Line integral A can be found at all pts along.

—start P i (x i y i z i ) —> P f (x f y f z f )
along a specific line or path
A • d s => work. Find the inf. dis. of d s along c
c [find the component along d s , multiply by ds and add
them up]
A • d s => circulation of A may or may not equal zero. (circ. of B 0)
c
F(x)dx = f(b)-f(a) where F = df/dx
Fundamental theorem for Gradients
—scalar function T(x, y, z)
—move small distance d

dT 1 = T • d , dT 2 = T • d , .....

The line integral of a gradient:

1) is independent of the path
2) around closed loop = 0

Example (1.30)
along path (1) along path(2) but x = y, so dx = dy
a) d = dx ^x , y = 1 ^r = x ^x + y ^y
d b = ^y dy, x = 2 d = d ^r = dx ^x + dy ^y
2
(||) ?? v • d = y dx + 2x (y + 1) dx
path dependent function => closed loop integral is not equal to zero
y2 + 2x 2 + 2x = 10

Integrals over Area

1) Vector element of area.
dr dx ^x dy ^y dz ^z
d a = da ^n => da may have direction if r is position vector
than.
da
n^
A a) da may be part of open surface i.e. page. need convention on ^n ,
da choose sense of travel according to rt. hand rule.
b) closed surface of sphere. ^n direction from inside to outside

Integrals over surfaces

d a = da x x + da y y + da z ^z
^ ^
da x = x da, . . . .
 x = cos y = cos z = cos , (direction cosines)
Consider a surface.
Vector field A exists, value can be found at all pts.
Vector field A exists, direction of surface d a defined by the to surface
=> flux, # of lines of the vector function / surface.
A • d a may or may not be zero

A cos da A • ^n da A • da
s s s

Divergence Theorem
Gauss’ Divergence Theorem
A • da • Ad —> all faucets in the volume flow out
s V through the surface

^n — outward normal
Conservation Equation. what [something] is created inside must flow through the surface.
—surface integral requires knowledge of A only on surface, volume integral requires
knowledge of • A inside volume.
Prove by direct evaluation
d = dx dy dz
Ax Ay Az
• A dx dy dz dx dy dz dx dy dz
x y z
V V V V
Look at first integral:
evaluate over x keeping y and z constant y 0 and z 0
z —only bit of surface and volume shown.
da 1

P1 da 2
—sum up contribution from rod of cross-sectioning
y
P2
rod intersects at P 1 and P 2 and defines d a 1 and d a 2
P 1 = (x 1, y 0, z 0) P 2 = (x 2, y 0, z 0)
x x1 and x 2 are on the surface and are limits of int.
Ax
is a function only of x.
x x2
Ax
dy dz dx [Ax(x2, y0, z0) Ax(x1, y0, z0)] dy dz
x
x1
exact differential
Ax (P 2) - A x (P 1) da 2x = dy dz da 1x = dy dz
Ax (P 2) da x2 - A x (P 1) (-da 1x) = A x2 da x2 + A x1da x1
—When we integrate over y and z sum from contribution of all rods

Ax
dx dy dz Axda x
dx
V
same for y, z
• Ad A • da
V s
Stokes Theorem
A • ds ( × A) • d a
c S
—how much the flow is following the boundary.
—flux-swirl, flow following the boundary.