Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Evolution A Golden Guide PDF
Evolution A Golden Guide PDF
FRANK H. T. R HODES
The University of Michigan
ILLUSTRATED BY
REBECCA MERRILEES
and
RUDY ZALLINGER
Fra n k H. T. R ho d e s
k i n d ly rea d t h e m a n u sc r i pt o f t h i s book.
l£0;).q5:
GOLDEN, A GOLDEN GUIDE®, and GOLDENCRAFT®
are trademarks af Western Publ i s h ing Company, Inc.
4. Protozoans-30,000
3. Chordates-45,000
2. Mollus ks-45,000
1 . Art h ropods-900,000
4. Algae a n d F u n g i-60,000
3. Mosses and L iverworts-
23,000
2. Ferns, Con ifers, et c.-1 0,000
5
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LI FE h a s a lways b e e n o n e of
m a n's g re a t conce rns . A n c i ent s a cred writing s of
m a ny fa it h s d i s c u s s this q uestio n . T h e ea r l y c h a p t e rs
of the Boo k of Genesis, fo r exa m p le, d e a l with the
seq u e n ce of c re a t i o n , and Ad a m n a m e d t h e d iffere n t
k i n d s o f a n i m a l s . T h e nee d t o c l a s sify l iving t h ings w a s
p a rt l y p ra ctica l . So m e p l ants were poisonous, ot h e rs
e d i b l e . So m e ani m a ls were h a rm fu l , ot h e rs we re n o t .
Ea r l y m a n's s u rviva l d e pended o n h i s s k i l l i n recogniz
i n g each kind . Ma n 's d a i l y e x p e rience and re l i g i o u s
t ra d ition coinci d e d h e re : every a ni m a l a n d p l a n t t h a t
h e recognized re p rod u ce d " a fte r i t s own k i nd . "
Ma n's e a r l y life a s a h u nter b ro u g ht h i m in c lose
contact with a n i m a ls, and a n cient cave pa inting s b e a r
a record of h i s inte rest. Late r d o m estication of a n i
m a l s and h a rvesting of c rops inc rea se d thi s concern.
r
Cei l i n g .
)
I
6
ARISTOTLE, G reek p h i losopher,
was a ls o one o f the fi rs t a n d
greates t b i o l o g i sts. He wrote
exten sive ly o n the c l a s s ification
a n d s tructure of over 5 0 0 s pe
c i e s of a n i m a l s f r o m t h e M e d i
terra n e a n a re a . Ari s totle w a s a
gifted observer, a n d described
details of s uc h t h i n g s a s ch ick
em bryo logy. H e accepted the
sponta n eo u s g e n era tion of fl ies
from p u trefyi n g m a tter, b u t was
also concerned about the prob
lems of h eredity.
8
S PONTA N E OUS G E N E R A T I O N of l iv i n g cre atures
from n onlivi n g m a tter beca m e increasing l y s u spect in
the seve nteenth c e n tu ry. Francesco Redi ( 1621-97), an
Itali a n p hysici a n , beca m e convi n ce d that the m a g gots
fou n d in m eat were d e rived n ot fro m the m e a t itself
but fro m e g g s l a i d by flies .
f l i es, d e c o y i n g
meat decoy ing,
m ea t , a n d m a g g ots
b u t n o f l i e s o r m a g g ots
9
A C LASS IFICATI O N OF LIFE was devised by Aristo t l e
i n t h e fo urth c e n tu ry B . C . a n d stood und i s p ut e d for
n i n eteen c e n t u r i e s . This c l a ss i fi c a tion e m b r a c e d a
co m pl ete g ra d a t ion fro m t h e l owest to t h e h i g h est
o r g a n i s m-m a n .
Fifte e n t h and s i xteenth centu ry voya g es of d i scov
e ry a n d t h e inven tion of t h e m i croscope revea l e d a
d i ve rsity of a n i m a l a n d pl ant fo rm and functio n un
k n own to Aristot l e . With these n ew observatio n s,
c h a n g e s in classification too k p l a ce .
.r
others lead to i n h e ri ta b l e tive devel o p m e n t of a n y organ
cha nges. T h e g i raffe's long n e c k , respo n d s to i t s d eg ree of use.
f o r exa m p le , co u l d be b e s t ex La marck's belief that ac
plained by t h e l o n g -conti n u e d q u i red c h a racteristics c a n be
habit of reach i n g u pward t o i n h e rited i s n o l o n g e r a ccepted ,
feed on t h e l e a v e s of trees. b u t h is recog n ition of evolution
By La m a rc k's t h eory, the rela- was of major i m porta n c e .
N ew d iscove ri e s l e d to t h e g ra d u a l rejectio n of c a ta s
t ro p h i s m . Fi rst, t h e n u m b e r of catastro p h e s re q u i red to
ex p l a i n t h e fo s s i l record ste a d i l y i n c re a s e d u n t i l t h e
w h o l e syste m b eca m e u n wi e l d ly. I t beca m e c l ea r, a l s o,
t h a t the rock reco rd coul d b e i n te r p reted s a t i sfa c to r i l y
i n te r m s of p r e s e n t- d a y, o b serva b l e g e o l o g i c p rocesses
ra th e r t h a n u n k n own catastro p h e s . In a d d it i o n , t h e "d i -
1=-uv'-
____ _ -' i a l " ro c k s t h a t l a y ove r t h e s u rfa ce of m u c h of Euro p e
a n d North Am e rica a n d we re t h oug h t to b e t he re m a i n s
o f Noa h ' s Flood we re reco g n iz e d a s g l a c i a l d e p osits .
More a n d m o re evi d e n c e of conti n u ity ( o r evo lutio n ) of
fo s s i l s wa s d e m o n strate d . D a rwi n a n d Wa l l a c e p ro p ose d
a n a ccepta b l e m ec h a n i s m fo r t h e p ro c e s s of evo l utio n .
15
CHARLES D ARWIN'S VOYAGE aboard t h e HMS
Beagle c h a n g e d the worl d ' s viewpoi nt i n regard to
evo l ution a n d the d evelo p m ent of s p ecies. U ntil t h e
p u b l i cati o n of D a rwi n's On t h e O rigin o f Species, i n
1859, t h e i d e a o f evo l utio n was g e n e ra l l y rejecte d .
D a rwin was born a t S h rewsbu ry, E n g l a n d , o n F e b ru
a ry 1 2 , 18 09, t h e s a m e d a y a s Li n c o l n. After two ye a rs
of m e d ica l tra i n i n g a t E d i n b u rg h , h e w e n t to Com
b r i d g e, w h e re h e g ra d ua ted i n 1 83 1 . Afte r h i s g ra d u a
t i o n , D a rw i n was a p pointed n atu ra l ist to t h e Beagle, a
240-to n , 1 0 - g u n brig, which was to u ndertake a s u rvey
voyag e to South Am erica a n d fro m t h e re on a ro u n d
t h e worl d . Th e voy a g e l a sted five ye a rs, a n d t h e i n
s i g h ts D a rw i n g a i n e d d u ri n g t h ose yea rs were t o b e
co m e t h e fo u n d a t i o n of h i s l i fe ' s wo r k . Da rwi n mode
i m p o rta n t co n t ri b u t i o n s to t h e g e o l ogy of South
A m e rica, the orig i n of cora l reefs, the re l a t i o n s h i p s
betwe e n l ivi n g a n d foss i l a n i m a l s , a n d t h e struct u re ,
a d a p tation , a n d geog ra p h ic distri b u t i o n of a n i m a l s .
I t wa s t h ese s t u d i es t h a t l a t e r fo r m e d t h e basis fo r h is
evo l utio n a ry th eory .
DARWIN too k the first volu me
of Lye l l 's n ewly p u b l i s h e d Prin
ciples of Geology o n the voya g e
a n d was d e e p l y i m pressed by i t .
Lye l l a rg u e d tha t t h e ea rth's
s u rface had b e e n s h a p e d by
s u c h n a t u r a l forces as river
erosion , vo l ca n i c e r u p t i o n s , a n d
c h a n g e s i n s e a leve l s . D a rw i n
u s e d s uc h i d e a s i n u n rave l i n g
t h e geo logy o f a re a s h e v i s i t e d ,
a n d t h ey i n fl u e n ced h i s t h i n k
ing a b o u t t h e orig i n o f s pecies .
T H E S I M I LA R I TY of some fo ssil
verte brates, such a s t h e g i a n t
a rm a d i l lo- l i ke Glyptodon, to
form s s t i l l l i v i n g s u g g ested to
Darwi n the idea of descent by
evolution.
THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, l oca ted i n the Pa c ific
a bo ut 600 m i les west of the coast of Ecu a d o r, a re a
d esolate g ro u p of 1 4 roc ky i s l a n d s , representi n g t h e
re m a i n s of exti n ct vo l ca n oe s . T h e i s l a n d s a re s e p a
rated fro m e a c h oth e r by deep water, a n d n o wi n ds o r
ocean c u rre n ts carry s m a l l a n i m a l s o r seeds fro m o n e
t o a noth e r . T h e g e n eral a bsence o f m a m m a l s h a s a l
lowed g i a n t tortoises t o g ra z e i n safety, l i z a r d s t o be
co m e s e a g o i ng, and fi n ches to exist i n n iches that else
w h e re a r e occupied by other species.
D a rw i n d i scovered that ea c h of t h e i s l a n d s , a l t h o u g h
h a vi n g very s i m i l a r c l i mates a n d e n v i ro n m e n ts a n d
b e i n g o n l y a b out 5 0 m i l e s a p a rt, h a s its own fa una
and f l o ra - s i m i l a r to but d isti n ct fro m t h o s e of the
n e i g h b o ri n g i s l a n d s . This s ug g e sted to D a rw i n that
t h e s i m i l a r species m i g h t h a ve d eve l o p e d from a co m
mo n a n ce sto r rat h e r t h a n e a c h h a v i n g b e e n c reated
sepa ra t e l y .
The isl a n ds a r e of rece n t o rig i n , a n d t h ei r fa u n a ,
de rive d fro m t h e S o u t h A m e rica n m a i n l a n d , i l l u strates
co l o n iz a t i o n of, a n d a d o ptio n to, a n e m p ty e n vi ro n
m e n t b y re l a tive ly ra p i d evo l uti o n .
19
THE SEARCH FOR A MECHAN ISM h a d b eg u n . C h a r l e s
D a rwin retu r n e d w i t h the Beagle t o E n g l a n d i n Octo b er
of 1 83 6. The fol l owi n g July h e o p e n e d h i s fi rst n ote
book o n The Transmutatio n of Spe cies. He was t h e n
27 y e a rs o l d . D a rwi n h a d see n how s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s
co u l d b e s e l ected b y a rtifici a l b ree d i n g i n d o m estic
a n im a l s . Could the sa m e tra nsform ations within a spe
cies a lso occur between species so t h a t one u l t i m ately
g ave rise to a noth er? D a rwi n 's observations s u g g ested
that they could, but h e could not vis u a l i z e t h e m e th o d .
• GRAZI NG HORSES
Darwi n 's "re c i p e " for evo l ution was the i n teraction of variation,
ove rpo p u lati o n , and n a t u r a l s e lectio n ; i l l u s trated h ere i s evo l u tion
of h orses ( See p . 5 1 ).
C h rom osomes from the fruit fly Drosophila g reatly m a g nified. The
map s h ow s loca t i o n of g e n e s a l o n g part of c h ro m o s o m e l e n g t h .
T h e s i m p l e M e n d e l i a n concept of i n d e p e n d ent, p a r
ti cul ar g e n etic d ev e l o p m e n t h a s g iven way to ac
ce ptan ce of a n i n d ivi d ua l re pre s e n t e d by a ge ne co m
plex i n wh ich g e n e s a re l i n ked a n d i nte ract to g eth e r .
29
INDI C ATIONS O F E V O LU T ION
A N I MAL CELL
P R O T O P LASM is sh ared by a ll
P ROTO PLASM l i v ing things. It is composed of
a distincti ve comb ination of
Oxyg e n 76.0% large m o lecules of no n l iv ing
Ca r bon 1 0.5% s u bstances, inc l u d ing carbohy
Hyd rog e n 1 0 . 0%
2 . 5%
N i trog e n
drates, fats, proteins ( including
P h o s p ho r u s 0 .3% enzy mes), a n d nucle i c a c i d s t h a t
Pota s s i u m 0 . 3% are organized into a co l l o idal
Sulfur 0.2% m i x t u re in wate r. T he u n i q ue
Chlorine 0 . 1% p ropert ies of t h is mater i a l form
the bas is of l i fe.
32
META B OLISM i n c l u d e s t h e n u
trition , re s p i ra t i o n , s y n t h e s i s , a n d
excretion t h a t i s c h ara c t e r i s t i c o f
a l l l i v i n g t h i n g s . N o n - l i v i n g food
materi a l s a re c o n ve rted i n to t h e
org a n i s m ' s l i v i n g t i s s u e s , c e rta i n
of w h i c h b rea k d o w n t o provide
t h e e n e r g y t h a t i s v i t a l to t h e
processes e s s e n t i a l to l i fe. Meta b
o l i s m i n vo l v e s a c o n s ta n t f l ow of
e n ergy a n d m a t e r i a l s w it h i n a n d
betwee n a n org a n i s m a n d i t s
e n v iro n m e n t .
REPRO D U C T I O N of n e w d u p l i
cate i n d i v i d u a l s i s c h a racteristic
o f a l l l i v i n g t h i n g s . The con
t i n u i t y of form i n volved i n re
prod u c t i o n i s contro l l e d by the
activity of s e l f-du p l i ca t i n g
c h e m i c a l structu res c a l l e d g e n e s
( p . 56).
ADAPTAT I O N of a l l living
t h i n g s i nvolves c o n t i n u i n g a d
j u s t m e n t t o a c h a n g i n g e n v i ro n
m e n t. I n d i v i du a l adaptive re
s po n s e s include rea c t i o n to
sti m u l i , i rritab i l ity, p h ysiolog i c
c h a n g e s , h ea l i n g of I n J U ri e s ,
a n d m ov e m e n t. Over l o n g pe
riods, po p u l a ti o n s show m o re
g e n e r a l a d a ptati o n s .
33
Sponges
O x y g e n a n d c a r b o n c y c l e s s h ow i n terde p e n d e n ce of a l l l i f e .
CARBON- HYDROGEN
OXYGEN CYCLE
( on land )
T H E S I M I LA R I T I E S t ha t exist betwee n l ivi n g o rg a n is m s
a t a l l leve l s h a v e c e rta i n i m p l icati o n s . Offs p r i n g o f t h e
sa m e parents h a v e a m o r e o r l e s s close rese m b l a n ce to
o n e a n oth e r a n d to th e i r p a re n t s . Althou g h e a c h i n d iv i d
u a l is u n i q u e , m e m b e rs o f the sa m e s p e c i e s s h a re " o b v i
o u s " co m m o n featu res t h a t a re c o n s e rved a n d p e rpetu
ated i n re p rod uctio n . W e d o n ot ha ve tro u b l e recog n i z i n g
a l io n , fo r exa m p l e - o r even a d o g , d e s p ite t h e m a n y
va riati o n s tha t d o m estic b reed i n g h a s p rod uced i n d og s .
The o rioles be low belong to a sing le g e n us, Icterus. They have dif
ferent. colors a n d geog ra p h i c ra nges, b ut they share m a ny co m m o n
features. T h e y a re m e m bers of t h e s a m e f a m i l y a s b l a c k b i r d s .
To rosa u r u s Trice ra tops
Arrhin oceratops
T h e m e a n i n g of t h e va r i o u s d e g re e s of res e m b l a n ce
wa s a t fi rst t h o u g h t to l i e i n t h e i r a p p ro x i m a t i o n to
the a rc h e t y p e o r i d e a l fo r m , u p o n w h i c h e a c h s p e
c i e s h a d b e e n " d e s i g n e d " o r p l a n n e d . But to l ater stu
de n ts, t h es e c l u stered re lat i o n shi ps, often p i ctured a s
t h e b r a n c h e s of a t r e e ( a s a b ove ) s u g g ested o n ly d e
g r ees of r e l a t i o n s h i p , a l tho u g h the c l a ssification itself
wa s esta b l i s h e d before t h i s w a s recog n i zed ( p p . 1 0 -
1 1 ) . J ust a s t h e b r a n ches of a tree g row by conti n u
o u s d evel o p m e n t fro m a seed , e a c h b ra n c h bei n g
fo r m e d b y s l o w a n d a l m o s t i m pe rcepti b l e m o d i fication
of e a r l i e r b ra n ches fro m an i n iti a l ste m , so t h e b r a n c h
i n g pattern o f c l a s s i fi c a t i o n s u g g ested a co m m o n ori
g i n . T h e b r a n c h e s r e p re s e n te d d e g re e s of r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o t h e o rg a n i s m s o f t h e c e n t r a l a n cestra l ste m .
37
DEGREES OF S IM I LARITY between l i v i n g t h i n g s a re
reflected by va r i o u s featu res . The overa l l form a n d
structure ( m o rpho l o g y ) o f a l l creatu res s how va ryi n g
d e g rees o f s i m i l a rity. W hen we s pea k o f a " d eer, " w e
th i n k of a p a rt ic u l a r k i n d o f a n i m a l, b u t the d eer fa m
i ly c o n ta i n s 2 0 d ifferent g e n e r a a n d m a ny species . Al
though they d i ffer in s iz e , a ntl ers, colo r, a n d g eo
g r a p h i c d i st r i b u t i o n , all m e m bers of the deer fa m i ly
sha re b a s i c features . Their s keleton s rese m b l e o n e a n
other, b o n e fo r b o n e ; their i nte r n a l o rg a n s a re si m i l a r;
a n d t h ey d i s p l a y m a ny s i m i l a r b e h avio r a l c h a racteris
t i c s . Thi s co m p rehe n s ive s i m i l a rity, s howi n g a u nity of
b a s i c fo r m but a d ive rs ity of i n d ivid u a l pattern, sug
g e sts the i r d e rivation f r o m a co m m on a n cesto r that pos
s e s s e d these co m mo n featu res .
TI D
TEST
beef se r u m a n d
a n ti - beef seru m
E n d Point
HETEROlOGOU S
DU D
TEST
sheep serum a n d
a n ti- beef s e r u m
40
SEROLOG I CA L S I M I LARIT I E S a re m e a s u re d b y i m m u n ity
tests . If b l o o d fro m o n e s p e c i e s , s u ch as a cow, i s i n
jected i n to the b l o o d s t re a m o f a n othe r, s a y a g u i n e a
p i g , the g u i n e a p i g p ro d uces a p re c i p i t a t e , a n a n t i
seru m , tha t i m m u n iz e s i t a g a i n st cow ' s b l o o d . Whe n
this a n ti - cow s e r u m i s m i x e d with the b l o o d of o the r
a n i m a l s , it p ro d uces p reci p i ta t e s of va ryi n g i n te n s i ty
tha t corres p o n d to the n e a r n e s s of the o the r s p e c i e s i n
the sche m e o f c l a s s i fi c a t i o n . Th u s , a n t i - cow s e r u m
g i ves 1 0 0 p e rc e n t p re c i p i t a tio n w i th the b l o o d of a n
o t h e r cow, 48 p e rce n t w i th a she e p , a n d 2 4 p e rce n t
w ith a p i g . Thi s b i o c h e m i ca l i n d i c a t i o n o f co m m o n
a n ce s t ry i s a m ethod o f c l a s s i fi c a t i o n c o n fi r m i n g wha t
w a s esta b l i she d i n d e pe n d e n t l y b y c o m p a ra t i ve a n a
tom ica l s t u d i e s .
G o ri l l a
O ra n g u ta n
K a n g a ro o
ADAPTATI O N S to the pa rti c u l a r e n v i ro n m e n ts i n
w h i c h they l i ve a re s h own b y a l l l ivi n g creatu res. S o m e
that a re so g e n eral t h ey may b e overlooked e a s i l y i n
c l u d e t h e won d e rfu l ly efficient b u t d isti n ct wi n g struc
ture of i n sects, b a ts, and b i rd s ( a l so those of t h e ex
tinct pterodactyls), the s h a pe a n d structure of fi s h , the
speci a l i z e d ste m s of d esert cacti, a n d cou ntl ess oth e r s .
Sti l l o t h e r a d a ptati o n s are m o re specific . O f the m a ny
exa m p les a m o n g b i rds, those of the wood pec kers were
fi rst d escri b e d by C h a rles D a rwi n .
Ada ptation i s so w i d es p read i n both p l a nts a n d
a n i m a l s th at, althoug h n ot a proof o f evo l ution, i t
sugg ests that n atural sel ectio n i s a very p ro b a b l e ex
p l a n ation fo r o rg a n i c d iversity.
Island
•
•
. •:.
Island
.: • Henderson (4)
'
Fiji 1541 •
TH E NUMBE�S OF ISLA N D S P E CI E S a n d
t h e i r res e m b l a n c e to those o f t h e m a i n l a n d
decrea s e wit h i n crea s i n g d i s ta n c e f ro m t h e
la n d . T h e n u m be r of m a m m a l s p e c i e s s hows a
s i m i l ar decrea se, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e species
were deri ved from t h o se o n t h e m a i n l a n d .
� T. indicus
llr.'-.... ..
PlPlieoiscene
•. /
tocenespecispecies es
�. ..
+
0 After De leer
-- �
Canis fomiliaris leineri Egyptian Grey h o u n d Sa l u k i Afg h a n H o u n d Sleuth Hound
PO PULAT I O N S s h o w loca l v a ri ra ndo m , f or m i n g g raded c l i n e s
a t i o n i n n a t u re . T h e s m a l l e s t t h a t m a y s h ow corre la t i o n w i t h
u n i ts , ca l l e d d e m e s, a re o n ly differe n t e c o l og i c c o ndit ions.
partly i s o l a te d populations, Th u s loca l r a c e s o r s u b sp e cies
with i n w h i c h t h e re i s c l o s e g e n d e v e l o p , e a c h a d a p t e d to t h e
e t i c s i m i l a r ity. V a r i a t i o n b e c o n di t i o n s of a part i c u l a r a rea
twe e n d e m e s i s ofte n ra ndo m , a n d i n terg rad i n g w i t h o n e a n
b u t betwee n s o m e i t i s n o n - o t h e r o n l y i n o v e r l a p p i n g a re a s .
• Z o n e of Overl ap
P. rnajqr intermedius
I
Z o n e of Ove r l a p
Geog ra p h i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e Great Ti t . ( Af t e r De B e e r )
A l t h o u g h m o s t evo l u ti o n i s
pro b a b l y t h e res u l t o f s low,
c u m u l a tive c h a n ge , by t h i s
process of " prea d a ptatio n " i n
w h i c h a m u ta ti o n " e n co u n ters "
a favora b l e e n v i ro n m e n t, t h e
w h o l e c h a racter of a popu l a
t i o n m a y c h a n g e very ra p i d ly.
By a s i m i la r proces s , so m e s pe
cies of destructive i n sects have
d eveloped an i m m u n i ty to vari
ous i nsecti c i d e s . Sca l e i n sects of
t h e citrus reg i o n s of Ca l i fornia
have beco m e i n crea s i n g ly re
s i sta n t t o hyd rocya n i c a c i d , for
exa m ple.
cred i t : H. B. D . Kettlewe l l
0.9
1 .0
1 .1
1 .2
Misso u r i a n
1. M y a l i n a cop h a
2 . M . lepta
2 . M. iepta
3. M. w y o m i n g e n s is Desmoinesian
4. M . m iope t i n a
5 . M . p l iap e t i n a
6. M . cop e i
7. M. arbo/a Ato k a n
8 . M . g /oss idea
9. M. p e t i n a
1 0 . M . a v i c u loides F I GURE B
Fi g u re A is a plot of t h e form i n g or s p l i tt i n g ra t h e r t h a n by
ratio of length to h e i g h t of the co n t i n uous c h a n ge.
shells, p lotted a g a i n s t the ra tio Fig ure B s h ow s i n ferred evo l u
of the a n g le b to the a n g le a tionary descent a n d re lation
(see d ia g ra m ) . T h e rig h t - h a n d ships (phyloge ny) of species of
l i n e represents i n - l i n e evol u t i o n , Myali n a . N u m bers refer to the
w h e r e new s pecies a rise by s u c sa m e species a s t h os e i n Fig. A.
cessive modification of earlier T h e n a mes a re those of s u cces
populations. T h e left- h a n d l i n e sive roc k d iv i s i o n s . (After New
re p res e n ts speciation by bra n c h - ell and Moore.)
49
H I G H E R TAXA ( g e ne ra , fa m i l ies, etc.) of a n i m a l s
a n d p l a nts a re fou n d i n t h e foss i l record a l so t o a ri s e
by d e s c e n t w i t h s l ow mod ification from a n cestra l fo r m s .
T h i s is evol utio n . The fos s i l record provi d e s repeate d
evi d e n c e t h a t it i s t h e n o r m a l m ethod b y w h i c h n ew
g ro u ps of o rg a n i s m s orig i n ate .
C E R A T O PS I AN D I N OS A U RS (a l l p l e x i ty o f t h e b o n y a r m or t h a t
dra w n t o s a m e s c a l e ) l i ved i n t h e covered t h e i r h ead a n d n e c k ,
Creta c e o u s Period ( p. 98), 7 0 m i l Triceratops rea c h ed a l e n g t h o f
l i o n years a g o. T h ey s h ow a n 2 4 f e e t a n d we i g h e d u p to e i g h t
overa l l i n crea s e i n s i z e a n d i n to n s. O n ly t h re e g e n e ra are
t h e re l a t i ve di m e n s i o n s a n d co m · s h own. (Afte r Co l b e rt.)
O l D WOR L D
Equus
Styfohipparion
Hipparion
Pfio hippus
Anchitherium
GRAZERS
I
BROWS E R S
Orohippus
To R h i noceroses
1£)
Epihtppus After S i m p s o
51
"MI S S I N G L I N KS," a s e v i de n ce t h a t o n e g ro u p de
veloped from a n o t h e r, were often d e m a n d ed by o p po
n ents of evo l uti o n i n e a r l i e r y e a r s of t h e evoluti o n a ry
d e bate. At t h e ti m e of t h e p u b l ication of On the Origin
of Species, very few of these tra n sitio n a l fo r m s were
k n own , b u t m a ny h ave since b e e n d iscove red . T h ey
b r i d g e m a ny of t h e m a jo r g ro u p s of existi n g o rg a n is m s .
I n th e ve rtebrates, for exa m p le, t h e re a re tra ns itio n a l
fo r m s b etwe e n fi s h a n d a m p h i b i a , a m p h i b i a a n d rep
tiles, reptiles and b i rds, and repti l e s and m a m m a l s .
They i n d icate t h a t these m a jo r g rou ps, d isti nct a n d
s epa rate i n l iv i n g forms, a rose fro m for m s th a t s howed
s o m e c h a racters i nte rmed iate betwe e n two g ro u p s a n d
oth e rs now restricted t o j u st o n e .
ARC HAEO PTERYX, a n a n cestra l feet b u t re pt i l i a n vertebra e a n d
fos s i l b i rd from t h e J u ras si c of ta i l . I t h a d t h e w i s h b o n e of a
Germa ny, had m a n y features of bird b u t a repti l i a n b ra i n .
the rept i l i a n g rou p fro m w hi ch A rchaeopteryx was i ndeed a
i t developed. Althou g h it had m os a i c or j u m b l e of va riously
the feathers of a b i rd , i t h a d a d eve loped c h a racteristics that
repti l e l i ke too t h e d bea k a n d were s u bs e q u e n tly restricted to
clawed w i n g s . I t h a d b i rd l i ke d i ffe rent g roups (p. 1 29).
Cynognath us
P l a ty p u s
Mammals
Modern Amphibians
AQUATIC
Cartilaginous fishes
54
_j _ _ l_j__l_j _ _ l _ _
----. 1.
I
,
0
c �
c
0
0
.., . .,
0
�
� � 0
"
�
;;; 0 u
T H E TOTAL N U M B E R of s p e c i e s G R EATE R C O M P L E X I TY of o r g a
h a s s h own a steady i n c r e a s e n i s m s w i t h t i m e h a s a c co m pa n i ed
th rou g h g e o l og i c t i m e. I n sects , t h e i n va s i o n of n ew e n v i ro n m e n ts .
for exa m p l e , c o n s t i t u t e m o re "Co m p l e x i ty" i s a n a m b i g u o u s
t h a n t h re e-qu a rters of a l l l i v q u a l ity, b u t m o s t wo u l d a g ree
i n g s pe c i e s , yet t h ey d i d not that fish, a m p h i bians, reptiles,
a p p e a r u n t i l the Devon i a n , 375 a n d m a m m a l s represe n t s u c h a
m i l l i o n yea rs ago ( p . 98). The s ca l e . Th i s i s a l s o t h e o r d e r of
c l a s s e s (a bove) s h ow s i n crea s i n g t h e ir a p pe a ra n c e in the f os s i l
n u m b ers of s pe c i e s . reco rd.
55
THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION
2 3 ,.;,.
of c h romosomes
i n order of s i z e
11 KK 81 J fi K&
\ 1 2 3 I \ 4 5 I
3< II XI Kl XX �� Hl
I1 3I i ii A1 5ft
\ 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12
'� - �
"'"' J'
:J-I IX a1 7x II
I 14
��7":\
\ I
c h rom os o m e s i n s p e r m a tog o n i u m
spermatogon i u m II
••
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
S PERMS A N D EGGS
o ogoniu m
11 1 1
_...,
�" . .
;:
rr t
p rmatocyte '
fi �st
oocy t e 111 1
•.! • • .
fi rst
. JI" •• • • , .
lfC
1 II II·.,I' ...........
.,.,_ ' � ; polar
..
seco n d
spermatocy te$
II \.
••
second body
oocyte •
I
\�! \ sp � r m atl ds J )( J)
-\.ve
(f\ '<, J ! a� pola � �:��
... .J. ... ,J. \
ootid
! ! ' P "m'
! ! �' / I egg
II • •
fertil ized e g g
(zygote)
THE STAGES OF M I T O S I S i n
clude : Ia) PRO PHASE, fi rs t
stage o f m i tosi s , i s m a rked b y
thicken i n g o f c h ro m osomes i n
n ucleus a n d s e p a ration o f ce n
trioles from cen tra l body ( ce n
tros o m e ) a bove n uc l e u s . Fibers
from ce n trioles form a s ter. ( b )
S PI N D LE o f fi bers t h e n g rows
between the two s e pa ra ted a s
ters. N uclear m e m b ra n e d i si n
teg rates , a n d· t h e t h icke n e d
c h ro m o s o m e s divide l e n g t h w i s e
i n to t w o c h ro m a ti d s . ( c ) I N
METAPHASE, the d u p l i ca ted
chromosomes leave t h e n u
cleus. They arra n g e t h e m s e lves
i n to pa i rs across the e q u a tor of
the e n l a rged s p i n d le. I d l I N
A N A PHASE, o n e o f each o f t h e
c h ro m os o m e s p a i rs , or c h rom a
tid, m i g rates to opposite poles
of t h e s p i n d le . l e l TELO P H A S E ,
fi n a l stage, i s m a rked by loss
of s p i n d le, division of centriole,
and division of p a re n t ce l l i n to
two identica l d a u g h te r ce l l s .
58
MEIOSIS
2N
,
2N
._..
OR OR
Division
2N \ Division � 2N \ � 2N \Division
I
N N N N N N N N
MEIOS I S is shown for a cell The s e c o n d d iv i s i o n occ u rs by
with a d i ploid n u mber (2N) of m i tosis, in w h i c h each n ew
four c h ro m oso mes. The fl rst d i d a u g h ter c e l l d iv i des into two
vision i n volves t h e ra n d o m s h o r f u rther h a p l o i d c e l l s , each a l s o
i n g of exactly h a l f the n u mber with N c h ro m osomes. These form
of c h ro mosomes betwee n the the g a m etes, or reprod u ctive
daughte r ce l l s . In this reduc ce l l s , ea c h of w h i c h h a s one
tion d iv i s i o n , the s h o r i n g of t h e c h romoso m e from each of the
orig i n a l c h ro m osomes m a y pro ori g i n a l pa i rs. The u n i o n of two
d u c e e i t h e r of two co m b i nations ga metes, each of which has t h e
i n the haploid d a u g hter c e l l s , haploid o r N c h ro m oso m e n u m
ea c h of w h i c h h a s N c h ro m o ber, g ives the , offs p r i n g the
somes-that i s , h a l f of the orig i orig i n a l 2 N c h romoso m e n u m be r
n a l n u m ber o f c h ro m o s o m e s . o f t h e parents.
.
c h a racter to a no t h e r w a s s h ow n p l a n t h a d a p a i r of g e n e s for
by Mendel to be c ons t a n t H e each c h a ra cter, b e c a use s o m e
c ross-po l l i nated p u re b r e d ro u n d p l a n ts ( s u c h a s t h o s e of t h e Ft)
p e a p l a n ts (R) w i t h p u reb red w i t h a do m i n a n t c h a ra c t e r p ro
w ri n kled pea p l a n ts ( r ) . T h e Ft du ced so m e offspr i n g w i t h t h e
(fi rs t fi l ia l ) g e n e r a tio n peas were recessive c h a ra cter. F t pl a n t s
a l l rou n d , but t h ose in the next a re s h ow n a s Rr o n t h e d i a
g e n ehtt i on ( F2 ) i n cluded 25 per g ra m . P u rebred p l a n ts , a l so
cent wri n k l e d , as s h own h e re . w i t h pa i red g e n e s , a re RR or r r .
Me n d e l reaso n e d t h a t t h ese
( RR P ar ents
I
rr
pai red g e n e s m u st s e p a rate to
form g a m et e s. At f e rt i l i za t i o n ,
t h ey u n i t e ra n do m l y w i t h ot h e r
R Go m e t e s g a m etes, p rodu c i n g a p redi ct
a b l e ra t i o o f c h a racteri s t i c s i n
F, Offs p r i n g
t h e offs p r i n g. Ma n y f e a t u res m a y
Rr Rr be i n f l u e n ced b y m o r e t h a n two
k i nds of c o n t ra s t i n g c h a racters,
cal l ed a l l e l e s , in e a c h gene. Con
t i n uo u s l y varyi n g c h a ra c te r i s t i c s ,
l i k e h e i g h t, a r e a c co u n ted f o r
p a r t l y by t h i s a nd p a rt l y b y t h e
f a c t t h a t severa l d i f f e re n t pa i rs
1 . Pure 1 . Pure of g e n e s m a y c o n t r o l t h e sa m e
Domin a n t Recessive
c h a ra c t e r .
60
T h e gen oty p e of a n y o rg a n i s m i s its tota l c o m p l e m ent
of g e n etic m a te ria l s . T h e p h ysica l c h a ra cte ristics of an
o rg a n i s m a re called its phen otyp e . T h e g e n otype Rr
p rod uces t h e p h e n otype of ro u n d p e a s .
TH R E E G E N OTYPES - R R , R r, a n a Beca u s e o f t h e d o m i n a n ce of
rr-a re s h ow n i n p l a nts o f t h e F 1 some c h a ra cters, o rg a n i s m s with
g e n e ra t i o n a n p . 6 0 . A p l a n t w i t h t h e same p h e n otype m ay h ave
a pa i r of t h e sa m e g e n e s for a d iffere n t g e n otyp e s . Ro u n d
part i c u l a r c h a ra c t e r ( R R a n d rr) p e a s , f o r e x a m p l e , m a y h ave
,
i s ca l l ed h omo z y g o us m ea n i n g g e n otypes of e i t h e r RR or R.
"sa m e pa i r." O n e w i t h a pa i r of O n l y by s t u d y i n g t h e i r offs p r i n g
d i ffere n t g e n e s i n t h e g e n otype c a n we d i st i n g u i s h b e twee n
( R r) i s h eterozygous, o r " d i ffe re n t t h e m . H o m ozyg o u s ( R R) p l a nts
pa i r." G e n e s of t h e sa m e g e n e wi l l b r e e d tru e , p ro d u c i n g a l l R
pa i r - R a n d r, f o r e x a m p l e , a re offs p ri n g . H e te rozy g o u s p l a n ts '
a l le l e s . p ro d u ce b o t h R a n d r offs p ri n g .
61
T H E LAWS O F I N H E R I TAN C E a re d e m o n strated below
b y the i nteractio n of two d ifferent c h a ra cters i n stud
ies of a co m b i n ation of pea p l a n t size (T tall, =
r R IT
R rT t
MEN D E L I A N RAT I O
9 Round-To l l
3 Rou n d-short
3 w ri n k led-Ta l l
1 w r i n k led-s hort
62
TA I LS
Prob a b i l ities a re of m a jo r i m p o rt a n ce i n u n de r
sta n d i n g g e n etic m ec h a n i s m s . Pro b a b i l ity is t h e li keli
hood of a p a rticu l a r even t h a p p e n i n g . I f you toss a
coi n , t h e re is a 50 percent c h a n ce that it wil l com e
down h e a d s . W e ca n ca l c u l ate t h e p ro b a b i l ity o f t h i s .
P is t h e p rob a b i l ity, f is t h e total n u m ber of ways i n
w h i c h t h e eve n t m ay o c c u r, a n d u i s t h e n u m be r of
ways in which so m e other u n favo ra b l e event m ay oc-
cur. f
-
P =
f+ u .
f( Heads } 50 50
P H eo d = �--- 0 5
f( Heads } + U( rai ls ) 50 + 5 0 1 00 = •
I n g e n etics, g a m etes a re co m pa r a b l e to t h e coi n s ,
a n d t h e zygotes res u l t i n g fro m t h e u n io n of t h e
g a m etes a re c o m p a ra b l e to t h e h e a d s a n d ta i l s . I n m a n,
with 2 3 p a i rs of c h ro m oso m es, t h e re a re 223 o r
8 , 3 8 8 , 6 0 8 d i ffe rent co m b i n atio n s possi b l e i n t h e p ro
d u ction of s p e r m s a n d e g g s . S i n ce any o n e of these
s p e r m may ferti l i z e a ny of an e q u a l n u m be r of k i n d s
o f e g g s fro m a fe m a le, it i s theoretic a l ly possi b l e for
o n e pa i r of h u m a n s to prod u c e a s m a ny offs p ri n g a s
t h e wo r l d p o p u l a t i o n wit h o u t a n y t w o b e i n g i d e n ti c a l .
63
I N H ERITAN CE PROBAB I LITI E S ca n be ca l c u l a te d j u s t a s
p r o b a b i l ities a r e c a l c u lated i n fl i pp i n g a coi n . With
th e coi n , a va l u e of PH = 0.5 means a 50/50 or a
o n e out of two p roba b i l ity of obtai n i n g a head o n
a n y o n e t h row . S i m i l a rly, t h e proba b i l ity ( PT) o f o b
ta i n i n g a t a i l i s a l so 0 . 5 . T h e s u m o f a n y d e p e n d e n t
p ro b a b i l i ties is always 1 . I n the c a s e of t h e coi ns, t h i s
ca n b e exp ressed a s P H + PT 1 = •
88 ( p u rebred b l a c k ) 8b ( m i x e d b l a c k ) 8 8 , Bb or bb ( p urebred w h i te )
64
C h e c k e rboard C a l c u l a t i o n of Possible G e n otypes
S e x of a n i m a l s i s d e term i n ed by t h e sperm . I f i t co n ta i n s a Y
,
c h r o m o s o m e t h e offspri n g w i l l be m a l e .
66
G ENES c o n t ro l i n h e rita nce, b u t w h a t c o n t ro l s g e n es?
How do they t ra n s m it their c o m plex g e n et i c i nfo r m ation
from one g e n e ra t i o n to a n o t h e r ?
C h e m ica l a n a lys is of c h ro m o so m e s h a s s h ow n t h a t
they co n s i st of fou r b a s i c co m pou n d s : two p rote i n s ,
one with a re l a tively low m o l ec u l a r we i g h t a n d t h e
other m u c h h i g h e r, p l u s two n uc l e i c a c i d s, d eoxyribo
n ucleic a c i d ( D N A ) and r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d ( R NA ) . The
co m b i n a t i on of t h e s e fo u r m o l e c u l es fo r m s chromatin ,
the " s tuff" of w h i c h c h ro m osom es a re m a d e . DNA
ca rries and c o n t ro l s g e n etic i n fo r m atio n .
EXPER I MENTAL C U LT U R E
CONTROL C U LT U R E 67
T H E CH EMICAL KEY TO INHERITAN CE IS D NA ( de
o xyri bonucleic a c i d ) , w h i c h controls hered ity b y reg u
l a ti n g i n structi o n s of g rowth and form from cell to cell
a n d fro m parent to offs p ri n g . DNA i s present in all l iv
i n g creatu res.
In structure, the DNA molecule is a double helix, re
sem b l i n g a l a d d e r that has been repeatedly twiste d .
Ea c h r u n g of t h i s m olecu l a r l a d d e r is m a d e u p o f a
pai r o r two fro m fou r c h e m i c a l bases-a d e n i n e , thy
m i n e, g ua n i n e, a n d cystosi n e . The size a n d structure of
these bases is such that each " ru n g p a i r " always con
sists o f either a d e n i n e a n d thym i n e o r o f g u a n i n e a n d
cystosi n e . It i s the seq u e n ce o f t h e pairs i n the ru n g s
that provi d es t h e code b y w h i c h g rowth i n stru ctio n s a re
tra n s m itted . From these fou r basic code substa n ces, a n
a l m ost i n fi n ite va riety of seq uences can d evelop.
adenine
cystosine
guanine
thymine
Model of
DNA Molecu le
T h e s p l itt i n g of a DNA ladder a n d t h e reco m b i n ation of t h e un
z i pped r u n g s with a p p ropriately fitti n g n ew base u n its, i d e ntical
to t h e i r origi n a l partners o n the run g , p rod uces two n ew m ol e
c u les. H a l f of each new m olecule is derived from t h e orig i n a l
" "
pare n t molecule.
CROSSING-OVER
73
Horned Hereford Polled H e reford
75
I S O LATION of g e n e pool s d ist i n g u i s h e s s pecies from
races a n d d e m es, w h i c h a re p o p u l ations ca p a b l e of
i n terb re e d i n g when t h ey co m e i n to conta ct . The de
ve l o p m e n t of isolation between o n ce i n te rb reed i n g
g ro u p s i s a n i m po rta n t fa cto r i n evo l utio n . O n c e i so
l ated, e a c h p o p u l ation wi l l u n d ergo i n d e p e n d e n t,
g r a d u a l g e n etic c h a n g e u n t i l it i s n o l o n g e r co m p ati b l e
w i t h t h e g ro u p with w h i c h it o n ce i n terbre d . S i n ce c l i
m a tic a n d e c o l o g i c c o n d itio ns u n d e rg o s l ow c h a n g e s ,
th e re is a d yn a m ic i n tera.ction betwe e n th e m a n d s p e
c i e s d istri b u tio n . Ma ny now- d ivi d e d ra n g e s of s p e c ies
reflect i so l atio n of orig i n a l ly w i d e s p re a d p o p u l a t io n s .
I s o l a t i o n m a y a r i s e i n d i ffe r e n t w a y s . I t m a y b e g e o
g r a p h ic, a s i n s o m e i s l a n d p o p u l a ti o n s (p. 1 9) . R e l a ted
species t h a t d o not ove r l a p i n territory a re c a l l e d a l
lopatric; those that do, sy m p a t r i c . G e n et i c isolation
m a y a r i s e b etwe e n e i t h e r k i n d of p o p u l a t i o n . I t m a y
i n vo l v e e c o l o g i c a l , b e h a v i o r a l , m o r p h o l o g i c a l , o r p h y s
i o l o g i c a l d i ffe r e n c e s , a n y of w h i c h m a y p r eve n t m a t i n g .
Eve n i f m a t i n g d o e s t a k e p l a c e , v a r i o u s i n t e r n a l c e l l u
l a r o r d ev e l o p m e n ta l b a r r i e r s m a y p r e ve n t f e r t i l i z a t i o n
o r p r o d u ce n o n vi a b l e , w e a k o r s t e r i l e h y b r i d s .
Carn ivore
79
PRO OF OF NATURAL SELECTION ca me long after
D a rwin presented t h e theory i n The Origin of Spe
cies. D a rwin c o m p a red it with a rtificial d o m estic
selectio n and d e m o n strated its p roba b l e causes a n d
a p p a re n t effects, but the p rocess itself h a d not b e e n
d e m o n strated . M a n y l a b o ratory stud ies h ave s i n c e
b e e n c o n d ucted t h a t i l l u strate both the operatio n a n d
the effects o f natural selection . I n these, the biolog ist
atte m pts to d u p l icate and to isolate ce rta i n natural e n
viro n m e nts a nd t o a n a lyze their i nte racti n g p rocesse s .
6 2 M a tc h i n g
1 07 N o n - m a tc h i n g
1 1 20
1 100
I
I 80
I
I 60
I
I 40
I
I 20
I
I 0
A c D G
82
The g rou n d - l ov i n g fi n ches re I n contrast t o t h e diversity
ta ined t h e i r seed-eating h a bits, of t h e Ga l a pagos fi n c h es , Davi d
a lthough i n d iv i d u a l s pecies Lack has s h own t h a t i n the
show m a rked variation i n beak n e i g h bori n g Cocos I s l a n d t h ere
proportions t h a t see m related is only a s i n g l e species of fi n c h ,
to parti c u l a r types of seed a l t h o u g h t h e i s l a n d prov i d e s
prefere nces . Other fi n ches v a r i e d h a b itats a n d l a c k s m a ny
turned to k i n ds of food a n d o t h e r typi ca l s pecies o f co n
hab its t h a t a re c h a racteristic o f t i n e ntal b i rd s . Th i s see m s t o re
species o f oth e r fa m i l ies o n s u l t fro m the s i n g l e i s l a n d of
t h e conti n e n ts . S o m e beca m e Cocos l a c k i n g the n u m bers of
tree-dwe l l ers, i n c l u d i n g types s m a l l , isolated e n v i ro n m e n ts t h a t
that a re w a r b le r l i k e i n se ctivores a re provi ded by t h e a rc h i pela g o
and oth ers t h a t a re pa rrot l i ke n a t u re of t h e Galapagos I s
veg eta r i a n s . Sti l l oth e rs beca me l a n d s . ( See m a p p. 1 9 )
special ized for feed i n g on
cacti. An insectivore developed
a strong bea k t h a t it. uses to
bore i nto bark. Lacking t h e long
ton g u e of true wood peckers ( p .
42), it uses a c a c t u s s p i n e t o
extract the i n sects fro m t h e b u r
rows.
All fi n c hes are rat h e r s i m i la r
i n t h e i r g e n e ra l s i z e a n d h ave
d u l l p l u m a g e , probably because
of t h e d a r k volca n i c roc ks that Tool-u s i n g Finch
outcrop over m u c h of their ter ( Amarhnyncluis pallid us)
ritory.
The Ga l a pagos fi n c hes prob
ably a rose fro m an a n ce stra l
South A m erican f or m , b u t they
n ow d iffer so g reatly from a l l
e x i s t i n g m a i n l a n d fi n c h e s that
their a n cestry c a n not be recog
n i zed. This m a r ked d i ffe re n ce
s u g g ests that the fi n ches
rea c h e d t h e i s l a n d s earl i e r than
oth e r s p e c ies, which are m u c h
c l o s e r t o t h e m a i n la n d for m s .
T h e a n cestra l fi n c h e s pres u m
a b l y rea c h e d t h e i s l a n d s b y be
ing " a c c i d e n ta l l y " carried t h e re ,
perh a ps a i d e d by ocea n i c cur
re n ts . It s ee m s most u n l i ke l y
t h a t t h e Ga l a p a g os I s l a n d s w e re
ever j o i n e d to t h e m a i n la � d .
N AT U R A L S E L E C T I O N I N A C T I O N is s h ow n b y t h e
p e p p e red m ot h ( p . 47), w h i c h i s a n exa m p l e of a
s p e c i e s t h a t h a s s h own a stri k i n g c h a n g e i n t h e fre
q u e n cy of a d a r k ( m e l a n i c ) fo rm in the last c e n t u ry .
T h i s m o t h wa s we l l k n own to t h e m a n y a m a t e u r
e n to m o lo g i sts i n B r i ta i n i n t h e ea rly yea rs of t h e 1 9t h
centu ry . U n t i l 1 8 4 5 , it was k n own o n l y i n t h e " p e p
p e r e d " fo r m , w h i c h h a s d a r k m a rk i n g s o n a l i g h t w i n g
b a c k g ro u n d . I n t h a t yea r, a d a r k fo r m w a s d i s covered
i n t h e i n d u stria l c ity of Ma n c heste r. At that ti m e t h e
d a rk fo r m m a d e u p l e ss t h a n 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e tota l
p o p u l a ti o n . With i n fifty yea rs i t m a d e u p 9 9 p e r c e n t
of t h e p o p u l a tion i n t h e Ma n c h e ste r a re a . T h e b l a c k
m o t h i s n ow t h e p re d o m i n a n t fo rm ove r m u c h o f E n g l a n d ,
a n d t h e o ri g i n a l p e p p e red fo r m i s a b u n d a n t o n l y i n
n o n - i n d ustri a l a re a s w h e re p o l l u t i o n h a s n ot b l a c k e n ed
t h e trees o n w h i c h t h e m o t h l ive s . I n s o m e of t h e n o n
i n d u s t r i a l ea ste r n a re a s o f t h e cou n t ry w h e re heavy s m o g
is ca r r ied i n , t h e b l a c k fo r m a l s o d o m i n a tes t h e ni oth
p o p u l a ti o n .
Rece n t s t u d i e s i n M a n c h ester
and other i n d u s t ri a l cities w h e re
stri n g e n t a n t i - p o l l ution o rd i
n a nces h ave b e e n e n force d ,
h ave s h ow n a revers a l of t h e
tre n d tow a r d s d a rker for m s ,
a n d a s l o w but m a rked i n
crease i n a b u n d a n ce o f t h e
l i g h ter peppered form s .
P E P P E R ED MOTH D I ST R I BU T I O N
I N B R I TA I N
• ( red ) M a j o r i n d u s tr i a l cities
o ( w h i te ) l i g h t form pred o m i
nant
• ( b l a c k ) d a r k form pred o m i
nant
• ( g ray ) i n te r m e d i a t e popu
lation
84
I N DUSTRIAL MELAN I SM (the n i g ht. I n t h e i n d ustria l Birm i n g
p red o m i n a n ce of d a r k varieties) h a m a rea, w h e re t h e l oca l pop
i s a l so s hown by a bout 70 u lation has 90 percent black
oth e r species of m ot h s in forms, h e released 477 bla ck
Europe. In the U n i ted Sta tes, the a n d 1 37 l i ght i n d iv i d u a l s . He
Pittsburg h reg io n s h ows a com reca ptured 40 p e rcent of t h e
para b l e predo m i n a n ce of once b l a c k for m s b u t o n ly 1 9 percent
rare black forms in a l m ost 1 00 of the p e p pered.
species of m oths. In the u n poll uted coa sta l a rea
T h e c a u s e of i n d u strial m e l of Dorset, from a l most 1 ,000 of
a n i s m l ies i n t h e i n teraction o f t h e two colors of m o t h s re
a d o m i n a n t g e n e , p ro d u c i n g t h e leased, 6 perce n t of the b l a c k
b l a c k m u tatio n , a n d n a t u r a l s e a n d 1 2 . 5 perce n t of t h e l i g h t
lection. H . B. D . Kettlewe l l h a s form s w e re reca pture d . So i n
d e m o n strated t h e i m porta n c e of p o l l uted a r e a s , t h e b l a c k - w h i te
natura l selection by studyi n g reca pture ratio w a s 2 : 1 . I n u n
rates of b i rd predation o n t h e pol l u ted a re a s i t w a s exactly
two form s of t h e p e p pered reversed-1 : 2 .
moth . H e released k n own n u m I n both a reas, caref u l ob
bers of m a rked moths of e a c h servation and fi l m i n g of b i rd s
f o r m i n t w o a re a s a n d a n eati n g t h e m ot h s from tree
a lyzed t h e n u m b e r of e a c h tru n ks con fi r m ed that these
f o r m that h e recaptu red by a t ratios were t h e res u lts of rela
tra c t i n g t h e m to a l i g h t a t tive predation.
85
FOS S I LS a l s o d e m o n st r a te the effects of natura l se
l ectio n . B . K u rten h a s s hown its effects i n the E u ro p e a n
cave bea r (Ursus spelaeus) t h a t i n h a b ited north e r n E u
rope d u r i n g t h e P l e istoce n e . Ku rte n coll ected fos s i l s
from caves i n t h e Od essa reg i o n o f the U . S . S . R . B y
c o m p a r i n g these with s keleto ns of th e c l osely related
l ivi ng b e a r (Ursus arctos), h e wa s able to d iv i d e each
of the fossil popul atio ns i nto g rowth sta g e s . The fos s i l s
fro m a l l l o c a l ities s h owed stro n g s e p a ratio n i nto s i m i l a r,
yea rly g rowth stages, prob a b l y because t h e caves i n
wh i c h they were collected were i n h a bited o n l y d u ri n g
a n n u a l " h i b e r n atio n . " The a n a lysis o f these g rowth
stages d e m o nstrates the effects of natural sel ectio n .
1 00
1 •
� .
- 1 00 0 1 00 2 0 0 300 4000 24 26 28 30 32
Age in % deviation from meon longevity Mola r M ' Paracone I n d e x
Mola r M'
of Cave b e a r
Ko uoi okepo
LOBELIA
Hawaii akialoa
(Hemignalhus obscurus ohscurus)
Hemignathus lucidus
P ro b a b l e evo l ut io n of o n e g ro u p of d re p a n i d i d s from
a n a n cestor, p o s s i b l y s i m i l a r to t h e H o n eyea t e r ( p . 8 8 )
i s s h own a b ove . D repa n i d i d bea k s s h ow a d o p ti o n to
va r i o u s d i ets . H e mign a t h us o b scurus u s e s its e l o n g a ted
b e a k c h iefly to p ro b e fo r i n sects in b a r k caviti e s , a l
t h o u g h o t h e r s p eci e s u s e t h e i r l o n g " s i c k l e - b i l l s " c h i efly
to p r o b e l o b e l i a f l owers for n e cta r. The n ow ext i n ct H .
lucidus had a s h o rt l ow e r m a n d i b l e , w h i c h i s r e d uced
even fu rth e r in H . wilso n i, which uses it, wood p e c k e r
fa s h io n , a s a c h i s e l . T h e l o n g tu b u l a r to n g u e s of i n sect
eati n g s pe c i e s refl ect t h e i r d eve l o p m e n t f ro m n e cta r
fee d i n g fo r m s . Pseudon estor has a p a r rot l i k e b i l l , w h i l e
seed-eati n g s p e c i e s , s u c h a s Psittirostra k o n a , h a v e h e a vy
fi n c h - l i ke bea k s .
89
MIMICRY i s rel atively com mon i n i nsects a n d in
so m e fl owers . In i n s ects it see m s to h ave a risen c h i efly
fo r defense; in flowers, for po l l i n ation . The i n fl u e n ce of
n atura l selection in the deve l o p m e n t of m i m icry is
s h own by the d i stribution of m i m i c s pecies o n ly i n
a reas where t h e i r models a re co m m o n . Where the
m o d e l s a re a b u n d a nt, the m i m ics s h ow g reater vari
a b i l ity, w h i c h c a n be exp l a i n e d o n ly by assu m i n g th a t
t h e l owe r predato r fa m i l i a rity with t h e m o d e l s i n s u c h
a reas h a s p ro d uced l ower selection p ressure o n t h e
m i m ics. Develop m e nt o f m i m ics d e p e n d s n o t o n " acci
d e n ta l " p a ra l l e l m utatio ns but on a series of i n teracti ng
ge nes that h ave u ndergone strong sel ection .
Tree h opper on
rose stem
Ophrys orchid
a n d pol li n ating
wasp
90
S EX UAL S ELECT I ON i s t h e s u m of va rious cha ra cters
by wh ich o n e p a rtner, gen erally the m a l e , of a spe
cies attracts a m ate a n d repels riva l s of the sa m e sex.
S i n ce it i n creases the i n d ivi d u a l ' s repro d u ctive produc
tivity, it con stitutes a d i sti n ct ki n d of sel ecti o n . Ela bo
rate m a l e p l u m a g e a n d song in b i rds, courts h i p d i s
pl ays, m o re i n ten se m a l e coloratio n, g reater s i z e a n d
a n tlers i n various a n i m a ls-these a re so m e o f t h e c h a r
a cteristics t h a t m ay resu lt. Th e rel ative i m porta n ce of
sexua l selectio n a s a component of natural selection is
sti l l not clea r . D a rw i n was convi n ced it was of m a jor
i m po rta n ce, but su bseq u e n t writers h ave been less sure.
Eq u a tor
1 0- 1 5%
5 - 1 0%
0-5%
92
THE S I CKLE G E N E w a s demon
strated b y b iologist Ver n o n
I ng ra m to h ave t h e a b i l ity t o
change o n e of t h e t h re e h u n
d red a m i n o a c i d u n its i n t h e
h e m o g l ob i n m o l e c u l e s t h a t m a k e
u p t h e r e d b lood c e l l s . A t o n e
point i n t h e c h a i n of n i n e te e n
d i ffere n t a m i n o a c i d s t h a t m a ke
u p the prote i n , va l i n e is s u b
stituted for g l u ta m i c a c i d . T h e
res u l t i s t h a t n or m a l red b l ood Amino acids
Amino acids
corpuscles beco m e s i c k l e -s h a p e d . in normal i n s i c k l e cell
hemoglobin hemoglobin
Skull tlructure
! 75 �a Eye._titlon of
8
"' li
.c
...
1 00 limbs
1 00 Shoulder and hlp girdle•
1 00 Skull articulation
1 00 Rlbt-form of
THE GEOLOGIC
CLOCK
S h ows last
600 m i l l ion
years of earth ' s
h i s tory, each
hour representing
5 0 m i l lion years.
ANALO G I E S h e l p u s to a p p re
96
RADIOACTIVE ELEME NTS, such lead i n u ra n i u m m i n e ra l s pro
as u ra n i u m a n d rad i u m , have vides an i n d ication o f the age
u nstable a to m i c n u c l e i that u n of the rocks in w h i c h t h ey are
dergo s p o n ta n e o u s breakdow n fou n d .
at a consta n t, m e a s urable rate O t h e r r adi oa c t i ve e l e m e n ts
to form oth e r, more sta b l e e l e used in age m e a s u re m e n ts i n
m e n ts . U ra n i u m , for e xa m p le , c l u d e lead-thori u m , pota s s i u m
p rod uces a s e r i e s of " d a u g h a rgon , ru b i d i u m -stro n t i u m , a n d
t e r " e l e m e nts a n d fi n a l ly y i e l d s carbon . S t u d i e s o f m eteorites,
l e a d a n d h e l i u m . O n e g ra m w h i c h seem to b e " left over"
of u ra n i u m prod uces 1 / 7000 fra g m e n t s fro m the d evelop
g ra m s of lead every m i l l i o n ment of th e solar syste m , a n d
yea rs. T h i s r a t e i s u n affected t h e rate of ex pa n s i o n of t h e
by any c h a n ge s in heat o r u n iverse te n d to co n f i r m a f i g u re
pres s ure. M e a s u re m e n t o f t h e of a bo u t 4.5-5.0 b i l l i on years for
ra tio o f " o l d " u ra n i u m t o " n ew" t h e ag e of the e a rt h .
URAN I U M T O LEAD
B R E A K DOWN
Oldest
u n d isp uted
fossil
�
w
PERIOD THE G EOLOG I C TIME S C A L E
Q UATERN A R Y
u
2
0
;t
u
63 62 T ERTI ARY
C R ET A C E O U S
1 36 71
J U RASSI C
1 90 54
TRIASSIC
225 35
PERMIAN
280 55
P E N N S Y LV A N I A N
325 45
345 20
M I SS I S S I P P I AN
D EV O N I A N
u
0
N 395 50
8
� SILU RIAN
430 35
O RDOVICIAN
500 70
CAMBRIAN
570 70
z
<(
"'
"' P R EC A M B R I AN
�0.. u
� 4,030
H E G E O LO G I C TIME S CALE d e
ope d fro m a study of stratified
rocks a n d their fossils, is d ivided
i n to fou r e ras, fos s i l s b e i n g a b u n
----r-�� �··�r- -- r--
d a n t o n ly i n t h e l a st th ree . The
J
n a m es of m ost of t h e periods a re
----f---- f-- --f---- f--
-- d e rived fro m p l a ce s w h e re rocks of
t h a t a g e were fi rst stud ied . Thus,
we spea k of Devo n i a n fi s h just as
we spe a k of Rom a n a rc h itectu re .
----f---- t- --+- ------ Wh e n t h e i r rela tive s e q u e n c e is
k n own, both ca n t h e n b e fitted i n to
a n u m e r i c a l ti m e sca l e . Preca m
bria n t i m e covers a l m os t 9 I 1 Oth s
_____.....___.
. ....____.
. ________ of a I I e a rth h i story .
RATES OF EVO LUTIO N v a ry e n o r m o u s l y fro m o n e
species t o a nother. The s m a l l b r a c h i pod Lingula, a n i n
h a b itc;mt o f wa r m , s h a l low seas, h a s sca rcely c h a n ged
i n t h e l a st 400 m i l l io n yea rs. But t h e s pecta c u l a r d i
versification o f m a m m a l s has ta ken p l a ce with i n t h e
l a st 60 m i l l i o n yea r s . Develo p m e n t of a g eolog i c ti m e
scale a l l ows u s to a n a lyze a n d i n terp ret t h ese d ifferi n g
rates, wh ich m a y b e expressed i n various ways .
E C O L O G I C A L R E PLAC EMENT o f R A P I D D I V E R S I FI C A T I O N of
s o m e ext i n ct g rou ps b y oth e rs Mioce ne horses f ro m b rows i n g
of s i m i la r e n v i ro n m e ntal h a b i ts to g razi n g correspo n ded t o
s u g g ests that com pet ition be t h e w i despread c h a n g e fro m
twe e n the two g roups may have lowland forests to upla nd
been a factor in some cases of pra iries i n North A m erica a n d
exti n ct i o n . T h e width of each t h e f i rst appeara n c e of fos s i l
co l u m n in t h e d ia g ra m i s p ro g rasses. T h i s i n teraction see m s
portional to the d iversity of t o conf i r m t h e i m po rta n ce of
t h e group. n a t u ra l selection (p. 1 0 1 ).
1 00 \
BROWSI N G TEETH G R A Z I N G TEETH
( low.crowned- no ceme n t ) ( H i g h crown ed-cemen t )
H Y PO H I P P U S
P A RA H I P P U S
ANCHITHERI UM
1 01
A R E C I PE FOR EVOLUT I O N s h owi n g t h e i n te r p l a y
o f t h e va rious fa cto rs i n volve d , c a n b e s u m m e d u p fo r
a ny popu l a tion a s d e m o nstrated i n the d ia g ra m below.
Such a si m pl e recipe does not m ea n tha t evo l ution i s
itself s i m p l e o r t h a t it fol lows a c l e a r ly predicta b l e p a t
tern . The reverse is the case. The i n teraction of t h ese
va rious p rocesses pro d u ces an eno rm o u sl y c o m plex dy
n a m ic syste m . Both the co m p l exity a n d the potenti a l ity
fo r n ovelty of the evo l utio n a ry process a re i n d i cated
by t h e g reat d iversity of l ivi n g thi n g s .
I SOLATION :
VARIATION :
Genetic +
Reco m b i nation Over-Production
Limited Food Supply
NEW SPEC I ES
- 5
-
4
2
II
ARAB I C N O ' S . IV
( S PEC I ES) l i ne-Evol ution of o Species
C o n t i n u e s to E xist
ROMAN NO ' S .
Becomes Extinct
(GENERA)
1 03
T H E C O U RS E OF EVOLUTION
SPECTRO S C O P I C A NALYS I S of
l i g h t f ro m other p l a nets s h ows
that the s i x " ba s i c " e l e m e n ts of
l i v i n g t h i n g s a re w i d e l y d i strib
uted. Hydrog e n , oxyg e n , carbo n ,
a n d n i trog e n a re a m o n g t h e
m o s t a b u n d a n t e l e m e nts i n the
solar syste m . Sulfur i s n i nt h ;
p h o s p h o rou s , s i x teen t h . T h i s i m
p l i e s t h ey w e r e a l s o proba b l y
Dark l i n es i n s pectru m a n a lysis presen t in t h e p r i m i t i ve e a r t h .
a re prod u ced by a bsorption by
coo ler g a s i n f ro n t of g lo w i n g PA L EO Z O I C
sou r c e .
....
Cl)
TH E ATMOS PH E R ES of p l an ets z 0
""'
m ost d i stan t f r o m t h e s u n h a v e <(
:;
j
p rob a b l y c h a n g ed t h e l ea st .
T h e i r a t m os p h e res i n c l ude h ydro- �
g en , h e l i u m , m et h a n e ( C H 4 ) and,
in J u p i ter and S a t u rn , a m m on i a �
( N H 3 ). Proba b l e c h an g e s in t h e o..
eart h ' s a t m o s p h e re (water o m i t
ted) a re b a s ed p a r t l y on a n a l o g y
w i t h t h e s e.
T H E O RI G I N OF LI FE m u st h a ve i n vo l ve d t h e deve l o p
m e n t o f protei n s fro m thei r a m i no-acid co m po n e n t s .
An experi m e n t b y Sta n l ey Mi l l e r a n d H a ro l d U rey d e m
on stra tes o n e poss i b l e way i n w h i c h t h i s m i g ht h ave
ta ken p l a ce o n the p r i m itive ea rth .
FO RMAT I O N O F P L A N ET EARTH
Woo l l y m a m moth
preserved i n
froze n gro u n d
Ca m b r i a n
tri l o b i tes
Fo s s i l p l a n t
leaves fro m
Pe n n s y l va n i a n
Growth ri n g s a re preserved i n
s i l ica i n petrified wood.
This cla m s h e l l i s a l m ost u n a l
tered except f o r leach i n g .
B U R R O W S , TRA I LS A N D TRACKS
may be preserved in s ed i m e n ts
t h a t a re l a ter co n so l i d a ted i n to
rocks.
D i n o s a u r t r a c k s i n s a n d s to n e
STO N E ARTI FACTS a re the most
c o m m o n re m a i n s of p re h i storic
man. They represent various
types of tools and wea pons.
P re h i s toric h a n d a x e
1 09
THE OLDEST FOSS I LS fou n d i n rocks est i m a te d t o b e
. a bo u t 2 . 7 b i l l io n y e a r s o l d , co n si st of si m pl e p l a n ts,
,
i n c l u�d i n g l i m e-sec reti n g a l g ae, b a cteri a , a n d fu n g i .
Various o rg a n i c a m i no-acid res i d u es a re a lso k n own
frol?l these very a n cient rocks. Wel l - p reserved a n i m a l
fo is i l s fi rst a p pea r i n roc ks 6 0 0 m i l l i o n yea rs o l d .
Pteraspis
U p p e r S i l u r i a n to De
von i a n . About 6 i n .
B irkenia
A n S i l u ri a n a g n a t h a n
f i s h a bo u t 4 i n . l o n g .
Drep a n aspis
lower Devon i a n .
1 14 T o 1 ft.
Climatius, U pper S i l u r i a n to De
vonian, was a spiny a c a nth o d i a n
"shark" with rhomboid s c a les, 2
spines on bac k , a n d 5 pa i rs of
ve ntra l fins. L e n g t h 3 i n .
w a s a j o i n ted
D u n k l e os t e u s
necked m a r i n e a rt h rod ire to 30
PLACODERM$ ( late S i l urian to
ft. lon g . It was the largest verte
Per m i a n ) are the o n ly verte brate
brate of Devon i a n l i m es.
class to have beco m e extinct.
They reached their peak i n the
Devo n i a n a n d a re rare in
you nger Pa l eozoi c ro'cks. Placo
derms d i ffer fro m Agnatha i n
havi ng pa i re d fi n s a n d pri m i tive
jaws, i m porta n t fea t u res i n
later d iversification o f verte
brate s .
Placoder m s i n cluded bot h
freshwater a n d m a r i n e form s,
such as t h e 30-fool, joi nted shark jaws
necked arlhrod ires; s m a l l fresh and teeth
water s p i ny a c a n t h o d i a n s ; a n d
mass ively a rmored , strong-finned
a n t ia rch s .
Clacloselache, a s h a rk f r o m the
U p per Devonian, with a stream
li ned naked body. To 4 ft.
Te rti a ry
I EVO L U T I O N O F F I S H
Bon y R a y - Fi n n e d Fi s h
Cretaceo u s )
J u ra s s i c L u n g fi s h
Triassic
Crosso p teryg 1 a 1
Perm i a n Carti l a g i n o u s F i s h
P l acoder m s
::::::�·:1, �= ? ....... . . . . . . ..
-
-
- -
-
-
- - - -· -
-
--- ·········· ··· ··········· · · · ·· ' . ...... . . . .
Ord ov ici a n Ag n a t h a
I ,
,,
Deta i l of ray fi n , w i t h
typica l s u pporti n g b o n e s .
1 16
EVO L U T I O N O F AM P H I B I A N S
U ro d e l e s
Ste reos po n d y l e
To Repti les
..
... .
L a b y r i n t h o d o n ts
). .l e-f)o fp·Q"� d y I e
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
.
Am p h i bi a n s
- fr i n ge
Lobe fi n , show i n g t h e
Oste ole pis, from M i d d le Devo strong s u p porting bo nes
nian, with t h ick, rhomboid sca les from wh ich feet deve loped.
a n d short, lobed fi n s. To 9 i n .
1 17
L I F E ON TH E LA N D w a s a c o mp a r a ti v e l y late de
ve l o p m e n t . life p ro b a b l y o ri g i n ated in the s h a l l ow
seas, where t h e m a jo rity of i n vertebrate g ro u p s a re
sti l l restri cte d . Life o n the l a n d i nvolved m ajor c h a n g es
fo r these c reatu res that ori g i n ated a n d lived i n t h e
ocea n s . T h e m o d ificatio n s i n cl u d e d c h a n ges n ecess a ry
fo r p rotection a g a i n st d ryi n g u p , n ew m ethods of s u p
port i n a i r a s o p posed t o the m o re buoya nt water,
b reat h i n g oxyg en as o p posed to extra cti n g it from the
water , n ew sou rces of food a n d water, a n d n ew repro
d u ctive m e c h a n i s m s to assure ferti lization i n the ab
sence of water. Colon ization of rivers a n d l a kes was
only slig htly less for m i d a ble, for it involved d evelop
ment of m ec h a n is m s to p reve nt d i l utio n of body fl u id s
A RT H ROPODS
that, in a l l a n i m a ls, conta i n d issolved salts p re cisely
adjusted to the osmotic balance of sea water.
land dwe l l i n g , i n spite of its problems, offered all
the a dva ntag es of an em pty envi ro n m ent. Beca use of
the deli cate i nterdependence of a l l livi n g t h i n g s, it is
not surprisi n g that both pla nts and a n i m a l s seem to
have colo n i zed t h e l a n d at about the s a m e ti m e d u ring
the Silu ria n a n d Devo n ia n . Th e i nvasion of the l a n d
a l m ost certa i n l y i nvolved t h e earlier i nvasion o f fresh
waters. Ma ny l iving g rou ps, wh ich a re essentially m a
rine, conta i n a few freshwate r colon ists (cla m s a n d
crustacea ns, fo r exa m ple), but o n ly t h e p l a nts a n d
three m a j o r g ro u p s o f a n i m a l s (snails, a rthropods, a n d
vertebrates) h ave beco m e fully established o n the l a n d .
VERTEBRATE S h a v e established
them selves o n the land with
varying degrees of s u cces s . Most
a m ph i b i a n s a re l i m ited to a reas
near e nough to water to a l low
them to return to it to repro
d uce. Most reptiles a re restricted
to a reas from the tropical to the
te m perate zones. Ma m ma l s and Skeleton o f Perm i a n a m p h i b i a n ,
bird s a re more widely d i stri b Eryops. L e n g t h a b o u t 5 feet.
uted a n d ada pted. Some verte
brates, i n c l u d i n g turtles a n d
other ext i n ct rept i l e s , porpoises,
wha l es, and pe n g u i n s , have u n
dergone a secondary adaptation
to m a ri n e l ife (p. 1 2 8).
S p h e nophylls
' '
1 20
A n g iosperms
G i n kgo
C o n ifers
Corda ites
1 22
SEED-BEARING PLANTS a re of two ba sic kinds: non
flowerin g a n d floweri n g . I n the non-flowe ri n g g roups
(gym nosper m s ) , t h e seed i s n ot p rotected ; it i s " n a ked"
-as i n pine cones. In fl oweri n g pla nts ( a n g iosperms),
the seeds a re p rotected. In both ki n d s , resista nt pol len
a n d e g g s a re p ro d u ced d i rectly from pa rent p l a nts.
Pollen fertil izes the egg, wh ich d evelops i n to a seed
wh ich is p rotected from d ryi n g . As a result, seed-bear
i n g pla nts h ave colonized a g reat variety of l a nd a reas
and a re the d o m i n a nt l ivin g g roup of pla nts.
GYM N O S PERMS i n cl u d e ( 1 ) e x
t i n ct seed ferns, perhaps a n ces
Early
tral to other g ro u ps; ( 2 ) cycads
cycad
a n d their exti n ct relatives, which
were a b u n da n t i n the Mesozoic;
(3) exti nct cordaites, perha ps
a ncestra l to conife rs, (4) the
living ginkgos; and (5) the F lowe ring Pla nts
widespread, a b u n d a nt con ifers. of the C retaceous
FLOWER I N G PLANTS ( a ngio
sperms) a re re pre sented today
by over 250,000 species. They
appeared in the Mesozoic a n d
ra p i d l y d is p l a ced t h e gym no
sperms, which we re then d o m i
na nt. Their flowe rs a re repro
d uctive structu res, m a ny of t h e m
speci a l ly developed t o a ttract
i n sects that ca rry the m a le pol
len to ferti lize t h e fe m a le
fl owers . Enclosure of the seed
i n a protective covering a l so
rep resents an adva nce over the
gym nospe r m s . Floweri n g pla nts
s how n u merous a d a ptations to
d iffere n t e n v i ro n m ents, ra n g i n g
fro m desert c a c t i to tropical
swa m p trees a n d f l owers.
C h a n g e s i n s o m e a n i m a l g ro u ps
a ppear related to c h a nges i n
vegeta ti o n ( p . 5 1 a n d 1 0 1 ).
A M P H I B I A N S were t h e fi rst te r r e s tr i a l v e r te b r a tes ,
b u t they a re o n ly p a rtly a d a pted to life o n l a n d . T h ey
n eed to retu rn to water to lay t h e i r eggs, a n d t h e i r
you n g d evelop i n water. Most k i n d s a re co n fi n e d to
d a m p envi ro n m ents as ad ults.
The o l d est a m p h i b i a n s, the i c h t hyosteg i d s fro m the
U p pe r D evo n i a n , a rose from the crosso pte ryg i a n lobe
fi n n e d fi sh , possi bly i n respo nse to popul ation pressu re
in the pool s where the latter l ived ( p . 9 5 ) . The stout
bony axis a n d m uscles of the fi n s a n d the p rese n ce of
l u n g s a d a pted lobefl ns idea l l y for m ig ration from sta g
n a nt a n d seaso nal p o n d s . Life o n the l a n d p rovided
u n l i m ited oxyge n suppl ies, the poss ib il ity of a d d itio n a l
food sou rces, escape fro m pred a tors, a nd t h e m e a n s of
reaching oth er bod ies of water.
��.rd ��·
Plesiosaurs
Ichthyosaurs
J U RA S S I C
��� -
lizards
Crocodiles
::::... Sauropods
['"•' "�/1
4-
A�
�
�-'' '"''
Loo n s
� �- I't
.{;<!�- Climbing Birds
Grebes Pe r c h i n g B irds o n d R o l l e rs
Ralites
n u rs i n g you n g
Pla typus
1 30
SOUTH A M E R I CA NO RTH AM E R I CA
7�, -- ·· -rf
'"�· . ....�\'1 • t·.
·
- �, �· . L
�
Mars u p i a l Carnivore
%: .
!'
·r;r'
Ca m e l - l i ke L i toptern
t:�
(
'(t�:�- .. \
Horse - l i k e Litoptern
Toxod o n t
j���
.
i1'
"'
H o m a l o d o t h ere
MARS UPIAL MAMMALS (Creta South A m e rica by t h e e m er
ceous to Recent), s u c h as kan g e n c e of the I st h m u s of Pa n a m a
garoos and opossu m s , g ive b i rt h i n t h e l a t e Cenozoic e n d e d t h e
to very i m mature you ng that isolation i n w h i c h t h e s e m a rsu
a re s h e ltered and fed i n s i d e pials h a d developed. Com peti
t h e i r mother's pou c h . Ma rs u pials tion with the better a d a pted
were widespread in South North A merica n placentals re
A m e rica i n the Ce nozoic, s h ow s u lted in the extinction of m ost
i n g many exa m p l e s of conver m a rs u p ials. Ma ny have s u rvived
g e n ce (p. 1 28 ) w i t h placental in Austra l i a beca use of t h a t
m a m m a l s a s i l l u strated a bove . con t i n e n t ' s c o n ti n ui n g i s o l a t i o n .
T h e j o i n i n g of N o rth a n d ( After S i m p s o n )
UJ
J z
� UJ
u u
J o
) ,....
' �
J �
) CL
�
u
'
u w
�
5u u
�L. 0
UJ
Cottle
Camels
Ruminant
(t .
·�f:f(v
.>.'�'
P r i m i tive
• .��
;i.»..y·;
\; C h evroto i n s
1 34 FAM I LY T R E E O F
EVEN-TOED U N G U LATES
P r i m a tes
I nsectivo re s D e r m o pterans
�� .>. �
. t' ,t!jf>��.'
· C h i ropterans
Pyrotheres
B rontotherium
Ill
c platyceras
Ill
v
0
-�
6
4; _,., Brontotherium
� *"
_g leidyi
t
y
� � .� cr.;.;•
'\
Ill
c � --, .
Ill
v
0 Dolichorh inus
w hyognathus
4;
a.
a.
::>
Ma nteoceras
ma nteoceros
�{'/-�.;
-
Ill Ill
c
.
• ,.,"),<
\ . . ..·
Mesatirhi � us
-o Ill
.· . ·
·-o v
-
0
::E w ·1. ; petergon1
t:::;t �>
Ill
c
;;f ��-
·� �
Ill
v
0
w
....
Lambdotherium Eotitanops Eotitanops
popagilum prin ceps gregoryi
EVO LUTION O F PROBOSCI D EANS, G R EATLY S I M PL I FI ED.
( A FTER OS BO RN . )
E le p ha s
Pleist.- Rec .
Stegodon
P l i o .- Pieist.
P l io .
Mammut
M i o .- P i i o .
Gomphotherium
Moe ritherium Palaeomastodon Mio.-Piio.
1 37
Eo c . - O i ig . Olig.
G E O G RAPH I C D I ST R I B U T I O N of livi n g m a m m a l s re
fl ects the pattern of i n terco n nection betwee n conti
n e nts during the geologic past.
Reindeer
Bison W i l d Horse
.. . ... ..
Flying
Phalanger
Koa l a K a n g a roo
1, -t�- .. AU STRA l i A N
••
I S O LATION of South America American placental m a m mals
a n d Australia p rod uced very and fossil South Am erica n mar
d ifferent ma m ma l i a n fau nas, i n supials (p. 1 3 1 ) de monstrates
wh ich marsupials were a t fi rst the i nfluence of natural selec
the dom i n a nt for ms. They re tion in ada ptation to s i m ilar
main abundant in Austra l ia be modes of l ife.
cause of its conti n u i n g isola Geog ra phic distribution of
tion. I n tercon nection of North other a n i m a l g roups does not
and South America i n the late n ecessa rily s h ow s a m e bou n d
Tertiary led to com petition aries a s m a m m a ls . Pla n ts a n d
and exti nction of m a n y South m a ri n e i n vertebrates, f o r e x
America n p l a ce n ta ls. a m ple, have q uite differe n t dis
Convergent evolution i n ex persal m e a n s , a n d therefore
ternal form between North different d istribution pa ttern s .
Mou n ta i n Goat
M u s k Ox
Caribon N EA RCTIC
Porc u p i n e
Pro n g h o r n A ntelope
K i n k a j ou
Howler Monkey
Capybara 1 39
Arboreol
i n sectivores
PRIMATES a re t h e m a m m a l ia n o r d e r to w h i c h l e
m u rs, ta rsiers, m o n keys, a pes, a n d m a n be lon g . They
ten d to be rather ra re a s fossils, l a rgely because of
their c h a r a cteristi c a l l y a rborea l h a bits . Most prim ates
show two fu n d a m ental a d a ptations to t h e i r tree-dwe l l
i n g existen ce : stereoscopic v i s i o n a n d h a n d s c a p a b l e
of g ra s p i n g . These two features, present i n a l l but the
m ost p r i m itive m e m bers, a l l ow the p ri m ates to j u d g e
d i stan ces accu rately a n d t o swi n g fro m b ra n ch to
bra n c h . They were a lso i m porta nt, together with his
l a rge brai n , i n t h e d evelo p m e n t of g ro u n d - dwel l i n g
m a n , a l lowi n g h i m t o develop i n crea s i n g s ki l l s i n m a k
i n g a n d u s i n g tools.
1 40
PR O S I M I A N S (pre-monkeys) i n
clude living l e m u rs, aye-ayes,
bushbabies, a n d the more mon
key- l i ke tarsioids. They a rose in
the Pa leoce n e , probably from
arborea l i n sectivores, a n d be
came d ivers ified d uring the
early Tert i a ry. T h ey d e c l i n e d
i n n u m be rs d u r i n g l a t e Tertiary
t i m e s, proba b l y beca u s e of
com petition from their des c e n
da nts, t h e a n t h ropoids. Prosi m
i a n s st i l l s u rvive i n s u c h places
a s Madag asca r and Southeast
A s i a . Prosi m ia n s have less w e l l
developed b i noc u l a r v i sion a n d
g rasp i n g l i m b s t h a n ot her pri Notharctos, an Eocene prosi m
mates. ian, a bout 1 8 i n ches h i g h .
�-
keys s h ow funda m e ntal diffe r· i n depen d e n t l y fro m prosi m i a n s .
e n ces fro m those of t h e New Their s i m i la rities a re t h e res u l t
World. Flat-nosed, pre h e n s i le- of converg e n t evo l ution .
P L E I ST O C E N E
-
,_____
Ne w World Australopithecus-Homo
Monkeys
;\
o n key
. . ;,�
PI i o p i t h e c u s
l O reop t �
ec - - - - - � "
-
_
�
l_o ;;;pith; us
It R a m a pithecus
APES MEN
EVOLUTION OF P R I MATES
(After McAlester)
1
•
f.l��
,.,....
1)., .
•� · · #,
.: !. �\u'! .
. �
• •
• • •
• .
• •
• *
...
PLEI STOCE N E
Oreopithecidae
PLIOCENE
'
'
'
... , - - - - - - -- - - - ---
M I OC E N E
'
'
'
'
I
'
'. - - - - - - - - - - ''- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·'
(�'
l \ \.,. .,.
--
•'''��
: .;
..
.. .
Hominidae (Men)
R a m a p ithecus
.
I
I
I
.
I
I
I
· - - - - - - - - - - - -'
I
.
I
·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - J
SCRAPER
Mousterian
HAND AXES
Acheulian
SPOKESHAVE
A u ri g n a c i a n
A m I Satyr o r M a n ?
P r a y te l l m e w h o c o n ,
A n d sett l e m y p l ace i n t h e s c a l e ,
A m o n i n a pe' s s h a pe ,
An a n t h ropoid a p e ,
Or m o n ke y d e p r i ved o f h i s ta i l ?
T h e Ves t i g es ta u g h t ,
That all came from naught
By "deve l o p m en t , " so c a l l e d ,
' ' prog ress i v e ; "
T h a t i nsects a n d w o r m s
Ass u m e h i g h e r f o r m s
By m od i f i c a t i o n e x cess i v e ,
T h e n D A RW I N set f o rt h ,
I n a book of m u c h w o r t h
T h e i m p o rta nce of " N a t u re ' s s e l e c t i o
M O N K E Y A N A.
V i ctor i a n ca rtoon d e p icts a pu zzled Darw i n a n d h i s a n cestors.
1 52
EVOLUTION PROV I D ES A fo r man,
PERS PECTIVE
h e n ce is a s i g n ifi c a n t contri bution to h u m a n u n der
sta n d i n g . Reco g n iti o n of the i m m ensity of the spa n of
geolog i c ti m e , t h e aweso m e scale of cos m i c d i m e n
s i o n s a n d p ro cesses i n volved i n t h e l o n g period o f p re
o rg a n i c evo l ution, a n d the p l a ce of m a n h i m self wit h i n
the e n d l ess d iversity o f t h e tee m i n g life on t h e fra i l
su rfa ce o f o u r p l a n et-a l l these hel p t o e n l i g hten a n d
susta i n m a n a s he faces the c h a l l e n g e, the d i l e m m a ,
a n d t h e mystery o f h i s h u m a n con d ition .
Ma n k i n d , t h e p ro d u c t of o r g a n i c e vo l u t i o n , i s n o w
te c h n i c a l l y e q u i p p e d w i t h p o w e r , i f n o t t li e wi l l , to c o n
t r o l t h e f u t u r e d e ve l o p m e n t of l i fe o n e a rt h . P s y c h o so c i a l
evo l u t i o n h a s n o w d i s p l a c e d t h e o l d e r p ro c e s s e s of
o rg a n i c evo l u ti o n i n h u m a n co m m u n i t i e s . K n o w l e d g e ,
t r a d i ti o n s , va l u e s , a n d s k i l l s a r e n o w t ra n s m i tt e d fro m
o n e g e n e r a t i o n to a n o t h e r t h ro u g h b o o k s a n d te a c h i n g
i n st i t u t i o n s rath er than being learned a n ew "fro m
s c r a t c h " by e a c h n ew i n d i v i d u a l .
Psyco-Social
E a c h seg m e n t
Evolution
represents
a p p ro x i m a t e l y
5 0 m i l l io n
years
of
Earth
1 54
Po l l ution of a t m o s p h ere in i n d ustri a l areas is a worldwid e prob
l e m . World fa m i n e poses an i n creasi n g ly s evere t h reat a s bur
ge o n i n g population co m petes for l i m i ted res o u rces. World popu
lation projections suggest g loba l population of 2 5 bi l l i o n by 2 0 70 .
2 5 b i l l i o n p e o p l e b y 2 0 70
1 6 1:
World population q u a d rupled ·a.
0
..c:
12 �
by 2044
14 U
Q;
10 5
:::
V)
Wor l d : d o u b l e d by 2 0 0 7 ;
po s s i b l e fa m i n e
Asia : doubled by 2 0 0 5
MORE I N FORMAT I O N
T h e fo l l o w i n g l i s t of books i s o n l y a n i n trod u c t i o n to t h e vo l u m i n o u s l i te ra t u re
on evo l u t i o n . Many m u se u m s a l so prov ide d i sp l a y s , ta l k s , a n d l i terat u re .
H i stori c a l
D a rw i n , C h a r l e s , T h e O r i g i n o f Spe cies, O x f o r d U n ivers i ty Press, N . Y . , 1 9 5 6 .
( 6 t h ed . , 1 8 7 2 re p r i n ted : T h e W o r l d C l a s s i c s . )
Gre e n e , J . C . , D a r w i n a n d t h e M odern World V i e w , Mentor Books, N . Y . , 1 9 6 3 .
Moore h e a d , A . , D a r w i n a n d t h e S e a g l e , H a rper a n d Row , N . Y . 1 9 6 9 .
T h e Proce s s o f E v o l u t i o n
D e B e e r , G . , A t las of E v o l u t i o n , N e l son a n d S o n s , l o n d o n , 1 9 64 .
Mayr, E . , A n im a l Spec ies and Evolution , Oxford U n ivers i ty Press, N . Y . 1 9 6 3 .
Moore , R . , Evolution , T i m e - L i fe, I n c . , N . Y . , 1 9 6 2 .
S a v a ge , J . M . , E v o l u t i o n , H o l t , R i n e h a r t o n d W i n s to n , N . Y . , 1 9 6 3 .
Sheppard, P . M . , N a t u r a / S e le c t i o n a n d Heredity , H u tch i n so n , l o n d o n , 1 9 5 8 .
S i m p s o n , G . G . , T h e Major Features o f E v o l u t i o n , Co l u m b i a U n ivers i ty Press,
N . Y . , 1 95 3 .
Smith, J . M . , T h e Th eory o f E v o l u t i o n , Pe ng u i n B o o k s , H a r m o n d s w o r t h , 1 9 5 8 .
Tax, S . , E v o l u t ion after D a r w i n , U n ivers i ty o f Ch i c a g o Press, C h icag o , 1 9 6 0 .
T h e Course o f E vo l ut i o n
C o l bert, E . H . , E v o l u t ion o f t h e Vertebrates, J o h n W i l e y , N . Y . , 1 95 5 .
Rhode s , F . H . T. , T h e E v o l u t ion o f l ife , Peng u i n Books, B a l t i m ore, 1 9 7 4 .
Rhode s , F . H . T . , H . S . Z i m , a n d F . R . S h affe r, Foss ils, a G u ide to Pre h istor ic
L if e , G o l d e n Press, N . Y . , 1 9 6 3 .
The E vo l ut i o n of M a n
T . , M a n k i n d E v o l v i n g , Y a l e U n iversity P r e s s , N e w Have n , 1 9 6 2 .
Dobzh a n s k y ,
F. C l ark, Ear ly M a n , T i m e - l i fe B o o k s , N . Y . , 1 9 6 5 .
Howe l l ,
LeGros C l ark, W. E . , H istory of t h e Primates, B r i t i s h M u se u m of N a t u r a l H i s
tory, l o n d o n , 1 954; T h e Foss i l Ev idence of H u m a n E v o l u t ion , U n i v e r s i ty of
Ch i c a g o Pre s s , C h i c a g o , 1 96 4 .
O a k l e y , K . P., M a n t h e Tool-Maker, B r i t i s h M u se u m af N a t u ra l H i story, l o n
d o n , 1 96 3 .
T h e Me a n i n g o f E v o l ut i o n
Barbour, I . G . , Issues in Science and R e l i g i o n , S C M l td . , l o n do n , 1 9 6 6 .
Lack, D . , E v o l u t ionary Theory a n d Christian B e fief; th e Un reso lved Con f l i c t ,
Meth u e n a n d Co . , l td . , l o n d o n , 1 9 5 7 .
S i m p s o n , G . G . , T h e M e a n i n g of E v o l u t ion , M e n t o r B o o k s , N . Y . , 1 9 5 1 .
Te i l h ard de Chard i n , P. , T h e P h e n o m enon of M a n , H a rper a n d B r o t h e r s , N . Y . ,
1 95 9 .
1 56
I N DEX
A c a n t h od i a n , 1 1 5 B e r k e n d e r , L C . , 1 07 C h o n d r i te s , c a r b o n a ce o u s ,
Acorn worms, 1 1 4 " B i g b a n g " t h eory, 1 04 1 05
Ada m , 6 B i rd s , 1 1 9 , 1 27 , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 C h ordata , 1 1 4
Ada p ta t i o n s , 2 5 , 3 3 , 4 2 , B irke n i a , 1 1 4 C h o rd a t e s , 5
54, 79, 8 1 ' 88 Bison, 1 34 C h r o m a t i n , 67
Agnatha, 1 1 4, 1 1 6 B i ston b e t u la r i a , 47 Ch r o m o s o m e s , 2 8 , 2 9 , 5 6 ,
A l g a e , 5, 1 1 0 , 1 2 0 Blending, 61 57, 58, 59, 63, 65,
A l lele, 6 1 , 66 B l ood p i g m e n t s , 40 66, 67, 73, 74
A m b l y pod , 1 3 2 Bove r i , T . , 28 C lodose loch e , 1 1 5
A m i no acids, 70, 7 1 B ra c h i opod s , 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 C l o m s , 4 9 , 1 09 , 1 1 9
A m m o n i a , 1 05 , 1 06 B reed i n g , s e l e c t i v e , 4 4 Classificat i o n , 36
A m m o n i te , 1 09 B rya n , W i l l i a m J e n n i n g s , Climati us, 1 1 5
A m p h i b i a n , 1 1 7 , 1 1 9 , 1 24 30 C l u b m o s s , 1 20 , 1 2 1
A n a l o g o u s s t r u c t u re s , 3 9 B r y o p h ytes, 1 2 0 C o c k r oa c h , 1 1 8
An c o n s h ee p , 7 4 B ryozoa n , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 Cocos I s l a n d , 83
A n e m i a , s i c k l e - ce l l , 9 2 Bush boby, 1 4 1 C o l o r b l i n d n e s s , 66
A n g i os pe r m s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , C o m m u n i t i e s , 35
1 23 Coec i l i o n , 1 1 7 , 1 2 4 C o n dy l o rt h , 1 3 2 , 1 3 5
A n i m a l s , n u m be r o f , 5 Co l o m o i t e s , 1 20 C o n i fe r s , 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3
o l dest, 1 1 0 Co l o m oph y t o n , 1 2 1 C o n v e rg e n ce , 1 2 8
A n ky l osa u rs , 1 2 7 Ca m b r i a n , 1 07, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , C o ra l s , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3
A n t e a t e r , s p i n y , 53 , 1 3 0 1 13 C o rd a i te s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3
A n t h ro p o i d s , 1 4 1 Ca m e l , 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 4 Coryph odon , 1 3 2
A n t i a rc h , 1 1 4 Ca m e l ops, 1 3 4 C o t y losaurs, 1 2 6
Ape, 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 , Cope V e r d e I s l a n d , 4 3 C reod e n t , 1 3 3
1 44 Capuch i n , 1 4 1 Cretaceo u s , 5 0 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 9 ,
A ra u c a r i a , 5 3 C a r b o n , 3 5 , 97, 1 0 5 1 3 1 ' 1 32
A r c h a eoptery x , 5 2 , 9 4 , Ca r b o n d i o x i d e , 1 05 , 1 06 Crocod i l e s , 1 2 7
1 29 Ca r bo n i fe r o u s , 1 1 8 C r o - M o g n o n , 1 47 , 1 49
A r i s t o t l e , 7, 1 0 Carcho rodon , 1 1 5 C r o s s i n g - ov e r , 7 3
A r m ad i l l o , 1 3 5 C a r n i v o re s , 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 Crosso pte ryg i a n , 9 4 , 9 5 ,
A rs i n a t h e r e s , 1 3 5 Carti l a g i n o u s f i s h , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 7, 1 2 4
Art h r od i re , 1 1 5 116 C r u stacea n , 1 1 9
A rt h ropod s , 5, 1 1 2 , 1 1 8 , Castoroides, 1 34 C u l t u re , e v o l u t i o n o f ,
1 19 Cot, 1 33 , 1 34 1 49
A rt i f a c t s , 1 09 C o to s t r o p h i s i s , 1 4 Cuvier, Georges, 1 4
A r t i o d a c ty l s , 1 3 5 Cott l e , 1 3 4 C y c a d s , 1 20 , 1 2 3
Astra p o t h e re s , 1 3 5 Cove bea r , 8 6 C y n o g n a t h us, 5 3
A t m o s p h ere, 1 0 7 Ce l l d i v i s i o n , 5 8
ATP, 40 s t r u c t u re , 3 2 D a r w i n , C h a r l es , 1 5 , 1 6 ,
A u s t ra l i a , 1 1 0 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 Ce n oz o i c , 1 1 6 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 7, 1 8 , 1 9, 20, 2 1 ,
A us t r a l op i t h e c u s , 1 4 3 , 1 3 2, 1 34, 1 3 8 22, 23, 24, 25, 28,
1 45, 1 46 Cep h a l op o d s , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 42, 43, 44, 80, 82,
A y e - a ye , 1 4 1 Cerotops i o n s , 1 27 91 ' 1 51
Cetacea n s , 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 D a r w i n , E ra s m u s , 1 2 , 1 3
Bacte r i a , 1 1 0 , 1 2 0 C h o l i co t h e r e s , 1 3 1 Deer, 1 34
Bat, 1 35 C h a m e l eo n , 4 2 Demes, 4 5 , 76
B e a g l e , voya g e o f , 1 6 , C h i asmata, 73 Dem ocrit o n , 7
1 7, 1 9 C h i m pa n zee , 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 D e r m optero n s , 1 3 5
Bea r , 8 6 , 87 Ch i ro pte ro n s , 1 3 5 Devon i a n , 5 5 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 ,
Beaver, 1 3 4 C h oo n i c h t h ye s , 1 1 7 1 1 5, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 1 8,
Beri n g S t r a i t s , 77 C h o n d r i c h t hyes, 1 1 5 1 1 9, 1 2 1 , 1 22 , 1 24
1 57
de V ri e s , 27 F i s h , 1 1 4, 1 1 5 , 1 1 6, 1 1 7 H u x ley, T . H . , 2 3 , 1 5 2
D io t r y m o , 1 2 9 F i s s i pe d s , 1 3 3 H y d rog e n , 3 5 , 1 04 , 1 0 5 ,
D i c y n od o n t s , 1 2 6 F l ower i n g p l a n t s , 5, 1 2 2 , 1 06
D i n os a u rs , 37, 50, 1 09 , 1 23, 1 32 H y d rosp here, 1 0 7
1 26 F o ra m i n i fe r a , 4 8 Hyena, 1 33
D i p l oid, 57 Fossi I s , 48- 5 3 , 86 Hyro c o i d s , 1 3 3
D ip loverte bron , 95 living, 53 H yrocot h e r i u m , 5 1
D i s t r i b u t i o n , g e o g ra p h i c , o l de s t , 1 1 0
43 rec o r d , 5 4 l ch t h yorn i s , 1 2 9
D N A , 5 6 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 70, types of, 1 08 , 1 09 I c h thyosaur, 1 26, 1 28
74 F rog , 1 24 l c h t h yostego, 9 5
Dobz h o n sky, 8 1 F u c us, 1 20 l c h t h yosteg i d s , 9 5 , 1 24
Dog , 1 2 3 F u n g i , 5, 1 20 I cterus, 3 6
Do l p h i n , 1 2 8 , 1 3 3 I g uana, 1 8
Dreponospis, 1 1 4 G a l a pa g o s I s l a n d s , 1 8 , I n g ro m , Ver n o n , 9 3
Drepo n i d i d s , 8 8 , 8 9 1 9, 43, 82 I n heritonce, 56
D r os op h i l a , 2 8 , 2 9 , 8 1 G a m etes, 5 7 , 63 , 7 5 lows of, 2 6 , 6 2
Dryop i t h e c u s , 1 4 2 , 1 43 G e n e s , 5 6 , 60, 6 3 , 6 6 , mechan i s m , 27, 66
D u n k loste us, 1 1 5 67, 72, 74 patte r n s o f , 6 0
Genes i s , Book of, 6 p r o b a b i l i t i es , 6 3 , 6 4
E a r t h , 9 6 , 9 7 , 1 04 , 1 0 5 , G e n e t i c d r i f t , 75 varia bi l ity, 72
1 07 G e n o type, 6 1 , 65, 7 3 I n sectiv ores, 1 3 5 , 1 4 1
E c h i d n a , 5 3 , 1 30 Geo l o g i c t i m e s c a l e , I n s ects, 1 1 8
E c h i n ode r m , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 98-99 I s l a n d s p ec i e s , 4 3
Ecosyste m , 3 5 Gi bbon, 1 42 , 1 43 I solation, 1 39
Edentotes, 1 3 5 G i n kg o , 5 3 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 genetic, 76
E g g s , d ev e l o p m e n t of, 57 G l ossople r i d s , 1 20 geog rap h i c , 1 9 , 7 6
Elephants, 1 35 G lyptoda n , 1 7, 1 3 4
E m bryo n i c deve l o p m e n t , G o r i l l a , 1 4 2 , 1 43 J e l l yf i s h , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3
38 G rad u a l i s t , 1 4 J u p i te r , 1 05
Eobos i l e u s , 1 3 2 G y m n osperm s , 1 2 3 J u ra s s i c , 5 2
Eocene, 1 3 3 , 1 4 1
Eospe m o top t e r i s , 1 2 1 H a p l o i d , 57 K a n g a ro o , 1 3 1
Eryops, 1 1 9 H a rd y - We i n berg Kett l e we l l , H . B . D . , 8 5
Esch e r i c h ia c o l i , 4 6 p r i n c i p l e , 65 K u r te n , B . , 8 6
Essa y on Pop u la t i o n , 2 0 H a wa i i , 8 8
E u rypte r i d s , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 He l i u m , 97, 1 0 5 L a byri n t h od o n t , 9 5 , 1 1 7 ,
E u s t h e n op t e ro n , 95 Helix, 1 1 9 1 24
Evo l u ti o n , 2 3 Hemop h i l ia , 66 L o c k , D a v i d , 83
a n d f u t u re of m a n , 1 5 4 Henderson I s land, 43 Logom orphs, 1 3 5
c o u rse of, 1 05 H e r b i vores, 1 3 3 Lam arck, 1 2 , 1 3
i nd i c a t i o n s of, 3 0 H e reford c a tt l e , 74 L oncelets, 1 1 4
patte r n s o f , 1 0 2 H e spe rorn i s , 1 2 9 L ea d , 97
perspec t i v e prov ided Heterozyg o u s , 6 1 l eo d -.t h or i u m , 9 7
by, 1 53 H o m o l d o t h ere, 1 3 1 L e m u r, 1 40 , 1 4 1
p r e - o rg a n i c , 1 04 H o m i n oi d s , 1 4 2 L e p i d od e n d r o n s , 1 20
processes of, 5 6 - 1 OJ H o m o e r e c t u s , 1 4 5 , 1 46 , lepos p o n d y l e s , 1 1 7
role, 1 00 1 47 , 1 50 L i fe , a b u n d a nce of, 4 , 5
s y n t h e s i s t h eory of, 2 8 sap iens, 1 45 , 1 4 6 , 1 47 adapta t i o n s , 3 3
H o m o l o g o u s s t r u c t u res, b i oc h e m i c a l
Fe r n , 5 , 1 20, 1 2 2 39 s i m i l o r i ti e s , 40
t ree, 1 2 1 H o m ozyg o u s , 6 1 ce l l s t r u c t u re , 3 2
Fiji, 43 H o r s e s , 5 1 , 1 00 , 1 0 1 , c l assification o f , 1 0
F i n c h e s , Ga l a p a g o s , 1 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 34 c o n t i n u i ty of, 3 1 , 44
82, 83, 88 H u tt o n , J a m e s , 1 5 dev e l o p m en t o f , 6
1 58
d i ve rs i ty of, 5, 1 2 Mesoz o i c , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 2 , Oposs u m , 1 3 1
e v o l u t i on o f , 1 07 1 2 3 , 1 24 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , O ra n g u ta n , 1 43
g rowt h , 3 2 1 27 , 1 30 , 1 3 2 O rc h i d , s l i pper, 9 0
h i story, 1 4 Meta b o l i s m , 3 3 O r d ov i c i a n , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3
i n terdepe n d e n c e , 3 5 Meteo r i t e s , 1 0 5 Oreop i t h e c u s , 1 4 2
m e t a bo l i s m , 3 2 Met h a n e , 1 0 5 , 1 06 Orioles, 36
n a t u re of, 3 4 Michelangelo, 6 O r n i t h o pods , 1 27
on land, 1 1 8 M i g ra t i o n , 77 Oste i c h tyes, 1 1 6
o r i g i n of, 8 , 1 8 , 1 06 M i l l e r , Sta n l ey, 1 06 Osteolepis, 1 1 7
protop l a s m , 3 2 M i m i c ry , 90 Ostrocod e r m , 1 1 4
reprod u c t i o n , 3 2 M i ocene, 1 3 3 , 1 4 1 , 1 43 , Overpop u l a t i o n , 2 4 , 2 5
rese m b l o n ce , 3 6 , 3 8 1 44 Oxyoe n o , 1 3 2
sero l og i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s , " M i s s i n g l i n k s , " 5 2 , 94 Oxyg e n , 3 5 , 1 05
41 Mitosis, 58 O z o n e , 1 07
s i m i l a r i t i es o f , 3 6 , 3 8 Mo l l u s k s , 5
u n ity o f , 3 2 M o n key, 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 Poch ycep h o lo pec tora lis ,
variation of, 2 4 , 44, M o n o t r e m e s , 5 3 , 1 30 1 02
4 5 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 75 M o rg a n , T. H . , 2 8 Pa l eocene, 1 4 1
l i g h t , s pectros c o p i c o n o l y - M o rp h o l og y , 3 8 Pa l eo l i t h i c c u l tu re , 1 48
s i s of, 1 05 Mososo u rs , 1 2 7 Pa l eozo i c , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 ,
L i n g u la , 1 00 Mos s , 5 , 1 20 1 2 2 , 1 24
l i n n o e u s , 1 0, 1 1 Mot h , peppered , 4 7 , 8 4 , Pontodonts, 1 3 5
l i n n o e o n S o c i ety, 2 2 85 Porus, 4 5
l i ptopte r n , 1 3 1 M u ta t i o n , 2 7 , 2 8 , 4 6 , 7 2 , Paste u r , 9
l i verwort, 1 20 7 4 , 7 9 , 1 03 Peng u i n , 1 1 9 , 1 2 8
l izards, 1 27 Myolino, 4 9 Pe n n s y l va n i a n , 1 2 2
l o b ef i n , 9 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 24 M y lodo n , 1 3 4 Perissoda cty l a , 1 3 5
l o be l i a , 8 8 , 8 9 Perm i a n , 5 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 5
l u ngfish, 1 1 6, 1 1 7 N a t u r a l s e l ec t i o n , 2 0 , 2 1 , Pet r i f i ed Forest N o t i o n a l
lycopod , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 2 5 , 78, 79, 80, 84, Pork, 1 23
Lye l l , C h a r l es , 1 5 , 1 6 9 2 , 9 4 , 1 00 P h e n o codus, 1 3 2
lyre b i rd , s u p e r b , 9 1 N e a n d e rt h a l m a n , 1 47, P h e n otype, 6 1 , 6 5
1 49 P h o l i d oto , 1 3 5
Ma l a r i a , 9 2 , 9 3 N eo l i t h i c c u l tu re, 1 4 8 , P h os p h o ro u s , 1 0 5
Mo l t h u s , R o b e r t , 2 0 , 2 1 1 50 P h otosyn t h es i s , 1 0 6
Mam m a l s , 1 1 9 , 1 2 8 , 1 30 , N e pt u n e , 1 0 5 Phyla, 5
1 3 1 ' 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , 1 34 , N e w G u i ne a , 4 3 P i g , 1 34
1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 37 , 1 3 8 , N e w t , 1 24 P i n n i pe d s , 1 3 3
1 3 9 , 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , Newto n , 2 3 P i t h ecanth rop u s , 1 46
1 43 N i trog e n , 1 05 P l o ce n t o l s , 1 3 1 , 1 3 5
Ma m m ot h , woo l l y , 1 0 8 , N oa h ' s F l oo d , 1 5 P l acode r m , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6
1 34 N o m e n c l a t u re, b i n o m i a l , P l o c od o n t , 1 26
Ma n , 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 2 , 1 44 , 11 P l a n t s , 1 06 , 1 20
1 4 5 , 1 46 , 1 47 , 1 4 8 , Noth orctos , 1 3 2 , 1 4 1 n u m be r of s p e c i e s , 5
1 49 , 1 50 , 1 54 N o t h o s o u rs , 1 26 o l dest, 1 1 0
Marm oset, 1 4 1 N ot oc h o rd , 1 1 -4 vasc u l ar, 1 2 1
Marsh a l l , l . C . , 1 07 N ot o u n g u l otes, 1 3 5 P lasmod i u m , 9 3
Mars u p i a l s , 1 3 1 , 1 3 9 P l ato, 7
Medus ion , 1 1 0 Obelia, 1 1 1 P l a ty p u s , 5 3 , 1 30
Mego t h e r i u m , 1 3 4 Olenellus, 1 1 1 P l e s i osa u rs , 1 2 6
Meios i s , 5 9 , 7 3 O l i g oc e n e , 1 4 1 P l i oc e n e , 1 43 , 1 44
Me l a n i s m , 4 7 , 8 5 On th e Ori g i n of Species, P l i op i t h e c u s , 1 -4 2
Mend e l , G re g o r , 2 6 , 2 7 , 1 6 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 52, 80, P n e u m ococcus, 6 7
2 8 , 2 9 ' 5 6 , 60, 6 6 1 51 Po l y p l o i d y , 74
Meson y x , 1 3 2 Ophrys, 90 Porpoise, 1 1 9
1 59
Potassi u m - a rg o n , 9 7 S c o rp i o n , 1 1 8 T h a l l o p h yte s , 1 2 0
Preca m br i a n , 98, 1 1 0 , Sea l , 1 3 3 T h ecodo n t, 1 2 7
1 1 1 ' 1 20 Sea sq u i rt s , 1 1 4 Therapsid, 1 30
P r i m ates, 1 3 5 , 1.40 , 1 4 1 , S eed f e r n s , 1 2 0 , 1 2 3 T h e r iodont, 53, 1 2 6
1 4 2 , 1 4 3 , 1 44 , 1 4 5 , Selecti on , sexua l , 9 1 T h e ropod s , 1 2 7
1 46 , 1 47 ' 1 4 8 , 1 4 9 S e x , determ i n a t i o n o f , 6 6 T i m e sca l e , g eo l og i c ,
P r i n c ip les of G e o l o g y , Shark, 1 1 5 , 1 28 98-99
1 5, 1 6 Sickleb i l ls, 88, 89 T i t , g reat, 4 5
Proba b i l i t i e s , 6 3 , 64 S i c k l e - ce l l g e n e , 9 2 , 9 3 T i ta n o t h eres, 1 3 2 , 1 3 6
Probosc i d e a n s , 1 3 5 , 1 3 7 Sil urian, 1 1 2, 1 1 4, 1 1 8, To ad , 1 2 4
Procon s u l , 1 4 3 1 19 Too l s , 1 4 8
Prosi m ia n s , 1 4 1 S i re n i a n s , 1 3 5 To r to i se s , 1 8 , 1 9
Prote i n s , 6 7 , 7 0 , 1 0 7 S ka t e s , 1 1 5 Toxodo n , 1 7
Proto lep idodendro n , 1 2 1 S l oth, 1 34 , 1 3 5 T r a c h e o p h yte s , 1 2 1
Protop l a s m , 3 2 Snai l , 1 1 2, 1 1 9 Trans m u t a t i o n of S p e c i e s ,
Protoz o a n s , 5 S n a ke s , 1 2 7 20
Ps i l a p h y t e s , 1 2 0 Societies, h u m a n , 1 50 Tree h o p pe r , 9 0
Psi lopsid, 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 Solomon I s lands, 4 3 , 1 02 Triassic, 53 , 1 30
Ptera sp i s , 1 1 4 S o u t h e r n - a pe , 1 4 5 Tr i c e rat ops, 5 0
Pterosa u r s , 1 2 7 Spassky, 8 1 T r i l o b i te , 1 0 8 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 ,
Pyrotheres, 1 3 5 S pec i e s , c h a n g e s i n , 4 6 1 1 2
foss i l , 4 8 T u b u l identes, 1 35
island, 43 T u rt l e , 1 1 9 , 1 2 6
Ra b b i t , 1 3 5 new, 1 03
Races, 45, 76 n u m be r of, 5 5 , 1 0 3 U n g u l a te s , 1 3 3 , 1 3 4
Rad i a t i o n , a d a p t i v e , 1 2 8 , S p e r m , deve l o p m e n t of, 57 U n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m , 1 5
1 35 S p h e n ops i d , 1 2 2 U n i ntatheri u m , 1 3 2, 1 3 6
Rad i oa c t i v e e l e m e n t s , 9 6 , Spider, 1 1 8 U ra n i u m , 9 7
97 S p i d e r m o n key, 1 4 1 U ra n u s , 1 0 5
Rad i u m , 9 7 S p i n y a n teater, 5 3 , 1 3 0 U rey, H a ro l d , 1 0 6
R a m ap i t h e c u s , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 Sponge, 1 1 2 U rod e l es , 1 1 7
Ray , 1 1 5 S p o n t a n e o u s g e n e ra t i o n , 9 Ursus arctos, 8 6
Ray, Joh n , 1 0 Spr i g g i n a , 1 1 0 spe l a e u s , 8 6
Rece n t , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 S t a rf i s h , 1 1 3
Reco m b i n a t i o n , g e n e t i c , Stegosa u r s , 1 27
V a sc u l a r p l a n t s , 1 2 1
72, 73 S te reospo n d y l a , 1 1 7
Ve rte b ra tes , 5 4 , 1 1 9
Red i , Fra ncesco, 9 Stone age, 1 48
" c l asses o f , 5 5
Rep rod u c t i o n , sex u a l , 3 3 , S t ro m a to l i te s , 1 1 0
oldest, 1 1 4
5 9 , 7 3 , 1 07 S u b s pec i e s , 4 5
V e s ti g i a l s t r u c t u re s , 3 9
Rept i l e , 1 1 7 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 5 , S u l f u r, 1 0 5
1 26 S u rv i v a l of t h e f i ttes t , 7 8
R h i n oceros , 1 3 1 , 1 3 4 S u tt o n , Wa l te r , 2 8 W a l l a ce, A l f red R u s se l ,
R h y n coce p h a l i a n s , 1 2 6 1 5 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 43
R N A , 67, 70, 7 1 Wa l r u s , 1 3 3
Roden ts, 1 3 5 Ta p i n ocep h a l i d s , 1 2 6 Wease l , 1 3 3
R u b id i u m -stront i u m , 97 Ta p i r , 4 3 , 1 3 4 Wh a l e , 1 1 9 , 1 33 , 1 35
R u s h , sco u r i n g , 1 2 1 Tars i e r s , 1 40 , 1 4 1 W h istler, g o lden , 1 0 2
Tarsioids, 1 4 1 Wolf, 1 3 1
T a x od o n t , 1 3 1 Wood pec k e r s , 4 2
Sa l a m a n d e r , 1 2 4 Taxonomy, 36 Worm , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2
Sa t u r n , 1 0 5 T e r t i a r y , 1 00 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , W r i g h t , Sewa l l , 7 5
S a u ropods , 1 2 7 1 36, 1 39, 1 4 1
Sca l e i n sects , 4 6 Tex t u laria , 4 8 Zygotes, 57, 65
1 60 B C D E