Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
ANATOMY external features of the body. It deals with the

anatomical features that can be studied by sight.
is the study of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts and their relationship with one PHYSIOLOGY
another.
is the study of how the body and its parts work
A. GROSS ANATOMY – studying large, easily or function.
observable structure.
TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY
B. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY – study body
structures that are too small to be seen with the A. CELL PHYSIOLOGY it is the study of the
naked eye. function of the cell.
TYPES OF STUDY B. SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY this is the study of the

function of specific organs.
A. SYTEMIC ANATOMY an approach to anatomic
study organized by organized by an organ C. SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY It includes all the
system. aspects of the functions of the body systems.
B. REGIONAL ANATOMY an approach to D. Pathophysiology is the study of the effects of the

anatomic studies based on regions, emphasizing disease
the relationships of various systemic structures.
C. SURFACE ANATOMY also called superficial

anatomy and visual anatomy is the study of the
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LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION atmospheric pressure.
1. ATOMS: tiny building blocks of matter,

combine to form molecules such as water,
sugar and proteins.
2. CELLS: the smallest unit of all living things
3. TISSUE: consist of groups of similar cells that

have common function (connective, muscular,
and neural).
4. ORGAN: is a structure composed of two or

more tissue types that performs a specific
function for the body.
5. ORGAN SYSTEM: is a group organ that

work together to accomplish to accomplish a
common purpose.
6. ORGANISM: represents the highest level of

structural organization.
MAINTAINING LIFE
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
o Maintaining boundaries
o Movement
o Responsiveness
o Digestion
o Metabolism
o Excretion
o Reproduction
o Growth
SURVIVALNEED
S
o Nutrients
o Oxygen
o Water and appropriate temperature and
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HOMEOSTASIS
information it receives and then determines the
Describes the body’s ability to maintain
appropriate response or course of action.
relatively stable internal conditions even though the
o Effector: which provides the means for the
outside world is continuously changing.
control center’s response (output) to the
Homeo =the same;
stimulus. Information flows from the control
stasis = standing still
center to the effector along the efferent pathway.
 The result of the response then feedback
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM
to influence the stimulus either
o receptor: it is some type of sensor that monitors
POSITIVE FEEDBACK or NEGATIVE
and responds to changes in the environment. It
FEEDBACK.
responds to such changes called STIMULI.
o Negative Feedback Mechanism-
o Control center: determine the level at which a
The net effect of the response to the
variable is to be maintained, analyzes,
stimulus is to shut off the
original stimulus or reduce its disturbance and to push the variable
intensity farther from its original value.
o Positive Feedback Mechanism- It ANATOMICAL POSITION
tend to increase the original Standing attention. Palms are held unnaturally
forward (thumbs pointing away from the body). o DORSAL (posterior). Toward or at the back side
of the body; behind
o MEDIAL. Toward or at the midline of the body.
On the inner side of.
o LATERAL. Away from the midline of the body,
on the outer side of
o PROXIMAL. Close to the origin of the body
part or the point of attachment of the limb to the
body trunk
o DISTAL. Farther from the origin of body part or
the point of attachment of the limb to the body
trunk.
o SUPERFICIAL (external). Toward or at the
body surface.
o DEEP (internal). Away from the body surface.
More internal
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
o SUPERIOR. Toward the head end or upper part
of a structure or the body; above
o INFERIOR. Away from the head end or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body; below
o VENTRAL (anterior). Toward or at the front
of the body; in front of
o Frontal. Forehead.
o Inguinal. Area when the thighs meets
body trunk. Groin
o Nasal. Nose area
o Oral. Mouth
o Orbital. Eye area
o Patellar. Anterior knee
o Pelvic. Area overlying the pelvis
o Pubic. Genital region
o Sternal. Breastbone area
o Tarsal. Ankle region
o Thoracic. Chest
o Umbilical. navel
ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS

o Abdominal. Anterior body trunk inferior to
the ribs
o Acromial. Point of the shoulder
o Antebrachial. Forearm
o Antecubital. Anterior surface of the elbow
o Axillary. Armpit
o Brachial. Arm
o Buccal. Cheek area
o Carpal. Wrist POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS
o Cervical. Neck region o Calcaneal. Heal of the foot
o Coxal. Hip o Cephalic. Head
o Crural. Leg o Femoral. Thigh
o Deltoid. Curved of shoulder formed by o Gluteal. Buttock
large deltoid muscle o Lumbar. Area of back between hips and ribs
o Digital. Fingers, toes o Occipital. Posterior surface of the head
o Femoral. Thigh o Olecranal. Posterior surface of elbow
o Fibular. Lateral part of the leg o Popliteal. Posterior knee area

o Sacral. Area between hips
o Scapular. Shoulder blade region
o Sural. Posterior leg surface of lower. Calf
o Vertebral. Area of spine
BODY CAVITIES
A. DORSAL BODY CAVITY
o The cranial cavity is the space inside the
bony skull
o The spinal cavity extends from cranial
cavity nearly to the end of vertebral
column
BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS
o SAGITTAL SECTION: a cut along the
lengthwise, or longitudinal plane of the body.
o MIDSAGITTAL/ MEDIAN SECTION: cut
is down median plane of the body and the
right and left parts are equal in size.
o FRONTAL SECTION: is a cut along a
lengthwise plane that divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts.
o TRANSVERSE SECTION: a cut along
horizontal plane, dividing the body or organ
into superior and inferior parts. It is also
called as cross section B. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
o The thoracic cavity is separated from the rest
of ventral cavity by a domed-shape muscle,
the DIAPHRAGM. A central region called
MEDIASTINUM separates the lungs into
right and left cavities.
o Orbital Cavities. The orbital cavities (orbits)
in the skull house the eyes and present them
in an anterior position.
o Middle ear cavities. The middle ear cavities
carved into the skull lie just medial to the
eardrums. These cavities contain bone that
transmit sound vibrations to the hearing
receptors in the inner ears.
C. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
o Abdominal cavity containing the stomach,
liver, intestines and other organs.
o Pelvic cavity containing the reproductive
organs, bladder and rectum.
D. OPEN BODY CAVITIES

o Oral and Digestive Cavities. Commonly
called the mouth, contains teeth and tongue.
o Nasal Cavity. Located within and posterior
to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the
respiratory system.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
▪ Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and

returns it to blood, disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream, houses white blood cells
involved in immunity
Lymph nodes
❑ It helps to protect the body by removing
foreign material such as bacteria and tumor
cells from lymphatic stream and by
producing lymphocytes that function in the
immune response.
❑ Within the lymph nodes are macrophages
Lymphatic vessels
which engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses,
❑ It forms an elaborate drainage system that
and other foreign substances.
picks up this excess tissue fluid which is
❑ Collection of lymphocytes are also
called the lymph
located in the lymph nodes and respond to
❑ it is also called lymphatics, form a one-
foreign substances
way system, and lymph flows only to the
❑ The center (germinal centers) enlarge when
heart
specific lymphocytes are generating
❑ Lymph capillaries weave between the
daughter cells called plasma cells which
tissue cells and blood capillaries in the
release antibodies.
loose connective tissues of the body and
❑ Phagocytic macrophages are located in
absorb the leaked fluid.
the central medulla.
❑ Lymphatic collecting vessels are larger
lymphatic vessels which transports lymph
from lymphatic capillaries to the venous
system through one of the largest ducts in
the thoracic regions
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Note: Please submit the activity to your respective instructors via their respective emails. Please refer to the
rubrics presented during the orientation as a guide how to formulate your answers. For clarifications you may
contact your instructor via FB Messenger/ Gmail.
❑ It produces hormone- thymosin – that
function in the programming of certain
lymphocytes so they can carry out their
protective roles in the body.
SPLEEN
❑ Is a soft, blood rich organ that filters blood.
❑ It filters and cleanses blood of bacteria,
viruses and other debris TONSILS
❑ Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation ❑ small masses of lymphoid tissue that
and immune response ring the pharynx
❑ Destroy worn out red blood cells and ❑ They trap and remove any bacteria or
return some of their breakdown products other foreign pathogens entering the
to the liver. throat
Thymus gland
❑ Functions at peak levels only during
youth
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Body defenses
INNATE BODY DEFENSES
❑ Also called the non-specific defense ❑ Natural killer cells which is consider the
system “police” the body in the lymph, are unique
❑ It refers to the mechanical barriers that group of lymphocytes that can lyse and kill
cover the body surface and to the cells cancer cells and virus infected body cells.
and chemicals that act to protect the body ❑ Inflammatory response: Is a non specific
from pathogens such as: response that is triggered whenever body
o Surface membrane barrier tissues are injured. The four most common
* Intact skin indicators of inflammatory are redness,
* The acidic pH of the skin swelling, heat and pain.
secretions inhibits bacterial ❑ Antimicrobial proteins: Enhances the
growth. Sebum that contains innate defenses either by attacking
chemicals that are toxic to microorganisms directly or by hindering
the bacteria. Vaginal their ability to reproduce.
secretions of adults in
 The most important of these is
females
Complement protein and Interferon
* The stomach mucosa
 Complement: group of plasma proteins
secretes hydrochloric acid
that lyses microorganisms, enhances
and protein digesting
phagocytosis by opsonization and
enzymes
intensifies inflammatory response.
* Saliva and lacrimal fluid
 Interferon: protein released by virus
contain’s lysozyme
infected cells that protect uninfected tissue
* Sticky mucus traps many
cells from viral takeover, mobilize immune
microorganisms that enter
system.
Digestive and Respiratory
 Fever: Or abnormally high body
❑ Internal defenses: cells and chemicals
temperature, is a systemic response to
* phagocytes (e.g.
invading microorganisms. It is regulated by
macrophage or neutrophil)
a part of hypothalamus.
that engulfs foreign particles
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❑ T cells arise from lymphocytes that migrate
to thymus where they undergo
ADAPTIVE BODY DEFENSES

❑ IMMUNE RESPONSE: it involves maturation process for 2 to 3 days directed by
tremendously increased internal thymosin
nonspecific defenses and provides ❑ B cells develop immunocompetence in
protection that is carefully targeted against bone marrow but is less is known about the
specific antigens factors that regulate B cell maturation.
❑ Sometimes referred as the third line of Macrophages
defense. ❑ widely distributed in lymphoid organs and
Three important aspects of adaptive connective tissues
defenses: ❑ Arise from monocytes formed in the bone
1. It is antigen specific- it recognizes marrow
and acts against particular ❑ The major role is to engulf foreign particles
pathogens and rid them from the area.
2. It is systemic- immunity is not ❑ they also present the fragments of those
restricted to initial site of infection antigens like signal flags on their own
3. It has memory- it recognizes and surface where they can be recognized by
mounts even stronger attacks on immuno-competent T cells.
previously encountered pathogens. ❑ They also secrete cytokines proteins that
❑ The crucial cell of the adaptive system are is important in the immune response.
lymphocytes and macrophages. Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune
❑ Lymphocytes exist in two “flavors”: response
o The B lymphocytes or B cells which ❑ Is provided by antibodies present in the
produce antibodies body’s “humors” or fluids.
o The T lymphocytes or T cells ❑ An immunocompetent but as yet immature
oversee the humoral immunity- B lymphocyte is stimulated to complete its
non-antibody-producing development when antigens bind to its
lymphocytes that constitute the cell- surface receptors.
mediated arm of the adaptive ❑ This binding event sensitizes or activates,
defense system. the lymphocyte to switch on and undergo
Lymphocyte clonal section
❑ Originates from hematocytoblast
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❑ The lymphocytes begins to grow and then - It is conferred naturally on fetus when the
multiplies rapidly to form an army of cells mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and
all exactly like itself and bearing the same enter the fetal circulation and after birth
antigen specific receptors. during breastfeeding.
❑ The resulting family of identical cells

descended from the same ancestor cell is
called a clone, and clone formation is the - Is artificially conferred when one receives
primary humoral response to that antigen immune serum or gamma globulin
❑ Most of the B cell clone members, or - Gamma globulin is commonly administered
descendants become plasma cells. after exposure to hepatitis. Other immune
❑ B cell clone members that do not become sera are used to treat poisonous snake
plasma cells become long-lived memory bites, botulism, rabies and tetanus.
cells capable of responding to the same Antibodies
antigen. It is responsible for the ❑ Also referred to as immunoglobulins,
immunologic memory. This later immune constitute the gamma globulin part of blood
responses called secondary humoral proteins
response, are produced much faster, are ❑ Are soluble proteins secreted by a activated
more prolonged and more effective. B cells or by their plasma-cell offspring in
Active and passive humoral immunity response to antigen.
❑ Active Immunity ❑ Immunoglobin Classes
- Is naturally acquired during bacterial and
viral infection
- Artificially acquired through vaccine
- two benefits from vaccines:
1. They spare us most of the signs and
symptoms of the disease that would
otherwise occur during the primary
response
2. The weakened antigens are still able to
stimulate antibody production and IgD
promote immunological memory - Virtually always attached to B cell.
❑ Passive immunity - Believed to be cell surface receptor of
immunocompetent B cell.
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- Important in activation of B cell Antibody function
 Complement
- Is the chief antibody ammunition
- It is fixed during innate defenses.
- It is activated very efficiently when it
binds to antibodies attached to
cellular targets.
gM
- Attached to B cell; free plasma.  Neutralization
- When bound to the B cell membrane, - Occurs when antibodies bind to specific site
serves as antigen receptor, first Ig on bacterial exotoxins or on virus that can
released to plasma cells during primary cause cell injury.
response.  Agglutination
- Fixes complement. - the process causes clumping of the foreign
IgG cells.
- Most abundant antibody in plasma. - This type of antigen-antibody reaction
- Main antibody of both primary and occurs when mismatched blood is
secondary responses, crosses placenta transfused.
and provides passive immunity to fetus.  Precipitation
- Fixes complement. - when the cross-linking reaction involves
IgE soluble antigenic molecules, the resulting
- Secreted by plasma cells in skin, mucosae antigen-antibody complexes are so large
of GI and respiratory tract and tonsils. that they may become insoluble and settle
- Binds to mast cells and basophils, and out of solution.
triggers release of histamine and other Cellular (cell mediated) immune response
chemicals that mediate inflammation and  When lymphocytes themselves defend the
certain allergic response. body.
 Immunocompetent T cells are activated to
form a clone by binding with a recognized
antigen.
 T cells are not able to bind with free
antigens instead the antigens must be
presented by a macrophage and double
recognition must occur.
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 A macrophage engulf an antigen and
process it internally.
Different classes of T cell clones
▪ Cytotoxic (Killer) T cells

- Cells that specialize in killing virus
infected, cancer or foreign graft cells.
 Helper T cells
- T cells that act as the directors or
managers of the immune system.
▪ Regulatory T cells
- Formerly called the suppressor T cells.
- Releases chemicals that suppress the
body activity of both T and B cells.
- They are vital in winding down and
finally stopping the immune response
after an antigen has successfully
inactivated.
 Memory Cells
- Provide the immunological memory for
each antigen encountered and enable the
body to respond quickly to subsequent
invasion.
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 Voluntary – subject to conscious control
The Muscular System

 Muscles are responsible for all types of  Cells are surrounded and bundled by
body movement – they contract or shorten connective tissue = great force, but tires
and are the “machines” of the body easily.
 Three basic muscle types are found in the
body
 Skeletal muscle
 Cardiac muscle
 Smooth muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal

Muscle
Characteristics of Muscles  Endomysium – around a single muscle
 Skeletal & smooth muscle cells are fiber.
elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)  Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of
 Contraction of muscles is due to the fibers.
movement of microfilaments.  Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal
 All muscles share some terminology muscle.

Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium
 Prefix myo refers to muscle
 Prefix mys refers to muscle
Skeletal Muscle Attachments
 Prefix sarco refers to flesh
 Epimysium blends into a connective tissue
 Most are attached by tendons to bones
attachment
 Cells are multinucleated
 Tendon – cord-like structure
 Striated – have visible banding
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 Aponeuroses – sheet-like
structure
 Sites of muscle attachment SMOOTH MUSCLES

 Bones
 Cartilages
 Connective tissue coverings
Smooth Muscle Characteristics Cardiac Muscle Characteristics
 No striations  Has striations
 Spindle-shaped cells  Usually has a single nucleus
 Single nucleus  Joined to another muscle cell at an
 Involuntary – no conscious control intercalated disc
 Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs  Involuntary
 Slow, sustained contractions (tireless)  Found only in the heart

 Steady pace!
Muscle Functions
 Produce movement
 Maintain posture
 Stabilize joints
 Generate heat
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Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Cells are multinucleate
 Nuclei are just beneath the
specialized plasma membrane
called  Sarcolemma
  Extend the entire length of
the dark A band
 Myofibril  Myosin filaments
 Bundles of myofilaments  Myosin heads
 Myofibrils are aligned to give  Create cross bridges.
distinct bands (striations)

 I band = light band
 A band = dark band
 Sarcomere
 Contractile unit of a muscle fiber
 Organization of the sarcomere
 Thick filaments = Myosin filaments  Organization of the sarcomere
 Composed of the protein  Thin filaments = Actin filaments
myosin  Composed of the protein actin
 Contain ATPase enzymes  Anchored to the Z disc
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum
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 Specialized smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
 Stores and releases calcium on
demand when the muscle fiber is
 Neuromuscular junctions – association
stimulated to contract.
site of nerve and muscle.
Skeletal Muscle Activity
 Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve and
Stimulation & Contraction of Single Skeletal
Muscle Cells
 Irritability – ability to receive and
respond to a stimulus
 Contractility – ability to shorten muscle.
when an adequate stimulus is
 Nerve and muscle do not make contact
received.
 Area between nerve and muscle is filled
with interstitial fluid.
Transmission of Nerve Impulse to Muscle
 Neurotransmitter – chemical released by
nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse.
 The neurotransmitter for skeletal
muscle is acetylcholine.
 Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on
the sarcolemma.
 Sarcolemma becomes permeable to
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
sodium (Na+)
 Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a
 Sodium rushing into the cell generates an
nerve to contract (motor neuron)
action potential.
 Motor unit
 One neuron
 Muscle cells stimulated by that  Once started, muscle contraction cannot be
neuron stopped.
The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle

Contraction
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 Activation by nerve causes myosin heads  More fibers contracting results in greater
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites muscle tension
on the thin filament.  Muscles can continue to contract unless
 Myosin heads then bind to the next site of they run out of energy.
the thin filament.
 This continued action causes a sliding of Energy for Muscle Contraction
the myosin along the actin.  Initially, muscles used stored ATP for
 The result is that the muscle is shortened energy
(contracted).  Bonds of ATP are broken to release
energy
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle
 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
 Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may
be stimulated during the same interval.
 Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is
 Different combinations of muscle fiber stored by muscles
contractions may give differing responses.
 After this initial time, other pathways must
be utilized to produce ATP.
Direct phosphorylation
 Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP)
 Graded responses – different degrees of  CP is a high-energy molecule
skeletal muscle shortening, rapid stimulus  After ATP is depleted, ADP is left.
= constant contraction or tetanus.  CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP

 CP supplies are exhausted in about 20
Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli seconds.
 Muscle force depends upon the number of

fibers stimulated.
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 Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic glycolysis
 Series of metabolic pathways that
 Reaction that breaks down glucose
occur in the mitochondria
without oxygen
 Glucose is broken down to carbon
 Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
dioxide and water, releasing energy.
produce some ATP
 This is a slower reaction that
 Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid.
requires continuous oxygen.
o This reaction is not as efficient, but
is fast.
 Huge amounts of glucose
are needed
 Lactic acid produces muscle
fatigue.
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Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt
 When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to
contract
 The common reason for muscle fatigue is Effects of Exercise on Muscles
oxygen debt
 Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue  Results of increased muscle use
to remove oxygen debt  Increase in muscle size
 Oxygen is required to get rid of  Increase in muscle strength
accumulated lactic acid  Increase in muscle efficiency
 Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and  Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant
lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract
less. “Muscle Movements, Types, and Names”
Types of Muscle Contractions Five Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle

 Isotonic contractions Activity
 Myofilaments are able to slide past
each other during contractions. 1) With a few exceptions, all muscles cross at
 The muscle shortens. least one joint
 Isometric contractions 2) Typically, the bulk of the muscle lies
 Tension in the muscles increases proximal to the joint crossed
 The muscle is unable to shorten. 3) All muscles have at least 2 attachments 

origin & insertion
Muscle Tone 4) Muscles can only pull; they never push

5) During contraction, the muscle insertion
 Some fibers are contracted even in a
moves toward the origin
relaxed muscle
Muscles and Body Movements
 Different fibers contract at different times
 Movement is attained due to a muscle
to provide muscle tone
moving an attached bone
 The process of stimulating various fibers
 Muscles are attached to bone, or to other
is under involuntary control
connective tissue structures, at no less than
two points
 Origin – attachment to the stationary bone
 Insertion – attachment to the movable
bone
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with the atlas around the dens of the axis
(Shaking your head “no”)
 Abduction – Moving a limb away from the
midline of the body; Fanning movement of
fingers, toes
 Adduction – Movement of a limb towards
the body midline; Opposite of abduction.
Types of Body Movements
Circumduction – Combination of flexion,

extension, abduction and adduction. Proximal end
of limb is stationary, distal end moves in a circle 
Limb as a whole outlines a cone.
 Flexion- Decreases the angle of the joint

and brings 2 bones closer together
(Bending the knee or elbow)
 Extension – Opposite of flexion-
increases the angle between 2 bones
Special Movements
(Straightening the knee or elbow)
 Dorsiflexion  Lifting the foot so that its
 Hyperextension- Extension >180
superior surface approaches the shin
degrees (Tipping your head back so your
 Plantar flexion  Pointing the toes
chin points toward the ceiling)
 Inversion  To invert the foot- turn the
 Rotation- Movement of a bone around its
sole medially
longitudinal axis; Common with ball and
 Eversion  To evert the foot- turn the sole
socket joints  describes the movement
laterally
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 Supination- Forearm rotates laterally so  Direction of Muscle Fiber – Rectus
that the palm faces anteriorly, and the femoris
 Relative Size- Gluteus maximus
 Location – Temporalis & frontalis muscles;
radius and ulna are parallel (Carry “soup” Sterno- on the sternum
--> “soup”-inating)  Number of Origins – Biceps, triceps,
 Pronation- Forearm rotates medially so quadriceps
the palm faces posteriorly  Shape – Deltoid (Triangular)
(Face down).  Action – Flexor; extensor; adductor
 Opposition- Action by
which you move your
thumb to touch the
tips of the
other Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
fingers
on the
same hand
Interactions of
Skeletal Muscles
 Prime mover – muscle with the major

responsibility for a certain movement
 Antagonist – muscle that opposes or
reverses a prime mover
 When the prime mover is active; its
antagonist is stretched and relaxed.
 Synergist – muscle that aids a prime
mover in a movement and helps prevent
rotation.
Naming Skeletal Muscles Head and Neck Muscles
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Trunk Muscles
Deep Trunk and Arm Muscles

Muscles of the Pelvis, Hip, and Thigh
Muscles of the Lower Leg
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Superficial Muscles: Posterior
Superficial Muscles: Anterior
SKELETAL SYSTEM
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The skeletal system consists of bones and other  bone into the blood replaced by calcium
structures that make up the joints of the skeleton. from the diet.
The types of tissue present are bone tissue,  the function of osteocytes, to regulate the
cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, which amount of calcium that is deposited in, or
forms the ligaments that connect bone to bone. removed from, the bone matrix.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON Two types of bone tissue:

1. Provides a framework that supports the body;
the muscles that are attached to bones move the  Compact bone looks solid but is very
skeleton. precisely structured.
2. Protects some internal organs from - Compact bone is made of osteons or
mechanical injury; the rib cage protects the heart haversian systems, microscopic cylinders of
and lungs, for example. bone matrix with osteocytes in concentric rings
3. Contains and protects the red bone marrow, around central haversian canals. In the
the primary hemopoietic (blood-forming) tissue. haversian canals are blood vessels; the
4. Provides a storage site for excess calcium. osteocytes are in contact with these blood
Calcium may be removed from bone to maintain vessels and with one another through
a normal blood calcium level, which is essential microscopic channels (canaliculi) in the matrix.
for blood clotting and proper functioning of
muscles and nerves.  The second type of bone tissue is spongy
bone, which does look rather like a sponge
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE with its visible holes or cavities. Osteocytes,
 Bone cells are called osteocytes, and the matrix, and blood vessels are present but
matrix of bone is made of calcium salts are not arranged in haversian systems. The
and collagen. cavities in spongy bone often contain red
 The calcium salts are calcium carbonate bone marrow, which produces red blood
(CaCO3) and calcium phosphate cells, platelets, and the five kinds of white
(Ca3(PO4)2), which give bone the blood cells.
strength required to perform its supportive
and protective functions.
 Bone matrix is non-living, but it changes
constantly, with calcium that is taken from

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marrow, which is mostly adipose tissue.
The epiphyses are made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of compact bone.

Although red bone marrow is present in the
epiphyses of children’s bones, it is largely
replaced by yellow bone marrow in adult
bones.
2. Short bones—These bones are usually
grouped in pairs; they are strong and
compact. Often they are found in parts of
the body where little movement is needed.
Examples of short bones include the carpal
bones of the wrist and the tarsal bones of
the foot.
3. Flat bones—These are thin bones that are
found where there is a need for muscle
attachment or for protection of soft or
important aspects of the body. Their broad
flat surface allows for extensive muscle
attachment. Examples of flat bones are the
sternum, ribs, scapula, some bones of the
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
skull and some bones of the pelvis. These
bones are often curved and are made up of
1. Long bones—the bones of the arms,
compact tissues enclosing a layer of
legs, hands, and feet (but not the wrists
cancellous bone.
and ankles). The shaft of a long bone is
4. Irregular bones—These bones do not fit
the diaphysis, and the ends are called
into the categories described above as they
epiphyses The diaphysis is made of
have a number of different characteristics.
compact bone and is hollow, forming a
As the name suggests, they are irregular,
canal within the shaft. This marrow canal
different and peculiar. These bones consist
(or medullary cavity) contains yellow bone
of spongy bone that is enclosed by thin
layers of compact bones. These bones
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include the vertebrae, coccyx, sphenoid, tissue membrane whose collagen fibers
zygomatic and the ossicles of the ear. merge with those of the tendons and
ligaments that are attached to the bone.

5. Sesamoid bones- The patella is a  The periosteum anchors these

sesamoid bone, although some of the structures and contains both the blood
bones of the wrist or ankle could be vessels that enter the bone itself and
classed as sesamoid. Sesamoid bones osteoblasts that will become active if the
are bones within tendons; they are small bone is damaged.
and round, and assist in the functioning of EMBRYONIC GROWTH OF BONE
muscles.  During embryonic development, the
skeleton is first made of cartilage and
fibrous connective tissue, which are
gradually replaced by bone.
 Bone matrix is produced by cells called
osteoblasts(a blastcell is a “growing” or
“producing” cell, and osteo means “bone”).
In the embryonic model of the skeleton,
osteoblasts differentiate from the fibroblasts
that are present.
 The production of bone matrix, called
ossification, begins in a center of
ossification in each bone.
 Also in bones are specialized cells called
 Short, flat, and irregular bones are all
osteoclasts (a clastcell is a “destroying”
made of spongy bone covered with a
cell), which are able to dissolve and
thin layer of compact bone.
reabsorb the minerals of bone matrix, a
 Red bone marrow is found within the
process called resorption. Osteoclasts are
spongy bone.
very active in embryonic long bones, and
 The joint surfaces of bones are
they reabsorb bone matrix in the center of
covered with articular cartilage, which
the diaphysis to form the marrow canal.
provides a smooth surface
Blood vessels grow into the marrow canals
 Covering the rest of the bone is the
of embryonic long bones, and red bone
periosteum, a fibrous connective
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marrow is established. After birth, the red purposes the skeleton is divided into two
bone marrow is replaced by yellow bone parts:
marrow. Red bone marrow remains in the
spongy bone of short, flat, and irregular
bones.
Bone formation and growth (ossification)

The axial skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the
 The strength of bone comes from the central axis of the body and consists of 80 bones.
protein matrix, which provides it with This part of the skeleton supports the head
resilience and elasticity. This allows bone (including the bones in the ear), neck and the torso
to give a little as it is comes under (this is also referred to as the trunk).
pressure. Within the bone are a number of It consists of the skull, the vertebral column, the
minerals that have been deposited there; ribs and the sternum. The 80 bones in the axial
these add to the strength of bone, skeleton.
protecting it and supporting it as pressure
and force are applied. It is important to .
understand how bone develops, as this
can help understand its strengths and
boundaries.
 By the end of the third month of
pregnancy the skeleton of a foetus is
completely formed. Most of the skeleton at
this stage is primarily cartilage; the
formation of bone takes place as the The appendicular skeleton: those bones of the
pregnancy develops. The process of bone upper and lower extremities – the arms and the
formation is known as ossification. Bone legs as well as the bones that attach them to the
formation takes place during various axial skeleton. There are 126 bones in the
phases of a person’s life. appendicular skeleton, and these bones.
THE SKELETON
 There are 206 named bones in the adult

human skeleton. For classification
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the connection between the articulating
bones is made up of cartilage with no
synovial cavity; for example, the joints
occurring between vertebrae in the spine.
The synchondroses are temporary joints
and are only present in children until the
end of puberty, by which stage the hyaline
cartilage converts to bone; for example, the
epiphyseal plates of long bones. Symphysis
joints are permanent cartilagenous joints
that have an
Joints
intervening pad of fibrocartilage; for
example, the symphysis pubis.
 A joint is the point at which two or more
bones meet.
Synovial joints, also called diarthrosis joints, are
 Joints are sometimes also called
by far the most common classification of joint
articulations.
within the human body. They are extremely
 There are a number of ways of classifying
movable joints with a synovial cavity and all have
joints; for example:
an articular capsule enclosing the whole joint, a
Fibrous joints These joints are also
synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule)
called synarthrodial joints and are held
that produces synovial fluid (a lubricating solution)
together by only a ligament, a dense
and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage, which
irregular tissue that is made up of
pads the ends of the articulating bones. Synovial
collagen‐rich fibres. There is no synovial
fluid is a thin film that is usually viscous, clear or
cavity in this type of joint. Examples of
yellowish.
synarthrodial joints are where the teeth
This fluid helps to prevent friction by providing the
are held to their bony sockets; other
joint with lubrication, supplying nutrients and
examples include both the radioulnar and
removing waste products. If the joint becomes
tibiofibular joints.
immobile for a period of time the fluid becomes
gel‐like, returning to its normal viscous consistency
Cartilaginous joints These joints are also
when the joint begins to move again. There are six
called synchondroses and symphyses
types of synovial joints, and these are classified by
(singular symphysis). They occur where
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the shape of the joint and the movement
available.
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THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Skin as temperature regulator:
o Abundant nerves, blood vessels and
 The largest body system glands are within the skin’s deeper
 Includes the skin and accessory structures like layer
the hair, nails, and glands o They aid in temperature regulation
 Function: Protection of body structures and o Blood vessels constrict or dilate
regulation of body temperature. depending on the temperature
o Sweat glands produce sweat to
o The Skin as first line protection: control temperature by
o The skin seals off the body from the evaporation.The piloerector (arrestor
immediate environment pili) muscles will contract to raise the
o There are three layers of the skin: hairs to trap the heat.
Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
o Skin cells Other skin functions:
 There are many other cells aside o Vitamin D synthesis
from the keratinized squamous o 7
cells of the skin. dehydrocholesterolCholecalcifer
 Melanocytes produce o l (D3)
pigment melanin. A pigment o Route of excretion
that ranges in color from o Insensible fluid loss of about 500
yellow to brown to black, is ml/day
produced by melanocytes. o Sweat contains water, electrolytes,
 Found chiefly in stratum basale. urea and lactic acid
 Freckles and moles are seen o Skin and mucus membrane are the
where melanin is first line defense of the body in
concentrated in one spot. immunity
 Langerhans’s cells o Skin has receptors for pain, cold,
participate in the immune pressure and heat.
system.
 Histiocytes are specialized THE SKIN LAYERS:
macrophages.
a. EPIDERMIS
o The outermost layer with stratified
squamous epithelium
o Varies in thickness depending on
the body part
o Thinnest in the eyelids and thickest
in the soles and palms
o The layers are- C-L-G-S-B
(corneum, lucidium, granulosum,
spinosum, basale).
o The outermost layer is the stratum
corneum with keratin
o The stratum basale is the layer
which regenerates/replaces new
skin cells
o Melanocytes in the skin produce
melanin
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as bacterial or viral invasion.
o Keratinocytes (keratin cells) = keratin =

the fibrous protein, makes tough
protective layer in a process = Merkel cells
keratinization.  Which are associated with sensory nerve
o Avascular = no blood supply endings and serve as touch receptors called
Merkel Disc.
I. Stratum basale
o Contains the most adequetely

nourished of the epidermal cells
because nutrients from the
dermis reach them first.
o Stratum germinativum
“germinating layer”
II. Stratum spinosum
o Cells contain thick bundles of
intermediate filamaments made
of pre-keratin.
III. Stratum granulosum
o Cells are flattened, organelles are
deteriorating; cytoplasm full of
granules.
IV. Stratum lucidum The Skin layers
o Not present in all skin regions.
b. DERMIS
It occurs only where the skin is hairless o The connective tissues in the dermis
and extra thick, that is, on the palms of contain
the hands and soles of the feet. o Is your “hide” = strong, stretchy
V. Stratum corneum envelope that helps to bind the body
 Outermost layer is 20-30 cell layers together.
thick.  collagen (gives its strength)
 Cells are dead, flat membranous sacs  elastin (gives its flexibility) and
filled with keratin. Glycolipids in  reticular fibers (connect collagen
extracellular space make skin water and elastin)
resistant.  2 major regions: composed of
 Cornified, or horny cells (cornu=horn) areolar and dense irregular
 Tough keratin protein provide durable connective tissue,
“overcoat” for the body, protects from respectively.
hostile environment and from water loss  Papillary: Superficial dermal
and helps resist biological, chemical & region.
physical assaults. o It is uneven and has peglike projections
 Flakes off = 25-45 days totally new from the superior surface, called dermal
epidermis papillae.
o Contain capillary loops, pain receptors
Epidermal dentritic cells (free nerve endings) and touch
 “sentries” that alert and activate receptors.
immune system cells to a threat such o Fingerprints
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 Sebaceous glands-glands which produces an
oily material called sebum, found in all body
parts except the palms and soles.
 Sebum – product of the SG, is a mixture of

 Reticular: oily substances and fragmented cells.
 Deepest skin layer  Is a lubricant keeps skin soft and moist and
 contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, prevents the hair from becoming brittle?
and deep pressure receptors called lamellar  Contain chemicals that kill bacteria
corpuscles. preventing bacterial infection in the skin
.
The Skin layer  Sweat glands or sudoriferous glands- glands
which secrete sweat, found in all body parts
c. Hypodermis except in the nipples.
 This is the subcutaneous tissue, Two types exist- Eccrine and Apocrine
which essentially adipose (fat) tissue.
 Not strictly a part of the skin  Sweat glands or psudoriferous glands
 Anchors the skin to underlying organs.  Eccrine glands – are far more numerous and
 Functions to insulate the are found all over the body.
body to conserve heat * They produce sweat, a clear
 Serves as the energy storage secretion that is primarily water
and mechanical shock absorber plus some salts (sodium chloride),
 With little vascular supply and scant Vitamin C, traces of metabolic
nerve supply. waste (ammonia, urea, uric acid)
and lactic acid (a chemical that
SKIN COLOR accumulates during vigorous
muscle activity).
 Melanin, carotene and hemoglobin * Acidic pH from 4 to 6.
1. Melanin in the epidermis (yellow,
reddish brown, black)  Apocrine glands – are largely confined to the
2. Carotene (orange-yellow pigment axillary (armpit) and genital areas.
plentiful in carrots, etc.) deposited in * Usually larger than eccrine glands
the stratum corneum and subcutaneous * Their secretion contains fatty
tissue. acids and proteins; consequently,
3. Hemoglobin (pigment in RBC) in the it may have a milky or yellowish
dermal blood vessels color. Odorless
4. The Skin appendages
 Hairs- long shafts composed of

keratin. Expanded lower end is
called hair bulb or root. There are
extensive nerve and blood supply
in the hair bulbs
 Nails-flattened structure of specialized
type of keratinized surface. The visible
part is the nail body.
Appendages/ cutaneous glands = exocrine

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Developmental Aspects of Skin & Body
Membranes
During the fifth and sixth months of

development, a fetus is covered with a downy
type of hair called lanugo. By the time the
infant is born, it has usually shed this hairy
cloak, and instead its skin is covered with an
oily coating called the vernix caseosa. This
white cheesy looking substance, produced by
the sebaceous gland, protect the baby’s skim
while it is floating in its water filled sac inside
the mother.
The newborn’s skin is very thin and

blood vessels are easily seen through it.
Commonly, there are accumulations in the
sebaceous glands, which appear as small white
spots called milia on the baby’s nose and
forehead. These normally disappear by the 3rd
week after birth. As the baby grows, its skin
becomes thicker and more subcutaneous fat is
deposited.
During adolescence, the skin and hair

become oilier as sebaceous glands are
activated and acne may appear. Acne usually
subsides in early adulthood and the skin
reaches its optimal appearance when we are in
our twenties and thirties. Then visible changes
in the skin begin to appear, as it is continually
assaulted by abrasion, chemicals, win d and
sun and other irritants and as it pores become
clogged with air pollutants and bacteria. As a
result, pimples, scales and various kinds of
dermatitis or skin inflammation occur.
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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Male reproductive organs, working in THE TESTES

unison with other body systems (e.g. the
neuroendocrine system), make the  In utero the testes are developed in the
hormones that are essential in biological abdominal cavity of the foetus. They then
development and sexual behavior, traverse the inguinal canal, entering the
performance and actions. scrotal sac.
 In the male these organs also include and  The Testes are suspended in the scrotal
are central to the function of the urinary sac, hanging one on either side of the
system. penis, and it is usual for one to hang lower
than the other – this is a normal.
 There are a number of functions that are
associated with the male reproductive  Normal body temperature, and for this
system: reason the testes in the scrotal sac are
external to the body.
o transport the sperm (the male
reproductive cells) and the fluid  key functions of the testes are to:
semen; o produce sperm (spermatozoa);
o to eject sperm from the penis o produce the male sex hormones
(e.g. testosterone).
o to manufacture and secrete the male
sex hormones.  The testes are small oval‐shaped organs
 The major structures of the male measuring approximately 5 cm long
reproductive system include: and
o the testes, 2.5 cm wide with a layer of serous
o the external genitalia, fibrous connective tissue surrounding
incorporating the penis, scrotum, them.
reproductive tract and a number of  There are three layers that cover
ducts responsible for the the testes:
transportation of the sperm from the 1. tunica vaginalis
testes to the penis and outside the 2. tunica albuginea
body; 3. tunica vasculosa.
 There are also two seminal
vesicles, bulbourethral glands and the
prostate gland.
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 Highlights the fact that spermatogenesis (the
The testes are divided into approximately 250– life of a single sperm) begins with the
300 compartments or lobules. Inside each spermatogonia that contains the diploid (2n)
compartment is a collection of tightly coiled number of chromosomes. The spermatogonia
hollow tubes known as the seminiferous divide continually as a result of mitotic
tubules. There are usually between one and division to produce cells that are called
four seminiferous tubules, and it is in these primary spermatocytes with 46 chromosomes.
tubules where sperm is produced in the form of Some spermatogonia stay close to the
sperm stem cells. There are spaces located basement membrane of the seminiferous
between the tubules, and in these spaces is a tubule, acting as a pool of cells poised to take
cluster of cells called the Leydig cells that part in future sperm production. Division
synthesise and secrete the hormone occurs again as a result of some
testosterone, as well as other androgens. The spermatogonia breaking away from the
seminiferous tubules have an outer and inner basement membrane developing,
layer. The outer layer is composed of a smooth differentiating and changing. Primary
layer of muscle cells and an inner epithelial spermatocytes are produced with 46
layer of cells called the Sertoli cells. Sperm chromosomes. Meiosis then occurs, with the
cells, in their various stages of development, emergence of secondary spermatocytes that
are stored in the spaces between the Sertoli now have 23 chromosomes each.
cells. Mature sperm are found in the lumen of  Spermatids are produced with the next stage of
the seminiferous tubules. The key function of cell division. These then become spermatozoa
the Sertoli cells is to nurture and control the or sperm cells; this stage is the final stage of
developing sperm; these cells are sometimes spermatogenesis. The formed sperm
referred to as the nurse or mother cells and are cells have 23 chromosomes each, which
sperm helper cells. The Sertoli cells have is half the number required to begin human
several functions, including phagocytosis, development. The remaining 23 chromosomes
secretion of fluid that allows the sperm to that are required are provided by the egg (ova)
develop and be transported, and providing a of a woman. When the sperm and ovum unite,
means whereby the developing sperm can be the result of conception (conceptus) will have
nourished the required 46 chromosomes.
 The sperm are released from the Sertoli cells,
SPERMATOGENESIS entering the lumen of the seminiferous
tubules. The sperm are pushed along the
 Sperm production occurs in the seminiferous various ducts located within the testes.
tubules of the testes and is called
spermatogenesis. SPERM
 Spermatogenesis usually commences  There are approximately 300 million sperm
around puberty and continues for the rest of that mature each day (Tortora and Derrickson,
a man’s life. It is usual for a young healthy 2012).\
man to be capable of producing many  The head of the sperm cell contains a fluid that
hundred million sperm daily. is composed of enzymes, assisting the sperm
Spermatogenesis is a complex activity; it has with its job of penetration, which then results
been estimated that it can take approximately in fertilization.
65–75 days to occur.
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 Once the sperm is ejaculated it is
unusual for it to survive longer than 48
h within the female reproductive tract.
 Once the sperm are formed, they travel up into THE SCROTUM
the epididymis via a system of very small ducts
that are known as the rete testes.
 The scrotal sac is likened to a loose bag
 These small ducts are C‐shaped
of skin hanging between the thighs,
structures that unite from the back to
anterior to the anus; this is a supporting
the epididymis, which is positioned
structure that is suspended from the
on the upper aspect of the testes. The
root of the penis.
crescent shaped coiled epididymis is
 On the outside the scrotum usually
akin to a holding place that matures
appears as a single sac of skin that is
the sperm, taking on nutrients and
separated into two portions by a ridge
growing for a number of weeks
in the middle known as the raphe.
before travelling further.
 From the inside the scrotum is divided
 As the sperm mature further, they
into two sacs separated by a scrotal
develop the ability to move
septum with a testicle in each. The
spontaneously and actively (motility).
scrotum assists with control of the
The sperm’s final stage is arrival at
temperature of the testes.
the vas deferens. The vas deferens
emerges at the epididymis and twists  The most favorable temperature for sperm
up beyond the symphysis pubis and production is approximately 2–3°C below core
the urinary bladder. body temperature; however, too low a
 There are two vas deferens arising temperature can also impact on
from each testicle; they join at the spermatogenesis. Several mechanisms come
back of the bladder. into play when adjusting the position of the
 Each vas deferens merges with one testes in the scrotum in relation to the body.
seminal vesicle; this seminal vesicle When the temperature of the testes is too low
contains the fluids necessary at the (if the ambient temperature falls), the scrotum
time of ejaculation. The fluids from reacts in such a way that it contracts, bringing
the vas deferens and seminal vesicles the testes up closer to the body. Conversely, if
are released into the ejaculatory ducts the testicular temperature is too high, then the
that are located within the prostate scrotum relaxes, enabling the testes to
gland. descend, moving them further away from the
 The prostate gland also secretes fluids body, exposing surface area and providing a
that are found in the ejaculate. The faster dispersion of heat.
fluid secreted is a milky alkaline fluid
providing a friendly environment for
sperm to survive, preparing them for
survival in the acidity of the vagina.
 The ejaculatory ducts connect to the
urethra, where the sperm will be
ejaculated during orgasm as a result
of sexual intercourse or masturbation.
THE CREMASTERIC REFLEX
 The cremasteric reflex is a phenomenon that

11 | P a g e
occurs when the body needs to lower or smells or visions of a sexual encounter. When ejaculation
raise the position of the testes. The has occurred the arterioles vasoconstrict and the penis
cremaster muscle is part of the spermatic becomes flaccid.
cord, and when this muscle contracts, the
spermatic cord becomes shorter and the
testes are moved upwards towards the body.
The result is that this provides slightly more
heat to ensure the most favorable testicular
temperature. When cooling is needed, the
cremaster muscle then loosens up and the
testes are subsequently moved away from
the heat of the body and then cool down. It
is the contraction of the dartos muscle
(situated in the subcutaneous layer of the
scrotum) that causes the scrotum to appear
wrinkled when it is tightened up.
THE PENIS
 The penis is the male copulatory organ. The
penis encloses the urethra and is a highly
vascular organ. This organ is the EPIDIDYMIS
passageway for excretion of urine as well as
the ejaculation of semen. ◾ The epididymis (plural epididymides) is
 The penis has a shaft and a tip known as the an approximately 4 cm long comma‐
glans, and in the uncircumcised male this is shaped duct. It lies on the posterior
covered by the prepuce (also called the lateral aspect of the testes.
foreskin). The penis is cylindrical in shape,
composed of three cylindrical masses of ◾ The organ is composed of a highly
tissues. coiled duct. This duct leads to a larger
 The three columns of erectile tissue in the and more muscular tube called the vas
penis are the shaft, the corpora cavernosa deferens; the vas deferens enters the
and the corpus spongiosum. pelvic cavity. Within the epididymis the
sperm are matured further, being
The attached portion of the penis is known as prepared to become more motile so that
the root, and the freer moving part is called the shaft they can eventually fertilise the ovum. It
or the body. The penis is usually flaccid and hangs takes approximately 14 days of full
down, but during sexual excitation it maturation for this to occur (Jenkins and
becomes erect (an erection), swollen, engorged with Tortora, 2012).
blood, firmer and straighter. These changes occur as a
result of blood filling the erectile tissue, permitting
the penis to penetrate the vagina and deposit sperm
(ejaculation) as close to the site of fertilisation as
possible. Usually, when the penile compartments
become filled
with blood in response to a reaction or an impulse

 Sperm is stored in the epididymis and is
that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system
arteriolar vasodilatation erection takes place. The erection released via peristaltic activity as the smooth
reflex can be incited by sight, touch, pressure, sounds, muscle contracts during sexual arousal,
11 | P a g e
moving the sperm along the epididymis into urethra via a number of ducts during
the vas deferens. Sperm stored in the ejaculation.
epididymis can remain there for several
months; those sperm that are not ejaculated THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
are eventually reabsorbed. The vas deferens,
ejaculatory duct and spermatic cord THE PRIMARY GENITALIA
◾ The vas deferens (plural vasa deferentia), or  As with the male reproductive organs, the
the ductus deferens, as it enters the pelvic female reproductive organs, along with the
cavity is less convoluted than the neuroendocrine system, manufacture
epididymis; the diameter is also larger, and hormones that essential in biological
the length of the vas deferens is development and sexual activities. The
approximately 45 cm (Tortora and primary genitalia in the female are the
Derrickson, 2012). This tube contains ovaries, the secondary genitalia are the
ciliated epithelium with a thick muscle layer. fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina; the
The vas deferens runs from the anterior vulva is the external genitalia. There are
aspect of the scrotal sac as a pair of tubes via aspects of the female reproductive organs
the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity. that are enclosed and integral to the
Between the scrotal sac and the inguinal function of the urinary system.
canal is a tube that the vas deferens runs
through; this tube contains the blood vessels  LeMone and Burke (2011) point out
and nerves and is called the spermatic cord that the female reproductive system
(Colbert et al., 2012). The vas deferens then consists of the external genitalia:
joins the seminal vesicle to become the o mons pubis
ejaculatory duct. This duct then passes into o labia c
the prostate gland, discharging its fluid into o clitoris
the urethra. o vaginal and urethral openings
o glands.
THE PROSTATE GLAND
⦿ The internal organs are:
◾ The prostate is a single doughnut‐ shaped o vagina
gland approximately the size of a walnut, o cervix
measuring about 4 cm. It goes around the o uterus
urethra under the urinary bladder and is o fallopian tubes
made of 20–30 glands enclosed in smooth o ovaries
muscle (Marieb, 2012).
◾ The prostate consists of three distinct zones:
o the central zone
o the peripheral zone
o the transition zone.
◾ Secretions of the prostate gland compose

approximately one‐third of the volume of the
semen; the fluid helps sperm motility and to ◾ The breasts are also a part of the female
maintain viability. Prostatic fluid is slightly reproductive organs. The female
acidic (pH 6.5). Prostatic secretions enter the reproductive system is designed to
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produce ova, receive the penis during woman they are flat, almond‐ shaped
intercourse and the sperm that has structures located one on each side of the
been ejaculated, store, contain and uterus beneath the ends of the fallopian
nourish a fetus, and feed the newborn tubes. These glands in the female are
after birth with breast milk. Usually, compared to the testes in the male; the
each month, a woman’s body (during ovaries are internal organs.
puberty to menopause) prepares itself  A collection of ligaments holds them in
to become pregnant. If pregnancy does position, attaching the ovaries to the uterus.
not happen then a menstrual period They are also attached to the broad
occurs and the cycle recommences. ligament, and this ligament attaches them
to the pelvic wall.
 The ovaries provide a space of storage for
the female germ cells; they also produce
the female hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
 A woman’s total number of ova is present
at her birth; when a girl reaches puberty
she usually ovulates each month.
 The ovary contains a number of small structures
called ovarian follicles. Each follicle contains
an immature ovum, called an oocyte.
 O Monthly, follicles are stimulated by two
hormones, the follicle‐stimulating hormone
(FSH) and LH, which stimulate the follicles to
mature. The developing follicles are enclosed in
layers of follicle cells; the mature follicles are
called the Graafian follicles.
The ovarian cortex
 This region lies deep and close to the tunica

albuginea. The cortex contains the ovarian
follicles surrounded by dense irregular
connective tissue. These follicles contain
oocytes in various stages of development, as
well as a number of cells that feed the
developing oocyte; as the follicle grows larger
it secretes oestrogen.
Graafian follicles
THE OVARIES
 The Graafian follicles manufacture oestrogen;
 The ovaries are paired glands; in the adult this stimulates the growth of endometrium.
11 | P a g e
Every month in the woman who is this is not the case with oogonia. All
menstruating, one or two of the mature ova are ultimately derived from these
follicles (the Graafian follicles) release an clones. These oogonia develop into
oocyte; this is called ovulation. The remnants larger primary oocytes; the meiotic
of a large ruptured follicle become a new phase is not completed until the girl
structure called the corpus luteum. reaches puberty (see Figure 12.10).
Every month after puberty until
Corpus luteum menopause the two hormones FSH and
LH are released by the anterior aspect
 The corpus luteum produces two of the pituitary gland and stimulate the
hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, primordial follicles. Usually only one
with the aim of supporting the will reach the maturity required for
endometrium until conception takes ovulation.
place or the cycle starts again. The
corpus luteum gradually disintegrates THE ROLE OF THE FEMALE
and a scar is left on the outside of the SEX HORMONES
ovary that is called the corpus albicans.
The outer aspect of the ovary is  Oestrogens, progesterone and
enveloped in a fibrous capsule that is androgens are produced by the ovaries in
known as the tunica albuginea; this is a repetitive pattern. Although oestrogens
composed of cuboidal epithelium. The are secreted all the way through the
inner aspect of the ovary is divided into menstrual cycle, they are at a higher
parts. level during this particular ovulation
stage of the cycle.
The ovarian medulla
 Oestrogens are essential for the
development and maintenance of
 The ovarian medulla contains blood
secondary sex characteristics; and,
vessels, nerves and lymphatic tissues
working in combination with a number
surrounded by loose connective tissue.
of other hormones, they stimulate the
There is an unclear border between the
female reproductive organ to prepare for
ovarian cortex and medulla.
growth of a foetus (LeMone and Burke,
2011)
Oogenesis
 Oestrogens have a key role to play in the
 The term oogenesis relates to the usual structure of the skin and blood
development of relatively vessels. They also help to reduce the rate
undifferentiated germ cells called of bone resorption (bone breakdown),
oogonia (singular oogonium). Oogonia enhance increased high-density
are fixed in number lipoprotein, decreased cholesterol levels
and increase blood clotting.
– between 2‐ to 4‐million diploid (2n)

stem cells (Stanfield, 2011) before THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
birth, during foetal development;
whereas spermatogonia are  The endometrium of the uterus responds to
continuously regenerated at puberty, changes in oestrogen and
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progesterone during the ovarian cycle when it
prepares for the implantation of the fertilised
embryo. The endometrium is receptive to
implantation of the embryo for only a brief
period every month, coinciding with the time
when the embryo would normally reach the
uterus from the uterine tube (usually 7 days).
 The menstrual cycle begins with the
menstrual phase and lasts from days 1 to
5. The inner endometrial layer (also called
the functionalis) separates, and this is then
released as menstrual fluid lasting for 3–5
days. As the growing follicle begins to
produce the hormone oestrogen (days 6 to
14), the next stage, the proliferative phase,
then commences. THE INTERNAL ORGANS
 As a result of this, the functionalis layer
repairs and thickens while at the same time O The internal organs of the female
spiral arteries multiply and tubular glands will reproductive system are the vagina and
form (LeMone and Burke, 2011). cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries.
 Cervical mucus alters, becoming a thin, The ovaries (discussed earlier) are the
crystalline substance, forming channels primary reproductive organs in women, as
enabling the sperm to travel up into the uterus. well as producing female sex hormones.
 The final phase, lasting from days 14 to 28, is The vagina, uterus and fallopian tubes act
the secretory phase. As the corpus luteum as an accessory channel for the ovaries and
produces progesterone, the rising levels act on the growing fetus.
the endometrium, resulting in an increased
vascularity, changing the inner layer to
secretory mucosa, stimulating the secretion of
glycogen into the uterine cavity, causing the
cervical mucus again to become thick,
blocking the internal os (an os is a mouth or
mouth‐like opening). If fertilisation does not
occur, hormone levels will fall. Spasm of the
spiral arteries causes hypoxia (lack of oxygen)
of the endometrial cells, which begin to
degenerate and then slough off. As with the
ovarian cycle, the process begins again with
the sloughing of the functionalis layer
demonstrates the ovarian and uterine cycles.
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THE UTERUS drape over the ovary.
 The fimbriae pick up the ovum after it is
O This hollow organ is also known as the discharged from the ovary.
womb. It is a very muscular organ  The fallopian tubes are composed of smooth
lying in the pelvic cavity posterior muscle and are lined with ciliated, mucus‐
and superior to the urinary bladder; it producing epithelial cells. The actions of the
lies anterior to the rectum. cilia and contractions of the smooth muscle
O The uterus is approximately 7.5 cm transport the ovum along the tubes onwards to
long. the uterus.
There are three principal parts  It is in the outer portion of the fallopian tube
associated with the uterus: where the fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm
o the fundus, a thick muscular usually occurs. The term adnex is used
region situated above the collectively when discussing the fallopian
fallopian tubes; tubes, ovaries and supporting tissues.
o the body, the main portion of
the uterus, joined to the THE VAGINA
cervix by an isthmus;
o the cervix, the narrowest part O The vagina is a tubular, fibromuscular structure
of the uterus opening out into approximately 8–10 cm in length (Jenkins and
the vagina. Tortora, 2012). It is the receptacle for the
O As well as having three aspects or penis during sexual intercourse, it is an organ
parts, the uterus also has three layers. of sexual response and is the canal that allows
o The perimetrium is the outer serous the menstrual flow to leave the body and the
layer, merging with the peritoneum. passage for the birth of the child.
o The middle layer is the myometrium O The vagina is situated posterior to the urinary
and comprises most of the uterine bladder and urethra; it is anterior to the
wall. There are a number of muscle rectum. The upper element contains the
fibres in this layer running in a uterine cervix in an area that is known as the
number of various directions; this fornix. The vaginal walls are made of
arrangement allows contractions to membranous folds of tissue called the rugae.
occur during menstruation or These membranes are made up of mucus‐
childbirth and an increase in size as secreting stratified squamous epithelial cells.
the foetus grows.
O Usually, the walls of the vagina are
o The endometrium, the outermost
moist and have a pH ranging from 3.8
layer, lines the uterus, and this layer
is shed during menstruation. to 4.2. This pH inhibits the growth of
bacteria (it is bacteriostatic) and is
THE FALLOPIAN TUBES maintained by the action of the
hormone oestrogen and healthy vaginal
microorganisms (the normal vaginal
 The paired fallopian tubes (also called the
flora). Oestrogen causes the growth of
salpinges) are delicate, thin cylindrical
vaginal mucosal cells, making them
structures approximately 8–14 cm long
thicken and develop and increase
(Marieb, 2012).
glycogen content.
The glycogen is fermented to lactic acid by

lactobacilli (organisms that produce
 The lateral ends of the fallopian tubes are open
lactic acid) that usually live in the
and made of projections called fimbriae that
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vagina, causing slight acidifying of anus.
the vaginal fluid (LeMone and Burke,
2011). o The labia minora, situated between
the clitoris and the base of the
THE CERVIX vagina, are enclosed by the labia
majora. They are made of skin,
O Into the vagina projects the cervix, and adipose tissue and some erectile
this forms a pathway between the tissues with a number of sebaceous
uterus and the vagina. The uterine glands. They are usually light pink
opening of the cervix is known as the and are devoid of pubic hair.
internal os, and the vaginal opening
called the external os. The space o The clitoris is composed of two small
between these openings, the erectile bodies, corposa cavernosa
endocervical canal, acts as a conduit and several nerves and blood vessels.
for the discharge of menstrual fluid, The glands clitoris is the exposed
the opening for sperm and delivery of portion of the clitoris and is likened
the infant during birth. The cervix is a to the glans penis in the male. This
rigid structure, protected by mucus aspect of the external genitalia is
that alters consistency and quantity capable of enlargement; it has role to
for the duration of the menstrual cycle play in sexual excitement in the
and during pregnancy. woman.
THE EXTERNAL GENITALIA THE BREASTS
O Collectively, the external genitalia are

O The breasts are dome‐shaped protrusions that
known as the vulva.
differ in size between individuals;
O They include the mons pubis, the labia,
O they are also sometimes called the mammary
the clitoris, the vaginal and urethral
glands. They are external accessory sexual
openings, and glands (LeMone and
organs in the female.
Burke, 2011).
O There are several milk‐producing glands
o The mons pubis is a pad of elevated
located within the breast. A hormone called
adipose tissue covered with skin. It
lies anteriorly to the symphysis prolactin controls the production of milk. The
pubis, cushioning it. After puberty, breasts are located between the third and
the mons is covered with coarse seventh ribs on the anterior aspect chest wall.
pubic hair. The breasts are supported by the pectoral
o The labia are divided into two muscles and are provided with a rich supply of
structures. nerves, blood vessels and.
o The labia majora are folds of skin A pigmented area known as the areola is situated a
and an abundance of adipose tissue little below the centre of each breast and
covered with pubic hair; these are contains glands that secrete sebum – a thick
outermost. They begin at the base of substance composed of fat and cell debris
the mons pubis and terminate at the (sebaceous glands), – and a nipple.
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O The nipple is usually protruding, becoming
erect in response to cold and stimulation.
The breasts are made of adipose (fat) tissue,
fibrous connective tissue and glandular
tissue.
O There are bands of fibrous tissue that support
the breast and extend from the outer breast
tissue to the nipple, dividing the breast into
15 to 25 lobes. The lobes are comprised of
alveolar glands joined by ducts that open out
on to the nipple.
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THE SPECIAL SENSES
o Olfactory epithelium – this layer contains the
olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells and
The senses are usually thought of as the five senses: regenerative basal cells (stem cells) that
 SMELL, mature into receptor cells to replace those that
 TASTE, die.
 HEARING,
 VISION & o Lamina propria – a layer of areolar tissue
 TOUCH. containing numerous blood vessels and
nerves. This layer also contains the olfactory
However, in physiology the sense of touch is glands, which secrete a lipid‐rich substance
excluded from the senses as it is considered a that absorbs water to form a thick mucus that
somatic sense. covers the olfactory epithelium.
Thus the ‘senses’ is a term used to refer to the senses

of: The Olfactory Pathway
o SMELL
o TASTE  The olfactory system is very sensitive, and
o HEARING as little as four molecules can lead to the
o SIGHT. activation of a receptor. However,
activation of a receptor cell does not mean
Also included in this list of senses is the sense of • there will be awareness of the smell. There
equilibrium. is a significant amount of convergence
along the olfactory nervous pathway, and
The Chemical Senses inhibition at intervening synapses can
 With regard to the senses, the chemical senses are prevent the signal from reaching the
the senses of smell and taste, which rely on olfactory cortex in the brain. However, the
chemoreceptors. olfactory threshold remains very low; for
 There are two main types of chemoreceptor: instance, humans can detect very low
o Distance chemoreceptors – for instance, the concentrations of the chemicals added to
olfactory (smell) receptors; the odorless natural gas used in the home,
o Direct chemoreceptors – for instance, the making it ‘smell’ and thus ensuring leaks
sense of taste, which relies on the taste buds. are detected by the home owner.
I. THE SENSE OF SMELL (OLFACTION)  On each side of the nose, axons leaving the
 In evolutionary terms the sense of smell is one of olfactory epithelium receptor cells collect
the oldest senses. into
 The sense of smell is useful to us for the 20 or more bundles that penetrate the
identification of food that is safe to eat and that cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone these
which has gone rotten; it helps us to identify bundles comprise the right and left
dangers such as dangerous chemicals and gives olfactory nerves until they reach the
us pleasure through the smell of flowers and olfactory bulbs in the brain. At the
perfume. olfactory bulbs the axons converge to
 In the nasal cavity either side of the nasal septum connect with postsynaptic (mitral) cells in
there are paired olfactory organs made up of two large synaptic structures called glomeruli.
layers. Efferent fibres of cells elsewhere in the
brain also innervate
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the olfactory bulb, thus allowing for the  UMAMI. The first four tastes are already
potential inhibition of the signaling common knowledge, but the fifth was
pathways, for instance in central relatively unknown in the western hemisphere
adaptation. until recently. Umami is the taste associated
with the proteins found in meat and fish
 Axons exiting from the olfactory bulbs (Osawa, 2012) and has been known as a
travel along the olfactory nerves (cranial concept of taste to the Japanese for many
nerve I, which is a paired nerve) to reach years.
the olfactory cortex, the hypothalamus
and portions of the limbic system via the  The sense of taste is associated with the taste
olfactory tracts. Olfactory stimulation is buds, which are the sensory receptor for taste
the only sensory information that reaches and found primarily in the oral cavity. There
the cerebral cortex directly; all other are approximately 10,000 taste buds in the oral
senses are processed by the thalamus first. cavity; most are found on the tongue, but a few
The fact that the limbic system and are on the soft palate, the inner surface of the
hypothalamus receive olfactory input cheeks and the pharynx and epiglottis.
helps to explain the profound emotional
response that can be triggered by certain  Most of the taste buds are found in peg‐like
smells. projections of the tongue’s mucosa. These
projections are known as papillae (singular is
papilla) and gives the tongue its slightly rough
feel. The papillae are found in four major
forms.
o Fungiform – mushroom‐shaped papillae found

scattered over the tongue surface but most
abundant at the top and sides. They usually
contain 1–18 taste buds, which are located on
the top of these papillae.
o Circumvallate (otherwise known as vallate) –

the largest of the papillae and found in the least
number. Seven to 12 of them are found in an
inverted ‘V’ shape at the back of the tongue.
They contain approximately 250 taste buds,
I. THE SENSE OF TASTE which are located in the side walls of these
papillae.
There are five basic tastes:
 SWEET o Foliate – ‘leaf‐like’ papillae found on the sides
 SOUR of the rear of the tongue, which contain around
 BITTER 100 taste buds.
 SALT
 UMAMI o Filiform – thread‐like structures that contain no
taste buds. They provide friction to aid the
movement of food by the tongue.
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The Gustatory Pathway
Taste buds  The release of neurotransmitters by the

gustatory cells creates an action
⦿ Each taste bud is globular in structure and potential in related afferent nerve fibres.
consists of 40–60 epithelial cells of three major The sensory information from the
types: tongue is transmitted along two cranial
nerve pairs:
o Supporting cells form the greatest part of
the taste bud. They help to insulate the o chorda tympani – a branch of
receptor cells from each. the facial nerve (cranial nerve
other and the epithelium of the VII) relays impulses from the
tongue. anterior two‐thirds of the tongue
o Gustatory (or taste) cells – the o lingual branch of the
chemoreceptor responsible for glossopharyngeal nerve
sensing taste. (cranial nerve IX) – carries the
o Basal cells – stem cells that sensory information of the
mature into new receptor cells to posterior third of the tongue.
replace those that die.
 Sensory information from the taste buds
The Taste Receptor in the epiglottis and pharynx is
transmitted by the vagus nerve (cranial
 The activation of the taste receptor nerve X).
requires the chemical compound  All the afferent fibres terminate in the
(known as a tastant; Jenkins and solitary nucleus of the medulla. The
Tortora, 2013) that is to be tasted to sensory messages are then transmitted,
dissolve in the saliva, then diffuse into ultimately, to the thalamus and the
the taste pore and come into contact gustatory cortex in the parietal lobes.
with the gustatory hairs. Afferent fibres also project into the
 Depending on the type of taste, this hypothalamus and limbic system.
has one of four potential effects (the  Ultimately, many of the branches of afferent
exact mechanism that is involved in nerves that divert to various parts of the brain,
the sensing of umami is unknown): apart from the cortex, are involved in the
triggering of reflexes involved with digestion
o salt – salty taste initiates an (for instance, salivation). The gustatory
influx of sodium into the cell; pathway is unique among the senses because if
o sour – sour taste leads to a the taste buds lose their afferent nerve fibres
hydrogen ion blockade of (for instance, they are cut) the taste bud then
sodium and potassium degenerates.
channels in the cell membrane;  As we get older we lose the sense of taste as
o bitter – bitter taste leads to an there is a reduction in the number of taste
influx of calcium ions into the buds; gustatory cells die and are not replaced
cell; at the same rate as they die, and those cells that
o sweet – sweet taste leads to an remain become less sensitive.
inactivation of potassium
channels.
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o External Auditory Canal
 At the end closest to the auricle the
external auditory ear canal is made of
elastic cartilage; the rest of the canal is a
channel through the temporal bone and
thus needs no supporting cartilage. The
entire canal is lined with skin with
associated hairs, sebaceous (oil) glands
and modified sweat glands called
ceruminous glands. The ceruminous
glands secrete a yellow–brown waxy
cerumen (ear wax). The purpose of the
oils and the wax is to lubricate the ear
canal, kill bacteria and, in conjunction
with the hairs, keep the canal free of
debris.
o Tympanic Membrane
II. THE SENSES OF EQUILIBRIUM AND  Sound waves entering the external
HEARING auditory canal travel along until they
reach the tympanic membrane (ear
 The ear is divided into three sections: drum), a thin translucent connective
o External, tissue membrane covered by skin on its
o Middle And external surface and internally by
o Inner mucosa, and shaped like a flattened cone
 Each of these three sections is integral in the protruding into the middle ear. Sound
process of hearing, and the inner ear is also waves that reach the tympanic
essential in the maintenance of the sense of membrane make it vibrate, and this
balance. vibration is transmitted to the bones of
the middle ear.
THE OUTER EAR
MIDDLE EAR
o Auricle (pinna):  Otherwise known as the tympanic cavity:
 The auricle is the shell‐shaped projection this is a small, air‐filled cavity lined with
surrounding the external auditory canal. It is mucosa and contained within the temporal
made of elastic cartilage covered with skin. bone. It is enclosed at both ends, by the ear
The auricle can be further broken down into drum at the lateral end and medially by a
the rim, known as the helix, and the earlobe, bony wall with two openings:
which lacks supporting cartilage and so is o Oval (vestibular) window
soft. o Round (cochlear) window.
 The function of the auricle is to direct  The middle ear is connected to the
sound waves into the external auditory nasopharynx by the Eustachian (auditory)
canal. The external auditory canal tube, a 4 cm long tube that consists of two
(meatus) is a short, S‐shaped, narrow portions: The section near the connection to
passage about 2.5 cm long and 0.6 cm the middle ear, which is relatively narrow
wide, which extends from the auricle and is supported by elastic cartilage
to the tympanic membrane.
The middle ear is connected to the

nasopharynx by the Eustachian (auditory) tube,
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a 4 cm long tube that consists of two stapes;
portions: o the stapes (stirrup) – the edges of the base of
the stakes are bound to the edge of the oval
window.
o the section near the connection to the
middle ear, which is relatively narrow
and is supported by elastic cartilage;  The joints between these three bones are the
o the section near the nasopharynx, smallest synovial joints in the body, and
which is relatively broad and funnel- each has its own tiny capsule and
shaped. supporting extracapsular ligaments.
 Vibration in the tympanic membrane is the

first stage in the perception of sound; this
vibration converts the sound waves into
mechanical movement (the vibration).
 The ossicles act as levers and conduct the

vibrations to the inner ear.
 They are connected in such a way that the

in– out movement of tympanic vibration is
converted into a rocking motion of the
stapes. The ossicles collect the force
applied to the tympanic membrane, amplify
it and transmit it to the oval window. This
 When open the Eustachian tube allows the amplification explains why humans can
passage of air, and thus ensures the equalization hear even very quiet noises, but can also be
of the pressures on both sides of the tympanic a problem in very noisy environments.
membrane so both are subject to the same
atmospheric pressure.  In order to protect the tympanic membrane
and the ossicles chain from violent
 The Eustachian tube is normally closed at the end movement resulting from extreme noises,
nearest the nasopharynx but opens happen, then they are supported by two small muscles:
the difference in pressures between the two sides o The tensor tympani muscle is
can lead to reduced hearing as the tympanic a short ribbon of muscle
membrane cannot move freely. connected to the ‘handle’ of the
malleus. When it contracts, the
 Within the middle ear there are three bones malleus is pulled medially
known as the ossicles or ossicles chain. These (towards the inner ear),
three bones connect the tympanic membrane stiffening the tympanic
with the receptor complexes of the inner ear: membrane.
o The stapedius muscle is attached to the stapes

and pulls it, reducing the movement against the
oval window.
o the malleus (hammer) attaches at three
points to the inner surface of the tympanic
membrane; INNER EAR
o the incus (anvil) attaches the malleus to the
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 The senses of equilibrium (part of the sense of
balance) and hearing are provided by the
receptors in the inner ear.
 The inner ear is also known as the labyrinth
owing to the complicated series of canals it
contains.
 The inner ear is composed of two main, fluid‐
filled parts:
Equilibrium
o bony labyrinth – a series of cavities
within the temporal bone that contain the  The sense of equilibrium is part of the
main organs of balance (the semicircular sense of balance and is controlled by
canals and the vestibule) and the main receptors in the semicircular ducts, the
organ of hearing (the cochlea); utricle and the saccule of the inner ear.
o membranous labyrinth – a series of
fluid‐filled sacs and tubes that are  The sensory receptors in the
contained within the bony labyrinth. semicircular ducts are active during
movement but inactive when the body
 Between the bony and membranous labyrinth is motionless.
flows perilymph, a liquid that is rather like
cerebrospinal fluid; the fluid within the  The sensory receptors in the ducts
membranous labyrinth is known as endolymph. respond to rotational movements of the
As noted above, the bony labyrinth can be head. There are three of these ducts:
divided into three parts: lateral, posterior and anterior.
o The vestibule consists of a pair of  The ducts are continuous with the utricle.
membranous sacs: the saccule and the
utricle. Receptors in these two sacs  Each semicircular duct contains an
provide the sensations of gravity and ampulla, an expanded region that
linear acceleration. contains the majority of the receptors.
o The semicircular canals enclose slender
semicircular ducts. Receptors in these  The area in the wall of the ampulla that
ducts are stimulated by the rotation of the contains the receptors is known as the
head. The combination of the vestibule crista, and each crista is bound to a
and the semicircular canals is known as cupula – a gelatinous structure that
the vestibular complex. extends the full width of the ampulla.
o The cochlea is a spiral‐shaped, bony
chamber that contains the cochlear duct
of the membranous labyrinth. Receptors
within this duct give us the sense of
hearing.
o
 The hair cells (receptors) are

surrounded by supporting cells and are
monitored by the dendrites of sensory
neurones. The free surfaces of the hair
cells are covered with stereocilia, which
resemble very long microvilli. Along
with the fine stereocilia, the hair cell
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will also have one kinocilium – a side or the other.
single, large and thick cilium. When
an external force pushes against the  This distorts the cell membrane and triggers
cilia the distortion of the plasma altered neurotransmitter release. A similar type
membrane of the hair cell alters the of activity happens when the body is subject to
rate that the cell releases chemical linear acceleration; for example, as a car
transmitters. So, for instance, if a speeds up, the otolith lags behind due to
person moves their head to look to the inertia. The brain would normally differentiate
left the cilia of the lateral semicircular between the action of gravity and the action of
canal are subject to pressure and thus acceleration by integrating the information
the cell membranes are distorted, from the receptors with visual information.
leading to an altered release of
neurotransmitters and the perception
of rotational movement. Pathways for The Equilibrium Sensations
 Any movement Semicircular of the  The hair cells in the semicircular canals, the
head can be perceived by varying vestibule and the saccule are monitored by
combinations of stimulation of the sensory neurons located in the vestibular
three ducts and their receptors. In ganglia. Sensory fibres from these ganglia
contrast to the semicircular canals, the form the vestibular branch of the
utricle and the saccule provide vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII).
equilibrium information whether the
body is moving or stationary.  These fibres feed into neurones within the
vestibular nuclei at the boundary of the pons
 The two chambers are connected by a and the medulla oblongata in the brain.
narrow passageway that is also
connected to the endolymphatic duct.  The vestibular nuclei have four functions:
The hair cells of the utricle and • Integrating sensory information about
saccule are clustered in oval structures equilibrium received from both sides of
called maculae. As with the hair cells the head.
of the ampullae, the cilia of the hair • Relaying information to the cerebellum.
cells in the utricle and saccule are • Relaying information to the cortex.
embedded in a gelatine‐like substance.
However, the surface of this
substance contains densely packed
calcium carbonate crystals called
statoconia.
• Sending commands to motor nuclei in the

brainstem and the spinal cord. The motor
 This combination of gelatine‐like substance commands are reflex‐type commands for
and calcium carbonate crystals is known as eye, head and neck movements, such as
an otolith. When the head is in a neutral the movement of the eyes that occurs in
position the statoconia sit on top of the response to sensations of motion.
macula. The pressure they generate is
therefore downwards and the hair cell HEARING
microvilli are pushed down. When the head
is tilted, the pull of gravity on the statoconia  The sense of hearing is provided by receptors in the
shifts and the microvilli are moved to one cochlear duct; they are hair cells similar to those
11 | P a g e
of the semicircular canals and vestibule. perilymph of the vestibular duct.
However, their positioning within the cochlear
duct and the organization of the surrounding 4. The pressure waves distort the basilar
structures protect them from stimuli generated membrane. The location of the maximum
by anything other than sound waves. distortion depends on the frequency of the
sound, as the basilar membrane varies in
 The ossicles chains transmit and amplify width and flexibility along its length.
pressure waves from the air into pressure waves Higher pitch sounds create maximum
in the perilymph of the cochlea. distortion near to the oval window and
lower pitch sounds further away from the
 These waves stimulate the hair cells along window. The amount of distortion gives
the cochlear spiral: sensory information as to the volume of the
o the frequency of the perceived sound is sound.
detected by the part of the cochlear
duct that is stimulated; 5. Vibration in the basilar membrane leads to
o the intensity (volume) of the sound is vibration of the hair cell cilia against the
detected by the number of hair cells tectorial membrane, leading to the release
that are stimulated at the particular of neurotransmitters by the hair cells. As
point in the cochlea. hair cells are arranged in rows, a soft sound
o Within the bony labyrinth of the may only distort a few hair cells in a single
cochlea there are three ducts): row, but more cells in more rows will be
 the vestibular duct (scala stimulated as the volume increases.
vestibuli) connects to the oval
window; 6. Information about the region of stimulation and
 the tympanic duct (scala tympani) the intensity of that stimulation is relayed to the
brain via the cochlear branch of the
connects to the round window
vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII).
 the cochlear duct (scala media) is The cell bodies of the neurons that monitor the
separated from the tympanic duct hair cells of the cochlea are located in the spiral
by the basilar membrane. Both the ganglia at the center of the bony cochlea. The
vestibular and the tympanic duct nerve impulses are then transmitted via the
are connected at the tip of the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII to the
cochlear spiral and therefore make cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata and
up one continuous perilymphatic then to other centers in the brain.
chamber.
III. THE SENSE OF SIGHT

THE HEARING PROCESS
Structure:
1. Sound waves travel down the external
auditory canal and arrive at the tympanic  Eyelids (palpebrae) – a continuation of the
membrane. skin. Continual blinking keeps the surface of
the eye lubricated and removes dirt. The gap
2. Movement is created in the tympanic between them is known as the palpebral
membrane, which leads to the movement fissure.
of the ossicles and the amplification of
the movement.  Eyelashes – robust hairs that help to keep
foreign matter out of the eyes. They are
3. Movement of the stapes at the oval associated with the tarsal glands. which
window creates pressure waves in the produce a lipid‐rich secretion that helps to
11 | P a g e
prevent the eyelids from sticking together.
THE EYE
 Lacrimal caruncle – a small collection of
soft tissue that contains accessory glands. The wall of the eye has three layers:
o fibrous tunic
 Commissure – the point where the eyelids o vascular tunic
meet; there are two: the lateral and the o neural tunic.
medial. • Conjunctiva – the epithelial cell
layer that lines the inside of the eyelids and Fibrous Tunic
the outer surface of the eye. ⦿ The fibrous tunic is the outermost layer
of the eye and consists of the sclera and
Lacrimal apparatus A constant flow of tears washes the cornea; it has three main functions:
over the eyes to keep the conjunctiva moist and o provides support and
clean. Tears have several functions: some protection;
o is the attachment site for the
o Reduce Friction extrinsic muscles;
o Remove Debris o contains structures that assist
o Prevent Bacterial Infection in the focusing process.
o Provide Nutrients and Oxygen to Parts of The o Most of the ocular surface is covered by
Conjunctiva. the sclera (the ‘white’ of the eye), which
is made up of dense fibrous connective
The lacrimal apparatus produces, distributes and tissue containing collagen and elastic
removes tears. It consists of: fibres. The surface of the sclera contains
small blood vessels and nerves.
o A Lacrimal Gland
o Lacrimal Canaliculi ⦿ The transparent cornea is continuous with the
o A Lacrimal Sac sclera and is made up of a dense matrix of fibres
o A Nasolacrimal Duct. laid down in such a way that they do not
interfere with the passage of light.
Vascular Tunic (Uvea)
The lacrimal gland (tear gland) creates most of the ⦿ The vascular tunic is the middle of the
content of tears (about 1 mL per day). Once the three layers of the eye and contains
lacrimal secretions reach the eye they mix with the numerous blood vessels, lymph vessels
products of the accessory glands and the tarsal and the smooth muscles involved in eye
glands. This results in a mixture that lubricates the functioning. The functions of this layer
eye and reduces evaporation. The nutrient and include:
oxygen demands of the corneal cells are supplied by
diffusion from the lacrimal secretions. The o Providing a structure for the
secretions also contain antibacterial enzymes and blood and lymph vessels that
antibodies to attack pathogens before they enter the supply the tissues of the eye;
body. Blinking sweeps the tears across the ocular o Regulating the amount of light
surface and they accumulate at the medial that enters the eye;
commissure from where they are drained by the o Secreting and reabsorbing the
lacrimal canaliculi into the lacrimal sac and from aqueous humor;
there into the nasal cavity through the nasolacrimal o Controlling the shape of the lens
duct.
11 | P a g e
 The vascular tunic is made up of: prevents light bouncing back through the neural
o the iris part and causing ‘visual echoes’.
o the ciliary body o The neural part of the retina contains light
o the choroid. receptors, support cells and is responsible for
the preliminary processing and integration of
⦿ The iris is the central, colored portion visual information.
of the eye and regulates the amount of
light entering the eye by adjusting the  Organization of the retina shows the two types of
size of the central opening (the pupil). receptor cells contained within the outermost layer
It is formed of two layers of of the retina (closest to the pigmented part). These
pigmented cells and fibres and two receptor cells are the cells that detect light
layers of smooth muscle (the pupillary (photoreceptors).
muscles):
o Rods – these photoreceptors do not
o Pupillary constrictor muscles discriminate between colors. They are very
o Pupillary dilator muscles. sensitive and enable us to see in very low light
levels. Rods are mostly concentrated in a band
o Both sets of muscles are controlled by the around the periphery of the retina, and this
autonomic nervous system; activation density reduces towards the center of the eye.
of the parasympathetic
nervous system leads to constriction of the o Cones – these photoreceptors provide color
pupil in response to bright light. Activation of vision and give sharper, clearer images than the
the sympathetic nervous system leads to rods do, but they require more intense light.
the dilation of the pupil in response to dim Cones are mostly situated in the macula lutea
light levels. At its edge the iris attaches to the and particularly at its center in an area called
anterior part of the ciliary body. the fovea.
 There are three types of cones (red, blue

and green), and color discrimination is
CILIARY BODY based on the integration of information
received.
⦿ The greatest part of the ciliary body is made up of from the three types of cones.
the ciliary muscle, a smooth muscular ring that For instance, yellow is shown by
projects into the interior of the eye. Choroid highly stimulated green cones,
⦿ The choroid is a vascular layer that separates the less strongly stimulated red cones
fibrous and neural tunics. It is covered by the and a relative lack of stimulation
sclera and attached to the outermost layer of the of the blue cones.
retina. The choroid contains an extensive
capillary network that delivers oxygen and The Chambers of the Eye
nutrients to the retina.
⦿ The eye is divided into two main cavities:
Neural tunic (retina) o A Large Posterior Cavity
o A Smaller Anterior Cavity. The
⦿ This is the innermost layer of the eye, consisting Anterior Cavity Is Further
of a thin outer layer called the pigmented part Divided into:
and a thicker inner layer called the neural part.  The Anterior Chamber and
o The pigmented part of the retina absorbs the  The Posterior Chamber
light that passes through the neural part; this
11 | P a g e
 The anterior cavity is filled with a subject to refraction, and the lens
substance called aqueous hum our that provides the additional, adjustable
circulates between the anterior and refraction required to focus the image
posterior chambers by passing through onto the retina.
the pupil and performing a vital role as
a transport medium for nutrients and Refraction
waste products. The fluid pressure
created by the aqueous humor in the  Light is refracted (bent) when it passes from one
anterior cavity helps to maintain the medium to another medium with a different
shape of the eye. Aqueous hum our is density. The majority of the refraction in the eye
produced by the epithelial cells of the happens when light enters the cornea from the
ciliary body and within a few hours is air; additional refraction occurs when light
drained through the canal of Schlemm passes from the aqueous humour into the lens.
to the sclera to be recycled. The lens provides the extra refraction to focus
the light onto the retina and can adjust this
 The posterior cavity is the larger of the refraction according to the focal length.
two cavities of the eye and is filled
with a gelatinous mass known as  Focal length is the distance between the focal
vitreous humor. point (e.g. on the retina) and the center of the
lens It is dependent on:
o The distance from the object to the lens.

 The vitreous humor helps to stabilize The further away an object is, the shorter
the shape of the eye as the activity of the focal length.
the extraocular muscles would o The shape of the lens. The rounder the
otherwise distort the shape of the eye. lens, the more refraction occurs. A very
Unlike aqueous humor, the vitreous round lens has a shorter focal length than
humor is created during the a flatter lens.
development of the eye and is never
replaced. A thin film of aqueous humor  The lens lies behind the cornea and is held in place
by ligaments that are attached to the ciliary body. It
infiltrates the posterior chamber,
is made up of concentric layers of cells that are
bathing the retina, supplying nutrients precisely organized and are covered by a fibrous
and removing waste. The pressure it capsule.
creates also helps to keep the neural o Many of the capsules fibers are elastic and if
part of the retina against the pigmented it were not the subject to external forces by
part; though the two are close together the ligaments the lens would be spherical.
they are not fixed to each other, and
thus this external pressure is required.  Within the lens are lens fibers, specialized cells that
have lost their nucleus and other organelles. They
Focusing Images onto The Retina are filled with a protein called crystalline, which is
⦿ In order for a visual image to be responsible for the transparency and the focusing
useful it must be focused onto the power of the lens.
retina; this is the purpose of the lens  The process of changing the shape of the lens to
focus an image onto the retina is known as
of the eye.
accommodation. The shape of the lens is altered by
⦿ First, the light entering the eye is
11 | P a g e
tension being applied to or relaxed on the
suspensory ligaments by smooth muscles within
the ciliary body.
11 | P a g e
11 | P a g e

Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

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Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

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Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

ANATOMY external features of the body. It deals with the

TYPES OF STUDY B. SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY this is the study of the

B. REGIONAL ANATOMY an approach to D. Pathophysiology is the study of the effects of the

C. SURFACE ANATOMY also called superficial

1. ATOMS: tiny building blocks of matter,

2. CELLS: the smallest unit of all living things

3. TISSUE: consist of groups of similar cells that

4. ORGAN: is a structure composed of two or

5. ORGAN SYSTEM: is a group organ that

6. ORGANISM: represents the highest level of

ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS

o Cervical. Neck region o Calcaneal. Heal of the foot

o Coxal. Hip o Cephalic. Head

o Crural. Leg o Femoral. Thigh

o Deltoid. Curved of shoulder formed by o Gluteal. Buttock

o Digital. Fingers, toes o Occipital. Posterior surface of the head

o Femoral. Thigh o Olecranal. Posterior surface of elbow

o Fibular. Lateral part of the leg o Popliteal. Posterior knee area

D. OPEN BODY CAVITIES

▪ Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and

* Intact skin indicators of inflammatory are redness,

* The acidic pH of the skin swelling, heat and pain.

secretions inhibits bacterial ❑ Antimicrobial proteins: Enhances the

growth. Sebum that contains innate defenses either by attacking

chemicals that are toxic to microorganisms directly or by hindering

the bacteria. Vaginal their ability to reproduce.

ADAPTIVE BODY DEFENSES

❑ The resulting family of identical cells

Different classes of T cell clones

▪ Cytotoxic (Killer) T cells

The Muscular System

SKELETAL MUSCLE Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal

Characteristics of Muscles  Endomysium – around a single muscle

 Skeletal & smooth muscle cells are fiber.

elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)  Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of

 Contraction of muscles is due to the fibers.

movement of microfilaments.  Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal

 All muscles share some terminology muscle.

 Sites of muscle attachment SMOOTH MUSCLES

Smooth Muscle Characteristics Cardiac Muscle Characteristics

 No striations  Has striations

 Spindle-shaped cells  Usually has a single nucleus

 Single nucleus  Joined to another muscle cell at an

 Involuntary – no conscious control intercalated disc

 Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs  Involuntary

 Slow, sustained contractions (tireless)  Found only in the heart

 Myofibril  Myosin filaments

 Bundles of myofilaments  Myosin heads

 Myofibrils are aligned to give  Create cross bridges.

distinct bands (striations)

 Composed of the protein  Thin filaments = Actin filaments

myosin  Composed of the protein actin

 Contain ATPase enzymes  Anchored to the Z disc

The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle

 Graded responses – different degrees of  CP is a high-energy molecule

= constant contraction or tetanus.  CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP

Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli seconds.

 Muscle force depends upon the number of

Types of Muscle Contractions Five Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle

 Tension in the muscles increases proximal to the joint crossed

 The muscle is unable to shorten. 3) All muscles have at least 2 attachments 