (2 1)(2 3)
g 0(3) = (3 1)(3 2).
Nhu the
Dg = [(1 2)(1 3)(2 3]2 = g 0(1)g 0(2)g 0(3).
Nguyen Chnh T
c
183
Mat khc, tu` (3), ta c g 0 = 3y 2 + p. Do d
Dg = (321 + p)(322 + p)(323 + p)

= 27212223 + 9p(2122 + 2123 + 2223)
+3p2(21 + 22 + 23) + p3.
p s1, s2, s3 cua 1, 2, 3 voi ch
c do i xu
ng so ca
Bieu dien Dg qua cc da thu
ra` ng s1 = 0, s2 = p, s3 = q, ta c
Dg = 4p3 27q 2.
c cua f , bieu dien Dg theo cc he tu cua f , ta c
Do Dg cung l biet thu
2 2
3
3
2
Df = a b 4b 4a c 27c + 18abc.
(4)
Ne u f kha quy trn F th nhm Galois Gf cua n trng voi nhm Galois cua
t kha quy trn F . Khi d
c bac 2 trn F . Ta ch ca`n xt khi f ba
mot da thu
u voi A3 hoac voi S3. Ne u Df chnh phuong

(Gf : 1) 3 do d Gf dang ca
trong F th do Gf A3, suy ra Gf = A3. Khi d truo`ng phn r Eg = F (i) voi

i {1, 2, 3}. Ne u Df khng chnh phuong trong F th Gf = S3 v
p
Ef = F (i, Df ) voi i {1, 2, 3}.
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
184
t kha quy v biet

c g = x3 4x + 2 Q[x]. R rng g ba
V du 31. Cho da thu
3
2
c Dg = 4.4 27.2 = 4.37 khng chnh phuong trong Q. Do d nhm Galois
thu
cua g l S3. Truo`ng phn r cua g trn Q l Q( 37, ) voi l mot nghiem cua g.
t kha quy
V du 32. Cho f = x3 6x2 + 9x 1 Q[x]. De dng kiem tra f ba
c Df = 81 = 92. Do d nhm Galois cua f l A3. Truo`ng phn

trn Q. Biet thu
r cua f l Q() voi l mot nghiem cua f . Su dung Maple, ta de dng tm duoc
dang nhn tu ha cua f trong Q() l
f = (x 4 + 4 2)(x 2 3 + 2)(x ).
C BA
C 4
10.3 DA THU
c f = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d F [x]. Ba`ng cch thay x = y a/4,

Cho da thu
c theo y
ta c da thu
g = y 4 + py 2 + qy + r F [y],
Nguyen Chnh T
c
185
voi
1
p = (3a2 + 8b) ;
8
1
q = (a3 4ab + 8c) ;
8
1
r=
(3a4 + 16a2b 64ac + 256d).
256
Goi cc nghiem cua g l 1, 2, 3 v 4. Goi G l nhm Galois cua g (cung l cua
u voi
a
f ). Neu g l tch cua mot d thuc bac 1 v bac 3 trn F th nhm G dang ca
c bac 3 d xc dinh o trn. Ne u g l tch cua 2 da thu

c
nhm Galois cua mot da thu
t kha quy bac 2 trn F th truo`ng phn r Eg cua g trn F l F ( d1, d2) voi
ba
d1, d2 F . Ne u d1 = a2d2 voi a F th Eg l mo rong bac 2 trn F v G

= Z2 .
Ne u khng th G
= Z2 Z2.
t kha quy trn F . Khi d, ta bie t ra` ng, voi 2
By gio`, ta xt truo`ng hop g ba
nghiem ty i, j cho truoc cua g, to`n tai mot pha`n tu G bie n i thnh j
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
186
t d l :
(xem 5.5). Nhu
ng nhm con cua S4 thoa mn tnh cha
S4 ;
A4 ;
D8 = {1, (1324), (12)(34), (1423), (13)(24), (14)(23), (12), (34)}
v cc nhm con lin hop 1D8 cua D8 (xem Phu luc A) ;

V = {1, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} ;
C4 = {1, (1234), (13)(24), (1432)} v cc nhm con lin hop
1C4 cua C4.

u voi mot trong cc nhm trn. Dat
Nhm Galois G se dang ca
1 = (1 + 2)(3 + 4)
2 = (1 + 3)(2 + 4)
3 = (1 + 4)(2 + 3).
Ta c
1 + 2 + 3 = 2p
12 + 13 + 23 = p2 4r
123 = q 2.
Nguyen Chnh T
c
187
Suy ra 1, 2 v 3 l 3 nghiem cua
h(X) = X 3 2pX 2 + (p2 4r)X + q 2.
(5)
c bac 3 cua g. Ch ra`ng

c (5) goi l giai thu
Da thu
1 2 = 13 + 24 12 34
= (1 4)(2 3).
Tuong tu ta c :
1 3 = (1 3)(2 4)
2 3 = (1 2)(3 4).
c cua giai thu
c (5) trng voi biet thu
c cua g (do d trng voi biet
Suy ra biet thu
c cua f ). Tu` cng thu

c tnh biet thu
c (4), ta c biet thu
c cua giai thu
c (5) l :
thu
Dh = 16p4r 128p2r 2 + 256r 3 4p3q 2 27q 4 + 144pq 2r.

(6)
Thay cc gi tri cua p, q, r trong (6), ta c
Df = 6a2c2d + b2a2c2 + 144a2bd2 4a2b3d + 144bdc2

+18abc3 192acd2 + 16b4d 128b2d2 80b2acd
+18a3bcd 27a4d2 + 256d3 4a3c3 4b3c2 27c4.
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
188
c cua mot da thu

c
Su dung Maple 6. Trong Maple, ta de dng tnh duoc biet thu
ty voi lenh :
>discrim(f,x);
c cua f = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d c the tnh truc tie p ba` ng lenh :
V du, biet thu
>discrim(x^4+a*x^3+b*x^2+c*x+d,x)};
6a2c2d + b2a2c2 + 144a2bd2 4a2b3d + 144bdc2
+18abc3 192acd2 + 16b4d 128b2d2 80b2acd
+18a3bcd 27a4d2 + 256d3 4a3c3 4b3c2 27c4
c h(X) chu
a trong truo`ng phn r cua f . Do d
Truo`ng phn r cua giai thu
nhm Galois cua h l nhm thuong cua G. Ta c cc truo`ng hop nhu sau :
t kha quy v Df khng chnh phuong trong F . Khi d G khng chu

a
Ne u h ba
u voi S3. Do d ca
p cua G chia he t cho
trong A4 v nhm Galois cua h dang ca
6. Suy ra G = S4.
t kha quy v Df chnh phuong trong F . Khi d G A4 v nhm
Ne u h ba
u voi A3. Suy ra G c ca
p chia he t cho 3. Suy ra G = A4.
Galois cua h dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
c
189
Ne u h kha quy v phn r thnh 3 nhn tu tuye n tnh trong F [X]. Khi d
1, 2 v 3 thuoc F . Do d moi pha`n tu G phai co dinh chng. Suy ra G V .
t kha quy nn G = V .
V g ba
t trong F [X].
c bac 2 v mot da thu
c bac nha
Ne u h phn tch thnh 1 da thu
Khi d c dng 1 pha`n tu trong {1, 2, 3} thuoc F . Ta c the gia thie t 1 F .
Nhu the moi pha`n tu cua G co dinh 1 nhung khng co dinh 2 v 3. Suy ra
`
G D8 v G * V . Nhu the G = D8 hay G = C4. Ch rang F ( Df ) l
truo`ng co dinh boi G A4. Ta c D8 A4 = V v C4 A4 = {1, (13)(24)}.
p
t kha
`
Ch rang G A4 l nhm Galois cua g trn F ( Df ). Do d ne u g ba

p
p khng nho hon 4, do d G = D8. Nguoc
quy trn F ( Df ) th G A4 c ca
lai, neu g kha quy trn F ( Df ) th G = C4.
t kha quy trn Q. Giai

c f = x4 + 5x2 + 5x 5. R rng f ba
V du 33. Cho da thu
t kha quy trn Q. Hon the biet thu

c
c cua f l h = x3 10x2 + 45x + 25 ba
thu
cua f l 281375 khng chnh phuong. Do d nhm Galois cua f l S4.

t kha quy trn Q.
c f = x4 5x2 4 Q[x]. Kiem tra f ba
V du 34. Cho da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
ChUOng 2. L THUYE
190
c cua f l
Giai thu
h(x) = x3 + 10x2 + 41x = x(x2 + 10x + 41)
c cua f l 107584 = 3282 khng chnh
kha quy trn Q. Mat khc biet thu
y ra` ng f khng kha quy trn

phuong. C the tnh truc tiep nghiem cua f v tha
u voi D8.
Q(i). Do d nhm Galois cua f dang ca

Su dung Maple 7. Trong Maple, ta c the tnh truc tie p nhm Galois cua mot da
c bat kha quy c bac khng qu 9 trn Q. C php nhu v du sau dy :

thu
>
restart;
>
f:=x^4-5*x^2-4;
f := x4 5 x2 4
>
galois(f);
4T3, {D(4)}, -, 8, {(1 3), (1 2 3 4)}

y nhm Galois cua x4 5x2 4 dang ca
u
Ke t qua tnh ton cua Maple cho tha
voi nhm D8, c 8 pha`n tu v sinh boi cc php the (1 3) v (1 2 3 4) nhu nhm
ng cua ngic deù).
con cua nhm S4 (trong Maple k hieu D(n) cho nhm do i xu
Nguyen Chnh T
c
191
C TO
NG QUT
10.4 DA THU
c tong qut v chu
ng
c goi l da thu
Trong muc ny, ta se xt lop dac biet cc da thu
u voi nhm do i xu
ng.
minh ra` ng nhm Galois cua chng dang ca
Mot mo rong E cua F goi l hu
u han sinh ne u
Dinh ngha.
E = F (1, . . . , n).
Cho E : F l mot mo rong truo`ng v t1, . . . , tn E. Cc pha`n tu
c
t1, . . . , tn goi l doc lap dai so trn F ne u khng to`n tai da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
f F [x1, . . . , xn] khc 0 sao cho f (t1, . . . , tn) = 0. Ch ra`ng,

khi d cc pha`n tu t1, . . . , tn l siu viet trn F .
`
V du 35. Trong mo rong Q(x, y) : Q cc phan tu siu viet x, y l doc lap dai so
2
trn Q, trong khi x v x khng doc lap dai so.

u han sinh. Khi d to`n tai mot truo`ng

Bo de` 10.3. Cho E : F l mot mo rong hu
trung gian M sao cho :

(i) M = F (1, . . . , r ) voi 1, . . . , r doc lap dai so trn F ,

u han.
(ii) E : M l mo rong hu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
192
t ca 1, . . . , n dai so trn F th
ng minh. Goi E = F (1, . . . , n). Ne u ta
Chu
`
lay M = F . Neu ton tai i siu viet trn F th k hieu n l 1. Ne u E : F (1)
khng hu
u han th to`n tai j siu viet trn F (1). Dat 2 = j . Tie p tuc nhu
vay cho den khi tm duoc F (1, . . . , r ) E l mo rong hu

u han. Khi d dat
M = F (1, . . . , r ).
Bo de` 10.4 (Stienitz). Voi cc k hieu nhu trong bo de` trn, ne u to`n tai mot truo`ng
trung gian N = F (1, . . . , s) khc sao cho 1, . . . , s doc lap dai so trn F v

u han th r = s. So r xc dinh nhu the duoc goi l bac siu viet cua mo
E : N hu
rong truo`ng.
ng minh. Do E : M l mo rong hu
Chu
u han, ta c 1 dai so trn
c f F [x0, . . . , xr ] khc 0 sao cho

M = F (1, . . . , r ). Do d to`n tai da thu
f (1, 1, . . . , r ) = 0.
(7)
t tnh tong qut, gia su 1 xua

t hien trong bieu dien (7). Nhu the 1 dai
Khng ma
so trn F (1, 2, . . . , r ) v E : F (1, 2, . . . , r ) l mo rong hu

u han. Neu s > r
th tie p tuc qu trnh trn, cc i duoc thay boi i v mo rong E : F (1, . . . , r )
Nguyen Chnh T
c
193
hu
u han. Tuy nhin dieù d ko theo r+1 dai so trn F (1, . . . , r ), v l. Vay
s r. Tuong tu, thay doi vai tr cua s v r, ta c r s. Vay r = s.
ng minh ra` ng ne u t1, . . . , tn doc lap

Nhan xt 10.5. Ba` ng qui nap ta de dng chu
u voi truo`ng cc phn thu

c hu
dai so trn F th F (t1, . . . , tn) dang ca
u ty r bie n
F (x1, . . . , xn).
Cho F l mot truo`ng v t1, . . . , tn l cc pha`n tu doc lap dai so trn F . Xt
E := F
n (t1, . . . , tn)
o
=
P (t1 ,...,tn )
Q(t1 ,...,tn )
| P, Q F [t1, . . . , tn], Q 6= 0 .
u cua E dinh boi :

Moi Sr xc dinh mot F -tu dang ca
P (t1), . . . , (tn)
P (t1, . . . , tn)
.
7
Q(t1, . . . , tn)
Q (t1), . . . , (tn)
u tu` Sn vo Aut(E/F ). Xem Sn nhu mot nhm
ng trn l mot don ca
Tuong u
a cc
con cua Aut(E/F ). K hieu N l truo`ng con co dinh boi Sn. R rng N chu
p s1, . . . , sn. Nhac lai,

c do i xu
ng, dac biet chu
a cc da thu
c do i xu
ng so ca
da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
194
p duoc dinh ngha nhu sau :

c do i xu
ng so ca
cc da thu

s 1 = t1 + + tn ;
P
s2 =
titj = t1t2 + + tn1tn ;
1i<jn
P
s3 =
titj tk ;
1i<j<kn
sn = t1 tn.
Ta c ke t qua sau :
Dinh l 10.6. N = F (s1, . . . , sn).
ng minh. Ta c [F (t1, , tn) : N ] = (Sn : 1) = n! theo Dinh l Artin. Ta

Chu
ng minh ra`ng
chu
[F (t1, , tn) : F (s1, , sn)] n!
ng minh.
v tu` nhan xt F (s1, , sn) N , suy ra dieù phai chu
Xt cc mo rong:
F (s1, , sn) F (s1, , sn, tn) F (t1, , tn).

Nguyen Chnh T
c
195
Ta c tn l nghiem cua
X n s1X n1 + + (1)nsn F (s1, , sn)[X].

Do d [F (s1, , sn, tn) : F (s1, , sn)] n.
p cua cc bie n t1, . . . , tn1. R rng
c do i xu
ng so ca
Goi s01, . . . , s0n1 l cc da thu
sj = s0j1tn + s0j voi moi 1 j n. Do d
F (s1, . . . , sn, tn) = F (s01, . . . , s0n1, tn).

Ba`ng quy nap, ta c
[F (t1, . . . , tn) : F (s1, . . . , sn, tn)]

= [F (tn)(t1, . . . , tn1) : F (tn)(s01, . . . , s0n1)] (n 1)!
ng minh.
v suy ra dieù phai chu
Menh de` 10.7. Voi cc k hieu nhu trn, cc pha`n tu s1, . . . , sn l doc lap dai so
trn F .
ng minh. Do [F (t1, . . . , tn) : F (s1, . . . , sn)] = n! nn bac siu viet cua
Chu
chng trn F l nhu nhau. Do d s1, . . . , sn doc lap dai so trn F .

Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
196
Cho F l mot truo`ng v s1, . . . , sn l cc pha`n tu doc lap dai so
c
trn F . Da thu
Dinh ngha.
g = tn s1tn1 + + (1)nsn F (s1, . . . , sn)[t]
(8)
c tong qut bac n trn F .

goi l da thu
t truo`ng v g l da thu
c tong qut (8) trn F . Goi Eg l
Dinh l 10.8. Cho F l mo
truo`ng phn r cua g trn F (s1, . . . , sn). Khi d cc nghiem t1, . . . , tn cua g doc
lap dai so trn F v nhm Galois cua Eg : F (s1, . . . , sn) l Sn.
ng minh. Ta c Eg = F (t1, . . . , tn). Do Eg : F (s1, . . . , sn) l mo rong hu

Chu
u
han nn bac siu viet cua Eg trn F ba` ng voi bac siu viet cua F (s1, . . . , sn) trn
c bang n. Suy ra da thu

c (8) tch duoc nn mo rong Eg : F (s1, . . . , sn) l mo
F , tu
rong Galois. Mat khc, cc pha`n tu t1, . . . , tn l doc lap dai so v s1, . . . , sn l cc

p cua chng. Theo Dinh l 10.6 v tuong u

c do i xu
ng so ca
ng Galois, nhm
da thu
Galois cua mo rong Eg : F (s1, . . . , sn) chnh l Sn.
Nguyen Chnh T
c
197
p
Bi ta
c cua mot da thu

c f F [x] l mot pha`n tu cua F .
a) Biet thu
c bac n > 0 l mot nhm con cua Sn.

b) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
c bac 2 tch duoc trn F l mot nhm cyclic.

c) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
c bac 3 kha quy, tch duoc trn F l mot nhm

d) Nhm Galois cua da thu
cyclic.
c bac 3 tch duoc c biet thu
c chnh phuong l
e) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
mot nhm cyclic.
c bac 3 tch duoc c biet thu

c khng chnh
f) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
u voi S3.
phuong dang ca
t kha quy, tch duoc c biet thu
c bac 3 ba
c
g) Nhm Galois cua mot da thu
u voi S3.
khng chnh phuong dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
198
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
u voi mot nhm con

c bac 4 trn Q c nhm Galois dang ca
h) To`n tai da thu
cua S4.
t kha quy trn Q c 3 nghiem thuc.
c bac 3 ba
i) To`n tai mot da thu
u voi A3 th c 3 nghiem
c bac 3 trn Q c nhm Galois dang ca
j) Mot da thu
thuc.
c cua da thu
c bac 4 v cua giai thu
c bac 3 cua n l nhu nhau.
k) Biet thu
c tong qut bac n trn F c cc he tu thuoc F .

l) Da thu
m) Moi mo rong hu
u han sinh deù l mo rong hu
u han.
n) Moi mo rong dai so , hu

u han sinh deù l mo rong hu
u han.
o) Moi mo rong hu
u han sinh deù l mo rong dai so .
p) Cc pha`n tu doc lap dai so trn F th siu viet trn F .

q) Cc pha`n tu siu viet trn F th doc lap dai so .

(Xem HD 295)
c f = x3 4x + 2 Q[x] (xem V du
10. 2 . Hy tm dang nhn tu ha cua da thu
31) trong Q(, 37) ba`ng Maple, voi l mot nghiem cua f . (Xem HD 295)
Nguyen Chnh T
c
199
c sau dy trn truo`ng Q :

10. 3 . Xc dinh nhm Galois cua cc da thu
a) x3 3x2 + 4x 1 ; b) x3 + 2x2 2x 2 ;
c) 7x3 + 10x2 + 5x + 1 ; d) x3 + x 1 ;
e) x3 2x 2 ;
f) 3x3 3x + 1 ;
g) x3 3x + 1 ;
h) x3 + 2x2 2x 2 .
(Xem HD 295)
c sau dy trn truo`ng Q.

10. 4 . Xc dinh nhm Galois cua cc da thu
a) x4 x2 + 4x + 5 ;
b) x4 + x2 + 3x + 5 ;
c) x4 + 3x + 1 ;
d) x4 4x2 4x 2 ;
e) x4 4x 2 ;
f) x4 + 2x2 4 ;
g) x4 x3 3x + 4 ;
h) x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 4x + 2 ;
i) x4 4x3 + 5x2 2x + 1 ; j) x4 + 2x2 + 4.
(Xem HD 296)
t kha
c f = x4 + ax2 + b F [x] ba
10. 5 . C the ni g ve` nhm Galois cua da thu
(Xem HD 298)
quy v F c dac so khc 2, 3 ?
t kha quy v F l truo`ng c dac so khc 2,3. Goi h l giai thu

c
10. 6 . Cho f F [x] ba
c cua
bac 3 cua f v M l truo`ng phn r cua h trn F . K hieu Df l biet thu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
200
ng minh ra` ng :
f v Gf l nhm Galois cua f . Chu
t kha quy trn F v Df khng chnh phuong
a) Gf = S4 khi v ch khi h ba
trong F ;
t kha quy trn F v Df chnh phuong trong
b) Gf = A4 khi v ch khi h ba
F ;
c) Gf = D8 khi v ch khi h kha quy trn F, Df khng chnh phuong trong
t kha quy trn M ;
F v f ba
d) Gf = V khi v ch khi h kha quy v Df chnh phuong trong F ;
e) Gf = C4 khi v ch khi h kha quy trn F, Df khng chnh phuong trong
F v f kha quy trn M .
(Xem HD 298)
ng minh ra` ng ne u
10. 7 . Cho F l truo`ng hu
u han v f = x3 + ax + b F [x]. Chu
f bat kha quy trn F th 4a3 27b2 chnh phuong trong F . (Xem HD 298)
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
201
I DUOC BA
C CUA DA THU
C
` NG CA
N THU
N GIA
11 TIU CHUA
RO
NG CA
N V TIU CHUA
N GIAI DUOC
11.1 MO
p2 4q
2
c f = x + px + q Q[x] l
Ta bie t ra` ng cc nghiem cua da thu
2
`
nam trong mo rong truo`ng Q( ) voi = p 4q.
c bac ba g = x3 + px + q Q[x]. Nghiem cua g cho boi cng thu

c
Cho da thu
ng cng thu
c Cardano o pha`n cuo i cua tie t ny).
Cardano. (Ta se kiem chu
s
s
r
r
2
3
p
q
q
q
q 2 p 3
3
3
= +
+
+
+
.
2
2
3
2
2
3
Xt cc mo rong Q = E0 E1 E2 E3, trong d:
q 2 p 3
2
E1 := E0(1) voi 1 =
+
E0 ;
2
3
q
E2 := E1(2) voi 32 = + 1 E1 ;
2
E3 := E2(3) = E(1, 2, 3) voi 33 = 32 q K2.
Nguyen Chnh T
202
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
Khi d = 2 + 3 E3. Ta ni ra` ng E3 : Q l mot mo rong can. Ta c dinh
ngha sau dy :
Mot mo rong F E goi l mot mo rong can ne u
E = F (1, . . . , m) sao cho voi moi i = 1, . . . , m to`n tai ni
ni
nh
ngh
a.
D
i
tho
a
F
(
,
.
.
.
,
).
Khi
d
ta
cu
ng
ni
E
l
mo
t mo
1
i1
i
rong can cua F . Ta ni cc pha`n tu i tao ra mot chuoi can cho
mo rong F E.
Mot pha`n tu thuoc vo mot mo rong can E : F th goi l bieu
Dinh ngha.
`
c (trn F ).
dien duoc bang can thu
c f trn F duoc goi l giai duoc ba` ng can thu

c (trn
Mot da thu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
F ) ne u truo`ng phn r cua f na` m trong mot mo rong can cua F .
c giai duoc bang can thu

c trn F neu moi nghiem cua n
Nhu the, mot da thu
duoc bieu dien qua hu

u han cc php ton cong, tru`, nhn, chia v lay can cc
c trn F .
pha`n tu cua F . Khi d ta cung ni cc nghiem cua f l nghiem can thu
Ta nhac lai ke t qua d bie t trong 9.
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
203
Bo de` 11.1. Cho f = xn 1 F [x] voi n khng chia he t cho dac so cua F . Goi Ef
l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . Khi d Ef : F l mo rong Galois v Gal(Ef /F )
l mot nhm aben.
ng minh. Xem Menh de` 9.10

Chu
Mot mo rong Galois E : F goi l mo rong aben (cyclic) ne u nhm
Dinh ngha.
Gal(E/F ) l nhm aben (cyclic).

y ra` ng moi truo`ng chia duo`ng trn l mot mo rong aben.
Ke t qua trn cho tha
a
Bo de` 11.2. Cho 0 6= n N, cho F l truo`ng c dac so khng chia he t n v F chu
mot can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi. Cho a F v E l truo`ng phn r cua da
c xn a trn F . Khi d nhm Galois cua E : F l mot nhm cyclic c ca p l

thu
uoc cua n.
ng minh. Goi n F l mot can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi. Goi l mot
Chu
n
n
i
nghiem cua x a. Khi d tat ca cc nghiem cua x a l n voi i = 1, . . . , n.
Nhu the truo`ng phn r cua xn a trn F l E = F (). Goi Cn E l nhm
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
204
u
cyclic cc can bac n cua don vi. Xt do`ng ca
: Gal(F ()/F )
Cn
()
y ra` ng l don ca
u, do d Gal(E/F ) l nhm cyclic c ca
p l uoc cua
De dng tha
n.
Cho E : F l mot mo rong dai so . Mot bao dng chuan ta c cua
E : F l mot mo rong N cua E sao cho :
Dinh ngha.
N : F l mo rong chuan tac;
Ne u E M N v M : F chuan tac th M = N .
t cua F
C the ni bao dng chuan ta c N chnh l mo rong chuan ta c nho nha
chua E.
u han deù to`n tai duy nha t (sai khc dang ca u) mot
Bo de` 11.3. Moi mo rong hu
ng
bao d
chuan tac.
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
205
y N l truo`ng phn r
ng minh. Goi {1, . . . , r } l mot co so cua E : F . La
Chu
Qr
c toi tieu cua i voi i = 1, . . . , r. R rng N : F

cua 1 mi trn F voi mi l da thu
l mo rong chuan ta c v E N . Ne u c E M sao cho M : F chuan ta c, khi d
Qr
u M l mot bao dng chuan ta c
1 mi phn r trong M nn N M . Suy ra ne
cua E : F th M
N
.
=
V du 36. Bao dng chuan tac cua mot mo rong hu
u han, tch duoc l mot mo rong
Galois.
V du 37. Cho E : F l mot mo rong Galois v M l mot truo`ng trung gian cua
mo rong. Khi d bao dng chuan tac cua M l truo`ng hop thnh cua M , voi moi
Q
c l
G, tu
M (xem Nhan xt 8.2).
G
c f giai duoc ba`ng can thu
c trn truo`ng F c dac so 0 th
Dinh l 11.4. Ne u da thu
nhm Galois cua f l nhm giai duoc.
ng minh. Do f giai duoc ba`ng can thu

c trn F nn to`n tai chuoi cc mo rong
Chu
F = E0 E1 Em
Nguyen Chnh T
206
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
n
a truo`ng phn
sao cho Ei = Ei1(i) thoa i i Ei1, i = 1, . . . , m v Em chu
a Em v chu
a
r cua f . Dat n = n1 nm. Goi l mot mo rong Galois cua F chu
mot can nguyn thuy n cua don vi. (Mot mo rong nhu the to`n tai. Chang han,
`
bieu dien Em = F (), goi g F [x] l da thuc toi tieu cua . Lay l truong
phn r cua g(xn 1) trn F ).

Goi G = {1, . . . , r } l nhm Galois cua : F v K l bao dng chuan
ta c cua Em(n) : F . Khi d (xem V du 37), ta c K l truo`ng hop thnh cua
iEm(n) voi moi i G. Nhu the K l truo`ng sinh boi
n , 1 , . . . , m , 1 1 , . . . , 2 1 , . . . , r 1 , . . .
tu, ta c chuoi cc mo
trn F . Ghp thm cc pha`n tu cua dy trn vo F theo thu
rong truo`ng
F F (n) F (n, 1) . . . L L0 K.
y ra` ng moi mo rong L L0 cua chuoi trn thoa mn L0 duoc sinh ra
Ta nhan tha
r
`
trn L boi mot phan tu i thoa i L, voir {n1, . . . , nm, n}. Do d theo (11.1)
ng Galois, chuoi cc mo rong

v (11.2), chng l cc mo rong aben. Theo tuong u
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
207
ng voi chuoi cc nhm con cua nhm Galois G0 = Gal(K/F )

trn u
1 = G0 G1 . . . Gt = G0
sao cho Gi C Gi+1 v Gi+1/Gi aben. Do d G0 l nhm giai duoc. Xt cc mo rong
F Ef K voi Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f trn F . V nhm Galois cua f l

t cua nhm giai duoc (A.4), nhm Gf cung giai
nhm thuong cua G0, theo tnh cha
duoc.
ng minh dieù nguoc lai cua dinh l trn, ta ca`n mot so bo de` nhu sau :
De chu

Bo de` 11.5. Cho f F tch duoc v F E l mo rong truo`ng. Khi d nhm
Galois cua f trn E l nhm con cua nhm Galois cua f trn F .
ng minh. Goi R = {1, . . . , n} l tap cc nghiem cua f . K hieu
Chu
K = F (1, . . . , n) v L = E(1, . . . , n) la`n luot l truo`ng phn r cua f
trn F v trn E. R rng K L. Moi Gal(L/E) hon vi cc pha`n tu trong
R, do d bie n K thnh K. Ni cch khc, php han che 7 |K l mot do`ng
u nn
cau tu` Gal(L/E) vo Gal(K/F ). R rng php han che d l mot don ca
Gal(L/E) l mot nhm con cua Gal(K/F ).
Nguyen Chnh T
208
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
Bo de` sau ch ra mot pha`n tnh dao nguoc cua (11.2) :
Bo de` 11.6. Cho p l mot so nguyn to, cho F l truo`ng c dac so khc p v F
a mot can nguyn thuy bac p cua don vi. Neu E : F l mo rong cyclic bac p th
chu
E = F () voi p F .
y
ng minh. Goi z1, . . . , zp F l cc can bac p phn biet cua don vi. La
Chu
E\F , ta c E = F (). Goi l phan tu sinh cua nhm cyclic G = Gal(E/F ).
i1
D
a
t
(),
vo
i
i
=
1,
. . . , p. Ta c i 6= j voi moi i 6= j. Khi d 1 = ,
i+1 = (i) neu i = 1, . . . , p 1 v (p) = 1. Dat
di() = 1 + zi2 + + zip1p, i = 1, . . . , p.

c Lagrange. Khi d
goi l giai thu
(di) = 2 + zi3 + + zip11 = zi1di.

Do d (dpi) = (di)p = dpi. Suy ra dpi F .
Mat khc, xt he phuong trnh tuye n tnh
di = x1 + zix2 + + zip1xp, i = 1, . . . , p.
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
Ma tran he so
1
.
..
z1
...
209
z1p1
...
zp zpp1
Q
c
(zj zi) 6= 0, do d i, voi 1 i p, l mot to hop tuye n
c dinh thu
0<i<jp
a z1, . . . , zp ). Suy ra
tnh cua d1, . . . , dp voi he tu trong F (ch ra`ng F chu
E = F () = F (d1, . . . , dp). R rng to`n tai di E\F . Khi d E = F (di) v
p
di F .
ng minh ke t qua nguoc lai cua (11.4).
By gio` ta chu

c f trn truo`ng c dac so 0 giai duoc th
Dinh l 11.7. Ne u nhm Galois cua da thu
c trn F .
f giai duoc ba`ng can thu
ng minh. Goi Gf l nhm Galois cua f trn F . Goi n = deg(f ) v k hieu

Chu
E = F (n) voi n l mot can nguyn thuy bac n cua don vi. Theo (11.5), nhm
Galois G cua f trn E l nhm con cua Gf , do d G giai duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
210
Theo (A.7), to`n tai chuoi cc nhm con
G = Gm . . . G0 = 1
T GALOIS
ChUOng 2. L THUYE
(9)
p nguyn to pi, voi moi i = 0, . . . , m 1.

sao cho Gi C Gi+1 v Gi+1/Gi cyclic c ca
a truo`ng phn r cua f trn

Goi K l truo`ng phn r cua f trn E. Khi d K chu
F.
Chuoi cc nhm con (9) cho ta chuoi cc mo rong
F F (n) = E = E0 E1 . . . Em = K
voi Ei : Ei1 cyclic bac pi, voi moi i = 0, . . . , m. Theo Bo de` 11.6, ta c
p
Ei = Ei1(i) voi i i Ei1, voi moi i = 0, . . . , m. Nhu the K : F l mot
a truo`ng phn r cua f trn F , nn f giai duoc bang can thu

c
mo rong can chu
trn F .
c trn F giai duoc ba`ng can
He qua 11.8. Cho F l truo`ng c dac so 0. Mot da thu
c khi v ch khi nhm Galois cua n l giai duoc.

thu
c tong qut (8) khng giai duoc

He qua 11.9. Cho F l truo`ng c dac so 0. Da thu
c trn F (s1, . . . , sn) khi v ch khi n 5.

ba`ng can thu
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
211
N
A DA THU
C C BA
C LO
N HON BO
11.2 TNH KHNG GIAI DUOC CU
ng, tuong tu nhu (0.18).

Ta ca`n mot ke t qua cua nhm do i xu
ng Sp voi p nguyn to chu

a mot
Bo de` 11.10. Ne u mot nhm con cua nhm do i xu
vng xch do di p v mot php chuyen tr th trng voi Sp.
ng minh. Goi G l nhm con cua Sp sinh boi = (a1 ap) l mot vng
Chu
xch c do di p v = (i j) l mot php chuyen tr. Ba`ng cch dnh so lai ne u
y
ca`n thie t, ta c the gia thie t = (1 2). Vie t lai duoi dang = (1 a2 . . . ap). La
luy thuà thch hop cua , ta c duoc ket qua l (1 2 b3 bp), d cung l mot vng
xch do di p do p nguyn to . Giu

nguyn 1 v 2, dnh so lai cc pha`n tu cua tap
a = (1 2) v vng xch (1 2 p). Theo

{3, 4, . . . , p}, suy ra nhm con G chu
(0.18), ta c G = Sp.
c f Q[x] ba t kha quy c bac p nguyn to. Ne u f
Menh de` 11.11. Cho mot da thu
ng Sp.
c dng 2 nghiem khng thuc trong C th nhm Galois cua f l nhm do i xu
ng minh. Goi Ef l truo`ng phn r cua f trn Q v G = Gal(Ef : Q) xem

Chu
nhu nhm con cua Sp. Goi Ef l mot nghiem cua f . Do Q Q() Ef v
Nguyen Chnh T
212
T GALOIS
ChUOng 2. L THUYE
a mot pha`n tu
[Q() : Q] = p, ta c p l uoc cua [Ef : Q] = (G : 1). Suy ra G chu
cap p, xem (B.2). Trong Sp ch c cc vng xch do di p c cap p, (xem 0.16). Nhu
a mot vng xch do di p. Mat khc Ef l mot truo`ng con cua C. Trong
the G chu
Aut(C/Q), xt php lin hop a + bi 7 a bi. V f c dng 2 nghiem khng thuc
c lin hop. Khi d php lin hop hon vi 2 nghiem r1, r2

r1, r2, chng l cc so phu
v co dinh cc nghiem cn lai cua f . Do d han che cua php lin hop trn Ef xc
dinh mot php chuyen tr cua G. Theo (11.10), ta c G = Sp.
c f = x5 4x2 + 2 Q[x] khng giai duoc ba`ng can thu

c.
He qua 11.12. Da thu
t kha quy trn Q do tiu chuan Eisenstein cho p = 2.

ng minh. Da thu
c f ba
Chu
Ta c
f (1) = 3 ; f (0) = 2 ; f (1) = 1 ; f (2) = 18.
t 3 nghiem thuc na`m trong (1, 0),(0, 1) v (1, 2). Mat khc, do
Do d f c t nha
p
0
4
3
f = 5x 8x = x(5x 8), c dng 2 nghiem thuc l x = 0 v x = 3 8/5. Do
u voi
ng
a
d f c d
3 nghiem thuc. Theo (11.11), d thuc f c nhm Galois dang ca
c trn
S5 l mot nhm khng giai duoc (A.9). Do d f khng giai duoc ba` ng can thu
Q.
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
213
A CC DA THU
N THU
C CU
C TO
NG QUT C BA
C
M CA
11.3 NGHIE
KHNG QU 4
c cua da thu
c tong qut (8) (xem
Trong pha`n ny, ta trnh by nghiem can thu
y gi tri trong F th ta se c
trang 196) voi n 4. Hien nhin, khi s1, . . . , sn la
c cua cc da thu
c trn F . De don gian, ta gia thie t F c dac so 0.
nghiem can thu
Da thuc tong qut bac 2
Cho g = t2 s1t + s2 c nhm Galois trn F (s1, s2) l S2 = {1, (12)}. Pha`n
tu (1, 2) hon vi t1, t2 nn co dinh (t1 t2)2. Do d (t1 t2)2 F (s1, s2). Cu the
p
(t1 t2)2 = s21 4s2. K hieu s21 4s2 l mot nghiem cua x2 (s21 4s2), ta c
p
2
c nghiem quen thuoc:
t1 t2 = s1 4s2 v t1 + t2 = s1. Suy ra cng thu
(
p
t1 = 12 s1 + s21 4s2
p
1
2
2
t2 = 2 s1 s1 4s .
c tong qut bac 3
Da thu
3
2
Cho g = t s1t + s2t s3 c nhm Galois trn F (s1, s2, s3) l S3. Ta c dy
cc nhm con chuan tac 1 C A3 C S3 c thuong l cc nhm cyclic. Dat = e2i/3
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
214
v y = t1 + t2 + 2t3, voi t1, t2, t3 l cc nghiem cua g. Voi moi A3, to`n tai
i
3
3
2
0 i 2 sao cho (y) = y. Nn (y ) = y . Tuong tu, dat z = t1 + t2 + t3

th ta c (z 3) = z 3, A3. Mat khc, voi l mot php the le th (y 3) = z 3.
3
3
3
3
`
Ni cch khc cc phan tu y + z v y z bat bien voi S3. Do d y 3 + z 3 v y 3z 3

c bac 2 trn
thuoc F (s1, s2, s3). Nhu the y 3 v z 3 l nghiem cua cng mot da thu
F (s1, s2, s3). Mat khc, de dng thay rang:
t1 = 3 (s1 + y + z)
t2 = 13 (s1 + 2y + z)
t3 = 1 (s1 + y + 2z).
3
Do d, khi d giai duoc y 3 v z 3, ta c nghiem cua g. Thuc ra, ta c the tnh ton
2
3
3
3
truc tiep yz = s1 3s2 v y + z = 2s1 9s1s2 + 27s3.
c
Trong thuc hnh, ta thuo`ng giai ba` ng cch dat u = t 13 s1. Khi d ta c da thu
bac 3 theo u l f = u3 + pu + q voi
1
2
1
p = s2 s21, q = s31 + s1s2 s3 F (s1, s2, s3).
3
27
3
Do d y 3 + z 3 = 27q v y 3z 3 = 27p3. Khi d y 3 v z 3 l 2 nghiem cua
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
2
3
`
X + 27qX 27p = 0. Tu d,
s
r
q
q 2 p 3
3
y=3 +
+
,
2
2
3
215
s
z=3
r
q 2
2
p 3
c nghiem Cardano
sao cho yz = 3p. Ta nhan lai cng thu
s
s
r
r
2
3
q
p
q
q
q 2 p 3
3
3
u= +
+
+
+
2
2
3
2
2
3
v 3 nghiem cua f cho boi
(10)
u
=
(y + z)
u2 = 31 ( 2y + z)
u3 = 1 (y + 2z).
3
c (10), thay D = 4p3 27q 2 l biet thu
c cua
Nhan xt 11.13. Trong cng thu
c nghiem cho boi

f = u3 + pu + q, ta c cng thu
s
s
r
r
D
D
q
q
3
3
u= +
+
.
(11)
2
27
2
27
Nguyen Chnh T
216
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
c cua f = x3 x + 1 Q[x]. Ta c D = 23. Do

V du 38. Tm nghiem can thu
d mot nghiem cua f l
r
r
1
1
1
1
3
3
+
69 +
69.
2
18
2
18
c lin hop.
Hai nghiem cn lai l 2 so phu
c f = x3 6x2 + 9x 1. Thay x = u + 2, ta c da thu

c theo
V du 39. Cho da thu
c cua n l D = 81. Mot nghiem bieu dien ba` ng

u l g = u3 3u + 1. Biet thu
c cua g l
can thu
r
r
1
1
1
1
3
3
+
3 +
3.
2
2
2
2
c g cung nhu f deù c 3 nghiem thuc.
Ch ra` ng trong truo`ng hop ny, da thu
`
`
c, cc bieu dien nghiem can phai dng de n

Tuy nhin de bieu dien bang can thu
c.
cc can cua so phu
c cua mot da thu
c bac 3 ty
Su dung Maple 8. Maple cho chng ta nghiem can thu
`
c bac 3.
bang lenh >solve(f); voi f l mot da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
217
c tong qut bac 4

Da thu
Cho g = t4 s1t3 + s2t2 s3t + s4. Nhm Galois S4 cua g c dy cc nhm con
chuan tac
1 C V C A4 C S4 voi V = {1, (12)(34), (13)(24, (14)(23)}.
Dat
y1 = (t1 + t2)(t3 + t4),

y2 = (t1 + t3)(t2 + t4),
y3 = (t1 + t4)(t2 + t3).
p cua y1, y2, y3 thuoc F (s1, s2, s3, s4) nn y1, y2, y3
c do i xu
ng so ca
V cc da thu
c bac 3 cua g.
a
l nghiem cua mot d thuc bac 3 trn F (s1, s2, s3, s4), goi l giai thu
Khi d giai duoc y1, y2, y3, cng voi t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 = s1, suy ra cc cap
c
(t1 + t2, t3 + t4); (t1 + t3, t2 + t4); (t1 + t4, t2 + t3) l nghiem cua cc da thu
bac 2 c he tu trong F (s1, s2, s3, s4, y1, y2, y3). Tu` d giai duoc t1, t2, t3, t4.
1
c bac 4 theo u :
Trong thuc hnh, ta dat u = t 4 s1 th ta c mot da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
218
Tu` d tnh duoc :
y1 + y2 + y3 = 2p ;
y1y2 + y1y3 + y2y3 = p2 4r ;
y1y2y3 = q 2.
c cua f (u) l
Suy ra giai thu
X 3 2pX 2 + (p2 4r)X + q 2.
Cc nghiem cua f cho boi :
u1 =
u =
2
u3 =
u =
4
1
(
y
+
y
+
y3)
1
2
2
1
y
y3)
(
1
2
2
1
( y1 + y2 y3)
2
1
(
y
y3)
1
2
2
c duoc chon sao cho y1. y2. y3 = q.

voi cc can thu
c cua mot da thu

c bac 4, theo
Su dung Maple 9. Trong Maple, nghiem can thu
c tap cua cng thu

c
ngam dinh, khng duoc hien thi trn mn hnh, do tnh phu
nghiem.
Nguyen Chnh T
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
>
219
restart;
>
solve(x^4+x^3-9);
Maple hien thi nghiem duoi dang RootOf v de dng nhan duoc nghiem ga`n
dng.
>
evalf(%);
1.527117219, .2396103081 + 1.679403718 I,
2.047896603, .2396103081 1.679403718 I
c lin hop. Muo n

c x4 + x3 9 c 2 nghiem thuc v 2 nghiem phu
Nhu the da thu
c cua da thu
c bac 4, can dng nhu sau :
hien thi nghiem can thu
>
_EnvExplicit:=true:
>
solve(x^4+x^3-9);
n Enter de thuc hien lenh cuo i cng, 4 nghiem can thu
c cua f se
Sau khi nha
duoc hien thi.
Nguyen Chnh T
220
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
p
Bi ta
11. 1 . Xc dinh tnh dng, sai cho cc menh de` sau :
c tong qut bac n l giai duoc.

a) Nhm Galois cua da thu
b) Nhm S3 ch c hai nhm con thuc su l 1 v A3.

c tong qut bac n trn F l mot da thu
c c mot bie n siu viet trn F .
c) Da thu
c Q(t) trn Q ba`ng 1.

d) Bac siu viet cua truo`ng phn thu
c bac nho hon 5 trn Q lun lun giai duoc ba`ng can thu
c trn
e) Mot da thu
Q.
c bac lon hon 4 trn R khng giai duoc ba` ng can thu
c trn R.
f) To`n tai da thu
c bac 2 trn truo`ng dac so 0 giai duoc ba` ng can thu

c.
g) Moi da thu
c deù hu
h) Moi mo rong can thu
u han.
c.
i) Moi mo rong hu
u han deù l mo rong can thu
p cua nhm Galois cua mot da thu

p n chia he t n!.
c ca
j) Ca
c bac 4 c nhm Galois l S4.

k) To`n tai mot da thu
n Chnh T
Nguye
c cua da thu
c
` ng ca
n thu
n giai duoc ba
11. Tiu chua
221
t kha qui trn Q bac 11 c dng 2 nghiem khng thuc th

c ba
l) Mot da thu
c.
khng giai duoc bang can thu
m) Nhm A5 c 60 pha`n tu.

(Xem HD 299)
c cua cc da thu
c sau :
11. 2 . Tm nghiem can thu
a) t3 3t + 5 ;
b) t3 7t + 6 ;
p
p
3
3
c) x + x 2. Suy ra 26 + 15 3 + 26 15 3 = 4.
3
d) x3 5x2 + 4x + 5 ;
e) t4 t3 2t 1 ;
f) t4 + 4t + 2 ;
g) t6 + 2t5 5t4 + 9t3 5t2 + 2t + 1.
(Xem HD 299)
ng minh ra` ng C : Q v R : Q khng phai l mo rong hu

11. 3 . Chu
u han sinh.
(Xem HD 300)
11. 4 . Tnh bac siu viet cua cc mo rong sau :
Nguyen Chnh T
T GALOIS
Chuong 2. L THUYE
222
a) Q(t, u, v, w) : Q voi t2 = 2, u siu viet trn Q(t) ; v 3 = t + 5 v w siu viet
trn Q(t, u, w).

b) Q(t, u, v) : Q voi t2 = u3 = v 4 = 7.
(Xem HD 300)
t kha qui hoac

ng minh ra` ng f hoac l ba
11. 5 . Cho f = x3 3x + 1 F [x]. Chu
phn r trong F .
(Xem HD 300)
ng minh cc da thu
c sau khng giai duoc ba` ng can thu
c trn Q :
11. 6 . Chu
a) t5 4t + 2 ;
c) t5 6t2 + 3 ;
b) t5 6t + 3 ;
d) t7 10t5 + 15t + 5. (Xem HD 301)
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

223
PHU LUC

A NHM GIAI DUOC V NHM DON
c co ban ve` nhm giai duoc v nhm don. Cc ke t

Muc ny trnh by cc kie n thu
qua chnh trong phan ny l A.4, A.7, A.9 v A.17.

1. Nhm giai duoc
Cho G l mot nhm nhn. Chuoi chuan tac cua G l mot chuoi
hu
u han cc nhm con phn biet
Dinh ngha.
Nguyen Chnh T
1 = G0 C G1 C C Gn = G,
(12)
ngha l Gi l nhm con chuan ta c cua Gi+1 voi moi
i = 0, . . . , n 1. Cc nhm thuong Gi+1/Gi, voi i = 0, . . . , n1,

goi l cc thnh pha`n cua chuoi chuan ta c (12).
224
PHU LUC

Chuoi (12) goi l chuoi hop thnh cua G ne u Gi l nhm con
u c N C Gi+1 v N chu
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
a
a
i
d
i
cu
a
chua
n
ta
c
to
G
i+1 , ngha l ne
Gi th Gi = N hay N = Gi+1, voi moi i = 0, . . . , n 1.
Nhan xt A.1. Ch ra` ng, trong chuoi chuan ta c (12), khng ko theo Gi C G
ngoai tru` i = n 1.
Mot nhm G goi l giai duoc ne u to`n tai chuoi chuan ta c (12) sao
Dinh ngha.
cho Gi+1/Gi l nhm aben, voi moi i = 0, . . . , n 1.
`
V du A.2. (i) Moi nhm aben deu giai duoc.
ng S3 giai duoc v c chuoi 1 C A3 C S3, trong d A3 l nhm cyclic

(ii) Nhm do i xu
p 2.
v S3/A3 l nhm cyclic ca
ng S4 giai duoc v c chuoi chuan ta c
(iii) Nhm do i xu
1 C V C A4 C S4,
trong d V = {1, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}.
Ta nhac lai ke t qua don gian sau cua l thuye t nhm.
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

225
Bo de` A.3. Cho G l mot nhm nhn.
(i) Ne u H C G v A l nhm con cua G th H A C A v

A
HA
.
=
H A
H
(ii) Ne u H C G v H A C G th H C A, A/H C G/H v
G/H G
= .
A/H
A
u thu
t v dinh
nha
ng goi l dinh l dang ca
Cc ke t qua trong bo de` trn tuong u
hai.
l dang cau thu
Ta c ke t qua quan trong daù tin ve` nhm giai duoc.
Menh de` A.4. Cho G l mot nhm.
(i) Ne u G giai duoc th moi nhm con H cua G giai duoc.
(ii) Ne u N C G v G giai duoc th G/N giai duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
226
PHU LUC

(iii) Ne u to`n tai nhm con chuan tac N C G sao cho N v G/N giai duoc th G
giai duoc.
ng minh.
Chu
(i) Cho chuoi chuan ta c
1 = G0 C G1 C C Gn = G
sao cho Gi+1/Gi aben, voi moi i = 0, . . . , n 1. Dat Hi = Gi H. Khi d ta
c chuoi chuan tac :

1 = H0 C H1 C C Hn = H.
ng minh cc thnh pha`n Hi+1/Hi l aben. Ta c
Ta chu
Hi+1
Hi
Gi+1 H
Gi H
Gi+1 H
Gi(Gi+1 H)
.
=
Gi (Gi+1 H)
Gi
Nhm cuo i cng l nhm aben v n l nhm con cua nhm aben Gi+1/Gi. V
the H l nhm giai duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

227
(ii) Tu` chuoi hop thnh cua G nhu trn, nhm thuong G/N c chuoi cc nhm
con sau
1 = G0N/N G1N/N GnN/N = G/N.
Gi+1N/N Gi+1N
u thu
hai. Mat khc
Ta c
theo dinh l dang ca
=
GiN/N
GiN
Gi+1N Gi+1(GiN )
Gi+1
=
=
GiN
Gi N
Gi+1 (GiN )
Gi+1/Gi
.
=
(Gi+1 (GiN ))/Gi
Nhm cuo i cng l nhm thuong cua Gi+1/Gi nn l nhm aben. Vay G/N
giai duoc.
(iii) To`n tai 2 chuoi chuan tac
1 = N0 C N1 C C Nr = N
1 = G0/N C G1/N C C Gs/N = G/N
voi cc thnh pha`n aben. Xt chuoi
1 = N0 C N1 C C Nr = N = G0 C G1 C C Gs = G/N
Nguyen Chnh T
228
PHU LUC

u voi Ni+1/Ni hay dang ca

u voi
c cc thnh pha`n dang ca
Gi+1/Gi
= (Gi+1/N )/(Gi/N ),
chng deù l nhm aben. Vay G giai duoc.
2. Nhm don
Mot nhm G 6= 1 goi l nhm don ne u G khng c nhm con
D
i
nh
ngh
a.
chuan ta c no khc 1 v chnh n.

Nhu the chuoi (12) l chuoi hop thnh cua G khi v ch khi moi thnh pha`n
Gi+1/Gi l cc nhm don.

Nhan xt A.5. Ne u G l nhm hu
u han th trong G = G1 c nhm con chuan ta c
a mot nhm con chuan ta c to i dai G3,...Tie p tuc qu trnh

toi dai G2, nhm G2 chu
y ra`ng moi nhm hu

`
e
ny, ta tha
u
ha
n
d
u
c
mo
t
chuo
i
ho
p
thnh.
Menh de` A.6. Moi nhm don giai duoc deù l nhm cyclic c ca p nguyn to.
ng minh. Goi G l nhm don giai duoc. Khi d c chuoi chuan ta c

Chu
1 = G0 C C Gr = G
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

229
voi cc thnh pha`n aben. V G don nn r = 1 v G = G/G0 aben. Trong nhm

aben, moi nhm con deù l nhm con chuan ta c, do d de G don, n trng voi nhm
t k khc 1 cua G. Do d G l nhm cyclic c

con cyclic sinh ra boi mot pha`n tu ba
cap nguyn to.

u han G l giai duoc khi v ch khi to`n tai chuoi hop
He qua A.7. Mot nhm hu
thnh 1 = G0 C G1 C C Gn = G sao cho voi moi 1 i n, ta c Gi/Gi1
cyclic c ca p nguyn to.

ng minh. Goi 1 = G0 C G1 C C Gn = G l chuoi hop thnh cua nhm
Chu
giai duoc G. Khi d nhm con Gi+1 giai duoc nn nhm thuong Gi+1/Gi giai duoc,
voi moi i = 0, . . . , n 1. Do chuoi trn l chuoi hop thnh nn Gi+1/Gi l nhm
`
p nguyn to .
don.Tu` (A.6), ta c cc thnh phan Gi+1/Gi l cc nhm cyclic ca
Chieù nguoc lai l hien nhin v moi nhm cyclic deù aben.

Bo de` A.8. Cho G l nhm nhn v H C G sao cho G/H aben. Khi d a, b G,
ta c a1b1ab H.
Nguyen Chnh T
230
PHU LUC

ng minh. Voi moi a, b G, ta c

Chu
ab = ab = ba = ba.
Suy ra (ba)1(ab) = a1b1ab H.
ng Sn voi n 5 khng giai duoc.
Dinh l A.9. Nhm do i xu
ng minh. Gia su nguoc lai, nhm Sn voi n 5 giai duoc. Khi d to`n tai chuoi
Chu

chuan tac
1 = G0 C G1 C C Gr = Sn,
t
sao cho Gi/Gi1 aben voi moi i = 1, . . . , r. Goi (a b c) l mot vng xch bac 3 ba
y
k cua Sn. La
u, v {1, . . . , n}\{a, b, c}
sao cho u 6= v (ch u, v to`n tai do n 5). Bo de` trn ko theo:
(u b a)1(v c a)1(u b a)(v c a) = (a b c) Gr1,

t ca cc vng xch do di 3. Tie p tuc l luan
a ta
do Sn/Gr1 aben. Vay Gr1 chu
t ca cc vng xch do di 3. Ba`ng

a ta
nhu trn, do Gi1/Gi2 aben, nhm Gr2 chu
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

231
t ca cc vng xch do di 3. V l ! Vay Sn khng giai

a ta
quy nap, nhm G0 chu
duoc.
Menh de` A.10. Voi moi n 5, nhm thay phin An l nhm don.
ng minh. Gia su c 1 6= N C An. Ta ca`n ch ra N = An. Truoc he t ta chu

ng
Chu
a mot vng xch do di 3 th N = An. Ta c the gia thie t N
to ra`ng ne u N chu
a vng xch (1 2 3). Khi d voi moi k > 3, ta c (3 2 k) An. Do d

chu
(3 2 k)(1 2 3)(3 2 k)1 = (1 k 2) N.

a cc pha`n tu (1 k 2)2 = (1 2 k) voi moi k 3.
Nhu the N chu
`
Ch rang (m r) = (1 m)(1 r)(1 m) voi moi m, r. Do d Sn duoc sinh boi cc
chuyen tr (1 i) voi i = 2 . . . , n. Suy ra, moi php the cha n deù l tch cua mot so
chan cc chuyen tr loai ny. Nn An duoc sinh boi cc phan tu (1 j)(1 i) = (1 i j),
voi i, j = 2, . . . , n. Ta c
(1 i j) = (1 2 j)1(1 2 i)(1 2, j),
voi i, j 6= 2. Nhu the An duoc sinh boi cc pha`n tu (1 2 k). Do d N = An.
Nguyen Chnh T
232
PHU LUC

ng minh N chu
a mot vng xch bac 3. Ta chia ra cc truo`ng hop
Ta cn phai chu
nhu sau :
a mot pha`n tu x = a b c ... voi a, b, c, . . . l cc vng xch doc
Nhm con N chu
lap v
a = (a1a2 . . . am) voi m 4.

a pha`n tu z := t1xt. Ch ra` ng t giao hon
Dat t = (a1a2a3). Khi d N chu
voi cc vng xch a, b, . . ., nn
z = t1xt = (t1at)bc . . . .
y ra` ng N chu
a pha`n tu zx1 = t1ata1 = (a1a2a4).
Cuo i cng, ta tha
a 1 pha`n tu c phn tch vng xch doc lap chu
a 2 vng xch do di
Xt N chu

a
3. Khng mat tnh tong qut, gia su N chu
x = (123)(456)y.
a
Dat t = (234). Khi d N chu
x1(txt1) = (12436).
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

233
a mot vng xch do di 3.

Tu` truo`ng hop daù tin, ta suy ra N chu
a mot pha`n tu x c dang phn tch vng xch l (ijk) voi l tch
Ne u N chu
a x2 = (ijk).
cua cc php chuyen tr doc lap. Khi d N chu

Truo`ng hop cn lai l moi pha`n tu cua N deù l tch cua cc php chuyen tr
a pha`n tu x voi phn tch vng xch

doc lap. V n 5, ta c the gia thie t N chu

x = (12)(34)
a
trong d l tch cc php chuyen tr doc lap. Dat t = (234). Khi d N chu

pha`n tu
x1(txt1) = (23)(14).
y u = (145), khi d N chu
a
La
ux1(txt1)u1 = (23)(45).
a
Nhu the N chu
(23)(14)(23)(45) = (145).
Mu thuan !
Nguyen Chnh T
234
PHU LUC

Vay An l nhm don voi moi n 5.
Ke t qua ny cung ko theo Dinh l A.9. That vay, ne u Sn giai duoc th An giai
duoc. Hon nu
a, tu` dinh l trn, ta c An l nhm don. Tu` Menh de` A.6, suy ra An
n!
c cap nguyn to. V l v cap cua An l 2 , khng nguyn to khi n 5.

3. Cc pnhm
Trong muc ny, ta xt lop cc nhm giai duoc dac biet goi l pnhm. Bn canh
ng minh mot so ket qua su sac cua l thuyet nhm, dac biet l tnh cha
d, ta chu
cua pnhm thng qua chuoi chuan tac cua n (A.17).

Cho G l mot nhm nhn. Pha`n tu a G goi l lin hop voi
b G ne u to`n tai g G sao cho a = g 1bg. Quan he lin hop l
Dinh ngha.
mot quan he tuong duong trn G. Cc lop tuong duong theo quan
he lin hop goi l cc lop lin hop.
Ne u G hu
u han, goi cc lop lin hop l C1, C2, . . . , Cr voi C1 = {1}. K hieu
c :
|S| l so pha`n tu cua mot tap hu
u han S. Ta c dang thu

|G| = 1 + |C2| + + |Cr |,
(13)
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

235
goi l phuong trnh lop cua G.
Ta c mot quan he tuong duong tuong tu trn tap cc nhm con cua G.
Hai nhm con H, K cua nhm nhn G goi l lin hop voi nhau
Dinh ngha. neu ton tai g G sao cho K = g Hg. De dng kiem tra dy l
mot quan he tuong duong.
Cho G l nhm nhn v x G. K hieu
Dinh ngha.
CG(x) = {g G | gx = xg}.
Khi d CG(x) l mot nhm con cua G goi l nhm con trung tm
cua x trong G.
u han. So pha`n tu trong lop lin hop cua x G

Bo de` A.11. Cho G l nhm hu
bang voi ch so cua CG(x) trong G.

y 2 pha`n tu g 1xg v h1xh ba
t k trong lop tuong duong cua
ng minh. La
Chu
x. Ta c
g 1xg = h1xh hg 1x = xhg 1 hg 1 CG(x).
Nguyen Chnh T
236
PHU LUC

Nhu the h v g na` m trong cng lop ghp cua CG(x). Suy ra so pha`n tu trong lop
lin hop cua x ba` ng voi ch so cua CG(x) trong G.
Bo de` ko theo :
He qua A.12. So pha`n tu trong mot lop lin hop ty chia he t ca p cua nhm G.
p cua G l luy
Mot nhm hu
u han G goi l mot pnhm ne u ca
Dinh ngha.
thuà cua mot so nguyn to p.
V du A.13. Nhm dihedral D8 (xem tr. 30) l 2nhm. Nhm Sn voi n 3 khng
phai l pnhm voi moi p nguyn to .
Tm cua nhm G l tap
Dinh ngha.
Z(G) = {x G | gx = xg, g G}.

De dng kiem tra Z(G) l mot nhm con chuan tac cua G.
V du A.14. a) Tm cua nhm aben l chnh n.
b) Tm cua nhm S3 l nhm ta`m thuo`ng.

p 4 trong D8.
c) Z(D8) = {1, 2} voi D8 l pha`n tu c ca
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

237
Ta c ke t qua tong qut sau dy :

i pnhm khc 1 deù c tm khng ta`m thuo`ng.
Dinh l A.15. Mo
ng minh. Tu` phuong trnh lop, ta c

Chu
pn = |G| = 1 + |C2| + + |Cr |.
V so pha`n tu cua moi lop lin hop chia he t pn, ta goi |Ci| = pni voi ni 0. V ve
phai chia het cho p, so lop c 1 phan tu phai l mot boi so cua p. Mat khc, ne u x

thuoc vo lop c 1 pha`n tu th ta c g 1xg = x voi moi g G. Ngha l x Z(G).
`
`
Nhu the Z(G) c nhieu hon 1 phan tu.

u han c ca p chia he t cho mot so nguyn
Bo de` A.16. Ne u A l mot nhm aben hu
to p th chua mot phan tu cap p.
ng minh. Ta chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap trn |A|. Ne u |A| = p, th ke t qua
Chu
l hien nhin.
p to i dai trong A. Ne u p chia he t |M | th
Goi M l mot nhm con thuc su c ca
ng minh theo nguyn l quy nap. Xt truo`ng hop p khng chia he t

bo de` duoc chu
Nguyen Chnh T
238
PHU LUC

|M |. Goi b A\M , xt B =< b > l nhm cyclic sinh ra boi b. Khi d M B l
u
a M thuc su nn M B = A. Ta c dang ca
mot nhm con (ch G aben) chu
nhm (A.3)
M/(M B)
= M B/B.
Suy ra
|M B| =
|M ||B|
.
|M B|
p r cua B =< b >. Khi d pha`n tu br/p c ca
p p.
Do d p chia he t ca
t dac biet cua pnhm.
Ta c mot tnh cha
Menh de` A.17. Cho G l mot pnhm c ca p pn. Khi d G c chuoi cc nhm con
chuan tac
1 = G0 C G1 C C Gn = G
sao cho (Gi : 1) = pi voi moi i = 0, . . . , n.
ng minh. Ta chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap trn n. Ne u n = 0 th ke t qua l
Chu
p chia he t cho p
hien nhin. Xt n > 0. Do Z(G) l mot nhm aben khc 1 c ca
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

239
p p. Nhm cyclic K =< x >

nn theo (A.16), to`n tai mot pha`n tu x Z(G) c ca
p pn1, theo
l nhm con chuan tac cua G v x Z(G). Nhm thuong G/K c ca

gia thuye t quy nap, to`n tai chuoi cc nhm con chuan ta c cua G/K thoa
K/K = G1/K C G2/K C C Gn/K = G/K

voi |Gi/K| = pi1 v Gi C G voi moi i = 1, . . . , n. Nhu the |Gi| = pi. Dat
`
ng minh.
G0 = 1, ta c dieu phai chu
He qua A.18. Moi pnhm deù giai duoc.
ng minh. Tu` chuoi cc nhm con chuan tac cua G cho trong menh de` trn, ta
Chu
c cc thnh phan Gi/Gi1 c cap l p nn l nhm cyclic. Suy ra G giai duoc.
B DINH L SYLOW V DINH L CAUCHY
ng minh mot pha`n ke t qua cua

Ta gioi thieu khi niem nhm con Sylow v chu
ng minh Dinh l Cauchy.

Dinh l Sylow, ket qua d du de chu
t nhm nhn hu
u han c pm pha`n tu, trong
Dinh l B.1 (Sylow). Cho G l mo
d p nguyn to khng chia he t m. Khi d

Nguyen Chnh T
240
PHU LUC

a mot nhm con c ca p p ;

(i) G chu
(ii) moi nhm con ca p p deù lin hop voi nhau ;
a trong mot nhm con ca p p ;

(iii) moi pnhm con cua G deù chu
(iv) so cc nhm con ca p p ba`ng 1 + kp voi k N.

Mot nhm con c ca p p goi l pnhm Sylow cua G.
ng minh. Ta ch chu
ng minh pha`n i) cua dinh l trn. Ban doc c the tham
Chu
`
`
ng minh day du cua dinh l trong cc sch ve Dai so, v du [1], tr. 141.
khao chu
ng minh ba` ng quy nap trn |G|. Ke t qua hien nhin ne u |G| = 1, 2. Goi
Ta chu
C1, . . . , Cr l cc lop lin hop cua G v goi ci = |Ci|. Khi d, phuong trnh lop cho
ta
pm = c1 + + cr .
(14)
Goi Zi l nhm con trung tm cua mot pha`n tu xi Ci v ni = |Zi| voi
i = 1, . . . , r. Tu` (A.11), ta c
pm
ni =
.
(15)
ci
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

241
Gia su to`n tai ci lon hon 1 v khng chia he t cho p. Khi d, tu` (15), ta c ni < pm
p p trong
v ni chia het cho p. Theo gia thuye t quy nap, to`n tai mot nhm con ca
ng minh.
Zi. Ta c dieù ca`n chu
Xt truo`ng hop voi moi i = 1, . . . , r, ta c ci = 1 hay ci khng chia he t cho p.
ng minh cua (A.15), so cc ci = 1 ba`ng voi z. Nhu

Goi z = |Z(G)|. Nhu trong chu
the ta c
pm = z + kp
voi k N. Suy ra p chia he t z = |Z(G)|. Theo (A.16), to`n tai mot pha`n tu
p p. Goi P =< x > l nhm cyclic sinh ra boi x. Do P Z(G),

x Z(G) c ca
ta c P C G. Nhm thuong G/P c p1m pha`n tu nn theo gia thuye t quy nap
chua mot nhm con S/P cap p

, voi S l mot nhm con cua G. Khi d S c cap
ng minh.
p. Ta c dieù phai chu
Tu` dinh l trn, ta c ke t qua cua Cauchy.
t nhm hu
u han G c ca p chia he t cho so nguyn
Dinh l B.2 (Cauchy). Ne u mo
to p th G c mot phan tu cap p.
Nguyen Chnh T
242
PHU LUC

ng minh. Goi S l pnhm con Sylow cua G, khi d S 6= 1. Theo (A.17), to`n
Chu
p p trong S. Ta c dieù phai chu

ng minh.
tai mot nhm con chuan ta c ca
CU
A MO
T TRUO
` NG
C BAO DNG DAI SO
ng minh ve` viec to`n tai cua bao dng dai so cua mot
Muc ny trnh by hai chu
truo`ng ty .
i truo`ng F deù to`n tai mot bao dng dai so.
Dinh l C.1. Mo
ng minh. Truoc tin ta ch ra`ng, tuong tu nhu vnh da thu

c hu
Chu
u han bie n
c F [{xj }] voi tap ty cc bie n {xj },

doc lap dai so , ta c the xy dung vnh da thu
c l tong hu
c axi1 xim , voi xit {xj }.
trong d moi da thu
u han cc don thu
c m moi bie n yf u
ng voi mot da thu
c chuan ta c
Goi F [. . . , yf , . . .] l vnh da thu
c f (yf ). Ne u
f F [x]. Goi I l idan cua F [. . . , yf , . . .] sinh boi tat ca da thu
I = (1) th to`n tai g1, . . . , gn F [. . . , yf , . . .], sao cho
g1f (yf1 ) + + gnf (yfn ) = 1.

(16)
a mot nghiem i cua fi voi moi i = 1, . . . , n.
Goi F 0 l mot mo rong cua F chu
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

243
u vnh tu` F [. . . , yf , . . .] vo F 0 bie n yf thnh i, i = 1, . . . , n v

Xt do`ng ca
i
bie n yf = 0 voi f
/ {f1, . . . , fn}. Khi d bieu dien (16) cho 0 = 1. V l ! Cho nn
I 6= (1).
a I.
Do d, theo Bo de` Zorn, to`n tai mot idan to i dai M cua F [. . . , yf , . . .] chu
a F . Moi da thu
c trong
Dat E1 = F [. . . , yf , . . .]/M , khi d E1 l mot truo`ng chu
t mot nghiem trong E1. Lap lai qu trnh trn khi thay F boi
F [x] deù c t nha
E1, ta c mo rong E2 cua E1. Tiep tuc nhu the , ta c chuoi cc mo rong truo`ng
F = E0 E1 , v dat E = Ei. Khi d E l mot truo`ng dng dai so v
t mot
c f E[x], ton tai i sao cho f Ei[x]. Nhu the f c t nha
voi moi da thu
y truo`ng con F cc pha`n tu dai so trn F trong E. Khi

nghiem trong Ei+1 E. La
d F l bao dng dai so cua F .
t ve` luc luong. Ta ca`n bo de` sau :

ng minh khc su dung nhu
Mot chu
ng tnh cha
Bo de` C.2. Cho F l mot truo`ng v han v K l mot mo rong dai so cua F . Khi
d K c cng luc luong voi F .
t ca cc
ng minh. K ba`ng hop roì rac cua cc tap hu
a ta
Chu
u han, moi tap chu
Nguyen Chnh T
244
PHU LUC

t kha quy trong F [x]. Do d luc

c chuan ta c ba
nghiem trong K cua mot da thu
t kha quy trong F [x]. Ta

c chuan ta c, ba
luong cua K ba` ng voi luc luong cc da thu
`
c chuan ta c c bac ba` ng n cho truoc trong F [x] c cng luc
biet rang tap cc da thu
t ca cc da thu
c chuan tac cung ba`ng luc
luong voi F , do d luc luong cua tap ta
luong cua F , suy ra K v F c cng luc luong.
ng minh. (D
ng minh cho truo`ng hop F l truo`ng v
Chu
inh l C.1) Ta ch ca`n chu
han. Nhng F vo trong mot tap S c luc luong lon hon luc luong cua F . Goi l
tap cc bo (E, + , ), trong d E S l mot mo rong dai so cua F v + , l cc php
tu, dinh boi (E, + , ) > (E 0, + , )

ton trn truo`ng E. Trn xt quan he thu
neu E l mo rong truo`ng cua E . Bo de Zorn ch ra ra` ng to`n tai mot pha`n tu to i
ng minh K
dai (K, + , ) trong . Khi d K l mot mo rong dai so cua F . Ta chu
dng dai so . Gia su nguoc lai K khng dng dai so . Khi d to`n tai mot mo rong dai
so thuc su L = K() cua K. V |L| < |S|, nhng L vo S bang mot don nh sao

t trn K. Khi d to`n tai mot pha`n tu cua lon hon (K, + , ), v l
cho do`ng nha
do tnh toi dai cua (K, + , ).
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

245
` MAPLE
D SO LUOC VE
c dai so v minh hoa ton hoc

Maple l mot he tho ng tnh ton trn cc bieu thu
manh me cua cng ty Warterloo Maple Inc., ra doì nam 1991, den nay (2006) d
t ca cc
pht trien de n phin ban 10. Maple c cch ci dat don gian, chay trn ta
u trc linh hoat de su dung to i uu ca

u hnh my v dac biet c
he dieù hnh, c ca
trnh tro gip (Help) rat de su dung. Tu` phin ban 7 tro di, Maple cung cap ngy
cng nhieù cc cng cu truc quan, cc gi lenh tu hoc ga n lie`n voi ton pho thng

v dai hoc. Uu diem d lm cho nhieu nuoc trn the gioi lua chon su dung Maple

cng cc pha`n me`m ton hoc khc trong day hoc ton. Viec su dung Maple cung
nhu cng nghe thng tin trong day v hoc ton l mot xu huong ngy cng pho
bien trn the gioi v to ra l mot phuong tien ho tro dac luc nha`m lm cho viec
ng nhu caù pht trien cua gio duc hien

day-hoc ton tro nn thuc tien hon, dp u
c co ban ve Maple de nguoì doc c the khai

dai. Phan ny cung cap nhu
ng kien thu
thc su dung n trong viec hoc tap v giang day ton hoc, trong d c L thuye t
Truo`ng v Galois. Doc gia c the tm hieu thm ve Maple trong cc ti lieu tham
khao [8] v [10].

Nguyen Chnh T
246
PHU LUC

Cc tnh nang co ban cua Maple.

c nang co ban cua Maple nhu sau.
C the nu va n ta t cc chu
c so hoc v dai so ;
- l mot he tho ng tnh ton trn cc bieu thu

- c the thuc hiec duoc haù he t cc php ton co ban trong chuong trnh ton
dai hoc v pho thng ;

p cc cng cu minh hoa hnh hoc thuan tien go`m: ve do` thi tnh v dong
- cung ca
cua cc duo`ng v mat duoc cho boi cc hm ty trong nhieu he toa do khc
nhau ;
- mot ngn ngu
lap trnh don gian v manh me, c kha nang tuong tc voi cc
ngn ngu
lap trnh khc ;
t du
- cho php trch xua
lieu ra cc dinh dang khc nhau nhu LaTex, Word,
HTML,...
- Mot cng cu bin soan gio n v bi giang dien tu ;
p mot mi truo`ng day-hoc tuong tc truc tie p.

- cung ca
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

247
Giao dien v lenh trong Maple.
Giao dien cua Maple duoc the hien nhu trong Hnh 12.
Hnh 12: Giao dien cua Maple
u nha c lenh ">" v

Lenh cua Maple duoc g vo trang lm viec (worksheet) tai da
theo nga`m dinh duoc hien thi ba`ng font Courier mu do. Mot lenh duoc ke t thc
Nguyen Chnh T
248
PHU LUC

u ":" hoac da
u ";" v duoc ra lenh thuc hien ba` ng viec nha
n Enter khi con tro
boi da
dang o trn dng lenh. Ket qua cua lenh duoc hien thi ngay bn duoi dng lenh
u ";".
ne u dng da
Maple c dich vu tro gip kh da`y du v thuan loi bao go`m c php, giai thch

cch dng v cc v du di km. De nhan duoc tro gip, c the dng mot trong cc
cch sau. Neu d biet tn lenh th tu` dau nhac g vo, v du:
> ?factor
Ne u dng mot gi lenh th khi nap gi lenh ba` ng lenh with, Maple se hien thi
ton bo lenh trong gi d. Mot cch thng dung nu

a l dng trnh Help|Topic

Search roì g vo tu` kha ca`n tm.

Cc mi truo`ng lm viec.
Maple c 2 mi truo`ng lm viec l ton v van ban. Nguoì dng c the chuyen
doi mot cch de dng giu

a 2 mi truo`ng ny de tao ra mot mi truo`ng tuong tc
t ra bi giang hon chnh sau

khi day-hoc qua he tho ng e-learning hoac trch xua
ny. Khi kch hoat Maple, trang lm viec mo ra voi mi truo`ng ton. Con tro na` m
u nhac > mu do. Muo n chuyen sang mi truo`ng van ban, ch ca`n kch chuot
o da
Nguyen Chnh T
PHU LUC

249
vo bieu tuong T trn thanh cng cu hoac vo Insert | Text, hay dng to hop phm
u
Ctrl+T. Trong mi truo`ng van ban, Maple cho php bin soan ti lieu theo ca
`
`
trc, cho php hien thi theo nhieu tang lop, rat ph hop voi viec gioi thieu tong
quan hoac tong ke t n tap. Gio ng nhu mot he soan thao van ban, Maple cho php
t
thay doi cc font chu
, mu sac v dac biet c the tao ra cc bookmark de truy xua
nhanh chng den cc vi tr ty trong trang lm viec hien hnh hay cc trang
lm viec khc ; tao ra cc siu lin ke t de no i voi trang web hay pha`n tro gip cua
Maple.
t du
v trch xua
lieu.
Luu giu
Trang lm viec cua Maple se duoc luu giu

ba` ng file c dui ".mws". File duoc luu
`
`
giu
bang trnh File|Save. Mot file d c duoc mo bang File|Open. Ngoi viec luu
i
u
giu
ba
ng
d
nh
da
ng
cu
a
Maple
nhu
trn,
du
lie
u
c
the
d
o
c
trch
xua
t
thnh
cc
t ba` ng File|Export.
dinh dang khc nhu Word, LaTex hay HTML. Trch xua
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
250
I BI TA
NG DA
N GIA
P
HUO
Chuong 0
0. 1. a) D
d) D
g) S
b) S
e) S
h) D (S, S)
c) D
f) S
i) S
0. 2. Kiem tra truc tie p (ab) = (ab)p = apbp = (a)(b). Tuong tu
(a + b) = (a + b)p = ap + bp
p!
v p a = 0, a F . Ne u F l hu
u han, nh xa
(p k)!k!
u nn cung l dang ca
u.
l don ca
do p l uoc cua
ng (m/n) := (m) (n)1. De dng ch ra l mot nh xa

0. 3. Xt tuong u
u truo`ng. Hon nu
u : FD K thoa
v l do`ng ca
a, ne u to`n tai do`ng ca
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251
(a) = (a), a D th
(m/n) = (m)(n)1 = (m) (n)1 = (m/n).
t.
Vay xc dinh duy nha
u truo`ng. Ta c (1) = 1. Voi moi n N, de

0. 4. Goi : Q Q l mot do`ng ca
`
thay rang (n) = (n 1) = n(1) = 1. Mat khc] (n) = (n) = n.
Vay (m) = m, m Z. Hon nu

a
1
1
(1) = (n ) = n( ) = 1.
n
n
1
1
Do d ( ) = . Cuo i cng
n
n
m
1
1
1
m
( ) = (m ) = (m)( ) = n = ,
n
n
n
m
n
m
t l tu do`ng ca
u truo`ng duy nha
t cua
voi moi
Q. Nhu the nh xa do`ng nha
n
Q. Tuong tu voi tap cc tu dong cau cua truo`ng Zp. Cuo i cng theo 0. 2, nh xa
t, suy ra dieù phai chu

ng minh.
Frobenius l php do`ng nha
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252
u : Q F th F chu
u voi Q. Do d
a mot truo`ng con dang ca
0. 5. Ne u c do`ng ca
0 l dac so cua F . Tuong tu cho truo`ng hop Zp. Nguoc lai ne u F l truo`ng c dac
m
1
`
`
so 0 th ton tai dong cau truo`ng : Q F sao cho ( n ) = (m1F )(n1F )
u truo`ng th ch
(xem trang 23). Hon nu
a, ne u c : Q F l mot do`ng ca
1
t. Chu
ng minh tuong tu
ra ra` ng ( m
)
=
(m1
)(n1
)
. Do d l duy nha
F
F
n
cho Zp.
0. 6. Ne u a Zp sao cho 2 = a2 th
f = x4 10x2 + 1 = (x2 1)2 a6x2 = (x2 + a3x 1)(x2 a3x 1).
Ne u b Zp sao cho b2 = 3 th f = (x2 + 1)2 (2bx)2. Cuo i cng ne u 2 v 3
deù khng chnh phuong trong Zp th 6 chnh phuong trong Zp. Dieù ny suy
t don gian ra` ng trong mot nhm xyclic, tch cua 2 pha`n tu khng
ra tu` tnh cha
`ng hop
chnh phuong l chnh phuong. Theo 0. 18, nhm Z
p cyclic. Trong truo
2
2
ny f = (x 5) 24 kha quy.
0. 7. Do F [x] l mie`n nguyn Euclide nn l mie`n nguyn chnh. Thuc ra, ta c the
ng minh truc tie p ra`ng, voi moi idan thuc su I F [x], goi f I l da
chu
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253
t trong cc da thu
c c bac nho nha
c thuoc I. De dng ch ra I = (f ).
thu
t kha quy, goi h l mot uoc thuc su cua f . Khi d

Ne u f khng ba
(f ) (h) 6= F [x]. Ngha l f khng toi dai. Nguoc lai ne u (f ) khng to i

dai th (f ) m 6= F [x] voi m l mot idan thuc su cua F [x]. Goi m = (h)
th h l mot uoc thuc su cua f . Vay f khng bat kha quy.
t kha quy thuc su cua f . Khi d f = gh. V

0. 8. Gia su f = gh voi g l mot uoc ba
t kha quy thuc
he so cao nhat cua f khng chia het cho p nn g l mot uoc ba
su cua f . V l !
0. 9. d = x + 2, s = 2 v t = 2x2 + 8x + 6.
ng minh tuong tu nhu do i voi truo`ng hop Z v Q.
0. 10. Chu
t kha quy trn Q, dng tiu chuan Eisentein voi f (x 1).

0. 11. a) f = x4 + 1 ba
b) x4 + 1 = (x2 2x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 1) l dang nhn tu ha trong R[x].
7
3
t kha quy theo Eisentein cho p = 11.
c) x + 11x 33x + 22 ba
t kha quy, dng tiu chuan Eisenstein voi g(x+5).
d) g = x4 +x3 +x2 +x+1 ba
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e) Ch x3 7x2 + 3x + 3 c nghiem 1.
t kha quy, c the chu

ng minh ba` ng cch han che x4 + 15x3 + 7 trn Z2.
f) Ba
t kha quy trn Z17.

g) Ba
h) x3 5 = (x + 8)(x2 + 3x + 9) trong Z11[x].
0. 12. Ch ra` ng
c) x5 + x + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x3 x2 + 1).
t kha quy trn Q.
d) x4 6x2 + 11 ba
t kha quy khi v ch khi = b2 4c khng chnh
0. 13. x2 + bx + c Z5 ba
t kha quy bac 2 l
c chuan tac, ba
phuong trong Z5. Cc da thu
x2 + x + 2, x2 + 4x + 2, x2 + 3x + 4, x2 + 2x + 4,
x2 + 2x + 3, x2 + 4x + 1, x2 + x + 1,
x2 + 3,
x2 + 2
x2 + 3x + 3.
0. 14. Goi f = gh voi h Q[x] chuan ta c. Goi m, n N c so thuà so nguyn to t
t sao cho mg, nh Z[x]. Khi d ta c mnf = (mg)(nh). Gai su mn 6= 1.

nha
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255
t ca cc he so cua
Goi p | mn. Khi d p | (mg) hay p | nh. Suy ra p chia he t ta
m
n
g hay cua h. Khi d p g Z[x] hay p h Z[x]. V l voi cch chon m, n.
c chuan tac bac 2. Trong d c p da thu

c dang
0. 15. Trong Zp[x] c dng p2 da thu
c dang (x a)(x b) voi a 6= b. Suy ra so da

(x a)2 v (p2 p)/2 da thu
c bat kha quy.

thu
0. 17. Voi moi x N, x qn, ta c x = nt+y voi 0 t q 1 v 0 y n1.
Do (x, n) = (y, n), moi gi tri y n thoa (y, n) = 1 c dng q gi tri x qn
sao cho (x, n) = 1. Nhu the so cc gi tri x qn sao cho (x, n) = 1 ba`ng
q(n).
a) Ne u q | n th (x, n) = (x, qn). Do d (qn) = q(n).
b) Ne u p nguyn to v (n, p) = 1 th (x, pn) = 1 khi v ch khi (x, n) =
(x, p) = 1. Nhu the (pn) ba` ng voi so gi tri x pn thoa (x, n) = 1 tru`
di cho cc gi tri cua x thoa (x, p) 6= 1. Do (p, n) = 1, cc gi tri x nhu the
c dang x = pt voi t n v (t, n) = 1. Suy ra (pn) = p(n) (n).
ng minh ba`ng quy nap theo m.

c) Su dung 2 ke t qua trn v chu
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ng da
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d) Tu` cu c), ta c (pm) = (p 1)pm1 voi moi so nguyn to p. Cho
m1
mr
a = p1 pr . Dng quy nap theo r.
e) Tu` d), suy ra

m1 1
mr
1
r 1
(pm
p
)
=
(p
1)p
(pr 1)pm
.
1
1
1
r
r
Pm
c ch ra. Chu
ng minh i=0 (pi) = pm, ba` ng cch khai
Bien doi ve cng thu
mr `
1
ng minh dng cho n.
trien ve tri. Phn tch n = pm
i chu
1 pr ro
P
c Euler : d|n (d) = n voi (d) l so cc so nguyn duong
0. 18. Nha c lai cng thu
khng vuot qu d v nguyn to cng nhau voi d. Goi n = (G : 1) voi G l
nhm con cua F . Voi d|n, goi (d) l so cc pha`n tu cua G c bac d. Nhu the
P
d|n (d) = n.
p d deù l nghiem cua da thu

c xd 1, do d
Ch ra` ng cc pha`n tu c ca
p d th moi pha`n tu ca
p d deù thuoc vo
ne u c a G l mot pha`n tu ca
d1
nhm cyclic (a) = {1, a, . . . , a }. Do d so cc phan tu cap d dng ba` ng

p d th (d) = (d). Suy
(d). Ni cch khc, ne u to`n tai mot pha`n tu ca
P
P
ra (d) (d), d|n. Mat khc, do d|n (d) =
d|n (d) = n, ta c
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p n
(d) = (d), d|n. Ni cch khc (n) 6= nn to`n tai mot pha`n tu ca
trong G.
u cua R. Ch ra (a) = a, a Q. Mat khc, ch
0. 19. Cho l mot tu do`ng ca

ra (r) > 0 ne u r > 0, r R. Suy ra (a) < (b) ne u a < b.

y a Q sao cho
Ne u c r R sao cho (r) 6= r. Gia su (r) < r. La
(r) < a < r. Suy ra a < (r). V l. V l cung xay ra khi (r) > r. Vay
(r) = r, r R.
1
1. 1. Cc truo`ng hop a), b) v d) l cc mo rong truo`ng.
1. 2. Deù l cc mo rong bac 2.
u truo`ng. Goi ( 3) = a + b 5. Ta
1. 3. Goi : Q[ 3] Q[ 5] l mot dang ca
2
2
2
c 3 = (a + b 5) = (a + 5b ) + 2ab 5. Suy ra 2ab 5 = 0 v a2 + 5b2 = 3.
Ch ra ra`ng khng to`n tai a, b Q nhu the .
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1. 4. Ne u [R : Q] hu
u han th R de m duoc do Q de m duoc. V l. Hoac ch ra trong
R c mot tap v han doc lap tuyen tnh.

1. 5. Xt truo`ng hop P
= Q. Khi d moi pha`n tu cua a P deù vie t duoc duoi
1
dang (m1K )(n1K ) voi m, n Q. Do d (a) = a, a K. Lm tuong tu
`
cho truong hop P = Zp.
1. 7. Goi E l mot truo`ng trung gian cua F K. Xt [K : F ] = [K : E][E : F ].
u vnh. Hon nu
u do l don ca
u.
1. 8. a) De dng ch ra l do`ng ca
a l don ca
u th ch ra cung l ton ca
u.
Cuo i cng, ne u ton ca
ng minh tuong tu nhu trong Menh de` 1.3.
b) Chu
2
2. 1.a) D
b) D
c) S
d) S
e) S
f) D
g) D
h) D
i) S
j) D
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259
t kha quy. Dat

c f = x3 x2 + x + 2 ba
2. 2. Truoc he t ch ra da thu
g = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 x).

Tm du cua php chia g cho f (c the dng Maple). Ta c g = f q + (4x 2).
Suy ra u = (2 + + 1)(2 ) = g() = 4 2.
ng minh), to`n tai s, t Q[x] sao
Tuong tu, dat h = x 1. Do (h, f ) = 1 (chu

cho hs + f t = 1. Khi d s() = h()1 = ( 1)1. Tm duoc (c the dng
2
1
Maple), 1/3 /3 = ( 1) .
2. 3. Su dung He qua 2.6.
2. 4. Ne u u K l mot nghiem cua f . Xt
[K : F ] = [K : F (u)][F (u) : F ].
Suy ra dieù v l.
2. 5. Goi u l mot nghiem cua f . Ta c
[K(u) : F ] = [K(u) : K][K : F ] = [K(u) : F (u)][F (u) : F ].

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t kha quy trn K.

Ch ra [K(u) : K] = m. Suy ra f ba
2. 6. a) bac 4.
b) bac 6, c) bac 6 v f) bac 12, su dung bi tap 2. 5.
d) bac 3 voi ch Q( 27, 3 + 12) = Q( 3).
4
e) bac 4 voi ch Q( 18, 2) = Q( 4 2).
2. 7. Su dung He qua 2.7.
ab
`
2. 8. Ch rang a b =
Q( a + b). Suy ra a v b deù
a+ b
thuoc Q( a + b).
c ch chu
a cc don thu
c voi so mu cha n.
2. 9. a) go`m cc da thu
c to i tieu la`n luot l :
2. 10. Cc da thu
2
a) x x 1 Q[x].
b) x2 + x + 1 Q[x].
c) x2 (t + 1) Z3(t)[x].
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d) u = 4 5 + 5. Suy ra 4 5 = u 5. Do d 5 = u2 2u 5 + 5. Hay
5(1 + 2u) = u2 + 5. Suy ra u4 10u2 20u + 20 = 0.
3
3
3
3
e) u = 2 + 4. Suy ra u = 6 + 6( 2 + 3 4) = 6 + 6u.
f) v = u2 + u. Do u3 + 3u2 3 = 0, ta c v 2 = 4u2 + 3u 3 = 4v u 3. Mat
3
2
3
2
khc v = 15u +9u15 = 15v6u15. Khu u, ta c v 6v +9v3 = 0.

g) u = + 6. Ta c u2 = 1 u ( 3 + 4). Do d u3 = 3u + ( 3 + 4). Suy
c to i tieu cua
ra u2 + u3 = 1 + 2u. Ch ra x3 + x2 2x 1 chnh l da thu
u.
c to i tieu l x2 + x + 2.
h) + 2 + 4 c da thu
c to i tieu l x3 + x2 2x 1.
i) 2 + 5 c da thu
u vnh : Q[x] Q[x]/(x2 4x + 2) = Q() xc dinh boi

2. 11. Xt do`ng ca
ng
x 7 v a 7 a, a Q. Ch ra Ker() = (x2 2). Suy ra dieù phai chu
minh.
2. 12. Cho f = ax2 + bx + c F [x]. Hai nghiem cua f thuoc vo F (u) voi
u2 = b2 4ac. Ke t qua khng dng voi truo`ng c dac so 2, v du trong Z2 do
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262
moi pha`n tu deù chnh phuong.
2. 13. a) Cho K : Q l mot mo rong bac 2. Khi d K = Q(u) voi u c bac 2 trn Q.
c bat kha quy nhan u lm nghiem.

Goi f = ax + bx + c Z[x] l da thu
R rng Q(u) = Q( d) voi d = b2 4ac Z khng chnh phuong.

b) Goi K : R l mo rong bac 2. Khi d K = R(u) voi u c bac 2 trn R. Goi
c toi tieu cua u. Tuong tu R(u) = R( d)

f = x + bx + c R[x] l da thu
voi d = b2 4c < 0. Do R( d) C v [C : R] = 2 nn C = R( d).

2. 14. Xt F F (u) K.
t kha quy bac 2 l x2 +1, x2 +x+2 v x2 +2x+2.
c ba
2. 15. Trong Z3 ch c 3 da thu
Su dung phuong php nhu trong Bi tap 2. 11.
2. 16. V x4 + x2 + 1 = x(x3 1) + (x2 + x + 1) nn l nghiem cua x2 + x + 1.
c to i tieu cua .
Suy ra x2 + x + 1 chnh l da thu
ng minh He qua 2.7.
2. 17. Tuong tu nhu trong chu
2. 18. a) R rng.
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263
u tu` F () vo F ()
b) Ne u K l mot nghiem cua f th to`n tai F -dang ca
u.
bie n thnh . Do d nh 7 () l ton ca
Mat khc, ne u () = () th = v {1, , . . . , n1}, voi n l bac
cua , l mot co so cua F ().
2. 19. a) R rng.
b) Cho K l mot nghiem cua (f ). Ch ra` ng : F [x] (F )[x]
t kha quy trong (F )[x]. Do d (f ) l

l mot dang cau vnh v (f ) ba
u
u vnh cam sinh mot dang ca
c to i tieu cua . Hon nu
da thu
a, dang ca
truo`ng
: F ()
= F [x]/(f ) (F )[x]/((f ))
= (F )()
u tu` F
thoa () = v (a) = (a), a F . Xem nhu mot do`ng ca
ng
vo K. Suy ra nh xa 7 () l mot ton nh. Tnh don nh duoc chu
minh nhu trong bi tap trn.
t moi mo rong don cua mot truo`ng de m duoc l de m duoc.

2. 20. Dng tnh cha
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2. 21. a) R rng.
b) khi l hien nhin. Ne u c S(E) = S(E 0). Khi d E = F () voi 2 = d
S(E) = S(E 0) v d F khng chnh phuong. Do d to`n tai E 0 sao cho
2 = 2. R rng
/ F v do d E 0 = F (). Cc truo`ng E v E 0 deù dang
u voi F [x]/(x2 d).
ca
y cc mo rong Ep := Q(p) cua Q voi p nguyn to . Khi d S(Ep) ch
c) La
a mot so nguyn to l p. Thuc vay xt (a + b p)2.

chu
2
u voi Zp. Xt cc
d) Mot truo`ng c p pha`n tu c truo`ng con nguyn to dang ca
u nhm : Z Z cho boi (a) = a2.

mo rong bac 2 cua Zp. Xt do`ng ca
p
p
R rng Ker() = {1}. Ch ra anh cua l nhm con c ch so 2 cua Z

p.
u
ng bac 2 cua Zp, dang ca

Nhu the S(E) ba`ng Z
p . Cho nn ch c 1 mo ro
/ Z2p.
voi Zp[x]/(x2 d) voi d
3
3. 1.a) S
b) D
c) S
d) D
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e) D
f) S
265
g) S
h) D
y u K \ R. Ch ra u c bac
3. 2. Goi K : R l mo rong dai so . Xt [K : R] > 1. La
a
2 trn R. Nhu the C
R(u)
K.
Mo
i
pha
n
tu
thuo
c
K
d
i
so
trn
R(u)
C.
=
=
Suy ra K = R(u)
= C.
f (x)
3. 3. V F ( M nn to`n tai
M voi deg(f ) > 0 hay deg(g) > 0. Khi d x
g(x)
c
l nghiem cua da thu
f (x)
f (t)
g(t) M [t].
g(x)
Do d x dai so trn M .
t ca deù ba
t kha quy, su dung Bi tap 2. 5.
3. 4. Ta
3. 5. Cu tra loì khang dinh cho a), b) v c) l r rng. Voi d) ch ra`ng
u2 = 2v 2 3v + 11. Ke t hop voi 2u = 2v 2 + 2v + 2, ta c v = 13 u2 2u.
Do d Q(u) = Q(v).
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3. 6. Goi f = anxn+ +a0 K[x]. Goi u l mot nghiem cua f . Xt F (a0, . . . , an, u)
c
l mot mo rong dai so cua F . Do d u dai so trn F . Khi d f chia he t da thu
to i tieu g F [x] cua u.

3. 7. Cho g = a0 + + anxn E[x] c bac lon hon 0. Goi u l mot nghiem cua g.
Xt F (a0, . . . , an, u) l mot mo rong dai so cua F . Do d u dai so trn F . Goi
c toi tieu cua u. V m phn r trong E nn u E. Suy ra

m F [x] l da thu
ng minh.
dieù phai chu
y ra` ng ke t qua ny cung dng khi F l truo`ng hu
3. 8. Sau ny, ta tha
u han. Khi
F v han, chung minh theo cc goi sau :
Ne u K = F (u1, u2) th xt cc truo`ng con

Jc = F (u1 + cu2)
a F , to`n tai c 6= c0 sao
voi c F . Do K ch c hu
u han cc truo`ng con chu
0
0
cho Fc = Fc . Tu` u1 + cu2, u1 + c u2 F (u1 + cu2), ta c u2 F (u1 + cu2).
Suy ra u1 F (u1 + cu2). Hay
K = F (u1, u2) F (u1 + cu2).
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267
ng minh cho truo`ng hop tong qut.

Dng quy nap, chu
c to i
Nguoc lai cho F M F (u) = K. Goi f v f1 la`n luot l da thu
tieu cua u trn F v M R rng f1 | f . Ta c F (a1, . . . , am) M voi ai

l he tu cua f1. Mat khc,
[F (u) : F (a1, . . . , am)] = [F (u) : M ] = deg(f1).

Do d M = F (a1, . . . , am). Nhu the ch c hu
u han cc truo`ng trung gian
M.
4
4. 1. a) D
f) D
b) S
c) D
d) S
g) S
h) D
i) D
e) D
y ra` ng ne u (j , j ) l giao diem cua 2 duo`ng thang m phuong

4. 2. De dng tha
trnh cua chng c he tu trong Kj1 th [Kj : Kj1] = 1. Ne u (j , j ) l giao
diem cua mot duo`ng thang d v mot duo`ng trn C m phuong trnh cua chng
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la`n luot l :
d : ax + by + c = 0
C : (x a1)2 + (y b1)2 r 2 = 0
voi cc he so trong Kj1. Rt x hoac y tu` phuong trnh cua d roì thay vo
phuong trnh cua C, ta suy ra

[Kj1(j , j ) : Kj1] 2.
Cuo i cng xt ne u (j , j ) l giao diem cua hai duo`ng trn C1, C2 m phuong
trnh cua chng la`n luot l:
C1 : (x a1)2 + (y b1)2 r12 = 0

C2 : (x a2)2 + (y b2)2 r22 = 0
voi cc he so trong Kj1. Suy ra
2(a2 a1)(xa2)+(a2 a1)2 +2(b2 b1)(y b2)+(b2 b1)2 +(r12 r22) = 0.

Tuong tu nhu truo`ng hop trn, ta c [Kj : Kj1] 2.
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269
Nhu the Kj = Kj1( j ) voi aj Kj1. Vay sau hu

u han buoc, ta c dieù
ng minh.
phai chu
y ra` ng cc pha`n tu cua

ng minh cua Dinh l 4.8, ta tha
4. 3. Tu` chu
Q( 1, . . . , n1) dung duoc, nn , dung duoc. Suy ra (, ) dung duoc.
4. 4. Do [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3 nn diem ( 3 2, 0) khng dung duoc.
4. 5. Ch ra` ng [Q( ) : Q] = do siu viet trn Q.
4. 6. a) Cho doan thang AB c 2 diem mt A, B dung duoc. Dung duo`ng trn tm
A qua B v duo`ng trn tm B qua A. Duo`ng thang qua 2 giao diem cua 2
duo`ng trn ny ca t AB tai trung diem cua AB.
b) Cho hnh bnh hnh ABCD c 3 dnh A, B, C dung duoc. Dung trung
diem O cua doan thang AC. Duo`ng thang BO cat duo`ng trn tm O qua
tu D.
B tai dnh thu
4. 7. Goi L l truo`ng cc so dung duoc. Cho L. V [Q() : Q] = 2m nn dai
n
so trn Q. Vay L : Q dai so . Ne u [L : Q] = n th de dng ch ra so 2 2 dung
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
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270
duoc nhung bac cua n ba` ng 2n > n. V l !
1
4. 8. Ch ra ra` ng cos( 5 ) cos( 2
)
=
. That vay
5
2

cos( 5 ) cos( 2
) = 2 sin( 10
) sin( 3
)
5
10
sin( 2
) sin( 6
)
1
10
10
=
3 = 2 .
2 cos( 10 ) cos( 10 )
Tu` d suy ra
cos( 5 )
5
4
1
4
cos( 2
)
5
5
4
14 .
4. 9. Ch ra` ng cos( 2
)
=
cos(
).
15
3
5
c l cos( 3 ) dung duoc. M cos( 3 ) l nghiem cua

4. 12. Ne u cos() chia 3 duoc, tu
4x3 3x cos Q(cos ). R rng

[Q(cos , cos(/3)) : Q(cos )] = 2r 3.
Suy ra [Q(cos , cos( 3 )) : Q(cos())] ba`ng 1 hay 2. Do d 4x3 3x cos()
kha quy trn Q(cos()).
Nguoc lai, ne u 4x3 2x cos() kha quy trn Q(cos ) th cos( 3 ) c bac 1

hoac 2 trn Q(cos ). Do cos dung duoc, gc 3 dung duoc.
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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271
\
\
4. 13. Ch ra` ng N
OD = N
DO
5
5. 1. a) D
f) S
b) D
c) S
d) S
e) S
k) D
g) D
h) D
i) S
j) D
l) D
ng minh ba`ng qui nap theo r. Ne u r = 1, dy chnh l ke t qua cua Bi

5. 2. Chu
tap 2. 18. Ta vie t
F (1, . . . , r ) = F (1, . . . , r1)(r ).

u tu` Er1 = F (1, . . . , r1) vo K; so do`ng ca
u
Khi d, to`n tai F -do`ng ca

khng qu [Er1 : F ] v dat to i da khi K chu
u tu` Er1 vo K, to`n tai mo rong F -do`ng ca

u tu` Er1(r )
Voi moi do`ng ca
a nghiem cua f . So cc mo rong nhu the khng vuot qu

vo K v K chu
a n nghiem phn biet

[Er1(r ) : Er1] v ba`ng [Er1(r ) : Er1] khi K chu
Nguyen Chnh T
272
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
u tu` E vo K khng vuot qu

cua f (xem Bi tap 2. 19). Nhu the so F -do`ng ca
[Er1(r ) : Er1].[Er1 : F ] = [E : F ].
u dat to i da khi K chu
So do`ng ca
5. 3. Ne u K = Fj voi Fj l cc truo`ng hon chnh. Goi p > 0 l dac so cua K.
`
`
Voi moi a K, ton tai j sao cho a Fj . Do Fj hon chnh, phan tu a c can
bac p trong Fj . Neu K l mo rong dai so cua Zp, ta c K = Zp(), voi Zp()
l cc truo`ng hon chnh.

t kha quy. Goi l nghiem cua
c d deù ba
5. 5. Kiem tra cc da thu
f = x3 + 2x + 1. Khi d cc nghiem cn lai cua f l + 1 v + 2. Do
d truo`ng phn r cua f trn Z3 l Z3(). Tuong tu, goi l nghiem cua
2
3
2
2
g = x + x + x + 2. Khi d cc nghiem cn lai cua g l + 1 v + + 1.
Do d truo`ng phn r cua g l Z3().

u tu` Z3() vo
Ch ra` ng 2 l mot nghiem cua g nn to`n tai mot Z3-do`ng ca
2
Z3() bien thnh .

Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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273
5. 7. a) Goi l mot nghiem cua f = xp x a trong mot truo`ng phn r cua f
trn F . Khi d + 1, . . . , + (p 1) l cc nghiem cn lai cua f . Gia su
f = (xm + a1xm1 + + am)(xn + + bn)

voi m > 0, n > 0 l mot phn tch cua f trong F [x]. Khi d a1 l tong
cua m nghiem cua f . Do d a1 = m + d voi m, d Zp F . Suy ra
F . Vay f phn r trong F .
y ra` ng f khng c nghiem trong Zp

b) Xt f = xp x 1 trong Zp[x]. De tha
t kha quy trn Zp.

nn ba
5. 8. Vie t f = a
Qr
1 (x
i)mi . Khi d
0
f =
X mi f
.
x i
Q
Q
Do d d = r1(x i)mi1. Suy ra h = r1(x i).
5. 9. Ne u f tch duoc th ke t luan l hien nhin. Ne u f khng tch duoc th
t kha quy. Ne u f1 khng tch duoc, ta c

f = f1(xp) voi f1 F [x] ba
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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274
2
f1 = f2(xp). Khi d f = f2(xp ). Tie p tuc nhu the . Do deg(fi) > deg(fi+1),
ng minh.
qu trnh trn se du`ng sau e buoc, ta c dieù ca`n chu
Q
Cuo i cng, dat g = a (x i), voi i 6= j . Ta c
Y
Y
e
pe
f = a (x i) = a (x i)p .
5. 10. Gia su f kha quy. Khi d f = gh voi

g = xm + a1xm1 + + a0
t
sao cho 0 < m < p. Trong truo`ng phn r Ef cua f trn F , do tnh duy nha
cua dang nhn tu ha, ta c
g = (x b)m = xm + (1)mmb xm + + (1)mbm,

xem V du 20. Suy ra a1 = (1)mmb. Do m 6= 0 trong F , ta c b F . V l !
ng minh ba`ng quy nap trn r. Ne u r = 1, ta c

5. 11. Ta chu
]{ : F () K | |F = } = ]{ K | g() = 0}
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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275
c to i tieu cua (xem Bi tap 2. 19). R rng

voi g F [x] l da thu
u, |F = }
]{ : F () K | l F -do`ng ca
khng vuot qu [F () : F ] = deg(g). Ne u f c n nghiem phn biet trong
K th g c deg(g) nghiem phn biet trong K nn
]{ : F () K | |F = } = [F () : F ].
Ke t qua dng voi r = 1.
Ta c E = F (1, . . . , r ) = F (1, . . . , r1)(r ). Dat F 0 = F (1, . . . , r1).
Theo gia thuye t quy nap
]{ : F 0 K | |F = } [F 0 : F ]
c xay ra ne u f c n nghiem phn biet trong K. Voi
v dang thu
0
`
: F K l dong cau thoa |F = c r l nghiem cua f thoa f = f ,
do d
]{ : F 0(r ) K | |F 0 = } [F 0(r ) : F 0]
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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276
c xay ra khi f c n nghiem phn biet trong K. Ch ra` ng

v dang thu
|F = |F = . Suy ra
]{ : E K | |F = } [E : F 0][F 0 : F ] = [E : F ]
c xay ra khi K chu
v dang thu
6
6. 1. a) D
h) S
b) S
c) D
d) S
e) D
f) S
g) S
i) D
j) S
k) D
l) D
m) S n) D
6. 2. a) Aut(C/R)
= Z2.
b) Q() l truo`ng phn r cua f = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 trn Q. Do d
(Aut(Q()/A) : 1) = [Q()/A) : Q] = 4.Goi : 7 2, khi d
p 4. Do d n ch c mot nhm con

Aut(Q()/A) = () l nhm cyclic ca
2
2
3
ng voi truo`ng trung gian l Q( + ). N cung chnh l

cap 2 l ( ) u
t.
truo`ng trung gian duy nha
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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277
c) De dng tm duoc truo`ng phn r cua f = x4 2 l Ef = Q( 4 2, i). Nhm
u voi nhm do i xu
ng cua hnh vung), sinh boi:
G = Aut(Ef ) (dang ca
(
(
i
7 i
i
7 i
:
;
4
4
4
4
2 7 i 2
2 7
2
Tu` d suy ra so do` bao hm cc nhm con cua G nhu trong Hnh 1.
G
6o
( 2 , ) () ( 2 , )
7
6]
( 2 )
( )
7 6 o
( 2 ) ( ) ( 3 )
6
Hnh 1: So do` cc nhm con cua Aut(Q( 4 2, i)/Q).
ng, ta c so do` cc truo`ng trung

Tnh la`n luot cc truo`ng trung gian tuong u
gian nhu trong Hnh 2.

Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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278
Q
?
Q( 2)
Q(i 4 2)
Q(i)
Q( 4 2)
Q(i,
?=
Q(i 2)
4
4
2) Q((1 + i) 2) Q((1 i) 2)
?+
)
Q(i, 4 2)
ng.
Hnh 2: So do` cc truo`ng trung gian tuong u
d) Ef = Q(, 2). Nhm Aut(Ef )/Q() = Z3 sinh boi : 2

7
i 3 2. Do
d n khng c truo`ng trung gian no.

c
e) Nhm G = Aut(Q( 2, 3, 5)/Q) l truo`ng phn r cua da thu
u voi Z2 Z2 Z2
f = (x2 2)(x2 3)(x2 5) trn Q. V the nhm G dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
279
p 2:
sinh ra boi cc pha`n tu ca
2
7
2
2 7
2
:
3 7
3 ;
3
7
3;
5 7
5
5
7
5
7
2
3
7
3 .
5
7
5

f) Truo`ng phn r Ef cua f = (x3 5)(x3 7) trn Q l Q( 3 5, 3 7, ) voi
3
i2/3
p 18, sinh boi cc pha`n
=e
. Do d nhmAut(Q( 5, 3 7, )/Q) c ca
tu
7
7
3
3
:
5 7 3 5 ;
5 7 3 5 ;
3
3
3
7 7
7
7 7 3 7
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
280
7
2
3
3
5
7
5.
3
37
7
7
6
6
`
g) Truong phn r Ef cua f = x 5 trn Q l Q( 5, 3). Do d nhm

p 12 (dang ca
u voi nhm do i xu
ng cua luc gic
Aut(Q( 6 5, i 3)/Q) c ca
deu) sinh boi

(
(
i 3 7 i 3
i 3 7 i 3
:
;
;
6
6
5 7 6 5
5 7 6 5
voi = e
i/3
1
2
3
i.
2
5
p ba` ng
6. 3. Truo`ng phn r cua x 2 l Q( 5 2, ) voi = e2i/5. Nhm G c ca
[Q( 5 2, ) : Q] = 20. Nhm G khng giao hon. Goi
(
(
7 2
:
;
.
5
5
2 7 5 2
2 7 5 2
R rng 6= .
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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281

6. 4. Truo`ng phn r cua f = (x3 2)(x3 5) trn Q l Q( 3 2, 3 5, ) voi = e2i/3.
p 18. Nhm Galois cua f trn R c ca
p 2.
Nhm Galois G c ca
c xn 1 trn Q. Moi pha`n tu
6. 5. Ch ra` ng Q() l truo`ng phn r cua da thu
thuoc Aut(Q()/Q) xc dinh boi () = r . De dng kiem tra tnh giao hon
cua nhm Aut(Q()/Q).

6. 6. Goi l mot nghiem cua xp a. Khi d truo`ng phn r cua f trn Q l
Q(, ) voi = e2i/p ; trn Zp l Zp() v xp a = (x a)p.

6. 7. a) Khng dng, chang han xt F = Z2(t2) Z2(t). Khi d [E : F ] = 2 v
Aut(E/F ) = 1.
b) Menh de` dng v truo`ng hu
u han l truo`ng hon chnh nn
Aut(E/F ) = Z2.
6. 8. Cc nghiem cua x5 1 l i voi i = 0, . . . , 4. Suy ra K = Q(). Do d nhm
p ba` ng 4 v l nhm cyclic sinh ra boi : 7 2. V the ,

G = Aut(K/Q) c ca
t l < 2 >. Truo`ng trung gian u
ng
G ch c mot nhm con thuc su duy nha
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
282
c to i tieu cua + 4
voi nhm con ny l Q( + 4). De dng tm duoc da thu
l x2 + x 1.
a) Ch ra` ng
cos(
2
5
)=
51
4
1
2
( + 4).
Suy ra truo`ng phn r cua (x2 5)(x5 1) chnh l K.
2
5
`
b) Truong phn r cua (x + 3)(x 1) l Q(, i 3).
3
`
6. 9. Ch rang x 5 bat kha quy trn Q( 7). Ta c K = Q( 3 5, ) voi = e2i/3.
p 6. Nhm G sinh
R rng [K : Q( 7)] = 6 v do d G = Aut(K/Q) c ca
boi cc pha`n tu
(
(
7 2
p 2 .
:
cap 3 ;
ca
3
3
3
3
5 7 5
5 7
5
Nhm ny khng giao hon nn G
= S3.
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
283
7
7. 1. a) S
b) S
c) S
d) D
e) S
f) S
g) S
h) D
i) D
j) D
k) S
l) D
m) S n) S
7. 2. Khng dng, chang han Q Q( 2) Q( 4 2).
t kha quy bac 2 trn truo`ng c dac so khc 2 deù tch duoc. Trn
c ba
7. 3. Moi da thu
truo`ng c dac so 2 khang dinh khng dng, v du mo rong bac hai Z2(x2)
2
2
2
c t x Z2(x )[t] khng tch duoc.
Z2(x) khng Galois v da thu
t kha quy trn F , goi l mot nghiem cua f . Khi d truo`ng phn r
7. 4. Ne u f ba
u voi nhm cyclic c
l F () (xem Bi tap 5. 7), v nhm Galois cua f dang ca
p pha`n tu.
n
c tch duoc, f c
7. 5. Goi K l truo`ng phn r cua f = xp x. Do f l da thu
dng p nghiem trong K. Mat khc neu , K l 2 nghiem cua f th ta c

n
n
n
n
( + )p = p + p = + . Tuong tu ()p = . Cuo i cng ne u 6= 0
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
284
n
t ca cc nghiem cua f chnh l truo`ng phn
th (1)p = 1. Nhu the tap ta
r cua f (sau ny ta se k hieu truo`ng c p pha`n tu l Fpn ).
Nhm Galois cua f c n pha`n tu. Goi : K K l nh xa Frobenius. R
`
ng to rang Gal(E/F ) l nhm cyclic sinh boi .
rng Gal(K/F ). Chu
4
4
7. 6. V du Q Q( 2) Q( 2) Q( 2, i). Giai thch Q Q( 2) v

Q Q( 4 2, i) l cc mo rong Galois nhung Q Q( 2) khng phai l mo
rong Galois.
`
t kha quy
ng to rang =
c ba
7. 7. Chu
2 + 2 l nghiem cua da thu
ng to ra`ng Q() chu

a 4 nghiem cua f v do d n
f = x4 4x2 + 2. Chu
u voi nhm
l truo`ng phn r cua f trn Q. Nhm Galois cua mo rong dang ca
cyclic c 4 phan tu.
u voi Z2 Z2 Z2.
7. 9. a) Nhm Galois dang ca
p p v c ca
p p 1. Moi pha`n tu
b) Nhm Galois G =< , > voi c ca
m n
cua G c dang voi 1 m p, 1 n p 1.
u voi Z2 Z2.
c) Nhm Galois dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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285
7. 10. Xt nh xa dinh boi 7
u.
d l dang ca
!
1 1
0 1
!
1 0
ng minh nh xa
v 7
. Chu
0 1
c lin hop th nhm Galois se c 1 php chuyen tr,

7. 11. Ne u f c 2 nghiem phu
c. V l !
hon vi 2 nghiem phu
8
8. 1. a) S
b) D
c) S
d) D
e) S
f) D
g) D
h) S
i) D
j) D
8. 2. Q() l truo`ng phn r cua x7 1 nn l mo rong Galois trn Q. Pha`n tu c
da thuc toi tieu l

x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.
p 6 sinh boi : 7 3. Do
Nhm Galois G = Gal(Q()/Q) l nhm cyclic ca
d cc nhm con thuc su cua G l < 2 > v < 3 >. Do G cyclic, cc truo`ng

Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
286
trung gian cua Q() : Q deù l cc mo rong Galois cua Q.
p 3) l M1 := Q( + 2 + 4). Nhm
ng voi < 2 > (ca
Truo`ng trung gian u
p ba` ng 2. De dng ch ra da thu
c to i tieu cua + 2 + 4
Galois cua M1/M c ca
l x2 + x + 2.
ng voi < 3 > l Q( + 5) c bac mo rong ba`ng 3 v da
Truo`ng trung gian u
c to i tieu cua + 5 l x3 + x2 2x 1.
thu
ng Galois l song nh, do`ng thoì do dinh ngha
8. 3. (i) r rng do cc tuong u
t chu
a M1, . . . , Mr .
M1 Mr l truo`ng con nho nha
t chu
a
(ii) Ta ch ca`n kiem tra G( 1H) l nhm con chuan ta c lon nha
trong H l du. That vay, do H l mot thnh pha`n cua G( 1H) nn

a G( 1H). Hon nu
chu
a G, de dng kiem tra tap 1H
l mot nhm con chuan tac, nn giao cua chng cung l mot nhm con
chuan ta c. Cuo i cng, gia su N C G v N H. Voi moi G, voi moi
1
1
n N , ta c n N H. Suy ra n = h, voi h H. Khi d
n = 1h 1H. Nhu the N 1H voi moi G. Suy ra dieù
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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287
ng minh.
phai chu
8. 4. Truo`ng phn r cua x 2 l Q( 3 2, ) voi = e2i/3. Nhm Galois cua x3 2

l G c 6 pha`n tu sinh boi
(
(
7 2
p 3 ;
p 2 .
:
ca
ca
3
3
3
3
2 7 2
2 7
2
3
Nhm G
= S3 v c cc nhm con thuc su nhu sau :

p 3 duy nha
t l A =< >. Truo`ng trung gian u
ng voi A l
Nhm con ca
Q(). Truo`ng trung gian ny l mo rong Galois.
`
Nhm con cap hai B1 =< > ung voi truong trung gian l Q( 3 2).
ng voi truo`ng trung gian l Q( 3 4 2).

Nhm con cap hai B2 =< > u
ng voi truo`ng trung gian l Q( 3 2 2).

Nhm con cap hai B3 =< > u
p 2 deù khng phai
ng voi cc nhm con ca
Ch ra` ng cc truo`ng trung gian u
l mo rong Galois trn Q.
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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288
ng Galois cua Bi tap 7. 7. Khi d nhm Galois

8. 5. Ta phn tch tuong u
p 2. Goi
G
Z
nn
ch
c
1
nhm
con
thu
=p 4
c su l nhm ca
p
:
2 + 2 7
2 2 l pha`n tu sinh cua nhm Galois. Khi d
p
p
2
p 2 < 2 > u
ng voi truo`ng
:
2 + 2 = 2 + 2. Nhm con ca
trung gian Q( 2).
ng voi nhm
8. 6. Nhm G = Gal(K/Q( 7))
= S3. Goi M l truo`ng trung gian u
thay phin A3. Khi d [K : M ] = 3.

ng minh f c dng 3 nghiem thuc nn nhm Galois dang
8. 7. a) Khi F = Q, chu
u voi S5. C dng 1 truo`ng trung gian u

ng voi nhm thay phin A5.
ca
b) Khi F = Z2, ta c
x5 6x4 + 3 = (x + 1)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1).
Do d truo`ng phn r cua f l mo rong bac 4 cua Z2, c nhm Galois dang
cau voi Z4. V vay c duy nhat 1 truo`ng trung gian nhu yu caù de` bi.
8. 8. a) Gal(K/Q)
= Z2 Z2 v Gal(L/Q)
= S3 .
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
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289
a nghiem no cua f .
b) K khng chu
ng minh dieù d khng the

c) Ch ne u K L 6= Q th [K L : Q] = 2. Chu
xay ra. Suy ra [K L : Q] = 1.
8. 9. a) Xt F F ( a) F ( a, b) = K. R rng [F ( a) : F ] = 2. Do gia
`
/ F ( a) nn [K : F ( a)] = 2. Suy ra [K : F ] = 4.
thiet ve a, b, ta c b

Truo`ng F ( a, b) l truo`ng phn r cua (x2 a)(x2 b) khng tch duoc
`
`
nn l mo rong Galois. Nhm Galois Gal(K/F ) gom cc phan tu 1, , v
voi:
(
(
a 7 a
a 7
a
:

b 7
b;
b 7 b.
Suy ra G
= Z2 Z2.
p
b) Nguoc lai, ne u G = Aut(K/F )
= Z2 Z2. Goi H1 G l mot nhm con ca

2. Xt T (H1). Ch ra F T (H1) v F 6= T (H1). Do d [T (H1) : F ] = 2
p 2 khc H1
nn T (H1) = F ( a) voi a F . Tuong tu, goi H2 l nhm ca

cua G. Ta c T (H2) = F ( b) voi b F . Ch ra K = ( a, b).
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
290

8. 10. Nhng Q( 8 2, i) trong mo rong Galois Q( 8 2, i).
8
8
8
[Q( 2, i) : Q( 2, i)] = 2 nn [Q( 2, i) : Q] = 16. Ch ra
8
8
[Q( 2, i) : Q(i)] = Z8, [Q( 2, i) : Q( 2)]

= D8
Khi
v [Q( 8 2, i) : Q( 2)]
= Q8 .
8. 11. a) R rng.
p
p
b) Cc nghiem cn lai l = 1 + 3 v = 1 3.
p
p
c) V Q( 1 + 3) R cn 1 3
/ R nn K1 6= K2. Ta c 3 K1 K2.
Mat khc
Q Q( 3) K1 K2 K1
ko theo [K1 : Q( 3)] = [K1 : K1 K2)] = 2. Vay K1 K2 = Q( 3).
d) Do K1 v K2 deù l cc mo rong bac 2 trn F nn Galois trn F . Suy ra
K1K2 Galois (xem Menh de` 8.5). Nhm
Gal(K1K2/F )
= Z2 Z2.
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
291
t ca cc nghiem cua f nn K1K2 chnh l truo`ng phn r

a ta
e) Do K1K2 chu
ng minh.
cua f trn Q. Suy ra dieu phai chu
9
9. 1. a) D
h) D
b) S
c) D
d) S
e) D
f) S
g) D
i) D
j) S
k) D
l) D
o) D
p) S
q) D
r) D
s) D
m) S n) D
t) S u) S
t kha quy trn Z2 l

c bac 5 chuan ta c, ba
9. 2. Cc da thu
x5 + x4 + x3 + x + 1, x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1,
x5 + x3 + 1, x5 + x2 + 1, x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + 1,
x5 + x3 + x2 + x + 1.
t kha quy bac 5 trn
c chuan ta c, ba
Su dung Maple, ta tm duoc c 624 da thu
ng l 48.
Z5. Cn trn Z3, con so tuong u
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
292
9. 3. Ta c E
= Fpn voi p nguyn to . Goi bac cua f v g l r. Khi d

E()
= Fprn
= E().
9. 4. Truo`ng Fpn l mot mo rong don cua Fp. To`n tai Fpn
c to i tieu cua . Khi d f

Fpn = Fp(). Goi f F [x] l da thu
quy c bac n.
9. 5. Ne u p = 2, ta c x4 + 1 = (x + 1)4 Z2[x]. Ne u p l so nguyn
sao cho
t kha
ba
to le th
8|(p2 1). Suy ra

2 1
(x4 + 1)|(x8 1)|(xp
1)|(xp x).
2
Do d x4 + 1 phn r trong truo`ng phn r Fp2 cua xp x trn Zp. V

[Fp2 : Zp] = 2, suy ra x4 + 1 kha quy trn Zp.
c to i tieu
9. 6. Q(12) l truo`ng phn r cua x12 1 trn Q. Pha`n tu 12 c da thu
p 4 v dang ca
u
l 12 = x4 x2 + 1. Do d nhm G = Gal(Q(12)/Q) c ca
voi Z
12 . Nhm G sinh boi
: 7 5 = 3 ;
: 7 7 = .
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
293
p 2 nhu sau :
Khi d cc nhm con thuc su cua G l 3 nhm con ca

3
ng l Q(12
Nhm H1 =< > c truo`ng trung gian tuong u
).
2
ng l Q(12
).
3
ng l Q(212 12
).
u voi Z12. Nhm G

9. 7. Nhm Galois G = Gal(Q(13)/Q) l nhm cyclic dang ca
2
sinh boi : 13 7 13
.
9. 8. Ne u F hu
u han th E hu
u han. Khi d ke t qua l hien nhin. Ne u F v han,
xem Bi tap 3. 8.
9. 9. De dng tnh duoc [Fp(x, y) : Fp(xp, y p)] = p2. Goi F = Fp(xp, y p). Nhu
ng minh cua Bi tap 3. 8, xt cc truo`ng con F (x + cy) voi c Fp.

trong chu
Ne u c F (x + cy) = F (x + c0y) voi c 6= c0 th F (x + cy) = Fp(x, y). Tuy

nhin, do
(x + cy)p = xp + cpy p F,
ta c [F (x + cy) : F ] p. V l, vay cc truo`ng con F (x + cy) voi c Fp l
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
294
ng minh.
phn biet. Suy ra dieù phai chu
p 15 c hai pha`n tu ca
p 3. Suy ra x3 1 c dng
9. 10. Trong nhm cyclic F c ca
c x4 1 c mot nghiem trong F ; da thu
c
3 nghiem trong F . Tuong tu, da thu
c x17 1 c 1 nghiem trong F .

x15 1 c 15 nghiem trong F v da thu
9. 11. Nghiem cua x2 = 1 l mot can nguyn thuy bac 4 cua don vi. Pha`n tu
p cua F
thuoc F khi v ch khi F c mot phan tu cap 4. Tuong duong voi ca
chia he t cho 4.
9. 12. V [Q() : Q] = 4 nn de dng ch ra ra`ng [Q() : Q( 3)] = 2. Suy ra khng
c truo`ng con thuc su no.

9. 13. Nhm cyclic F c 80 pha`n tu. So nghiem la`n luot l 80, 1, 8.
c f = (x + 2)(x + 3). Do [F25 : F5] = 2 nn f phn r trong

9. 14. Trn F5, da thu
u voi F56 .
F25. Truo`ng phn r cua f trn F125 dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
295
10
10. 1. a) D
j) D
b) D
c) D
d) D
e) D
f) S
g) D
h) D
k) D
l) S
m) S n) D
o) S
p) D
q) S
i) D
10. 2. Goi l mot nghiem cua f , roì phn tch f = (x )h trong Q(). Trong
Maple, su dung lenh alias v factor de xc dinh h. Tie p tuc, tm dang nhn
y !
tu ha cua h trong Q( 37). Ke t qua kh c the vie t ra trn gia
t kha quy c biet thu
c x3 3x2 + 4x 1 ba
c ba` ng 49 nn nhm
10. 3. a) Da thu
Galois dang cau voi A3.

c x3 + 2x2 2x 2 ba
c ba` ng 148, nn nhm
b) Da thu
Galois dang cau voi S3.

c 7x3 + 10x2 + 5x + 1 ba
c ba`ng -23, nn nhm
c) Da thu
u voi S3.
Galois dang ca
c x3 + x 1 ba
c ba` ng 31, nn nhm Galois
d) Da thu
u voi S3.
dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
296
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo

c x3 2x 2 ba
e) Da thu
dang cau voi S3.

c x3 x + 1/3 ba
f) Da thu
dang cau voi A3.

c x3 3x + 1 ba
c ba`ng 81, nn nhm Galois
g) Da thu
u voi A3.
dang ca
c ba`ng 148, nn nhm
c x3 + 2x2 2x 2 ba
h) Da thu
u voi S3.
Galois dang ca
t kha quy trn Q (c the dng Maple de
c f = x4 x2 + 4x + 5 ba
10. 4. a) Da thu
c bac 3 cua f l
kiem tra). Giai thu
3
h = x + 2x2 19x + 16 = (x 1)(x2 + 3x 16)
4
2
`
c bang 10512 = 2 .3 .73. V f bat kha quy trn Q( 73) nn

c biet thu
nhm Galois l D8.

t kha quy trn Q, c giai thu
c x4 + x2 + 3x + 5 ba
c l
b) Da thu
t kha quy trn Q. Ngoi ra, biet thu
c cua
h = x3 2x2 19x + 9 ba
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
297
c l S4.
chng l 33137 khng chnh phuong. Nn nhm Galois cua da thu
t kha quy trn Q (c the han che trn Z2[x]), c giai
c x4 + 3x + 1 ba
c) Da thu
c l x + 9 4x bat kha quy v biet thu

c l 1931. Do d nhm Galois
thu
l S4.
c x4 4x2 4x 2 c nhm Galois l S4.
d) Da thu
c x4 4x 2 c nhm Galois l S4.
e) Da thu
c x4 + 2x2 4 c giai thu
c l h = x3 4x2 + 20x. Nhm Galois dang
f) Da thu
u voi D8.
ca
t kha quy, c giai thu
c x4 x3 3x + 4 ba
c l
thu
625
c 4225 = 52.132 nn nhm
x3 + 43 x2 205
x
+
bat kha quy, c biet thu
16
64
Galois dang cau voi A4.
g) Da

c x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 4x + 2 ba
c l
h) Da thu
t kha quy v biet thu
c ba` ng 10816 = 26.132 nn
h = x3 x2 17x + 25 ba
u voi A4.
c nhm Galois dang ca
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
298
c f = x4 4x3 + 5x2 2x + 1 c giai thu

c l
i) Da thu
h = x3 + 2x2 3x = x(x + 3)(x 1)
u voi V . Ch ra` ng ne u dat x = u + 1 th c da
nn nhm Galois dang ca
4
2
t kha quy. Ch
thuc theo u l g = u u + 1 nn de dng suy ra g ba

ra` ng truo`ng phn r cua f l Q() voi l mot nghiem cua f . Dng Maple
de tm cc nghiem cn lai cua f theo .
u
c x4 + 2x2 + 4 c nhm Galois dang ca
j) Gio ng nhu truo`ng hop trn, da thu
voi V .
c cua da thu
c x4 +ax2 +b kha quy nn nhm Galois cua n khng the
10. 5. Giai thu
c qu 8 pha`n tu. Ne u b chnh phuong th nhm Galois l nhm V
= Z2 Z2.
10. 6. Suy ra truc tie p tu` tiu chuan trong muc 10.3.
10. 7. Goi l mot nghiem cua f th truo`ng phn r cua f trn F l F (). Do d
p cua nhm Galois Gf l 3. Nhu the Gf = A3, suy ra dieù phai chu
ng minh.
ca
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
299
11
11. 1. a) S
b) S
c) S
d) D
e) D
f) S
h) D
i) S
j) D
k) D
l) D
m) D
g) D
c cua f l D = 567 = 34.7. Mot nghiem cua f cho boi

11. 2. a) Biet thu
r
r
5
5
1
1
3
3
+
21 +
21.
2
2
2
2
b) Ta c t3 7t + 6 = (t 1)(t 2)(t + 3).
c nghiem Cardano, suy
c) Ta c t3 + t2 2 = (t 1)(t2 + 2t + 2). Tu` cng thu
ra
q
q
3
3
26 + 15 3 = 2 + 3, 26 15 3 = 2 3.
65
c g = u3 13
c cua
d) Thay t = u + 5/3 , ta c da thu
u
+
. Ta c biet thu
3
27
c cua 1 nghiem cua da

g l (13)2, nn c 3 nghiem thuc. Bieu dien can thu
c ban daù l
thu
r
r
65
13
65
13
3
3
+
3 +
3 + 5/3.
54
18
54
18
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
300
c cua f l x3 + 3/4x2 + 99/16x + 289/64. Thay x = u 1/4, ta

e) Giai thu
c theo u l h = u3 + 6u + 3.
c da thu
c f = t4 + 4t + 2 ba
c l x3 8x + 16. Biet thu
c
f) Da thu
cua chng l 4864 = 28.19

c f d cho c dang nhn tu ha
g) Da thu
f = (t2 t + 1)(t4 + 3t3 3t2 + 3t + 1).

4
3
2
c l
Dat g = t + 3t 3t + 3t + 1. Khi d g c giai thu
51 2 899
7569
x +
x+
h = x3 +
4
16
64
1
=
(4x + 29)(16x2 + 88x + 261).
64
11. 3. Ch ra ra` ng ne u truo`ng K l mo rong hu
u han sinh cua mot truo`ng de m
duoc F th K de m duoc.
11. 4. a) ba` ng 2 ; b) ba` ng 0.
11. 5. Ne u F c dac so 3 th f = (x + 1)3. Xt F c dac so khc 3. Khi d f tch
c cua f l 81, chnh phuong trong F nn c nhm Galois

duoc trn F . Biet thu
Nguyen Chnh T
ng da
n giai bi ta
p
Huo
301
t kha quy v f phn tch thnh mot da thu

a trong A3. Ne u f khng ba
c
chu
t v 1 da thu
t kha quy th nhm Galois chu
c bac 2 ba
a mot chuyen tr.
bac nha
V l ! Do d f phn r trong F .
Ta c the ch ra truc tie p, ne u l mot nghiem cua f th cc nghiem cn lai l
2
2
2 , 2.
t kha quy v c dng 2 nghiem khng thuc.
ng minh cc da thu
c d ba
11. 6. Chu
a) C dng 3 nghiem thuc trong cc khoang (2, 1) ; (0, 1) v (1, 2).
b) Tuong tu.
c) Tuong tu.
ng minh da thu
c c dng 5 nghiem thuc trong khoang (4, 4).
d) Chu
Nguyen Chnh T
NG K HIE
C
U V QUY UO
BA
K hieu
ngha
N
Tap cc so tu nhin
N
Tap cc so tu nhin khc 0
Z
Vnh cc so nguyn
Zn
Vnh cc lop modulo n
Zp
Sn
Truo`ng cc lop modulo p nguyn to

Truo`ng hu
u han c pn pha`n tu
Truo`ng cc so hu
u t
Truo`ng cc so thuc
c
Truo`ng cc so phu
ng trn n pha`n tu
Nhm do i xu
An
Nhm thay phin trn n pha`n tu
Fpn
Q
R
C
302
K hieu
sign
ngha
u cua php the
Hm da
D2n
Nhm dihedral
F [x]
Nhm nhn cc pha`n tu kha nghich cua vnh c don vi
Tap cc pha`n tu khc 0 cua mot vnh D
c 1 bien trn truo`ng F

Vnh da thu
F (x)
c hu
Truo`ng phn thu
u t trn truo`ng F
c f
Bac cua da thu
c cua da thu
c f
Df
Biet thu
F E, E : F Mo rong truo`ng
[E : F ]
Bac cua mo rong truo`ng
|S|
Luc luong cua tap S
p cua nhm G
(G : 1)
Ca
deg(f )
303
K hieu
(G : H)
ngha
Ch so cua nhm con H trong nhm G
c chia duo`ng trn

Da thu
F ()
Mo rong don sinh ra boi trn truo`ng F
u cua truo`ng F
Aut(F ) Nhm cc tu dang ca
u cua E : F
Aut(E/F ) Nhm cc F tu dang ca
Gal(E/F ) Nhm Galois cua mo rong Galois E : F
T (H)
Truo`ng trung gian co dinh boi H Aut(E/F )
N (M )
Nhm con co dinh truo`ng trung gian M cua E : F
304
O
U THAM KHA
TI LIE
[1] Dummit D., Foote R., Abstract Algebra, Prentice Hall (1991).
[2] Hungerford T., Abstract Algebra, Saunders College Publishing (1990).
[3] Jacobson N., Basic Algebra I, Freeman and Company (1974).
[4] Milne J.S., Fields and Galois Theory, preprint (2002).
[5] Stewart I., Galois Theory, Second edition, Chapman & Hall (1989).
[6] Weisstein E., Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Second edition, Wolfram
Research, Inc. (2002).
[7] The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
u
[8] Nguyen Chnh T, Su dung Maple trong hoc tap, giang day v nghin cu
3, Khoa Ton, DHSP Hue (2004).

ton hoc, Bi giang cho sinh vin nam thu
[9] Nguyen Chnh T, Mo rong truo`ng v L thuye t Galois, NXB Gio Duc (2006),
196 tr.
305
[10] Tra`n Vui (chu bin), Luong H, L Van Lim, Hong Trn, Nguyen Chnh
T, Mot so xu huong doi moi trong day hoc ton o truo`ng trung hoc pho thng,
Gio trnh boì duong thuo`ng xuyn gio vin THPT chu k III, NXB Gio Duc
(2005), 224 tr.
306
Ch muc
Aut(F ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
K hieu
u
F -do`ng ca
so luong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 272
F (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
F (). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Xem mo rong don
F (s1, . . . , sn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A
Ars Magna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Artin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
nh xa Frobenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
F [s1, . . . , sn] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
t kha quy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

ba
Tiu chuan Eisenstein . . . . . . . . . . . 29
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
K/F . . . . . . . . . . . . .Xem mo rong truo`ng
K : F . . . . . . . . . . . .Xem mo rong truo`ng
bac
cua mo rong. . .Xem mo rong truo`ng
siu viet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
F [S] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
307
Ch muc
308
bao dng
chuan ta c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146, 204
bao dng dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 242
cua truo`ng hu
u han . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
`
ton tai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
biet thu
bieu dien vng xch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

C
caù phuong hnh trn . Xem dung hnh
khng the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
can
chuoi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
can nguyn thuy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
c
can thu
bieu dien duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
c
cng thu
Cardano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Cantor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Cardano
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 215
cng thu
chia 3 mot gc . . . . . . . . Xem dung hnh
khng the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
chuan ta c
bao dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
chuoi
chuan ta c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
hop thnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
chuyen tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
D
u cua php the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
da
dung duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
duo`ng thang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Nguyen Chnh T
Ch muc
duo`ng trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
da gic deù . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 85, 169
diem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
doan thang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
gc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
so thuc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
tap cc so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
dung hnh
3 bi ton co dien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
thuoc ke v compa . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 86
D
dng dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xem truo`ng
u truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
do`ng ca
F - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
tu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
dac so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Nguyen Chnh T
309
doc lap dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

dang cau
cua cc mo rong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
tu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
u truo`ng
dang ca
tu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
dai so
doc lap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

bao dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
mo rong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Xem mo rong
pha`n tu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
dao hm hnh thu
dinh l
u
dang ca
hai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
thu
t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
nha
thu
Ch muc
310
co ban cua dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
co ban cua LT Galois . . . . . . . . . . . 137
to i tieu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
tong qut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 241

pha`n tu nguyn thuy . . . . . . . . . . . 125
vnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sylow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
da gic deù dung duoc. . . . . . . . . . . . .169
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
da thu
ng
do i xu
p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
so ca
E
Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
hm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
F
Fermat
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
cng thu
so nguyn to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
t kha quy. . . . . . .Xem ba

t kha quy
ba
nghiem boi cua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
chia duo`ng trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

t kha quy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
ba
chuan ta c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Frobenius
nghiem boi cua . . . . Xem nghiem boi
tch duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 102
p di hnh lap phuong . . . Xem dung

ga
hnh
nh xa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Nguyen Chnh T
Ch muc
khng the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Galois
ng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
tuong u
Gauss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Gelfond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
giai duoc
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
ba` ng can thu
nhm khng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
giai thu
Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
c bac 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
giai thu
H
hm
Euler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Hilbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Nguyen Chnh T
311
hon chnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xem truo`ng

L
Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
lin hop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
lop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Lindemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Liouville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
M
Mobius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
c dao nguoc . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
cng thu
mo rong
don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
u trc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 59
ca
ph.t. nguyn thuy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
so do`ng ca
dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56, 71
Ch muc
312
aben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
cua do`ng ca
can. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
cyclic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Maple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 216, 218

su dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 165, 188
Galois. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
tiu chuan cua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
nghiem don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
nghiem boi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
hu
u han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
l mo rong don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
tiu chuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
nghiem can thu
nhm
ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
do i xu
hu
u han sinh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
tch duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
con
co dinh truo`ng trung gian . . . . . 114
dihedral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
v han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
bac cua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
co so cua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Galois. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
cua da thu
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
cua mot da thu
Nguyen Chnh T
Ch muc
313
giai duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Klein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
lin hop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
quaternion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
tm cua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
tu dang ca
thay phin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
nhm con
pha`n tu nguyn thuy

dinh l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
phn r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
phuong trnh lop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
S
so boi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
so nguyn to Fermat . . . . . Xem Fermat
Sylow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 240
Schneider. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
trung tm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
siu viet
`
phan tu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
P
p-nhm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
php chia Euclid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
php chuyen tr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
php the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
cha n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nguyen Chnh T
trn Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
T
tch duoc
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xem da thu
c
da thu
mo rong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Ch muc
314
Tm cua nhm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

ng Galois . . . . . . . . . . Xem Galois
tuong u
truo`ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
dng dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
chia duo`ng trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
cc pha`n tu dai so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
sinh boi mot tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

hop thnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
hu
u han . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 40, 44, 156
hon chnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
trung gian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 114

co dinh boi nhm con . . . . . . . . . . 114
truo`ng con nguyn to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

V
vnh
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xem da thu
c
da thu
con sinh boi mot tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

vng xch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
do di . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
doc lap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

phn r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
bac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
duy nha
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
so dang ca
to`n tai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Nguyen Chnh T

Ly Thuyet Mo Rong Truong Va Galois - Nguyen Chanh Tu

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Ly Thuyet Mo Rong Truong Va Galois - Nguyen Chanh Tu

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NGUYN CHNH T

Khoa Ton, i Hc S Phm Hu

L THUYT M RNG TRNG V

u de n tu`ng pha`n cua gio trnh ba` ng cch click vo Bookmarks

(307) o cuo i gio trnh.

c nang View|Full Screen.

b) Cuoc do`i cua Evariste Galois . . . .

Truo`ng con cc pha`n tu dai so . Truo`ng dng dai so . Bao dng

Dung hnh ba` ng thuoc ke v compa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

u cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . . . . . 110

Truo`ng trung gian cua mo rong truo`ng . . . . . .

ng dung cua L thuye t Galois . . . . . . . . . .

c chia duo`ng trn . . . . . . . . .

11.1 Mo rong can v tiu chuan giai duoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

c c bac lon hon bo n . . . . 211

quyet cc bi ton co dien v nhu

ng dung chu ye u cua L thuye t Galois l giai quye t bi ton

c cua phuong trnh da thu

c co ban de tu` d mo rong cho nhu

dung su sac hon.

c lin quan kh c the

y trong gio trnh

c cua phuong trnh da

c, cua cc bi ton dung hnh ba` ng thuoc ke v compa, nhu

u v hoc tap ton.

ng minh da`y du. Pha`n kie n thu

bo sung, neu chua duoc hoc trong nhu

viec day-hoc c nhu

c l thuye t, c kha nang giai quye t cc bi

ng vi tr thch hop, tc gia bo sung cc lenh v v du minh hoa cho viec su

gia v cng bie t on ne u nhan duoc nhu

Hue, 32 L Loi, Thnh pho Hue, email: nctu2000@yahoo.com.

Hue ngy 25 thng 4 nam 2007.

uu diem l trnh by L thuyet Galois trn co so L thuyet mo rong truo`ng. Quan

t trong viec bin

ng voi L thuyet mo rong truo`ng v

c cu chu yeu c lin quan sau ny. Gio trnh co

t cua viec giang day-hoc tap mn hoc. Tuy

can). Cc bi tap duoc sap xep tu de den kh ; nhu

thng qua cc v du v noi dung cu the trong gio trnh.

c su sac hon cua dai so dai cuong.

c ny duoc trnh by chi tie t trong Phu luc.

ng truoc, v du Menh de A.2. duoc trch dan l Menh de` A.2.

u duoc noi dung khi

GIAI PHUONG TRNH DA THU

c bac hai d duoc cc

y cua ne`n van minh Babilon cn ghi lai viec tm

nghiem cua nhu

trnh bac hai c he so lon hon 0.

n Do Brahmagupta (598-665), moi trnh by mot cch giai phuong

cuon sch cua mnh c tn Hisabal-jabrwal-muqaba, al-Khwarizmi d phn

du nghiem cua cc phuong trnh bac hai.

t ban nam 1494, duoc bie t de n voi tn vie t ta t l Suma,

c bac bon. ng viet, theo ngn ngu

x4 + a = bx2 th khng the giai duoc.

n Do, th cng thu

t ca cc dang cua phuong trnh bac ba. Tuy nhin, lc ba

du Niccolo Fontana(1499-1557) tm ra lo`i giai cua phuong trnh x + mx = n

Hnh 1: Chn dung Tartaglia

t ca phuong trnh bac ba. Truoc cng

t ban cng trnh d. Nhung

Cardano khng giu

c bac bo n. Cc lo`i giai ny de`u c chung phuong php l tm

Hnh 2: Chn dung G. Cardano