Workbook. Psychology Друк

1
КОМУНАЛЬНИЙ ЗАКЛАД ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ

«ХОРТИЦЬКА НАЦІОНАЛЬНА НАВЧАЛЬНО-РЕАБІЛІТАЦІЙНА АКАДЕМІЯ»
ЗАПОРІЗЬКОЇ ОБЛАСНОЇ РАДИ
Литвак О.А.
Корнелюк Б.В.
English for Psychologists

Навчальний посібник
Запоріжжя
2021
2
УДК 811.111: 159.9 (075.8)
Л64
Рекомендовано Вченою радою
Хортицької національної академії
(Протокол № 8 від 25.02.2021 р.)
Рецензенти:
Юнацька А.Б., кандидат філологічних наук, доцент, доцент кафедри теорії та практики перекладу з англійської
мови Запорізького національного університету.
Чумакова К.О., кандидат філологічних наук, доцент кафедри соціально-гуманітарних дисциплін Хортицької
національної академії.
Литвак О.А., Корнелюк Б.В.
Л64 English for Psychologists. Навчальний посібник для студентів спеціальності 053 Психологія.
Запоріжжя : Хортицька національна академія, 2021. 178 с.
Навчальний посібник розроблений відповідно до програми навчальної дисципліни «Іноземна мова (за
професійним спрямуванням) та згідно з освітньо-професійною програмою підготовки фахівців першого
(бакалаврського) рівня вищої освіти спеціальності 053 Психологія галузі знань 05 Соціальні та поведінкові
науки.
У посібнику подано адаптовані та автентичні фахові навчальні тексти, наповнені психологічною
термінологією сучасної англійської мови, що використовується у сфері професійного спілкування психологів в
усній і письмовій формах, обов’язковий лексичний мінімум, тренувальні вправи різного рівня складності на
закріплення вивченого матеріалу та завдання для самоконтролю. Посібник призначений для розвитку навичок
розуміння іноземної мови на слух, діалогічного і монологічного мовлення та ділового писемного мовлення.
Наприкінці кожного розділу міститься тлумачний словник психологічних термінів.
Видання рекомендовано для викладачів закладів вищої освіти, студентів спеціальності 053 Психологія
та всіх, хто цікавиться питаннями вивчення іноземної мови у сфері психології.
УДК 811.111: 159.9 (075.8)
© Литвак О. А., Корнелюк Б.В., 2021

© ХННРА, 2021
3
Зміст
Передмова 6
Розділ I. Book 1.
Змістовий модуль 1. The basics of Psychology. The Brain. 7
Topic 1. Psychology: Introducing the topic of Psychology; expressing interest. 7
Topic 2. The Central Nervous System: Learning about the central nervous system, expressing uncertainty. 8
Topic 3. The Peripheral Nervous System: Learning about the peripheral nervous system, correcting 12
oneself.
Topic 4. The Brain 1: Learning about the brain; describing possibility. 14
Topic 5. The Brain 2: Learning more about the brain; correcting a misconception. 15
Topic 6. Chemical Messengers: Learning about chemical messengers; asking for clarification. 19
Змістовий модуль II. Psychological processes.

Topic 7. Perception and Sensation: Learning about perception and sensation; making a prediction. 21
Topic 8. Biological Rhythms: Learning about biological rhythms; asking for an explanation. 23
Topic 9. Consciousness: Learning about consciousness; asking for an opinion. 25
Topic 10. Memory 1: Learning about memory; pointing out an error. 27
Topic 11. Memory 2: Learning more about memory; making a recommendation. 29
Topic 12. Learning: Learning about learning; stating preference. 31
Topic 13. Intelligence: Learning about intelligence; giving a compliment. 32
Topic 14. Language: Learning about language; expressing lack of understanding. 36
Topic 15. Personality: Learning about personality; asking about certainty. 38
Glossary 1 41
Розділ II. Book 2.

Змістовий модуль IІI. Emotions and Stresses.
Topic 1. Emotions 1: Learning about emotions; showing understanding. 50
Topic 2. Emotions 2: Learning more about emotions; expressing surprise. 52
Topic 3. Motivation: Learning about motivation; asking for an example. 55
Topic 4. Stress and coping: Learning about stress and coping; asking for clarification. 57
Змістовий модуль ІV. Different schools of modern Psychology.

Topic 5. Structuralism: Learning about structuralism; correcting a misconception. 60
Topic 6. Functionalism: Learning about functionalism; expressing confusion. 62
Topic 7. Behaviorism: Learning about behaviorism; recalling information. 64
Topic 8. Gestalt Psychology: Learning about Gestalt psychology; expressing lack of understanding. 67
Topic 9. Cognitivism: Learning about cognitivism; asking for an opinion. 70
Змістовий модуль V. Branches of Psychology.

Topic 10. Psychodynamic Psychology: Learning about psychodynamic psychology; drawing on prior 73
knowledge.
Topic 11. Evolutionary Psychology: Learning about Evolutionary Psychology; introducing an example. 76
Topic 12. Behavioral Genetics: Learning about behavioral genetics; agreeing. 79
Topic 13. Humanistic Psychology: Learning about humanistic psychology; expressing interest. 81
Topic 14. Health Psychology: Learning about health psychology and the scientific method; asking for an 84
explanation.
Topic 15. The Scientific Method; expressing hope/desire. 86
Glossary 2 89
4
Розділ III. Book 3.
Змістовий модуль VІ. The Disciplines of Psychology.
Topic 1. Developmental Psychology 1: Introducing the topic of Developmental Psychology; providing 97
reassurance.
Topic 2. Developmental Psychology 2: Learning more about the Developmental Psychology, giving a 100
reminder.
Topic 3. Cultural Psychology: Learning about the Cultural Psychology, politely interrupting. 103
Topic 4. Social Psychology and the Individual: Learning about Social Psychology and the Individual; 105
clarifying information.
Topic 5. Social Psychology and Groups: Learning more about Social Psychology and Groups; introducing an 108
example.
Змістовий модуль VII. Research and Experiments.

Topic 6. Research and Experiments 1: Learning about Research and Experiments; stating a preference. 110
Topic 7. Research and Experiments 2: Learning more about Research and Experiments; asking about 113
experience.
Topic 8. Research and Experiments 3: Learning more about Research and Experiments; asking for an 115
opinion.
Змістовий модуль VIІI. Mental Disorders.

Topic 9. Mental Disorders 1: Learning about Mental Disorders; making a realization. 118
Topic 10. Mental Disorders 2: Learning more about Mental Disorders; asking for an opinion. 120
Topic 11. Mental Disorders 3: Learning more about Mental Disorders; expressing confusion. 123
Topic 12. Mental Disorders 4: Learning more about Mental Disorders; expressing confusion. 125
Змістовий модуль IX. Treatment. Career options.

Topic 13. Treatment: Learning about treatment; asking about necessity. 128
Topic 14. Applications: Learning about Applications; making a recommendation. 131
Topic 15. Career Options: Learning about Career Options; expressing interest. 134
Glossary 3 137
Додаток 148
Література 178
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Передмова
У зв'язку з поглибленням ролі міжнародних зв’язків в освітній галузі істотно зростає роль іноземної
мови у навчальних, виховних, наукових та дослідницьких процесах в освітніх установах різних типів, зокрема
у спеціалізованих вищих навчальних закладах. Швидкий поступ у розвитку сучасних технологій і методичний
прогрес підвищують вимоги до опанування іноземних мов, що, у свою чергу, потребує постійного
вдосконалення мовленнєвих і письмових навичок студентів різних спеціальностей. Поглиблення міжнародних
зв'язків також суттєво впливає на обсяг наукових, культурних та освітніх даних, якими обмінюються сучасні
фахівці.
Знання іноземної мови – це один із компонентів професійної підготовки фахівців психології, який є
інструментом спілкування зі світовою психологічною спільнотою, колегами-науковцями та практиками і
додатковим, але не менш важливим, засобом розвитку особистості.
Викладання іноземної мови у сучасних закладах вищої освіти є пріоритетним напрямком на шляху
вдосконалення навчального процесу, адже тільки високий рівень знання іноземної мови здатний забезпечити
стійкі відносини між країнами світу у економічній, науковій та культурній царинах. Тісні взаємозв’язки та
взаємна міждисциплінарна кооперація між представниками різних наукових напрямів складає основу
всеосяжного засвоєння нових знань, формування навичок та набуття досвіду. Спільна робота у міжнародних
наукових проектах посилює навички систематизації мовних та мовленнєвих знань, що набуваються у процесі
цих взаємозв'язків.
На сьогодні існує низка причин для поглиблення ролі вивчення іноземної мови зі спеціальності. Серед
найбільш значущих є необхідність підвищення рівня і якості професійного розвитку, розширення мовного та
культурного світогляду, набуття досвіду та умінь у формуванні та висловленні думок і власних позицій з
окремих проблем психологічного напряму.
Навчальний посібник «English for Psychologists» розроблений відповідно до програми навчальної
дисципліни «Іноземна мова (за професійним спрямуванням) та згідно з освітньо-професійною програмою
підготовки фахівців першого (бакалаврського) рівня вищої освіти спеціальності 053 Психологія і розрахований
на два роки навчання.
Навчальне видання призначено для розвитку навичок читання, перекладу, аудіювання, формування
знань і вмінь професійного та повсякденного спілкування. Навчальний посібник забезпечує цілісне послідовне
засвоєння фахової лексики, розвиток навичок усного мовлення та набуття вмінь роботи з професійною
термінологією. Навчальний матеріал розташований за принципом від простого до складного у послідовності,
що забезпечує активне засвоєння лексики та формування тематичного фахового словника.
Посібник містить дев’ять модулів: «The basics of Psychology. The Brain», «Psychological processes»,
«Emotions and Stresses», «Different schools of modern Psychology», «Branches of Psychology », «The Disciplines of
Psychology », «Research and Experiments», «Mental Disorders», «Treatment. Career options», об’єднаних тематично
у три фундаментальні розділи. Тематичні тексти адаптовані з сучасних англомовних навчальних джерел.
Структура посібника уніфікована. У кожній темі подані тексти з супроводжуючим тематичним словником та
післятекстові завдання як лексичного, так і комунікативного характеру, завдання на аудіювання та розвиток
усного діалогічного, монологічного мовлення та ділового писемного мовлення. Завершується тема
практичними завданнями, максимально наближеними до реальних комунікативних ситуацій, пов’язаних з
темою, що вивчається. Наприкінці кожного розділу презентований тлумачний словник психологічних термінів.
У додатку розміщені автентичні тексти для самостійного опрацювання та самоперевірки, які удосконалюють
навички роботи з науковим текстом, навички реферування та самоконтролю.
Сподіваємося, що посібник стане у нагоді для підвищення знань і удосконалення навичок спілкування
іноземною мовою та покращення рівня міжкультурної комунікації.
6
Book 1.
Змістовий модуль 1. The basics of Psychology. The Brain.

Topic 1. Psychology.
1.Read the text and translate it into Ukrainian. Write down the meaning of the highlighted words.
Undergraduate Degree Programs
Psychology
State College has a comprehensive psychology program. All students begin
with the functions of the brain. Students will also learn about various
mental processes. Later, classes cover how these processes affect people's
behavior. The program requires students to take several lab courses. Some
labs focus on the mental effects from a subject's environment. Others
examine the relationship between behavior and physical states.
Students have two academic plans to choose from. One focuses on clinical
psychology. This prepares students to assess and treat mental disorders.
The second career path is academic. Students will learn more about
research. They will also learn how to design experiments.
Psychology -
Function -
Brain -
mental process -
affect -
behavior -
environment -
physical state -
assess -
treat -
Choose the correct answers:
1 What is the purpose of the website?

A to encourage students to become psychology majors
B to describe courses in the psychology program
C to explain the responsibilities of a psychologist
D to present the latest research of psychology professors
2 Which of the following is NOT part of the psychology program?

A developing new medicine
B learning to design experiments
C studying mental processes
D examining the effects of environment
3 What does the psychology program cover first?

A behavioral effect
B physical states
C mental disorders
D brain functions
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2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-H).
1. mental
2. treat
3. psychology
4. environment
5. physical state
6. process
7. behavior
8. assess
A. to try to cure a medical condition

B. the study of the mind
C. an observable action
D. relating to the mind
E. to evaluate something
F. a physical setting
G. the status of the body's systems
H. a set of events that take place in a certain order
3. Read the sentence pairs. Choose the sentence that uses the underlined part correctly.
1 A The doctor will assess the condition with medicine.

B Many different factors affect people’s minds.
2 A The brain directs many processes, so it has many different functions.

B The doctor gave the man a process to take every day.
4. Listen to the dialogue and complete the conversation.

Student: Thanks for meeting with me. I'm thinking about majoring in Psychology. But I'm not sure yet.
Advisor: Well, what do you like about it?
Student: I think the human mind is really 1)________________ .
Advisor: You'd definitely learn 2)__________________ about that.
Student: Yeah, and I'm also really interested in 3)________________ people.
Advisor: You can do that with a 4)_________________ degree. Why aren't you sure yet?
Student: I think research is really 5)_______________ .
Advisor: 6)_________________ is pretty important for a psychology degree. You'd better think about it.
5. Learn the phrases and make your own sentences:
What do you like about…? I’m interested in…… I think….. is really interesting.
6. Complete the conversation below based on Task 3, with the phrases given. Then, take roles and act it out. Make
your own dialogue
I don't think I'll like working with patients. / I think that the human mind is really interesting. / I'm thinking about
majoring in psychology. / I'm interested in conducting research.
A:__________________________________________________________________
B: What do you like about it?
A:___________________________________________________________________
B: That's a good start. What else?
A:____________________________________________________________________
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B: You'll learn about that. But what makes you hesitate?
A:____________________________________________________________________
B: That's pretty important. You'd better think about it some more.
7.Fill out the worksheet.
Topic 2. The Central Nervous System.

The Central Nervous System.

The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS integrates
sensory information from muscles and sensory organs. The brain
processes these messages. Then, the CNS directs the body's behavior.
The messages are transmitted through neurons. Some neurons are part
of gray matter. They control cognition. Others are part of white matter.
These are responsible for communication between parts of the brain.
The spinal cord sends messages from the body to the brain.
It also transmits messages from the brain back to the body. Sometimes,
however, messages bypass the brain altogether. This is the case with
reflexes. The spinal cord directs these behaviors with no input from the
brain.
Brain -
spinal cord -
integrate -
sensory information -
neuron -
gray matter -
white matter -
reflex -
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1 What is the chapter mainly about?
A the process of sending messages through the body
B the purpose of reflexes in humans
C the movement of neurons in the brain
D the different areas inside the brain
2 Which of the following is NOT a function of the brain?

A processing information
B directing behavior
C integrating messages
D controlling reflexes
3 What is the difference between white matter and gray matter?

A the ability to send or receive messages
B their location within the CNS
C the part of a neuron they make up
D the presence of nerve cells
2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-F).
1. sensory information
2. neuron
3. process
4. brain
5. gray matter
6. white matter
A information that comes from the sense organs

B the organ in the body responsible for thinking
C to take in and understand something
D a part of the CNS that does not contain nerve cell bodies
E a nerve cell
F a part of the CNS that contains nerve cell bodies
3. Fill out the worksheet:
Reflex / central nervous system / integrate / spinal cord
1 The___________ is located in a person’s back.

2 The brain has to ____________ sensory information from different areas of the body.
3 A fast, uncontrollable response is a(n)_______________.
4 The____________ sends and receives messages to and from the body.
Student: Professor Nielson? I'm still not clear on the central nervous system.
Professor: Okay. Let's go over it again. What are the two 1) ___________________________________?
Student: The brain and 2) ______________________________?
Professor: That's right. Now, do 3) _________________________________what the brain does?
Student: It receives 4) _________________________, right?
Professor: That's right. 5) ____________________________it receive that information from?
Student: Um, 6) ______________________________.
Professor: The information comes from the rest of the body.
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Student: Oh, that's right. And the spinal cord sends that information to the brain.
I’m still not clear on….. Let’s go over…. I’m not sure.
your own dialogue.
It sends messages to the brain, right? / I’m still not clear on the CNS. / I’m not sure. / The brain and spinal cord?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Let's go over it again. What are its two main parts?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: That's right. And what does the spinal cord do?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: That's right. And what else?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: It also receives messages from the brain.
7. Fill out the worksheet.
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Topic 3. The Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
The Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS is divided into two separate systems. Both rely on sensory
nerves and motor nerves. They send messages to and from the
brain.
The somatic nervous system - This controls the body's voluntary
movements.
The autonomic nervous system - This controls the body's
involuntary responses, like respiration.
The autonomic nervous system is further divided.
The sympathetic division - This system is more active when
something threatens the body. It increases heart rate, for example.
The parasympathetic division - This system is more active when the
body is at rest. It is responsible for lowering the heart rate.
To be divided -
sensory nerves -
motor nerves -
somatic nervous system -
autonomic nervous system -
The sympathetic division -
The parasympathetic division –

1 What is the purpose of the poster?
A to explain how the brain controls respiration
B to outline the functions of different systems
C to describe the effects of damage to the PNS
D to explain the structure of sensory nerves
2 Which of the following is NOT a division of the PNS?

A the somatic nervous system
B the parasympathetic division
C the involuntary nervous system
D the sympathetic division
3 What is true about the autonomic nervous system?

A It performs its functions very rarely.
B It primarily controls voluntary movements.
C It prevents threats from affecting the body.
D It has one division that lowers the heart rate.
12
1. sympathetic division
2. somatic nervous system
3. sensory nerve
4. divided
5. parasympathetic division
6. motor nerve
A a division of the autonomic system that is active when the body is stressed
B a nerve that transmits information from the brain to muscles
C a division of the autonomic system that is active when the body rests
D split into more than one piece or part
E the division of the PNS that controls voluntary movements
F a nerve that transmits information from sense organs
3. Read the sentences and choose the correct words or phrases.
1. The (peripheral nervous system / sensory nerve) contains all the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.
2. Something is (divided / involuntary) if a person cannot control it.
3. Internal processes, like digestion, are a part of the (motor nerve / autonomic nervous system).
4. A(n) (voluntary / involuntary) action is one that a person can control.
Student 1: Let's review for the quiz. What part of the PNS controls 1) ________________movements?
Student 2: That would be the 2)___________________________ nervous system, I think.
Student 1: You're right. Now, what controls 3)_______________________________ ?
Student 2: The, um, 4) __________________________________system?
Student 1: Right again. So, that's what's 5)________________________________ when you're under stress.
Student 2: Yeah. More specifically, it’s the 6)_________________________________division. No, wait. It’s the
sympathetic division.
Student 1: Let me check. Yes, that’s it. So, what is the parasympathetic division?
Student 2: It's in control when you're resting.
Let's review ... What part of the PNS controls ...? No, wait. It's ...
your own dialogue
It's active when the body is calm or resting. / The sympathetic is active when the body is stressed out. / It's the
somatic nervous system. / The sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division, right?
A: Let's review the PNS. What part of the PNS controls involuntary behavior?
B: ___________________________________________________ No, wait. It's the autonomic nervous system.
A: Good catch. And what are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: That's it. What do they do?
B:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Good. And the parasympathetic division?
B:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
13
Topic 4. The Brain 1.

The Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest division of the human brain. It has two identical
hemispheres. These are on the left and right.
The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres. The cerebrum is further
divided into lobes. They are the frontal lobe, the occipital lobe, the parietal
lobe, the temporal lobe, and the insular lobe.
Each of these lobes has a different function. For example, the auditory cortex is
in the temporal lobe. The occipital lobe is home to the visual cortex. The
somatosensory cortex and motor cortex are near each other. They are located
where the parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes meet.
Cerebrum –
Hemisphere –
corpus callosum –
frontal lobe –
occipital lobe –
parietal lobe –
temporal lobe –
insular lobe –
14

A common medical condition in the brain
B the different divisions of the cerebrum
C the brain's relationship with the rest of the body
D the appearance of different lobes
2 Which of the following is NOT true of the cerebrum?

A It has two hemispheres.
B It is the largest part of the brain.
C It contains the auditory cortex.
D It has hundreds of lobes.
3 Which of the following is part of the occipital lobe?

A the somatosensory cortex
B the motor cortex
C the corpus callosum
D the visual cortex
1. corpus callosum
2. insular lobe
3. occipital lobe
4. frontal lobe
5. temporal lobe
6. parietal lobe
7. hemisphere
8. visual cortex
A one half of something round

B the front part of the cerebrum
C the part of the brain that interprets information seen by the eyes
D the bottom middle part of the cerebrum
E a part of the cerebrum that controls consciousness and emotion
F a group of fibers that connects the two halves of the cerebrum
G the rear part of the cerebrum
H the top middle part of the cerebrum
3. Write a word or phrase that is similar in meaning to the underlined part.
1. The scientist studies the largest division of the human brain. (_ e _ _ b _ _ m)
2. The part of the brain that interprets sounds is located in the temporal lobe. (_ u _ _ t _ _ y) (_ _ r _ e _)
3. Damage to the part of the brain that controls movements can lead to trouble walking. (m _ t _ _) (c _ _ t _ _)
4. The part of the brain that senses the body's position and movement is near the parietal lobe. (s _ _ a _ _ s _ n _ _ _
y) (_ o _ _ e _)
How is the patient? Where was he/she injured? That could lead to….
15
Psychologist 1: How is the 1)________________________________ today?
Psychologist 2: No changes. We still don't know the extent of his 2) ____________________ damage.
Psychologist 1: Where was he 3) ____________________________again?
Psychologist 2: Right on the back of his head. The 4) __________________________may be damaged.
Psychologist 1: Oh no! That could lead to 5) __________________________, right?
Psychologist 2: Yes. An injury like this 6) ________________________________blindness.
Psychologist 1: Hopefully, that isn't the case.
Psychologist 2: Of course. We won't know until he wakes up.
your own dialogue
Hopefully, that isn't the case. / How is the patient? / That could lead to hearing problems, right? / Where
exactly was he injured?
A:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: The one with the head injury? He's still the same.
A:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Near the temple. I'm worried that his temporal lobe is damaged.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Exactly. The patient could even be deaf.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Of course. We won't know until he wakes up.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the patient notes.
16
Topic 5. The Brain 2.
The lower brain is the area of the brain below the cerebrum. One major
part is the brain stem. Its midbrain controls certain senses. It also controls
the body's involuntary functions in the medulla. The pons connects the
medulla to other parts of the brain.
Another major part is the cerebellum. This is at the very bottom of the
brain. It is largely responsible for the body's movement.
In another part of the brain, hormones control behavior and emotions.

There the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland regulate these
hormones. The amygdalae also govern emotions. These are part of the
limbic system.
brain stem -
midbrain -
medulla -
pons -
cerebellum -
thalamus -
hypothalamus -
pituitary gland -
amygdalae -
limbic system -
Mark the following statements as True or False:
1 The pons is part of the system that controls emotions. True False
2 The brain stem and the medulla are in the same area of the brain. True False
3 Hormonal functions occur within the cerebellum. True False
1. The students identified the part that sends signals from the medulla to the thalamus. (_ o _ _)
2. The amygdalae are in the part that controls emotions. (l _ _ _ i _) (_ y _ _ _ m)
3. A number of senses are governed by the part that contains the medulla and midbrain. (_ r a _ _) (s _ e _)
4. Some emotional responses are affected by the part that creates and releases hormones. (_ _ p o _ h _ _ _ m _ _)
3. Read the sentence pairs. Choose which word or phrase best fits each blank.
Midbrain / amygdala
1 A Each______________________ helps control the sense of smell.
B The______________________________ helps control vision and hearing.
pituitary gland / cerebellum
2 A The_____________________ helps control the body’s movements.
B The ________________________ releases hormones that perform various functions.
Thalamus / medulla
3 A Breathing and heartbeat are controlled in the_______________________________ .
B The___________________________ regulates the body’s alertness.
17
I’m having trouble…. Do you remember…? Actually, …

Student: Excuse me. I'm having trouble understanding the parts of the 1) _____________________.
Professor: All right. 2) ______________________________what the parts are?
Student: Let's see. There's the 3) _________________________, _________________________, and midbrain,
right?
Professor: Exactly. Now, the midbrain governs several 4) _________________________.
Student: Okay, so the medulla must be the one that controls involuntary functions.
Professor: Right. Now, do you remember what the 5) ____________________________?
Student: Does it 6)_____________________________ the midbrain and medulla?
Professor: Actually, no. It connects the cerebrum and the medulla. Then it continues on to the thalamus.
your own dialogue
Now, do you remember what the pituitary gland does? / Actually, no. / Do you remember what the parts are? /
Now, the thalamus controls sleep and consciousness.
A: Excuse me. I'm having trouble understanding the parts that release hormones.
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Let's see. There's the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, right?
B: Exactly. _____________________________________________________________________________________
A: So, the hypothalamus must be the one that controls hunger and thirst.
B: Right. _______________________________________________________________________________________
A: Does it run between the thalamus and the hypothalamus?
B: _________________________________________________________It's a gland below the brain that controls
growth and other functions.
7. Use the encyclopedia article from Task 1 to fill out the student's notes.
18
Topic 6. Chemical Messengers.
Psych 101 - Class Handout - September 13
Chemical Messengers
Endocrine system - This is a series of glands throughout the
body. These regulate the body by releasing hormones.
Hormones - These chemicals make the body's cells perform

specific actions.
• Example: Insulin is one type of hormone. It regulates the
amount of sugar in the blood.
Neurotransmitters - These chemicals transmit signals from

neurons to other cells.
• Example: Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter and
hormone released in the brain. It regulates the functions of
certain bodily organs.
• Example: An endorphin is a neurotransmitter and hormone
released in the brain. It is produced during sensations of
pleasure and pain.
Neuromodulators - These are groups of neurotransmitters.

• Example: Acetylcholine is one type of neuromodulator that
controls muscle movement.
Endocrine system –
Glands –
Regulate –
Hormones –
Insulin –
Neurotransmitters -
Norepinephrine –
Endorphine –
Neuromodulators –
Acetylcholine -
1. The endocrine system is located throughout the entire body. True False
2. Hormones can affect the chemicals in the blood. True False
3. Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators perform opposite functions. True False
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct words or phrases from the word bank.
Endorphins / acetylcholine / endocrine system / regulate / Insulin / norepinephrine
1 The glands of the___________________ exist in various places around the body.

2 The spinal cord releases _____________________ and causes the muscles to move.
3 The body uses hormones to ____________________ many functions.
4 _________________ in the blood affects sugar levels.
5 When the brain is under stress, it releases_____________________.
6 The brain can control pain sensations by releasing________________________.
19
3. Read the sentence pairs. Choose which word best fits each blank.
hormone / neuromodulator
1 A The gland released a _______________ to regulate the body’s blood sugar.
B A ___________________ carries signals to many neurons at once.
neurotransmitter / gland
2 A The skin contains a ________________________ that creates a specific hormone.
B A specific _______________________sends signals to muscle tissue.

Student 1: Hey, did you understand the lecture on neurotransmitters?
Student 2: Yes, I think so. Are you having trouble with something?
Student 1: I'm confused about 1) ____________________________. Can you explain them to me?
Student 2: They're 2) ____________________________ in the brain. They send signals about pain and emotions.
Student 1: See, I thought that endorphins 3) ___________________________.
Student 2: Well, actually, they are. Endorphins 4) _____________________ hormones and neurotransmitters.
Student 1: Really? But 5) ________________________need multiple neurotransmitters?
Student 2: No, you're thinking 6) _______________________________.
Did you understand ...? Can you explain ...? I thought ...
your own dialogue
Did you understand what insulin is? / But then how are they different? / I’m not sure that I understand what type
of chemical it is. / I thought it's like an endorphin.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes, I think so. Why?
A: _____________________________________________________________Can you explain it to me?
B: It's a hormone. It regulates blood sugar.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Actually, yes and no. Both insulin and endorphins are hormones.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Endorphins are also neurotransmitters, but insulin is not.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the test.
20
Topic 7. Perception and Sensation.
State University PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Current Experiments
Students in the psychology department perform a variety of

experiments. Their current focus is psychophysics. This examines
perception through the transduction of sensations. In other words, it
studies the senses.
One recent experiment studied the effects of sensory adaptation.
Volunteers were exposed to different levels of color variation.
Students examined effects on color perception. Now, they are testing
effects of sensory deprivation.
Another experiment studied absolute thresholds. Students
measured how well volunteers heard quiet sounds. They also
measured barely noticeable difference thresholds. This involved the
change from quiet sounds to louder sounds. Next: Students are now
designing an experiment to test selective attention. Subjects will
focus on one image from a group.
psychophysics –
perception –
transduction –
sensation –
sense –
sensory adaptation –
absolute thresholds –
difference thresholds –
selective attention –
Сomplete the table:

1. sensory deprivation
2. psychophysics
3. selective attention
4. absolute threshold
5. difference threshold
6. sensory adaptation
21
A the decline of a sensory response as a result of unchanging stimuli
B the ability to focus on only a small part of the environment
C the branch of psychology that studies perception and the senses
D the smallest change in a stimulus that a person can perceive
E the lack of a normal amount of sensory information
F the smallest amount of a stimulus that a person can perceive
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the word bank.
Transduction / perception / sense / sensation
1. People who are blind cannot use the ______________________ of sight.

2. Touching something hot produces a warm __________________.
3. Energy becomes sensory information through a process called _______________________.
4. People experience the world through the process of _________________________.

Psychologist: Can you help me set up a 1) ___________________experiment?
Assistant: Sure. 2) _____________________ is this?
Psychologist: It's examining 3) __________________.
Assistant: Interesting. Will it test failures 4) ________________________?
Psychologist: Yes. The subjects will watch a video. I'll tell them 5) ___________________athletes throwing a ball.
Assistant: But 6) ______________________will also happen in the video?
Psychologist: That's right. A car will crash into a wall in the distance.
Assistant: Ah, so you're testing if they notice the car.
Psychologist: Precisely. I bet they won't notice it at all.
Can you help me ...? Will it test ...? I bet ...
your own dialogue.
So, you think that sensory adaptation will affect their difference thresholds? / Will it test one of the senses? /
What will it study?
A: Can you help me set up an experiment tomorrow?

B: Sure. _______________________________________________________________________________________
A: Perception. Specifically, it will examine sensory adaptation.
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes, hearing. I'll have volunteers listen to a continuous sound for a long time. Then, I'll measure their ability to
distinguish between sounds.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Precisely. I bet they won't even hear the sound after a while.
7.Fill out the worksheet.
Purpose of experiment:
To study the effects of ____________ ______________on_______________thresholds.
Steps of experiment:
1 The subjects are required to ________________to a humming noise for fifteen minutes.
2 The researchers will examine their ____________________to _____________between ________________.
22
Topic 8. Biological Rythms.
What Happens During sleep?
Sleep is important because it affects biological rhythms. Appropriate rhythms

are essential to healthy bodily function. The body uses melatonin to regulate
these important processes.
The sleep cycle itself is a circadian rhythm. It should occur once a day. If it
doesn't the body could experience internal desynchronization.
The sleep cycle includes several ultradian rhythms. These are known as sleep
stages. (They should not be confused with infradian rhythms. Those occur
much less frequently.)
The most important sleep stage is REM sleep. This is when the sleeping brain
differs most from the waking brain. During wakefulness, the brain produces
alpha waves. During REM sleep. it produces delta waves instead.
Biological rhythms –
Melatonin –
Circadian rhythm –
Desynchronization –
Ultradian rhythms –
Sleep stages –
Infradian rhythms –
REM sleep –
Alpha waves –
Delta waves -
Сhoose the correct answers:

1 What is the purpose of the brochure?
A to advertise a course in biological rhythms
B to discuss recent studies in ultradian rhythms
C to explain the importance of regular infradian rhythms
D to describe a particular circadian rhythm
2 Which of the following causes a person to sleep?

A alpha waves
B melatonin
C internal desynchronization
D delta waves
3 What is true about delta waves?

A They are similar to alpha waves.
B They require a person to be awake.
C They are rare in most people.
D They occur during REM sleep.

1. infradian rhythm
2. alpha waves
3. ultradian rhythm
23
4. melatonin
5. REM sleep
6. delta waves
A the period of sleep when dreams occur

B the brainwaves that occur when a person is in deep sleep
C a hormone that helps regulate circadian rhythms
D a biological rhythm that occurs more than once per day
E the brainwaves that occur when a person is relaxed but awake
F a biological rhythm that occurs less than once per day
sleep stage / biological rhythm

1 A The first ___________________ is the shortest of the five.
B People eat and digest food as a part of a ____________________________ .
internal desynchronization / circadian rhythm

2 A The sleep cycle is an example of a(n)_______________________________ .
B When something disrupts a biological cycle, occurs ______________________________.

Psychologist: So, Tim. You're 1) ___________________________?
Patient: Yes, it's terrible. But I'm getting 2)____________________ .
Psychologist: Are there 3) __________________________in your sleeping habits?
Patient: Yes, actually. It's my new job. I only sleep for two or three hours 4) _________________.
Psychologist: Hmm. It sounds like you're suffering from 5) _____________________________.
Patient: Really? But I'm still sleeping the same number of hours per day.
Psychologist: Perhaps. But 6) _______________________your ultradian rhythms.
Patient: What does that mean, exactly?
Psychologist: You're not going through all five sleep stages. You might need to change your schedule.
You're feeling ...? It sounds like ... What does that mean?
your own dialogue.
But I'm getting plenty of sleep. / What does that mean? / But I'm still sleeping the same number of total hours.
/ I have to be awake for twenty-four to thirty-six hours at a time.
A: You're feeling tired?

B: Yes. _________________________________________________________________________________
A: Are there any changes in your sleeping habits?
B: Yes, actually. It's my new job. ____________________________________________________________
A: It sounds like you're suffering from internal desynchronization.
B: Really?_______________________________________________________________________________
A: Perhaps. But you're disrupting your circadian rhythm.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________
A: You're supposed to go through the sleep stages once per day.
24
Topic 9. Consciousness
Ask Dr Nilson.
Dear Dr. Nilsson: I'm curious about people who walk in their sleep. Are they
aware of their actions? Can they remember what they do? - Bob in Braxton
Dear Bob: When people sleepwalk, they are in an altered state of

consciousness. In this state, they are neither aroused nor relaxed. While asleep, they experience a shift. They enter a
state in which they perform automatic behaviors. When someone is awake, preconscious information easily becomes
conscious. However, a sleepwalker's behaviors do not leave the unconscious. They remain subconscious after the
person awakes. Therefore, most sleepwalkers are not aware of their sleepwalking. - Dr. N.

1. People who walk in their sleep are performing automatic behavior. True False
2. Sleepwalking is controlled by subconscious activity. True False
3. Most sleepwalkers later remember their sleepwalking state. True False
25
Aware –
altered state -
consciousness –
state -
aroused -
relaxed -
automatic behaviors -
unconscious -
subconscious -
1. Consciousness
2. State
3. Shift
4. Unconscious
5. automatic behavior
6. preconscious
A an awareness that people have of themselves and their surroundings

B a part of the mind where subconscious thoughts are easily recalled from
C actions that people perform without being aware of them
D a condition that a person is in at a particular time
E a part of the mind where deep subconscious thoughts exist
F a change in the status of something
Aware / aroused / relaxed / altered state / subconscious

1 The man’s hunger started as a(n) _____________ thought.
2 Some diseases cause people to enter a(n) ______________________ of consciousness.
3 While the woman slept, she was not ________________________of her surroundings.
4 The patient’s mind became _____________________________as he awoke.
5 The human mind enters a(n) ____________________________ state as it falls asleep.

Psychologist: What's the trouble today?
Patient: I'm having trouble 1) ___________________________during the day.
Psychologist: Hmm. Do you 2) _______________________________at night?
Patient: Yes. 3) _____________________________, I sleep about eight hours per night. But I wake up feeling tired.
Psychologist: So, you sleep normally at night. But during the day, you cannot 4) _______________________?
Patient: Exactly. What do you think 5) ______________________________is?
Psychologist: Hmm. Something in your 6) _________________________might be disturbing you.
Patient: What should we do?
Psychologist: I'd like to run a sleep analysis. I'll examine your brain's state while you're asleep.

I'm having trouble ... So you ... What do you think ...?
your own dialogue.
26
But I wake up feeling tired. / What should we do next? / What do you think the problem is? / I’m having trouble
staying awake during the day.
A: What's the trouble?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Do you become relaxed at night?
B: Yes. In fact, I sleep about eight hours per night. ______________________________________________________
A: So, you sleep normally at night. But during the day, you cannot stay awake?
B: Exactly._______________________________________________________________________________________
A: You probably have a sleep disorder.
B: __________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I'd like to run a sleep analysis. I'll examine your brain's state while you're asleep.
7. Fill out the worksheet:

Analysis / night / altered state /aroused /day / rest / sleepwalks / automatic /asleep
Sleep Lab
Patient: Crystal Lloyd

Symptoms: The patient is having trouble staying _____________ during the ______________, but she says she get
plenty of sleep at_______________.
Test Results: According to the sleep ____________________, the patient enters an ___________ after falling asleep.
She ___________________.
Diagnosis: The problem is that the patient is performing active _____________behaviors when she is___________.
Therefore, she is not entering the relaxed state needed to get enough_____________________.
Topic 10. Memory 1

Memory
Memory is the ability to store and recall information. There are various
types of memory. The mind stores memories using information processing.
This begins with encoding. Encoding prepares information for retention.
Then, the mind stores it in one of three systems of memory. The three
systems are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The systems store memories for different durations. Sensory memory only
lasts for a few seconds. Short-term memories last for up to thirty Seconds.
However, information rehearsal can extend short-term memories. Finally,
long-term memory stores information for retrieval indefinitely.
Memory –
information processing –
encoding –
retention –
sensory memory –
short-term memory –
long-term memory –
27
1. The first step of information processing is encoding. True False
2. Short-term memory is the system with the shortest duration. True False
3. The duration of short-term memory can be lengthened. True False

1. sensory memory
2. encoding
3. long-term
4. rehearsal
5. retrieval
A a system that stores sensory information for a very short time

B the change of information into a storable form
C occurring for an extended period of time
D the ability to recall information from memory
E the act of repeating information to keep it in memory
Retention / information processing / duration / short-term / memory

1 Without________________________ , people’s thoughts would not make sense.
2 The patients’ ______________________________ stores information for an unusually long time.
3 Many people remember childhood for the_____________________________ of their entire lives.
4 The mind often stores phone numbers in its_______________________________ memory.
5 The patient understands ideas, but she has trouble with _____________________________ over time.
Student 1: Do you remember the steps of 1) ____________________________?

Student 2: Um, it begins with 2) ____________________________________, I think.
Student 1: And that prepares the memory 3) ________________________________, right?
Student 2: Exactly. 4) ________________________________what happens next?
Student 1: Well, next is 5) _________________________________ in the brain. That's when it's stored.
Student 2: Actually, that's not it. Think again.
Student 1: Oh, you're right. 6) ______________________________is the storage process.
Student 2: Yes. And then retrieval happens. That's when the conscious mind is ready to use the information.
Do you remember ...? It begins with ... Actually, that's not it.
your own dialogue.
Actually, that's not correct. / Then, it stores the information in sensory, short-term, or long-term memory. / Do
you remember the information processing steps?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Of course. It begins with the retention of information, right?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: You're right. It starts with encoding.
A: That's right. __________________________________________________________________________________
28
B: Exactly. Once it's in storage, the information is ready for retrieval.
Topic 11. Memory 2.

Improving Your Memory.

There are many methods of improving memory. One method is
chunking. This splits information into small groups. That way, it is
easier to remember. It's often used with sequences of digits, like
phone numbers.
Rote rehearsal is another method. It works because repetition helps
store information. The mind creates acoustic codes. Then, echoic
memory repeats them in a phonetic loop.
The mind retains images similarly. Imagine staring at an image for a
long time. This maintains it in the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Then, it
stays in the iconic memory longer.
These methods improve a person's conscious, explicit memory.
Implicit memory, on the other hand, is harder to control.
Chunking –
Rote rehearsal –
acoustic codes –
echoic memory –
phonetic loop –
visuo-spatial sketchpad –
iconic memory –
explicit memory –
Implicit memory –
29
Complete the table:
Chunking / phonetic loop / acoustic code / rote rehearsal / visuo-spatial sketchpad
1. The mind briefly stored the sight of the fireworks on a(n)________________________________ .

2. ____________________________information into groups makes it easier to remember.
3. The mind repeated the song in a(n)__________________________________ .
4. The echoic memory stores information as a(n)____________________________ .
5. By repeating information through _____________________________, a person can memorize it.
explicit memory / implicit memory

1 A The man had a conscious, __________________________ of the party a day earlier.
B Early childhood events are more likely to remain in___________________________________ .
echoic memory / iconic memory

2 A The sound repeated in the woman’s_________________________________ .
B The man’s______________________________ stored the image of the painting.
Patient: So, Doctor. Am I 1) ________________________memory?

Psychologist: Yes and no. Your 2) ________________________ is fine. You easily perform normal tasks such as
driving.
Patient: Yes. But I can't remember dates and phone numbers.
Psychologist: Right. That's common at your age. It's your short-term, 3) _______________________.
Patient: Is there any way 4) ______________________it?
Psychologist: Yes. I recommend 5) _________________________.
Patient: That's repeating information over and over, right?
Psychologist: Yes. And it's best to 6) ____________________________. That will help you retain details in your
memory.
Am I losing ...? I can't remember ... I recommend ...
your own dialogue.
But I can't remember things I see. / Am I losing my memory? / That's staring at something for a while, right? /
Is there any way to improve it?
30
A:____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes and no. Your implicit memory is fine. You easily perform normal tasks.
A: Yes. ________________________________________________________________________________________
B: It's your short-term, explicit memory. You're not maintaining iconic memory very well.
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes. I recommend keeping things on your visuo-spatial sketchpad a little longer.
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes. That will help you retain details in your memory.
Hello Ken,
I’m sorry to hear about the trouble with your memory. If I understand correctly, your problem is that you can’t
_______________ things you see. But you don’t have a problem with ________________everyday _____________.
Therefore, I think the cause is deterioration of your _________________memory. You can improve this by keeping
things on your _________-______________ _________________a little ___________________. In other words, by
______________at something for a while.
I hope that helps!
Dr. Stevens
Topic 12. Learning.

Cognitive Psych Monthly Volume 12. The Work of Dr. Delilah Harris
Dr. Harris's work focuses on learning. As an undergraduate, she researched learning through repetition. This
included conditioning and habituation. The results encouraged her to further explore associative learning in adults.
She also wrote a paper on memorization.
As a graduate student, Harris began to specialize. Her particular area of interest was play. She observed how play
helps children with enculturation. Today, Dr. Harris continues to study children's play Her current project focuses on
psychomotor learning. It examines the cognitive development needed for physical skills. Her next project will
address play and emotional development. It will be a targeted study of affective learning.
Learning -
Conditioning -
habituation
Associative learning -
Memorization -
play -
enculturation -
psychomotor
Choose -
the correct answers:
cognitive -
affective –
31
1 What is the article mainly about?
A a review of a psychologist's speech
B a summary of a psychologist's projects
C an announcement of a psychologist's award
D a course that a psychologist teaches
2 Which is NOT part of the psychologist's study of children?

A associative learning
B enculturation
C psychomotor learning
D cognitive development
3 What does the psychologist plan to study next?

A conditioning
B enculturation
C affective learning
D psychomotor learning
2. Match the words with the definitions (A-F).

1. Play
2. Habituation
3. conditioning
4. Memorization
5. Learning
6. affective
A a process in which an individual becomes familiar with a stimulus

B a process in which an individual gains knowledge
C a process in which an individual makes an association between a stimulus and a response
D behavior that is mainly for fun, but also aids in learning
E related to mood or emotion
F a form of learning in which an individual can recall something perfectly
associative learning / enculturation / psychomotor / cognitive

1 Learning how to ride a bicycle is a form of ______________________ learning.
2 The process of ______________________teaches children the rules of society.
3 A(n) __________________ process is something that takes place in the mind, like thinking or reasoning.
4 Making a conscious connection between two stimuli is an example of__________________________.

Psychologist 1: For our next experiment, I'd like to study 1)____________________ . What do you think?
Psychologist 2: Associative learning is great, but 2)_________________________ to have a narrower focus.
Psychologist 1: Okay, what's your 3)_________________________________?
Psychologist 2: Why 4) _______________________study conditioning?
Psychologist 1: That's a good idea. 5) ______________________is a kind of associative learning, isn't it?
Psychologist 2: Exactly. We can focus on a particular 6)________________________ perception.
Psychologist 1: Right. And then we'll see how the body responds to it repeatedly.
Psychologist 2: I like this idea. And it will let us examine habituation as well.
I'd like to study ... I'd prefer ... Why don't we ...?
32
your own dialogue.
That's a form of associative learning, right? / What do you think? / What do you suggest?
A: For our next experiment, I'd like to study associative learning. ______________________________
B: I'd prefer to have a narrower focus.
A: _________________________________________________________________________________
B: Why don't we study habituation?
A: Good idea. ________________________________________________________________________
B: Exactly. We can see how long it takes for someone to involuntarily ignore a stimulus.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the email.
The work of Dr. Delilah Harris
Hi George,
Here’s what I think we should study in our next learning experiment: ___________________I think this is an
interesting topic because I am interested in ___________________learning. Habituation is a form of _____________
learning. But it’s more targeted and we can see how long it takes for someone to _______________ ignore a
_____________.
Let me know what you think.
Topic 13. Intelligence.

Psychology 232: The Psychology of Learning and Memory
Syllabus
Week 1 The course begins with general intelligence (g). This is

the most widely understood type of intelligence. Students will
take sample IQ tests
Week 2 We'll examine criticisms of IQ tests. Are they fair? Can

we design a test without cultural biases?
Week 3 Introduction to the Theory of Multiple Intelligences

(TMI).
Week 4 Small groups will focus on different areas of TMI:
• The linguistic and logical-mathematical group focuses on

language, numbers, and symbols. They will also examine musical intelligence.
• The body-kinesthetic and spatial group focuses on movement and building objects.
• The interpersonal and intrapersonal group examines society and self.
Week 5 Groups will give presentations to the class.
1 What information does the class mainly cover?

A theories of intelligence from around the world
B famous psychologists who studied intelligence
C the different focuses of each type of intelligence
33
D tutorials on how to write an intelligence test
2 What is a potential problem with IQ tests?

A They are difficult to prepare for.
B They are not popular in many places.
C They only measure one type of intelligence.
D They may contain biases.
3 Which of the following is NOT part of the multiple intelligences theory?

A general intelligence
B musical intelligence
C linguistic intelligence
D spatial intelligence
general intelligence -
intelligence -
IQ tests -
Biase -
Theory of Multiple Intelligences -
Linguistic -
logical-mathematical -
musical -
body-kinesthetic -
spatial -
interpersonal -
intrapersonal –
2. Match the words with the definitions (A-H).
1. Bias
2. IQ
3. Spatial
4. Interpersonal
5. Linguistic
6. Intrapersonal
7. Intelligence
8. musical
A related to relationships between people

B the ability to think and learn
C a measurement of intelligence based on test scores
D related to the appreciation or production of music
E an idea that influences people's thinking
F related to movement in 3-D space
G related to a person's understanding of him- or herself
H related to language
logical-mathematical / body-kinesthetic
1 A A skilled athlete has high ___________________________ intelligence.
B Having high ___________________________intelligence will help with problem-solving.
34
Theory of Multiple Intelligences / general intelligence
2 A A person's ________________ is what IQ tests are supposed to measure.
B The __________________ explains how different types of intelligence work together.

Student 1: You did 1) ______________________on that English test. But my score was terrible!
Student 2: Yeah, but you did better on our math test. We just have different 2) ________________________.
Student 1: I thought all intelligence was the same.
Student 2: Not according to the Theory of 3) ________________________.
Student 1: What does that mean?
Student 2: You have higher 4) ____________________intelligence. And I have higher linguistic intelligence.
Student 1: Oh, I think I get it. So, I'm better with numbers. And you're better 5) ___________________.
Student 2: Right. And you're also good at 6) ______________________. It's nothing to be ashamed of.
You did really well on ... We have different ... So I'm ... and you're ...
your own dialogue.
You have higher musical intelligence. / Yes, but you did better at the band audition. / Not according to the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences. / It's nothing to be ashamed of.
A: You did really well on that geometry test. But my score was terrible!
B: ____________________________________We have different types of intelligence.
A: I thought all intelligence was the same.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: What does that mean?
B: _______________________________________________And I have higher spatial intelligence.
A: I think I get it. So, I'm better with sounds and rhythm. And you're better at understanding physical concepts.
B: Right.____________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the words below to fill out the worksheet.

Solving / calculations / something / body / understanding
35
Topic 14. Language
Psychology Department
PF Psycholinguistics Faculty
Dr. Edward Francis
Dr. Francis studies language in its smallest units. Some of his
recent work focuses on phonemes. He is interested in how sounds
denote meaning. His work also examines the relationships
between sounds and concepts. This involves an examination of
morphemes. Think about the /s/ in "dogs." Why does it mean
more than one dog? Ask Dr. Francis!
Dr. Gina Richardson

Dr. Richardson has a background in linguistics. She is most
interested in issues of semantics. In particular, she studies how
words connote different feelings. Dr. Richardson also teaches
Advanced Grammar, which is a detailed look at English syntax and
parts of speech.
Language -
Phonemes -
Denote -
Concept -
Morpheme -
Linguistics -
Semantics -
Connote -
Grammar -
Syntax -

A to encourage students to join the psychology department
B to describe the history of psycholinguistics
C to give an overview of a linguistics course
D to summarize the specialties of faculty members
2 What does Dr. Francis mainly study?

A sounds
B sentences
C syntax
D semantics
3 Which is NOT a focus of Dr. Richardson's studies?

A phonemes
B syntax
C grammar
D semantics
36
2. Match the words with the definitions (A-F).
1. Linguistics
2. phoneme
3. syntax
4. concept
5. morpheme
6. semantics
A the study of word meaning

B the study of language
C the smallest unit of meaning in a language
D an idea
E the study of sentence structure
F the smallest unit of sound in a language
3. Write a word that is similar in meaning to the underlined part.
1 Some psychologists study the words and symbols that people use to communicate. (l _ _ g _ _ _ e)
2 One word can directly mean several different things. (_ e _ _ t _)
3 Some words imply a more negative feeling than others. (_ o _ _ _ t e)
4 When learning a new language, it is a good idea to study its rules and structure. (_ r _ _ m _ r)
5 The student majored in the study of how the brain acquires language. (p _ _ c _ _ _ i _ _ _ _ s t i _ _)

Student: Professor Richardson? I don't understand why we study 1) _______________________.
Professor: Language is very important! After all, it's how we 2) ___________________________each other.
Student: But I can speak English just fine. Besides, I'm a 3) _________________________.
Professor: Well, psychologists examine the brain, right?
Student: Sure, of course. What does that 4) ______________________with it?
Professor: The brain processes information using language. To understand it, you have to study 5) ______________.
Student: Hmm. I didn't think of it like that. So, 6) ___________________will help me understand the brain?
Professor: Absolutely.
I don't understand ... Psychologists examine ... I didn't think of ...
your own dialogue.
So, studying morphemes will help me understand people? / I don't understand why we study semantics. / What
does that have to do with it? / But I already speak English.
A: __________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Language is very important! After all, it's how we identify the world around us.
A: ____________________________________________Besides, I'm a psychology major.
B: Psychologists examine how people interact with each other, right?
A: Of course.__________________________________________________________________________________
B: The way words denote and connote meaning is a big part of how we communicate.
A: I didn't think of it like that. _____________________________________________________________________
B: Absolutely.
37
Topic 15. Personality

What's My Type?
Use this guide to understand your test results.
PLEASE NOTE: All results are approximate. One response does
not always indicate a pattern.
1. Which activity do you prefer?

A going to a party
B reading a book
If you answered "A" you are an extrovert. If you answered "B,"
you are an introvert.
2. What will the future be like?

A good
B bad
If you answered "A." your disposition is optimistic. If you
answered "B," it is pessimistic.
3. How do you solve problems?

A tell people what to do.
B I wait until the problem goes away.
If you answered "A." your personality is aggressive. If you answered "B," it is passive.
38
Response -
Pattern -
Extrovert -
Introvert -
Disposition -
Optimistic -
Pessimistic -
Personality -
Aggressive -
Passive -
Complete the table:
1 People with similar sets of qualities and behaviors often choose similar jobs. (_ _ r s _ _ _ l _ _ i e s)
2 The woman's answers followed a repeating set of occurrences, and led researchers to a definite conclusion. (p _ _
_ e _ n)
3 A(n) person who enjoys being with other people usually has many friends. (_ _ t r _ _ e _ _)
4 Some people who prefer to be alone are uncomfortable in large crowds. (_ _ _ r o v _ _ _ s)
passive / optimistic
A A(n) ____________________person expects to be happy.
B If someone is ___________________, he or she avoids arguments.
pessimistic / aggressive
A ____________________people believe that their lives will get worse and worse.
B A(n) __________________person might yell at other people to achieve a goal.
disposition / response
A The subject’s ______________________to the question showed that she was unhappy.
B The man’s _______________________ is usually friendly and kind.

Student 1: Hey, Della. What did your 1) _________________say?
Student 2: Not what I expected. It said my 2) _________________________ is pessimistic.
Student 1: That surprises you?
Student 2: Yes. I'm a nice person, and I have lots of friends. 3) _________________ I'm optimistic?
Student 1: That means 4) ______________________. You could still be pessimistic.
Student 2: Are you sure?
39
Student 1: Of course. How did 5) ____________________number two?
Student 2: I put that 6) _____________________bad things to happen.
Student 1: See, that's what caused those results. It has nothing to do with your friends.
Student 2: Oh, I get it now. That makes sense.
It said ... Doesn't that mean ...? Are you sure?
your own dialogue.
Are you sure? / That makes sense. / Not what I expected. / I put that I sometimes tell people what to do. / I
have a hopeful disposition.
A: What did your personality test say?
B: ________________________________________________It said I have an aggressive personality.
A: That surprises you?
B: Yes. ______________________________________Doesn't that mean I'm passive?
A: That means you're optimistic. You could still be aggressive.
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Of course. How did you answer number three?
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: That's what caused those results. It has nothing to do with your hopefulness.
B:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the personality assessment.
40
Glossary
A
An absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation that an observer can detect.
Acetylcholine is a neuromodulator that allows the spinal cord to control muscles, among other functions.
An acoustic code is a collection of information that is organized by the way it sounds.
To affect something is to change it.
If something is affective, it is related to mood or an emotional state.
If someone is aggressive, he or she is likely to act forcefully or argue with others.
Alpha waves are relatively slow and large brainwaves, and generally occur during relaxed wakefulness.
An altered state is a state of consciousness that differs from a normal state of sleep or wakefulness.
The amygdalae are two groups of nuclei in the brain's limbic system, which help control emotions and the sense of
smell.
If a person is aroused, he or she is alert and ready to react to stimuli.
To assess something is to evaluate and define it.
Associative learning is a form of learning in which an individual makes connections between two stimuli or between
a behavior and a stimulus.
The auditory cortex is a region of the cerebrum located in the temporal lobe, and is responsible for interpreting
sounds.
An automatic behavior is a behavior that a person performs without being aware of it.
The autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for the unconscious
control of the body's internal systems, such as organs and glands.
If someone is aware, he or she is able to perceive and understand the surrounding environment.
B
A behavior is an observable action or reaction to something.
A bias is an idea or prejudice that influences a person's thinking.
A biological rhythm is a variation in a biological system that goes through a regular cycle, and may or may not have
psychological effects.
If something is body-kinesthetic, it is related to the body's movement and coordination.
41
The brain is the organ of the body that is responsible for thinking and controlling the body.
The brain stem is a part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord, and includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain.
C
The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord, and sends and receives messages to and
from the rest of the body to direct behavior.
The cerebellum is a part of the brain located at the rear of the bottom of the brain, which mostly controls movement.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain.
Chunking is the act of organizing small amounts of information into larger groups so they become easier to remember.
A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that has a period of about twenty-four hours, and includes the human sleep
cycle.
If something is cognitive, it is related to conscious mental processes, like thinking or remembering.
A concept is an idea.
Conditioning is a form of learning in which an individual makes an association between a particular stimulus and a
particular response.
To connote something is to suggest or imply something other than the direct or literal meaning.
A consciousness is a person's immediate awareness of his or her thoughts, sensations, existence, and surrounding
environment.
The corpus callosum is a bundle of fibers that connects the left hemisphere of the cerebrum to the right hemisphere
of the cerebrum.
Delta waves are short, regular brainwaves, and generally occur during periods of deep sleep.
To denote something is to indicate or represent it directly.
A difference threshold is the smallest difference in stimulation that an observer can detect while comparing two
stimuli.
A disposition is a particular person's normal way of approaching or reacting to situations.
If something is divided, it is split into more than one part or piece.
A duration is the length of time during which something continues to happen.
42
E
Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that retains information that someone hears for a short period of time.
Encoding is the change that information goes through so that the mind can store and retrieve it from the memory.
Enculturation is a process through which individuals learn about and become part of their surrounding culture.
The endocrine system is a system of glands that release hormones into the body to regulate it.
An endorphin is a hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter affecting sensations of pleasure and pain.
An environment is a physical setting.
Explicit memory is the conscious recollection of information or an event.
An extrovert is a person who enjoys interacting with other people in a friendly way.
The frontal lobe is the front part of the cerebrum, and is responsible for high-level thinking, such as complex problem-
solving and planning.
A function is the job or purpose of something.
General intelligence is the factor that intelligence tests generally measure, and that psychologists consider a good
indication of a person's reasoning and problem-solving abilities.
A gland is an organ in the body that produces a particular chemical.
Grammar is a set of rules that determine how words can be used in the structure of a language.
Gray matter is part of the central nervous system that contains the bodies of nerve cells.
43
Habituation is a process by which an individual temporarily becomes familiar with a stimulus and no longer responds
to it with the same strength as before.
A hemisphere is one half of something that is round.
A hormone is a substance that causes a body's cells to perform a particular action.
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that is located below the thalamus and above the brain stem, which controls
body temperature, fatigue, hunger, and thirst.
I
Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that retains information for a short period of time.
Implicit memory is information that a person does not consciously remember, but which has an effect on his or her
behaviors.
Information processing is the ability the mind uses to understand and categorize thoughts and sensory perceptions.
An infradian rhythm is a biological rhythm that occurs less than once per day, and includes the human menstrual cycle.
The insular lobe is a part of the cerebrum inside of the groove that separates the frontal lobes from the parietal and
temporal lobes, and is responsible for consciousness, motor control, and emotion.
Insulin is a hormone that regulates the amount of sugar in blood.
To integrate something is to make it a part of a larger whole.
Intelligence is the ability to think and learn about the world, and to understand new ideas.
Internal desynchronization is a state in which biological rhythms do not match up to each other.
If something is interpersonal, it is related to the relationships between people.
If something is intrapersonal, it is related to an individual's understanding of him- or herself.
An introvert is a person who prefers to be alone rather than interact with other people.
If an action is involuntary, a person cannot control or influence it.
An IQ (intelligence quotient) is a generally accepted measurement of intelligence based on scores from a standardized
test.
L
Language is the use of words to communicate through writing or through speaking.
Learning is a process through which individuals gain knowledge or skills.
44
The limbic system is a collection of nerves in the brain, which contains the amygdalae and controls basic emotions.
If something is linguistic, it is related to words or language.
Linguistics is the study of language and its parts.
If something is logical-mathematical, it is related to problem-solving and reasoning.
If something is long-term, it occurs or exists for a great or extended period of time.
M
The medulla is the lower half of the brainstem, which controls heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Melatonin is a hormone that helps regulate circadian rhythms.
Memorization is a form of learning in which an individual is able to recall something perfectly after learning it, but
does not necessarily understand what it means.
Memory is the part of the mind that retains and retrieves information.
If something is mental, it is related to the brain.
The midbrain is a part of the brain that is located near the center, which helps control the functions of vision, hearing,
movement, sleep, alertness, and temperature control.
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language.
The motor cortex is a region of the cerebrum on the boundary of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, and is
responsible for planning and executing movement.
A motor nerve is a nerve that sends messages from the brain or spinal cord to the body's muscles and controls
movements.
If something is musical, it is related to the appreciation or production of music.
N
A neuromodulator is a network of neurotransmitters that transmit information to multiple systems in the body at
once.
A neuron is a nerve cell.
A neurotransmitter is a chemical that transmits a signal from one neuron to another.
45
Norepinephrine is a hormone that the brain produces under stress, which acts as a neurotransmitter and controls
functions such as heart rate and blood pressure.
The occipital lobe is the rear part of the cerebrum, and is responsible for processing visual information from the eyes.
If someone is optimistic, he or she hopes or believes that future events will be pleasant and desirable.
P
The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system controls the body when it is at rest.
The parietal lobe is the top middle part of the cerebrum, and is responsible for processing different kinds of sensory
information.
If someone is passive, he or she is not likely to act forcefully or argue with others.
A pattern is a set of events or behaviors that occurs repeatedly in the same way.
Perception is the process that the brain uses to interpret and organize information from the senses.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that is outside of the brain and spinal cord.
A personality is a set of qualities and habits that distinguishes a particular person from other people.
If someone is pessimistic, he or she believes that future events will be unpleasant or undesirable.
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language.
A phonetic loop is a part of a memory system that rehearses verbal information to keep it in memory.
A physical state is the status of the body's systems in a particular circumstance.
The pituitary gland is a gland that is located below the brain, which secretes hormones that control growth, conversion
of nutrients, and other bodily functions.
Play is activity that individuals, especially children, participate in primarily for enjoyment, but is also an important form
of learning.
The pons is a part of the brainstem that transmits signals from the cerebrum to the medulla, then from the medulla
to the thalamus.
The preconscious is the part of the mind storing thoughts and memories that a person is not immediately aware of,
but can easily recall if needed.
A process is a set of events that take place in a certain order and have a specific result.
46
To process something is to take it in and understand it.
Psycholinguistics is the study of how the brain acquires and uses language.
Psychology is the study of the brain or mind and how it influences the ways in which people act.
If something is psychomotor, it is related to body movements associated with mental activities.
Psychophysics is a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between sensory experiences and the physical
properties of stimuli.
R
A reflex is an uncontrolled and unlearned response to a stimulus.
To regulate a process is to control its amount or frequency.
Rehearsal is the act of repeating information in order to keep it in short-term memory.
If a person is relaxed, he or she is awake but not alert or aroused.
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is a period of sleep in which the eyes move, the muscles lose tone, and the sleeping
person dreams.
A response is someone's action or thought as a result of a particular event.
Retention is the ability to store facts and information in the memory.
Retrieval is the ability to recall facts and information from the memory.
Rote rehearsal is the act of repeating a specific sequence of information to keep it in short-term memory.
S
Selective attention is the process of focusing on a small part of the environment while blocking out the rest of the
environment.
Semantics is the study of the meanings of words.
A sensation is the detection or the experience of something in the surrounding environment resulting from stimulation
of a sensory organ.
A sense is an ability by which the body perceives something around it.
Sensory adaptation is the reduction in response to a sensory perception that occurs when a stimulus is repetitive or
unchanging.
Sensory deprivation is the lack of normal amounts of sensory perception.
47
Sensory information is data that come from the sense organs like the eyes or ears.
Sensory memory is a system of memory that stores extremely accurate information from the senses for a short
amount of time.
A sensory nerve is a nerve that sends information from the body to the brain or spinal cord.
A shift is a change in the state of something.
If something is short-term, it occurs or exists for a brief period of time.
A sleep stage is one of five stages of sleep that a person experiences while asleep, and are part of either REM sleep or
NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep.
The somatic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for the body's controllable
movements.
The somatosensory cortex is a region of the cerebrum located in the parietal lobe, and is responsible for interpreting
information about the body's position, temperature, and pain levels.
If something is spatial, it is related to movement and orientation in three-dimensional space.
A spinal cord is a long, thick group of nerves that extends from the brain down the backbone.
A state is a person's mental or physical condition at a particular time.
If something is subconscious, it occurs or exists in the unconscious.
The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system controls the body's responses to threatening, dangerous,
or otherwise arousing situations.
Syntax is a set of rules that determines how words are arranged to form phrases and sentences in a particular
language.
T
The temporal lobe is the bottom middle part of the cerebrum, and is responsible for language-learning, speech, and
forming new memories.
The thalamus is a part of the brain that is located between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, which helps control
consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences is the idea that there are many different elements of intelligence, and that people
can have varying levels of them.
Transduction is a process performed by sensory organs in which one type of energy becomes another.
To treat a medical condition is to try to correct it or make it less severe.
48
U
An ultradian rhythm is a biological rhythm that occurs more often than once per day, and includes the stages in the
human sleep cycle.
The unconscious is the part of the mind that a person is not aware of, but which influences his or her actions and
feelings.
V
The visual cortex is a region of the cerebrum located in the occipital lobe, and is responsible for interpreting
information from the eyes.
A visuo-spatial sketchpad is a part of a memory system that holds visual and spatial information in memory.
If an action is voluntary, a person can control or influence it.
W
White matter is part of the central nervous system that does not contain the bodies of nerve cells.
49
Book 2.
Змістовий модуль IІI. Emotions and Stresses.
Topic 1. Emotions 1.
1.Read the text and translate it into Ukrainian. Write down
the meaning of the highlighted words.
Understanding feelings is a complex process. First, you must

understand the basic emotions. Robert Plutchik's emotion
wheel is one model of basic emotions. Use this guide to
understand it.
Yellow represents joy on the wheel. This is the emotion behind

happiness. The light green section is for trust. Trust makes
people feel generally positive about others. Fear is in the dark
green segment. When people expect to be harmed, this is what
they feel. Light blue is surprise. This is how someone reacts to
something that he or she did not expect.
Opposite Emotion. Sadness appears in dark blue. This occurs

when people are unhappy with events or circumstances.
Disgust is in purple, across from trust. In this state, people
experience a generally negative feeling about others. The red section represents anger. Angry people may want to
harm someone for causing a particular event. Across from surprise, orange represents anticipation. It is a sense that
something will happen.
Feeling –
emotion wheel –
happiness –
trust –
Fear -
Surprise -
Sadness –
Disgust –
Experience –
Anger –
Anticipation -
Mark the following statements as True or False

True False
1. The key outlines several different models for explaining emotions.
2. Disgust is primarily related to the probability of being harmed. True False
3. Anticipation is listed as the opposite of surprise. True False
2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-G).
1. Disgust
2. Feeling
3. Fear
4. Joy
5. Anger
6. emotion wheel
50
7. experience
8. A an emotion caused by not liking something
B an emotion of feeling very upset or dissatisfied with someone
C to feel or have sensations of something
D an emotion in which someone feels good
E the way a person feels when undergoing a certain emotionF an emotion of feeling scared
G a graphical representation of emotions and feelings
happiness / anticipation
A ________________________is a feeling of well-being and contentment.
B The expectation of an event causes___________________________.
emotion / sadness
A The opposite of joy is ___________________________.
B Anger is not a happy ____________________________.
trust / surprise
A When unexpected events happen, a person may experience_______________________________.
B ____________________________relates to one person’s general attitude towards another.
4. What is the difference between surprise and anticipation? Use the words below to fill in the gaps.
Expectations / after / event / feeling / happens
Surprise and anticipation both relate to a person’s ________________about future events. Anticipation has to do with
the_________________ before a(n) _______________________ happens. Surprise, however,
occurs________________ the event ____________________and wasn't as expected.

Psychologist: Okay, Tanya. Let's talk about your feelings today.
Patient: Okay. I feel better than I did last week.
Psychologist: And why is that?
Patient: Well, I finally got the results of my final exams.
Psychologist: Oh, right. I remember you had some fear about those.
Patient: Yes. I thought I would fail out of school. But I did all right.
Psychologist: That's great. So, you experienced 1) ____________________.
Patient: Yes, that's right. I'm sleeping much better, too.
Psychologist: Good, good. Now, Tanya, 2) _________________________tell you?
Patient: What 3) _______________________?
Psychologist: I mean, what did you learn 4) ________________________?
Patient: Hmm. I guess 5) _______________________control my feelings.
Psychologist: Right. And 6) ___________________________out, there was no need.
Patient: I see. I shouldn't let these situations have such an effect on my happiness.
Let's talk about ... I feel ... I see ... As it turns out….
your own dialogue.
I mean, what went wrong? / So, you experienced some unpleasant surprise. / And as it turns out, that only made
those emotions worse. / Let's talk about your feelings today. / I remember you had some anger towards him. / And
why is that?
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
51
B: I feel worse than I did last week.
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I finally talked to my husband about our problems.
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes. I thought this would clear up the problem. But I was too angry, and then he got angry, too.
A: _________________________________________________________________ What does this tell you?
B: What do you mean?
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I guess I let my anger and disgust determine my behavior.
A: Right. _______________________________________________________________________________________
B: I see. I shouldn't let my emotions have such an effect on me.
8. Use the conversation from Task 7 to fill out the patient notes.
Topic 2. Emotions 2.
Psychology Majors. Monthly. How to Talk to Your Patients

By Professor Greenfield
As a clinician, you must determine how patients feel. This is often

difficult. Sometimes, people have trouble expressing emotions. Some
may claim to be angry, but are really experiencing disappointment.
Others may mistake awe for love. Most feelings are complicated. They
are the result of more than one emotion. Remorse, for example,
requires emotions of both sadness and disgust. Other emotions
interfere with the ability to communicate effectively. As a result, they
are difficult to discuss. This is often true with aggressiveness and
submission. Furthermore, feelings can change very quickly. Someone
might feel optimism at the beginning of the day. Then, he or she
receives news of a friend's death. Suddenly, the person feels extreme
grief instead. The person might also feel anxiety about the future. On
the other hand, some feelings take a while to change. For example, an
employee might feel contempt for his or her boss. This may take years
to become acceptance.
52
Aggressiveness –
submission –
optimism –
grief –
anxiety –
contempt –
acceptance –
Feel –
Disappointment –
Awe –
Love –
Remorse
Choose the– correct answers:

A understanding the complexity of feelings
B treating particular emotional disorders
C helping patients experience positive feelings
D conducting a study on emotional responses
2 According to the article, which feeling might be confused with anger?
A grief
B disappointment
C remorse
D anxiety
3 According to the article, which feeling is especially difficult to talk about?
A aggressiveness
B optimism
C anxiety
D acceptance
2. Match the words with the definitions (A-H).
1. Love
2. Submission
3. Disappointment
4. Feel
5. Contempt
6. Awe
7. Remorse
8. acceptance
A a combination of trust and fear
B a combination of disgust and anger
C a combination of disgust and sadness
D a combination of fear and surprise
E a combination of trust and joy
F to experience a certain state of mind
G the realization that something cannot be avoided
H a combination of sadness and surprise
1 A The death of a friend or family member usually causes grief.
B The man feels love for the people he dislikes.
2 A Happiness is similar to disappointment.
B Fear and anticipation are both part of anxiety.
53
3 A Acceptance is one part of remorse.
B Optimism is the quality of expecting good things to happen.
4 A Anger is related to the feeling of aggressiveness.
B Most people feel contempt for their closest friends.

Psychologist: Tell me more about 1) _____________________with your boss.
Patient: He asked me to work on Saturday. But I refused, and 2) ___________________.
Psychologist: I see. And how 3) _______________________about that?
Patient: At the time, I was angry. I yelled and slammed the office door.
Psychologist: What about now? Do you feel 4) _______________________?
Patient: Yes. My behavior was totally unprofessional. I'm 5) ____________________ I reacted that way!
Psychologist: It sounds like you're 6) _________________________in yourself.
Patient: I feel really ashamed. Disgusted, even.
Psychologist: Ah, so you actually feel some remorse. Are you ready to apologize to your boss?
Patient: I guess I'd better. But I'm worried about his contempt for me now.
Psychologist: Well, you're not going to change that by staying silent. The sooner you apologize, the better.

Tell me more about ... I'm so surprised ...! Do you feel any different ...?
your own dialogue.
It sounds like you're disappointed in yourself. / Tell me more about the argument with your mom. / How do you
feel now? / How did you feel about that? / Maybe if you apologize to her, it will help.
A:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: She asked me to clean the kitchen. I told her I'd do it later. But she wanted me to do it right then.
A: I see. ________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I got angry and yelled at her.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I feel awful. I'm so surprised I reacted that way!
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes, I am. I feel ashamed.
A: _______________________________________________________________You can't change your actions now.
B: You're right. I can only try to do better in the future.
54
Topic 3. Motivation
Motivation is a complex field of psychology. It's also one of the most

fundamental. As a result, there are many theories about motivation.
Some theories focus on biological needs, or drives. Drive theory, for
example, suggests that people perform actions to reduce tension. The
tension comes from unmet needs. Homeostatic-regulation theory
also focuses on biological drives. Examples include hunger and sex
drive. Usually, these drives prompt instinctive behaviors.
Other theories focus more on emotional aspects of responses.
Arousal theory explains behavior as a way to manage excitement and
boredom. It also provides a basis for curiosity. Opponent-process
theory also addresses emotional needs. It matches each positive
emotion with a negative emotion. According to the theory, people
seek positive emotions while avoiding negative ones. Theory of needs
addresses both biological and emotional aspects of motivation.
According to this theory, there is a hierarchy of needs. So a need for
food is more important than a need for excitement.
Motivation –
Biological –
Drive theory –
Homeostatic-regulation theory –
Homeostatic-regulation theory –
sex drive –
instinctive behaviors –
Arousal theory –
Curiosity –
Opponent-process theory –
Theory of needs –
hierarchy of needs -

A how people can control their motivation levels
B psychological disorders that affect motivation
C how different theories explain motivation
D challenges associated with studying motivation
2 Which theory does NOT focus on emotional responses?

A theory of needs
B arousal theory
C opponent-process theory
D homeostatic-regulation theory
3 Which is true about arousal theory?

A It pairs positive with negative emotions.
B It focuses mostly on biological needs.
C It ranks various needs according to importance.
D It addresses the drive of curiosity.
55
1. Motivation
2. Hunger
3. instinctive behavior
4. curiosity
5. biological
6. opponent-process theory
7. drive theory
8. hierarchy of needs
A a theory of motivation that focuses on physical needs

B related to physical processes of living things
C a theory of motivation that focuses on emotions
D the desire to perform actionsE the feeling of wanting or needing to eat
F actions that are not learned or taught
G the desire to learn about unknown things
H a system of ranking needs according to their importance
3. Read the sentences and choose the correct words or phrases.

1 Drive Theory / Sex drive is an instinctive behavior that many living things have naturally.
2 Arousal theory / Hierarchy of needs says that people act because they are bored.
3 The theory that people strive to keep their bodies balanced is called opponent- process theory / homeostatic-
regulation theory.
4 Some explanations, like instinctive behavior / theory of needs address both biological and emotional motivation.

Professor: So now you know about the different theories of motivation. What do you think of them?
Student: I'd say homeostatic-regulation theory best explains motivation.
Professor: And why is that?
Student: Well, it just 1) _________________________. It explains that people do things to keep their bodies healthy.
Professor: Can you give me 2) ___________________________?
Student: Sure. Sometimes, I feel 3) _______________________________to eat. And that's because my body needs
food to survive.
Professor: That's good. But surely you eat when 4) ___________________________, too.
Student: What do you mean?
Professor: Sometimes, you eat just for the taste, right? How does 5) __________________________address that?
Student: Hmm. I didn't 6) ___________________________. I guess that requires another theory.
Professor: Right. Can you think of a theory that might explain it?
Student: Let's see. I guess I often eat because I'm bored. So, arousal theory might cover that.
Professor: Absolutely. Food can be fun or interesting. That satisfies your need for excitement.

Can you give me an example? But surely ... How does ... explain that?
your own dialogue.
It explains why people do everything. / Theory of needs might cover that. / What do you mean? / I think that drive
theory is the best theory of motivation. / Hunger and sex drive explain how people stay alive and reproduce.
A: So, what do you think of the different motivation theories?
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Really? Why?
56
B: _______________________________________________It shows how our bodies' needs influence our behavior.
A: Can you give me an example?
B: Sure. ________________________________________________________________________________________
A: But those aren't the only types of drives we have. Surely, you perform actions that aren't related to your survival.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Sometimes, you seek entertainment, right?
B: I didn't think of that. I guess that requires another theory. _____________________________________________
A: Definitely. The hierarchy of needs places those biological needs first, then secondary needs like entertainment.
Topic 4. Stress and Coping.

Stress: A Natural Part of Life
What causes stress? Everyone has different stressors, but some are
more common than others. Positive and negative life events often lead
people to feel stress. These include major events like moving, getting
married, and changing jobs.
The stress response. When a stressful event occurs, your body goes
through three stages. The first stage is alarm. Your body fills with energy
to fight the stressor. If the stressor still persists, the body moves on to
resistance. The body still wants to fight, but it is losing energy. The final
stage is exhaustion. This is an undesirable state of extreme tiredness.
How to deal with stress. Your response to stress relates to how you
perceive it. An accurate primary appraisal is very important. It helps
you understand the nature of the problem. This ensures a realistic
secondary appraisal, or plan of action. Then, you can cope with the
stress more effectively.
57
Stressors –
life events –
alarm –
resistance –
exhaustion –
exhaustion. –
perceive –
primary apprais –
secondary appraisal –
cope with -
Complete the table
1. Stressor
2. primary appraisal
3. perceive
4. alarm
5. resistance
6. exhaustion
7. life eventcope
A an important occurrence in a person's life

B something that causes a person to feel stress
C the first evaluation of a stressor, including how stressful it is
D to see or notice something
E a stage of stress response when energy levels are heightenedF to manage a negative situation
G a stage of stress response when energy levels start to drop
H a stage of stress response when the body is extremely tired
deal with / secondary appraisal / Stress / stress response
1 The _____________________ is an assessment of what someone can do about a stressful event.
2 When something stressful occurs, the body immediately starts the ____________________________ .
3 The psychologist helps people ______________________________stressors more effectively.
4 _____________________________is the feeling of nervousness or anxiousness.

Psychologist: Have a seat, Cindy. How was your week?
Patient: I don't know. I feel really tired for some reason.
Psychologist: 1) _____________________________ in your life right now?
Patient: I just started a new job. I like it, but 2) _________________________to learn.
58
Psychologist: That can be a 3) ________________________________life event. You're experiencing a normal stress
response.
Patient: What do you mean?
Psychologist: The 4) ____________________________is a three-stage process. First, you have heightened energy.
Patient: Oh, that's 5) ______________________________ last week.
Psychologist: Right. But if the 6) ___________________________, you really feel the pressure.
Patient: And that's what makes me tired?
Psychologist: Right. Now, it's important to deal with the stress appropriately. Otherwise, it'll reach the point of
exhaustion.
Patient: I see. I need to find some time to relax.
What's going on ...? What do you mean? I need to ...
your own dialogue.
I'm feeling pretty stressed out. / What do you mean? / That's not difficult. / So, I need to find some time to take it
easy. / We just had a baby.
A: What's going on in your life right now?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Why is that?
B: ____________________________________________________________She's great, but there's so much to do!
A: I see. Life events are always somewhat stressful. You need to step back and make a primary appraisal.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Well, first you need to determine the cause and extent of your stress.
B: ____________________________________________________________I hardly have any time to sleep or relax.
A: Good. Then, you make a secondary appraisal. That's when you decide what to do about it.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes, it's important to deal with the stress appropriately. Otherwise, it'll reach the point of exhaustion.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the worksheet.
59
Змістовий модуль ІV. Different schools of modern Psychology.
Topic 5. Structuralism.
Referepedia Structuralism
Structuralism was one of the first schools of modern psychology.
Structuralists tried to break down mental processes into basic
components. They believed that systematic introspection would
lead to empirical truths.
A major area of examination was the senses. Structuralists broke
down senses into elementary sensations. For instance, an
elementary sensation of touching water was 'wetness.' An
elementary sensation of looking at the sky was 'blue.' After
finding multiple people's elementary sensations, they compared
them. This dialectic was intended to reveal universal truths
about perception.
But many psychologists found flaws in the theory. They
determined that structuralism's method of self-observation was
fundamentally not objective. Different people reported wildly
different elementary sensations. Consequently, the resulting
data were not useful to analysts. Other schools of psychology
emerged to replace structuralism. New, rigid methods left less
room for feelings and personal bias. Today, structuralism is
studied largely as a historical theory.
Structuralism –
break down –
components –
systematic introspection –
empirical –
elementary sensations –
dialectic –
self-observation –
objective -
rigid –
bias -
Mark the following statements as True or False.

1.Structuralists were some of the first modern psychologists. True False
2. Structuralists tried to examine the components of mental processes. True False
3. Psychologists rejected structuralism because it was too rigid. True False
2.Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-G).
1. break down
2. dialectic
3. introspection
4. systematic
5. component
6. objective
7. elementary sensation
60
A to separate something into its individual parts
B influenced only by facts, and not feelings or beliefs
C the act of examining one's own thoughts
D a method of comparing two opposing ideas
E an individual part of something
F performed according to a planned set of steps
G the most basic part of a sensory experience
self-observation / structuralism
1 A The school of ____________________________ was popular in the early twentieth century.
B The act of ______________________________allows people to examine their own thoughts.
empirical / rigid
2 A The procedure has ________________________ instructions that must be followed carefully.
B Scientists perform experiments to collect __________________________evidence.

Student: Excuse me, professor. I have a question about structuralism. Hopefully you can clarify it.
Professor: Sure. What are you having trouble with?
Student: I was wondering, what is the purpose of finding 1) __________________________?
Professor: Well, structuralists believed that they could compare different individuals' sensations.
Student: They compared two similar sensations with 2) ___________________________________, right?
Professor: Exactly. They hoped this would reveal something about 3) ____________________________________.
Student: So, the structuralists discovered important facts about senses.
Professor: Actually, 4) __________________________________. They found that the process relied too much on
introspection.
Student: Oh, I think I get it. Self-observation can't 5) __________________________________.
Professor: Precisely. People's 6) ____________________________________influenced their senses too much.
Student: That makes sense. I can see why many psychologists abandoned the theory.
Professor: Yes. It's hard to study something without reliable, empirical evidence.
I was wondering ... Actually, they ... I can see why ...
your own dialogue.
They thought this would reveal something about sensory experiences. / The process wasn't objective enough. /
Structuralists tried to find elementary sensations through introspection. / What are you having trouble with?
A: Can you clarify something about structuralism for me?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I was wondering, how did structuralists find elementary sensations?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: So, they gathered empirical data through self-observation.
B: Exactly. ______________________________________________________________________________________
A: So, they discovered important facts about senses.
B: Actually, they didn't.____________________________________________________________________________
A: That makes sense. I can see why many psychologists abandoned the theory.
61
7. Use the encyclopedia article from Task 2 to fill out the student's notes.
Topic 6. Functionalism.
James' Psych Blog

Functionalism
Posted September 9
We are currently studying functionalism for my psych
history class. It was an early approach to psychology. Its
focus contained elements of pragmaticism. In other
words, functionalists placed importance on observable
consequences. So they worked backwards, from the
result to the cause. They identified psychological
structures by examining the functions that resulted.
According to functionalists, all psychological processes
were adaptations to surroundings. Each process must
have some usefulness in the environment.
Critics argue that functionalism has insufficient focus. I
tend to agree with this. Functionalism is good for
analyzing active psychological processes. However, it
almost completely excludes passive ones. In other words,
it only looks at the actions that result from processes. But people process some information without an observable
action. A passive process like disinterest can be difficult to observe. As a result, there is an overemphasis on active
emotions. That's primarily why functionalism is not widely used today.
Functionalism –
Pragmaticism –
psychological structures -
functions –
psychological processes –
surroundings –
insufficient -
active –
passive –
process –
overemphasis –
62
Process -
overemphasis -

1 The concept of functionalism contains ideas from pragmaticism. True False
2 Functionalists believe that environments change based on thought processes. True False
3 Passive psychological processes are difficult to analyze with functionalism. True False
2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-E).
1. Pragmaticism
2. psychological structure
3. Functionalism
4. psychological process
5. usefulness
A a theory that focuses on the purposes of processes

B a part of the mind where mental processes occur
C a function of the mind with multiple steps and a specific result
D the concept that an idea's meaning is related to its results
E the ability of something to serve a purpose
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct words:
Overemphasis / surroundings / active / insufficient / function / process / passive

1 The researcher waited for the computer to _______________________________ the new set of data.
2 Each part of the body fulfills a very specific ________________________________.
3 Over time, many creatures adapt and do well in their particular______________________________ .
4 A(n) ___________________________process often occurs without any observable results.
5 A(n) ______________________________process usually results in an observable change.
6 The professor placed a(n) ___________________________on some theories, and not enough focus on others.
7 With _______________________________data, the researchers could not draw a conclusion.

Student: Do you have a moment, professor? I'm confused about functionalism.
Professor: Sure. What do you find confusing?
Student: You made it seem like a bad 1) ___________________________psychology. But it seems logical to me.
Professor: Well, let's talk about it. Why does it seem logical?
Student: Um, for one, it makes sense that each 2) _________________________________has a function.
Professor: Okay. So, 3) ____________________________of, say, boredom?
Student: Hmm. I don't see that 4) _______________________________. What did the functionalists say?
Professor: See, that's the trouble. The functionalists really only looked at 5) ________________________.
Student: Oh, right. They observed behaviors. But boredom is a 6) ______________________________.
Professor: Exactly. So, you could observe a person laughing. Then you might conclude, "That person is happy."
Student: But a bored person doesn't perform any particular action.
I'm confused about ... It makes sense that ... That's the trouble.
your own dialogue.
63
What about it made sense to you? / So, what's the function of, say, indifference to your surroundings? / Exactly. /
What's confusing you? / They only looked at active processes.
A: I'm confused about functionalism.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: You said it was a bad approach to psychology, but it made sense to me.
B: Really? _______________________________________________________________________________________
A: It makes sense that every psychological process has usefulness in an environment.
B: Okay. ________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I don't see that here. What did the functionalists say?
B: That's the trouble. ______________________________________________________________________________
A: So, they couldn't explain passive processes like indifference?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the blog post from Task 2 to fill out the student's worksheet.
Topic 7. Behaviorism.
1.4.0
Intro to Behaviorism
As the name suggests, behaviorism examines behaviors. It focuses on how
we learn behavior, as well as how we measure it. Behaviorists do not
address internal factors, such as thoughts. To some, this is strange. How
can psychologists ignore thoughts? There's a logical answer. As scientists,
behaviorists seek measurable events for observation. However, nobody
can directly observe another's thoughts. So, the study of thoughts requires
speculation. This was not scientific enough for early behaviorists. That's
why they turned their attention to observable behaviors.
64
1.4.1
How Does It Work?
There are two major types of behavioral conditioning. One is operant conditioning. Many traditional experiments
involved Skinner boxes. This was a form of animal experimentation. The boxes presented animals with shocks or
rewards based on different behaviors. Another type is classical conditioning. This involves provoking a natural
response to a stimulus. A famous example of this is the experiment with Pavlov's dogs. They learned the same
respondent behavior for receiving food and hearing a bell.
Behaviorism –
Internal –
Ignore –
speculation. –
observable behaviors –
operant conditioning –
Skinner boxes –
animal experimentation –
classical conditioning –
stimulus –
Pavlov's dogs –
respondent behavior -

1. Behaviorists examine the effects of thoughts on behavior. True False
2. Behaviorists try to avoid speculation. True False
3. Pavlov's dogs were a famous example of classical conditioning. True False

1. animal experimentation behavior
2. behaviorism
3. internal
4. Pavlov's dogs
5. classical conditioning
6. observable
7. operant conditioning
A the process of testing ideas on subjects like mice or monkeys

B happening or existing inside of the mind or body
C a form of learning based on the outcome of someone's actions
D a school of psychology that focuses on behavioral conditioning
E the subjects of a famous experiment involving conditioning
F a form of learning that involves linking the responses to stimuli
G the actions that people can study
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct words or phrases:
Stimuli / Skinner box / respondent behavior / ignored / speculation

1 Some insects react strongly to ________________________such as bright lights.
2 According to behaviorists, examining thoughts requires too much _______________________.
3 The scientist _____________________________ an important factor, and the experiment failed.
4 The scientists tested the rabbit by placing it in a(n)__________________________________.
5 The mouse displayed a(n) ___________________________ by jumping after a loud noise.
65
Student: That was an interesting lecture on behaviorism, Professor Klein. But I'm confused about something.
Professor: Sure. How can I help you?
Student: I'm not sure I understand 1) _____________________________. Can you give me an example of an
experiment?
Professor: Definitely. Perhaps the 2) _____________________________involved Pavlov's dogs. Do you know that
one?
Student: That sounds familiar. That involved feeding the dogs, right?
Professor: Yes, it did. Pavlov 3) ____________________________________while ringing a bell.
Student: Oh, I remember now. The dogs salivated when 4) ________________________________.
Professor: Precisely. Do you know what that 5) ____________________________________is called?
Student: That's a 6) ___________________________________, isn't it?
Professor: Yes. But every time the dogs received food, they also heard a bell ringing.
Student: Ah, right. Eventually, they learned to salivate when they heard the bell. Even without any food.
Professor: That's exactly right. They associated the two stimuli. And that's classical conditioning.
I'm not
I'm notsure
sureIIunderstand
understand...
... Perhaps the
Perhaps the most
most...
... Oh, II remember
Oh, remembernow.
now.
your own dialogue.
When it chose the other lever, it received food. / Do you know what that is? / And that's operant conditioning. /
The animal was placed in a box with different levers.
A: I'm not sure I understand operant conditioning. Can you give me an example of an experiment?
B: Perhaps the most famous example is the Skinner box. _________________________________________________
A: That sounds familiar. That involved animal experimentation, right?
B: Yes, it did. ____________________________________________________________________________________
A: I remember now. Each lever either rewarded or punished the animal.
B: Yes. Every time the animal chose one lever, it received a painful shock.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Right. Eventually, the animal learned to choose only the food lever.
B: That's exactly right._____________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the excerpt from the student's quiz.
66
Topic 8. Gestalt Psychology.
Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology that studies the perception

of patterns.
• People perceive objects in a holistic manner.
Basically, people perceive objects as wholes, not collections of elements.
Instead of individual objects in groups, people perceive sums.
• Criticism: Gestalt psychology engages in circular thinking. (People
perceive patterns because the mind perceives patterns.)
Gestalt psychology is based on several principles.
• Emergence is the idea that people recognize
wholes before their parts.
• Reification involves adding information to a perception. This helps the
brain interpret something familiar.
• Multistability is a tendency to interpret some patterns in multiple ways.
Laws of Gestalt psychology:
• Law of proximity - People perceive objects that are near each other as
groups.
• Law of similarity - People perceive objects that resemble each other as
groups.
• Law of closure - People perceive shapes as whole when they are not.
• Law of symmetry - People perceive symmetrical objects as centered on one point.
Gestalt psychology –
Holistic –
Whole –
Element –
Sum –
circular thinking –
Emergence –
Reification –
Multistability –
Law of proximity –
Law of similarity –
Law of closure –
Law of symmetry -
1 What is the passage mainly about?

A a comparison of Gestalt psychology and other branches
B basic principles behind Gestalt psychology
C famous experiments in Gestalt psychology
D the medical applications of Gestalt psychology
2 According to the passage, what is Gestalt psychology often criticized for?

A circular thinking
B reification
C multistability
D proximity
3 What explains why someone might group yellow objects together?
67
A the law of proximity
B the law of closure
C the law of similarity
D the law of symmetry
2.Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-G).
1. Emergence
2. law of proximity
3. law of similarity
4. circular thinking
5. reification
6. Gestalt psychology
7. law of symmetry
A a type of flawed logic in which a premise supports itself

B a tendency to interpret more parts than are actually there
C a principle in which people perceive nearby objects as a group
D the process in which the mind perceives groups of parts as a whole
E a principle in which people perceive something as halves around a center
F a field of science that studies the perception of patterns in the mind
G a principle in which people consider objects with like features as a group
Sum / element / multistability / whole / law of closure / holistic

1 A(n) ____________________________analysis focuses on all of someone’s psychological functions.
2 Behavior is just one _____________________________ of a psychological profile.
3 The _________________________of a painting’s brushstrokes allows people to see a picture.
4 People’s brains tend to organize parts into a(n)_________________________________ .
5 The ____________________________________ made the woman perceive the broken object as a bowl.
6 The picture demonstrates _______________________________ since it can be perceived in two different ways.
Student 1: Hey, Mark. Do you understand the laws of Gestalt psychology?

Student 2: Yeah, I think I understand the basics, at least.
Student 1: Great! Maybe you can help me. I think I'm misunderstanding the 1) ___________________________.
Student 2: Oh, that one's easy. People perceive 2) ___________________________________as a group.
Student 1: Wait, that's the law of proximity? I thought that was the 3) _____________________________.
Student 2: No. The law of closure is more 4) ____________________________________ the law of proximity. It's
about filling in incomplete images.
Student 1: Oh, right. I don't quite understand that. How 5) __________________________________what to add?
Student 2: 6)__________________________________, three lines in the shape of a triangle. But the three lines don't
touch each other.
Student 1: So, their general positioning just suggests the shape?
Student 2: That's right. It's not actually a triangle. But you automatically see a triangle anyway.
Student 1: Oh, I see. A triangle's a familiar shape, so that's what I interpret.
Student 2: Exactly. It's called reification, and it explains the law of closure.
I thought that was ... I don't quite understand that. Think about ...
68
6. Complete the conversation below based on Task 4, with the phrases given. Then, take roles and act it out. Make your
own dialogue.
Think about a painting. / Emergence is different. / I think I understand the basics, at least. / That one's easy. / That's
emergence.
A: Do you understand the laws of Gestalt psychology?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Maybe you can help me. I think I'm misunderstanding the concept of reification.
B: __________________________________________People add information to perceptions to create something
familiar.
A: Wait, that's reification? I thought that was emergence.
B: No. ______________________________________________ It's about taking in a whole before perceiving
individual parts.
A: I don't quite understand that. How does the brain know what parts belong to a particular whole?
B: _____________________________________________It has many brushstrokes in different colors. But instead of
seeing those first, you see the holistic image.
A: I see. My brain automatically looks for the sum of the parts.
B: Exactly._______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the lecture notes from Task 1 to fill out the notes for the student's presentation.
69
Topic 9. Cognitivism.
The History of Cognitivism
Cognitivism is a school of psychology that became popular in the

1950s. It provides a framework for understanding the role of
thought. Cognitivism first emerged as a response to behaviorism.
According to cognitivists, behaviorism failed to account for the
mind's internal processes. Cognitivists believe that the way
people think affects their actions. In general, cognitivism takes a
reductionist approach to psychology. Cognitivists believe that
learning about individual mental processes is important. They feel
that this will lead to a better understanding of psychology,
Cognitivist experiments tend to study individual mental
processes. One popular subject for experimentation is social
interaction. For instance, cognitivists want to know how thought
affects relationships. Another major area of cognitivism is animal
psychology. Many cognitivists are interested in the mental
processes of primates. One criticism of early cognitivist
experimentation was its lack of naturalistic observation. Critics
argued that this quality prevented sufficient scientific rigor.
Cognitivism -
Framework –
Response –
Fail –
Think –
Reductionist –
social interaction –
primate –
experimentation –
lack –
naturalistic observation –
scientific rigor –
1. Cognitivist theories were the basic foundation of behaviorism. True False
2. Cognitivists rarely study thought processes in non-human animals. True False
3. Critics of cognitivism believe it should involve more naturalistic observation. True False
1. Framework
2. Primate
3. Reductionist
4. Cognitivism
5. scientific rigor
6. social interaction
7. experimentation
A the process in which people behave in response to each other

B related to understanding complex ideas through individual parts
70
C a type of mammal with hands and forward-facing eyes
D a school of psychology that focuses on the process of thinking
E a set of ideas that people use to think about a specific subject
F the level of exactness required to perform valid scientific studies
G the process of testing ideas in a controlled environment
Thinks / fails
1 A Many psychologists are interested in the way a person _______________________ .
B Behaviorism _____________________ to explain how thought affects behavior.
Response / lack
2 A The scientist’s paper contained an alarming ____________________ of evidence.
B The new scientific theory is a ______________________to many older theories.
Psychologist 1: Hey, Allison. What are you teaching next term?

Psychologist 2: The department asked me to develop a seminar on cognitivism.
Psychologist 1: That's interesting. What do you think of cognitivism?
Psychologist 2: In general, I think it provides a useful framework for studying mental processes.
Psychologist 1: The 1) _________________________________ doesn't bother you?
Psychologist 2: No. I think that it's good foundation for 2) _________________________________. Why?
Psychologist 1: It seems to me like cognitivism is too narrow. It 3) _______________________________.
Psychologist 2: I 4) _________________________________what you're talking about. You're referring to the methods
of experimentation.
Psychologist 1: Exactly. For reliable data, you need more naturalistic observation.
Psychologist 2: Sure. But that's tough with cognitivism. How 5) ________________________thinking in a natural
environment?
Psychologist 1: That's 6) _______________________________. You can only observe behaviors, not thoughts.
Psychologist 2: I agree. That's why I accept some behaviorist and cognitivist ideas. You really have to incorporate both
to get the full picture.
Psychologist 1: Hmm. That actually makes a lot of sense.
What do you think of ...? I think I know what you're ... That's why I ...
own dialogue.
Like what? / I think it provides a useful framework for studying thinking. / That's why I study things like social
interaction. / I think I know what you're referring to. / What do you think of cognitivism?
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: In general, I think I like it, but I have some criticisms of it.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: For one, its experiments seem too artificial. Like their conditions wouldn't happen in nature.
A: _______________________________________________________You think that cognitivism lacks scientific rigor.
B: Exactly. Without naturalistic observation, you can't collect reliable data.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: But you can't observe thoughts. You can only observe the results.
A: __________________________________________It's a good way to analyze thought processes through behavior.
B: Hmm. That actually makes a lot of sense.
71
7. Use the journal article from Task 1 to fill out the proposal.
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Змістовий модуль V. Branches of Psychology.
Topic 10. Psychodynamic Psychology.
1.Read the text and translate it into Ukrainian. Write down the
meaning of the highlighted words.
Who was Sigmund Freud?

Most people are familiar with the name Sigmund Freud. It's
well known that he is an important figure in the history of
psychology. But what exactly did he do?
Freud proposed a very important psychological theory. This is
the theory of psychodynamic psychology. Based on this
perspective, the human mind, or psyche, has three parts. The
id is the fully unconscious part of the mind. Its primary purpose
is to seek pleasure. The superego controls a person's
conscience. This drives people to attempt the right decisions.
The superego is also mostly unconscious. The ego moderates
the superego and id. It is based in reality and is mostly
conscious.
There is usually dissonance between these divisions. Too much
dissonance can lead to maladaptations, such as defense
mechanisms. Freud's goal was to resolve these conflicts. He
used psychoanalysis to bring unconscious thoughts to a
conscious level.
psychodynamic psychology –
psyche –
superego –
conscience –
ego –
dissonance –
maladaptations –
defense mechanisms -
psychoanalysis -
Сhoose the correct answers:

A a new course on psychodynamic psychology
B criticisms of Freud's psychological methods
C a famous experiment featuring psychoanalysis
D the functions of different parts of the psyche
2 Which of the following is NOT true of the ego?

A It moderates the id and superego.
B It is part of the psyche.
C It operates in reality.
D It is mostly unconscious.
3 What is the primary goal of psychoanalysis?

A to control the id's impulses
B to stop unconscious thoughts
C to resolve conflicts in the mind
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D to identify functions of the conscience
2. Match the words with the definitions (A-E).
1. Maladaptation
2. Ego
3. Id
4. Conflict
5. superego
A a behavior that harms an individual

B part of the psyche that is based on fulfilling pleasures
C part of the psyche that controls the conscience
D part of the psyche that is based on reality
E an argument or prolonged disagreement
defense mechanism / psyche

1. A The human mind, or ___________________________, has three divisions.
B A ____________________________protects a person from disturbing thoughts.
psychodynamic psychology / psychoanalysis

2. A ______________________________is a kind of therapy that resolves conflicts in the mind.
B Sigmund Freud was the first to propose the idea of______________________________.
conscience / dissonance
3. A __________________________________between the parts of the psyche leads to emotional problems.
B The ____________________________makes people feel bad when they hurt others.
Interviewer: Today, we're talking to psychologist Wendy Sullivan. Welcome to the program, Dr. Sullivan.
Psychologist: Thank you, Peter. Glad to be here.
Interviewer: So, you practice psychoanalysis. What does that mean, exactly?
Psychologist: I help patients resolve conflicts between areas of the psyche.
Interviewer: I know 1) _________________________________that. The psyche includes the id and the ego, right?
Psychologist: Yes, those are 2) _______________________________elements.
Interviewer: And if I remember correctly, 3) __________________________unconscious drives.
Psychologist: Yes. And that makes it tricky. When it has conflicts 4) ______________________________, the problem
is hard to recognize.
Interviewer: I see. So, you have to bring those 5) ____________________________to a conscious level.
Psychologist: I try. But there's another 6) ________________________at work, too. That's the superego.
Interviewer: And what does that do?
Psychologist: It governs the conscience. And that frequently leads to dissonance with the drives of the id.
Interviewer: Okay. Well, we'll be right back with more from Dr. Sullivan.
Welcome to ... I know a little about that. But there's another ...
own dialogue.
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And that makes it tricky. / I help patients resolve conflicts between areas of the psyche. / But there's another
element of the psyche at work, too. / That's the part we're aware of. / Yes, those are two major elements.
A: Today, we're talking to psychologist James Lee. So, you practice psychoanalysis. What does that mean, exactly?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I know a little about that. The psyche includes the id and the superego, right?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: And if I remember correctly, the superego governs conscience.
B: Yes. _________________________________________________________It often has conflicts with the id. But
since the id is unconscious, people often feel guilt and don't know why.
A: I see. So, you have to bring those unconscious thoughts to a conscious level.
B: I try. ______________________________________________________ That's the ego.
A: And what does that do?
B: _________________________________________________________We use it to make conscious decisions.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the interview summary.
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Topic 11. Evolutionary Psychology.
Overview
Evolutionary psychology is based on the principle of natural

selection. It states that the brain adapts just like the body.
Evolutionary psychologists suggest that the brain has a
modular structure. Each part evolved to solve a particular
problem. According to evolutionary psychologists, sexual
selection is also a major determiner of human behavior.
Methods
Evolutionary psychologists develop hypotheses in two main

ways. Form to function starts with an observation of a
behavior. Then, psychologists try to understand what problem
that behavior solves. Function to form begins with the
identification of a problem. Then, scientists try to determine
how to solve that problem.
Criticism and Response
Critics point out that many claims lack testability. In response,

evolutionary psychologists cite examples of cross-cultural consistency and universal human behavior. Their inference
is that humans everywhere had to adapt in similar ways. This led to the survival of the same traits in different isolated
environments.
Evolutionary psychology –
natural selection –
modular structure –
evolve –
sexual selection –
Form to function –
Function to form –
Testability –
Universal -
cross-cultural consistency –
1. What aspect of evolutionary psychology is NOT addressed in the article?

A its history and development
B its foundational principles
C its methods of study
D its primary criticism
2. According to evolutionary psychologists, which statement is true?

A The brain and the body adapt in very different ways.
B Human behavior is largely shaped by sexual selection.
C Form to function is more effective than function to form.
D Cross-cultural consistency is less and less common.
3. According to some psychologists, what is a problem with evolutionary psychology?

A Its claims are difficult to test.
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B It makes unreliable predictions.
C It is based on a flawed premise.
D It does not have many supporters.
1. Adapt
2. Testability
3. sexual selection
4. natural selection
5. evolutionary psychology
6. modular structure
7. inference
8. universal
A relating to all people everywhere

B the idea that behavior evolves like physical bodies
C to become stronger or better suited to an environment
D an organization of multiple independent parts
E the process of changing over time due to differences in survival rates
F a conclusion based on interpretation of facts
G the ability to be proven right or wrong
H the process of changing due to the ability to attract mates
form to function / evolve / cross-cultural consistency / function to form

1 Working from a problem to a solution is an example of ____________________________________.
2 Living things _____________________________ over many thousands of years.
3 Observing behavior to identify a possible problem is an example of________________________________ .
4 When a quality is the same in many different societies, it has ___________________________________.
Student: I have a question, Professor Greene. How do 1) ________________________________conduct research?

Professor: That's a really good question. First, researchers develop 2) ______________________________.
Student: See, that's what 3) ___________________________. How do you develop an evolutionary hypothesis?
Professor: The same way you establish any other hypothesis. You start 4) ____________________________.
Student: Can you give me an example?
Professor: Sure. All human societies gossip, right? Now, that's an observation. So, 5) _______________________?
Student: We want to know what problem gossiping solves, right?
Professor: Exactly. The behavior is clearly 6) __________________________. But we don't know what need.
Student: So how do we find that out?
Professor: Well, we could listen to gossip. Or we could write up a questionnaire about gossiping.
Student: But how does that fit in with evolution?
Professor:We have to identify how gossiping benefits people.
Student: So, we'd compare people who gossip with people who don't. Then, we'd see how the gossipers benefit.
Professor: Right. And we can infer that those benefits applied to our early ancestors, too.
Let me give you an example. What next? We can infer ...
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own dialogue.
All human societies gossip, right? / First, researchers develop a hypothesis. / Right. / The same way you establish
any other hypothesis. / Well, we could listen to gossip.
A: I have a question, Professor. How do evolutionary psychologists conduct research?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: See, that's what I'm confused about. How do you develop an evolutionary hypothesis?
B: _________________________________________________________You start with an observation.
A: Can you give me an example?
B: Sure. _________________________________________________ Now, that's an observation. So, we want to know
what problem gossiping solves, right?
A: So, how do we find that out?
B: __________________________________________________Or we could write up a questionnaire about gossiping.
A: So, we'd compare people who gossip with people who don't. Then, we'd see how the gossipers benefit.
B: _________________________________And we can infer that those benefits applied to our early ancestors, too.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the worksheet.
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Topic 12. Behavioral Genetics.
Nature versus Nurture:
Psychology's Oldest Debate
Nature and nurture are commonly debated in Il biological

sciences. Some people believe that the environment is most
important to human development. Behavioral genetics,
however, takes the opposite side. This discipline focuses on the
traits that are hereditary.
Behavioral geneticists take a reductionist approach. That is,
they examine biological systems at their most basic levels. They
focus on effects of genes in human behavior. According to these
scientists, genes have a greater influence on people than we
think.
Reliable testing is especially challenging in behavioral genetics.
Like other scientists, behavioral geneticists rely on the scientific
method. And that requires just one independent variable. But
no two people have the same life experiences. As a result, the
control group can never contain aspects of 'nurture. However,
some people DO have identical genes: twins. So any differences must have direct causal relationships with
environmental factors. That's why researchers often use twin studies for quantitative trait loci (QTL).
Nature -
Nurture –
Genetics –
Trait –
Hereditary –
reductionist approach –
examine –
biological –
genes –
identical –
twin studies -
quantitative trait loci (QTL) –

1 Behavioral genetics focuses primarily on the effects of nurture. True False
2 Behavioral geneticists use the same scientific method that other scientists use. True False
3 Twin studies help scientists establish causal relationships. True False
1. Trait
2. twin study
3. hereditary
4. biological system
5. nurture
6. gene
7. causal relationship
8. nature
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A a relationship in which something is a result of something else
B passed down from generation to generation
C the influence of the environment on an individual
D a part of a cell containing information about its qualities
E a group of cells or organs that work togetherF the influence of genetics on an individual
G a study examining individuals with identical genesH a quality of a living thing
1.. The psychologist is interested in the study of genes. (_ _ n _ t _ _ s)

2 Most behavioral geneticists prefer to use a strategy of breaking complex things down into their simplest parts.
(_ _ d _ _ t _ _ n _ s _) (_ p _ r _ _ c _)
3. Behavioral scientists are primarily interested in the process of determining which genes are linked to which
behaviors. (_ u _ _ _ _ t _ _ i v _) (_ r _ _ t) (l _ c _)
4. The best way to study “nature versus nurture” is by observing twins with exactly the same genes. (_ _ e n t _ _ _ _)
Student 1: Did you read that case study for Behavioral Genetics?
Student 2: Yeah, I thought the twin study was really interesting.
Student 1: So, did I. But something really confused me.
Student 2: Oh, yeah? What was that?
Student 1: Well, the researchers discussed their difficulty finding 1) ___________________________.
Student 2: Right. They had to find 2) __________________________________. But the twins had to be raised in
different environments.
Student 1: That's what 3) __________________________________. Why did they have to be twins?
Student 2: Because only twins have identical genes. Everyone else 4) ____________________________unique set of
genes.
Student 1: Wait, I think I get it! That means any differences have to be the 5) ____________________________.
Student 2: You got it. Otherwise, you 6) __________________________________there's a causal relationship. A twin
study is the only way to do it.
Student 1: I see. After all, no two people can possibly have identical life experiences.
Student 2: Exactly.
I thought the ... was really interesting. So did I. Wait, I think I ...
own dialogue.
Did you read that case study for Behavioral Genetics? / Twins have identical genes. / That's what I'm confused
about.But something really confused me.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I thought the twin study was really interesting.
A: So, did I. __________________________________________ According to researchers, the trait was caused by
nurture.
B: Right. They found a causal relationship between the trait and the subjects' environments.
A: _________________________________________________________How can they be sure?
B: Because they studied identical twins. The trait often appeared in one twin, but not the other.
A: Wait, I think I get it. ________________________________________So, if the trait were caused by nature, both of
them would have it.
B: Right. Otherwise, it has to be nurture.
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7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the email from an instructor to a student.
Topic 13. Humanistic Psychology.

1.Read the text and translate it into Ukrainian. Write down the meaning of the highlighted words
Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on

personal potential. It is a comprehensive branch, incorporating
elements of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and other areas.
Humanist psychologists believe that people are naturally good and
have free will. They argue that individuals can consciously decide to
actualize their potential. According to humanistic psychology, a
person chooses his or her responses to perceptions.
Patients seek humanistic therapy to help them overcome obstacles
and succeed at something. According to humanistic psychologists,
the key to self-actualization is acceptance. Patients learn to
embrace their strengths. They also learn to recognize their
limitations. These might include a person's genetics, education, and
general cultural environment. The therapist supports the patient's
selfacceptance with unconditional positive regard.
Humanistic psychology comes with inherent challenges. It is largely
based on an individual's unique perception of reality. That makes
comparative, objective study very difficult

1. According to humanistic psychologists, genetics is a major cause of behavior. True False
2. Humanistic psychologists encourage patients to ignore their limitations. True False
3. Humanistic psychology is especially challenging to study objectively. True False
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Humanistic psychology –
Comprehensive –
free will –
actualize –
potential. –
succeed –
self-actualization –
strength –
limitation –
unconditional positive regard –
reality -
2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-D).
1. Comprehensive
2. free will
3. self-actualization
4. potential
A a person's ability to control his or her actions without influence

B the process of reaching a person's highest level of development
C an ability that is possible but not yet developed
D complete or including many details
Succeed / actualize
1 A The man spent many years trying to __________________________ his dream.
B The business needs more money if it is going to ______________________________.
Strength / reality
2 A Each person sees the world through a unique perception of _______________________________ .
B The patient’s greatest __________________________was her ability to solve problems.
Limitations / unconditional positive regard

3 A Even though he has physical ________________________________, the man wants to compete in the race.
B Some psychologists demonstrate ___________________________ to make their patients feel more accepted.
Psychologist: Before we 1) ________________________________, do you have any questions?

Patient: Actually, I do. 2) __________________________you practice humanistic psychology. What is that, exactly?
Psychologist: Well, it's a branch of psychology that promotes 3) ______________________________.
Patient: I'm afraid that 4) _______________________________what that means. What is self-actualization?
Psychologist: I believe you have the power to shape your reality. You can 5) ___________________________succeed.
Patient: So basically, it'll help me become who 6) ____________________________.
Psychologist: Yeah, that's a good way of putting it.
Patient: Hmm. But there are factors in my life that I can't control. How will we address those?
Psychologist: I'm glad you asked. It's important that we identify your limitations. Acceptance is the first step.
Patient: Okay. And then what?
Psychologist: Then, you can choose to focus on your strengths. Those determine your potential.
Patient: This sounds interesting. Let's give it a try.
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Do you have any ...? What is ... exactly? This sounds interesting.
own dialogue.
What is it exactly? / So, you believe that people can control their fates? / This sounds interesting. / Do humanistic
psychologists believe in free will?
A: Before we start your therapy, do you have any questions about humanistic psychology?
B: I do. _________________________________________________________________________________________
A: It's a branch of psychology that tries to help people achieve self-actualization.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. In general, humanistic psychologists believe that people have free will.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. First, you must accept that you have free will. Then you're free to actualize your potential.
B: ________________________________________________________Let's get started.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the letter.
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Topic 14. Health Psychology.
East University
Psychology Majors: Health Psychology Focus
East University offers a comprehensive curriculum in health
psychology. This program explores the relationship between
a healthy mind and healthy body. The program trains
students to become practicing clinicians.
Modern psychologists understand that many biopsychosocial
factors influence health. That's because psychological
processes directly affect physical processes. For instance,
many cultural factors can cause stress. This, in turn, causes
the body to release cortisol. Over time, this hormone
negatively affects the body. Students will study this and many
other biological processes. Students will also research new
developments in healthcare. This highlights the latest
breakthroughs in the prevention of illness. Recently, students
studied the relationship between socioeconomic status and
smoking. A major scientific journal recently published their
research. Another group is preparing to study the biological
effects of social processes. They hope to discover how
competition affects the immune system.
health psychology. –
biopsychosocial –
cultural factors –
cortisol –
biological processe –
healthcare –
illness –
socioeconomic status –
smoking –
social process -

A to review the history of health psychology
B to explain the results of a study in health psychology
C to help students enroll in a health psychology course
D to outline topics covered in a health psychology program
2 What is NOT true about the health psychology program?

A It addresses both mental and physical processes.
B It primarily prepares students for careers in research.
C It examines the effects of cultural factors.
D It includes the study of social processes on individuals.
3 What is true about cortisol?

A It is released during stressful events.
B It is the subject of one of the school's studies.
C It provides long-term benefits to the body.
D It is part of the body's immune system.
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1. social process
2. socioeconomic status
3. cultural factor
4. biopsychosocial
5. biological process
A an activity that takes place within a living thing

B relating to the social, psychological, or biological aspects of pain
C an activity that occurs when people interact with each other
D an element of society that affects individuals or groups of people
E a measurement of employment level and income
Health psychology / healthcare / cortisol / illness /smoking

1 The woman’s body released ____________________________when she saw her child in danger.
2 The habit of ______________________________ is very bad for the throat, lungs, and heart.
3 Physicians and psychologists both work in the field of___________________________________ .
4 ______________________________focuses on how the body and mind affect each other.
5 The patient’s ________________________________was caused by various psychological factors.
Student: Do you have a minute? I have a question 1) _________________________.

Professor: Sure. What's up?Student: Well, physical illnesses are usually related 2) _______________________, right?
Professor: That's right. Any effect on the body has a 3) ________________________________.
Student: Then, how can 4) ________________________________a patient's health?
Professor: Basically, psychological processes produce biological processes.
Student: I'm not sure 5) ____________________________________. Can you give an example?
Professor: Well, take 6) ____________________________. It's often the result of a psychological process. But it makes
the body release hormones.
Student: And those hormones have biological effects, like pain and fatigue.
Professor: Right. So, depression is a biopsychosocial condition. Now, what about a social process?
Student: What do you mean?
Professor: Think about how people share germs through interaction. How might that have a biological effect?
Student: Oh, I see what you're saying. Social interaction helps people develop biological immunities to illness.
Professor: Right.
How can ...? Basically ... I see ...
own dialogue.
So, now the person's biological processes are affected. / Basically, social processes produce biological processes. /
Take competition for instance. / Any effect on the body has a biological cause.
A: I have a question about health psychology. Physical illnesses are usually related to biological processes, right?
B: That's right. ___________________________________________________________________________________
A: Then how can social processes affect a patient's health?
85
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I'm not sure that I understand. Can you give an example?
B: ________________________________________________________It's a social process. But it can cause stress in
an individual.
A: And stress releases cortisol, which can have negative physical effects over time.
B: Right._____________________________________________________
A: I see what you're saying. That's why it's important to examine biopsychosocial causes and effects.
7. Use the webpage from Task 1 to fill out the student's notes.
Topic 15. The Scientific Method.

Analysis of New Anxiety Drug
INTRODUCTION: PCDC Labs recently conducted a test of a new drug
formula. Our problem was improving the effectiveness of an anxiety
drug. The old formula reduced anxiety. However, it also caused severe
side effects in many patients. We made a number of observations
about patient reactions. Then, we developed a testable hypothesis.
Our experiment followed the standard scientific method.
HYPOTHESIS. Reducing the active ingredient will make the drug safer.
PROCESS: We created an experiment with two groups. The
independent variable was the amount of active ingredient in each
pill. The control group received the original formula. In the
experimental group, we reduced the ingredient by 25%. We then
monitored anxiety levels, as well as occurrences of side effects.
OUTCOME: Our results yielded a definite conclusion. The patients in
the experimental group still experienced reduced anxiety. However,
they did NOT experience as many side effects. Therefore, reducing the
active ingredient made the drug safer.
86
Problem –
Observation –
testable hypothesis –
scientific method –
Experiment –
independent variable –
experimental group –
conclusion –

1. The old formula was not effective for reducing anxiety. True False
2. The experimental group received more of the ingredient than the control group. True False
3. The results of the experiment supported the hypothesis. True False
1. Testable
2. control group
3. independent variable
4. hypothesis
5. scientific method
6. experiment
A a statement or prediction that explains something

B the set that does not receive the treatment being tested
C a system for testing facts and processes
D able to be proven or disproven
E the factor in an experiment that is being tested
F a process that reveals the effect of something
Conclusion / observation / problem / experimental group / results

1 The experimenters' ___________________________________ was finding a more effective sleep medication.
2 The _______________________________showed major differences between the two groups.
3 The scientist's ________________________________was that some patients improved faster than others.
4 The researcher found an error in the experiment, so he could not form a(n) _____________________________.
5 Members of the __________________________________received a new type of therapy.
Psychologist 1: Let's go over the setup for our experiment.

Psychologist 2: Good idea. So, I developed a hypothesis. A higher dose of the drug will act faster than a lower dose.
Psychologist 1: How did you come up with that?
Psychologist 2: I made some observations. One of my patients accidentally took too much of her medication.
Psychologist 1: That could be dangerous.
Psychologist 2: Sure. And I told her that. But then I 1) _______________________________her condition improved.
Psychologist 1: Ah, so it seemed like the extra dose 2) __________________________________.
Psychologist 2: Exactly. And that's 3) ________________________________ the hypothesis.
Psychologist 1: Okay. So, we'll need a 4) _________________________________. They'll get the original lower dose.
Psychologist 2: Right. And then the experimental group will get 5) ______________________________.
Psychologist 1: And then we'll see 6) _________________________________are the same.
Psychologist 2: I hope they are. That would be great news for lots of patients.
87
Let's go over ... And that's how ... I hope ...
own dialogue.
How did you come up with that? / Ah, so it seemed like the extra dose actually helped. / So, we'll need a control
group. / Let's go over the setup for our experiment.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Good idea. So, I developed a hypothesis. A higher dose of the drug will act faster than a lower dose.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I made some observations. One of my patients accidentally took too much of her medication. But then I noticed
how quickly her condition improved.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Exactly. And that's how I determined the hypothesis.
A: Okay. _________________________________________________________They'll get the original lower dose.
And then the experimental group will get a higher dose.
B: Then we'll see if the results are the same. I hope they are.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the experiment log.
88
Glossary
A
Acceptance is a feeling caused by understanding or believing that something is true or unavoidable, and is a mild
form of trust.
If something is active, it is working to fulfill a purpose.
To actualize something is to make it become real.
To adapt is to become stronger or better suited to a particular environment.
Aggressiveness is a feeling of wanting to hurt someone, and is a combination of anger and anticipation.
Alarm is the first stage of the stress response in which the body is ready to either face a threat or move away from it,
and increases heart rate and breathing.
Anger is an emotion in which someone feels very upset or dissatisfied with the actions of another person.
Animal experimentation is the process of testing ideas and methods on animals, often to learn more about the
effects they might have on humans.
Anticipation is an emotion of looking forward to something.
Anxiety is a feeling of worry or nervousness, and is a combination of fear and anticipation.
Arousal theory is a theory of motivation in which people perform actions to increase or decrease their levels of
arousal or excitement.
Awe is a feeling of respect and admiration, and is a combination of surprise and fear.
B
Behaviorism is a school of psychology focusing on the idea that people and animals learn behaviors through
conditioning, and that it is possible to train, measure, and change behaviors.
If something is biological, it is related to the physical processes of living things.
A biological process is a series of steps that takes place inside a living thing. Examples include digestion and
respiration.
A biological system is a group of cells or organs that all work together to perform a particular function.
If something is biopsychosocial, it relates to the biological, psychological, and social aspects of illness and pain, as
opposed to the strictly medical aspects of illness and pain.
To break something down is to separate it into distinct parts.
C
A component is an individual part of something.
If something is comprehensive, it is complete and includes many details or aspects.
A conclusion is a decision or determination that is made after an experiment.
A conflict is a disagreement or prolonged struggle.
89
A conscience is someone's sense or feeling that an action is morally right or wrong.
Contempt is a feeling of intense dislike for something, and is a combination of disgust and anger.
A control group is a part of an experiment that does not receive the action or treatment that is being tested.
To cope with a negative situation is to find a way to manage it or function normally with it.
Cortisol is a hormone that is released when the body detects stressors, such as threats.
Cross-cultural consistency is the quality of remaining constant across many different groups of people or societies.
A cultural factor is an element of culture, such as law or religion, that affects an individual or group.
Curiosity is the desire to learn about and explore new things.
D
Dissonance is a lack of agreement between two elements.
Drive theory is a theory of motivation in which people perform actions to satisfy the tension caused by unfulfilled
physical drives or needs.
E
If an idea is empirical, it is based on scientific observation rather than theory.
Evolutionary psychology is the use of evolutionary principles to explain human behavior and mental processes.
To evolve is to change gradually over the course of generations, so that the resulting individual in a species
possesses different qualities than earlier individuals.
Exhaustion is the third and final stage of the stress response in which the body is completely fatigued and the
individual is very tired and unhappy.
To experience something is to feel it or undergo it.
An experiment is a scientific process that is designed to reveal the effect of something.
An experimental group is a part of an experiment that receives the action or treatment that is being tested.
Experimentation is the process of testing ideas in a controlled environment and collecting data about them.
F
To fail is to be unsuccessful at completing a task.
To fail to do something is to be unsuccessful at accomplishing it.
Fear is an emotion in which someone feels afraid of something.
To feel something is to be in a certain mental state because of an emotion.
A feeling is a person's mental or physical sensation when experiencing an emotion.
Form to function is a strategy of making an observation about human behavior and then forming a hypothesis about
the type of problem the behavior might solve.
A framework is a set of ideas that people use when they are forming new ideas, decisions, and judgments.
90
Free will is someone's ability to act according to his or her own decisions, without the influence of outside forces.
The function of something is its practical purpose or result.
Function to form is a strategy of identifying a problem, and then forming a hypothesis about its solution.
Functionalism is an approach to psychology that focuses on the purpose of behavior and consciousness.
A gene is a part of a living cell containing information about its traits or qualities.
Genetics is the study of how the qualities of living things are encoded and expressed.
Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology focusing on the brain's tendency to organize and understand the parts
of something as small pieces of a whole.
Grief is a feeling caused by loss, and is an extreme form of sadness.
H
Happiness is a pleasant and contented feeling that results from joy.
Health psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on understanding the relationship between psychological,
behavioral, and cultural factors, and the prevention or treatment of illnesses.
Healthcare is the system of services that maintain and improve someone's mental and physical health.
If something is hereditary, it is shared by different members of the same family, and is typically passed from parents
to offspring.
A hierarchy of needs is a way of ranking various kinds of needs so that some are more basic or essential than others,
with the most important needs being fulfilled first.
Is something is holistic, it relates to all of something, and not just its individual components.
Homeostatic-regulation theory is a theory of motivation in which people perform actions to maintain homeostasis,
or balance, in the body.
Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the creativity of people and their ability to self-
actualize.
Hunger is the feeling of wanting or needing to eat.
A hypothesis is an idea, statement, or prediction that explains something, but which is not tested or proven correct.
I
The id is part of the human psyche that seeks pleasure and satisfaction and operates at an unconscious level to fulfill
its desires.
If two things are identical, they are exactly the same in every way.
To ignore something is to fail to notice or recognize it.
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An illness is something that causes a person to become sick.
An independent variable is the factor in an experiment that changes from one group to another.
An inference is a conclusion based on an interpretation of facts.
Instinctive behavior is action that individuals do not need to learn or be taught to do.
If something is insufficient, it is not good enough or plentiful enough to serve a particular purpose.
If something is internal, it happens or exists inside the body or mind.
Introspection is the process of examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and ideas.
J
Joy is an emotion in which a person feels good about events or circumstances.
L
A lack of something is the state of being without it or not having enough of it.
The law of closure is a psychological principle in which people tend to reify familiar shapes, or perceive them as
being complete even when there are parts missing.
The law of proximity is a psychological principle in which people tend to perceive that objects are part of a group
when they are close to each other.
The law of similarity is a psychological principle in which people tend to perceive that objects are part of a group
when they are like each other in some way.
The law of symmetry is a psychological principle in which people tend to perceive objects that represent two halves
of something as forming around a center point.
A life event is any important occurrence that takes place in a person's life, such as a birth, marriage, or the death of a
family member.
A limitation is a weakness or a quality that prevents someone or something from being effective at performing an
action or role.
Love is a feeling of caring very deeply for someone, and is a combination of trust and joy
M
A maladaptation is a behavior that hurts or harms an individual in some way.
A modular structure is an organizational pattern in which something is made up of many separate parts with
dedicated roles or functions.
Motivation is the desire or reason to do something.
Multistability is a situation in which the brain shifts between two possible interpretations of something, usually
because the actual nature of the thing is unclear.
N
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Natural selection is a process in which some living things survive better than others because their traits make them
better able to live long enough to reproduce.
Naturalistic observation is a type of research in which a subject is monitored in its natural habitat without the
manipulation of the observer.
Nature is the influence of an organism's genes on its development, appearance, and behavior.
Nurture is the influence of an organism's environment on its development, appearance, and behavior.
O
If an idea is objective, it is based only on factual evidence, and not on personal beliefs or feelings.
An observable behavior is an action that someone performs that another person is able to detect and study directly.
An observation is a fact that is discovered by watching something closely.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which an individual's behavior changes as a result of the behavior's
consequences.
Opponent-process theory is a theory of motivation in which people perform actions in order to experience positive
emotions and to avoid corresponding negative emotions.
Optimism is a feeling of expecting good things to happen, and is a combination of joy and anticipation.
Overemphasis is the placement of too much importance on a particular idea or object
If something is passive, it is not working to fulfill a purpose.
Pavlov's dogs were the dogs used in a notable experiment by Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, which demonstrated
classical conditioning by teaching dogs to salivate after hearing a bell ringing.
To perceive something is to notice or be aware of something.
Potential is an ability or quality that someone is capable of, but is not yet developed or demonstrated.
Pragmaticism is a philosophy in which the meaning of an idea or process lies in its observable consequences.
The primary appraisal of an event or situation is an individual's first assessment of how disruptive or stressful it is.
A primate is an animal classification that includes humans, apes, and monkeys, which share the features of hands,
forward-facing eyes, and other traits.
A problem is a question or situation that needs to be answered or resolved.
To process information is to gather and organize it in order to give it purpose or meaning.
The psyche is the human mind, including both its conscious and unconscious aspects.
Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy in which a psychologist tries to help a person bring his or her unconscious
desires into the conscious mind, usually to resolve conflicts between divisions of the psyche.
Psychodynamic psychology is a school of psychology that explains human behavior by examining the relationship
between conscious and unconscious desires.
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A psychological process is a function of the mind that consists of multiple steps and produces a particular result.
A psychological structure is a part of the mind that allows a psychological process to occur.
Quantitative trait loci (QTL) is the process of determining which genes cause or influence certain behaviors.
R
Reality is the way that something actually is, as opposed to a false idea or fantasy about it.
If something is reductionist, it relates to the idea that a complex item, idea, or process can be understood by
examining its individual parts.
A reductionist approach seeks to understand complex subjects by breaking them down into their simplest parts.
Reification is a tendency of the brain to interpret something as having more information than is actually perceived,
usually to give the thing a logical or familiar structure.
Remorse is a feeling of unhappiness or dissatisfaction with one's own actions, and is a combination of disgust and
sadness.
Resistance is the second stage of the stress response in which the body's energy levels begin to drop and an
individual begins to feel tired.
A respondent behavior is a reflexive, involuntary response caused by stimuli.
A response is a reaction to something that came just before it.
A result is something that occurs because of something else.
If something is rigid, it is strict and unable to be changed.
S
Sadness is an emotion of despair, hopelessness, or loss.
The scientific method is a system of observation, measurement, and experimentation used to form and test
hypotheses.
Scientific rigor is a level of exactness that is required to perform scientific investigations accurately.
The secondary appraisal of something stressful is an individual's assessment of what he or she can do to deal with
the stress.
Self-actualization is a person's inherent desire to reach the highest level of personal development that he or she can.
Self-observation is the process of gathering empirical data about one's own thought and behavior.
Sex drive is the desire to have sexual intercourse.
Sexual selection is a process in which some living things survive better than others because their traits makes them
better able to attract a mate.
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A Skinner box is a device for studying conditioning in animals, in which the animal is administered a reward or
punishment depending on buttons or levers that the animal presses.
Smoking is the act of breathing in smoke through the mouth from a source such as a cigarette or a pipe, and is most
often performed with tobacco.
Social interaction is the process in which people behave in response to each other.
A social process is a series of events that occurs when people interact with each other. Examples include
cooperation and competition.
A socioeconomic status is a measurement of a person's level of employment and income.
Speculation is the process of forming theories about why something happens or what will happen in the future,
without supporting evidence.
A stimulus is something that causes a reaction.
A strength is an action or role that someone or something performs very well.
Stress is a nervous feeling that makes people feel worried and unable to relax.
The stress response is the way that the body reacts to stress.
A stressor is any stimulus that causes an individual to experience stress.
Structuralism was the first school of psychology, and focuses on analyzing mental processes by breaking them down
into their most basic components.
Submission is a feeling caused by allowing another person to control one's thoughts or actions, and is a combination
of trust and fear.
To succeed is to accomplish a goal or achievement.
A sum is a collection of items or numbers considered together.
The superego is part of the human psyche that controls a person's conscience and feelings of guilt, and mostly
operates on an unconscious level.
Surprise is an emotion of something unexpected happening.
Surroundings are the qualities and objects that exist in a particular place and form a setting or context for
something.
If an action is systematic, it is done according to a planned sequence of steps.
Testability is the quality of being able to be proven right or wrong.
If something is testable, it can be proven or disproven by performing an experiment.
A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something.
Theory of needs is a theory of motivation in which people do things to satisfy various physical, emotional, and social
needs.
To think is to actively use the mind to form thoughts and ideas.
A trait is a quality of a living thing, and may be either observable or unobservable.
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Trust is an emotion in which someone believes that another person's thoughts or actions are good.
A twin study is a study in which researchers observe pairs of twins to gain information about the role of genes on a
particular trait or set of traits.
Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance and support of a person, regardless of what the person says or
does.
If something is universal, it applies to every person or thing in a particular group.
Usefulness is something's ability to serve a purpose.
A whole is a complete unit of something that is made up of separate parts.
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Book 3.
Змістовий модуль VІ. The Disciplines of Psychology.
Topic 1. Developmental psychology 1.
Intro to Human Biology Physical Development
The physical development of humans begins at conception. During the

prenatal stage, a human grows from a single cell into a baby. This stage
involves many major physical changes. When a person is born, he or she
enters infancy. This covers a person's first year of life. During infancy, a
person begins to develop motor skills and hand-eye coordination. After
about a year, an infant usually learns how to walk. This is when the child is
considered a toddler. Toddlerhood lasts a few years, as the child develops
coordination and motor skills. These continue to develop throughout early
childhood.
The next major stage of human development occurs between ages ten and
twelve. Around this time, puberty begins. A person is now able to
reproduce, but is still not yet fully developed. Growth continues during the
next few years, known as adolescence. In his or her late teens, an
adolescent reaches adulthood. At this point, the individual is physically
mature. In general, adulthood is the longest period of a person's life. The
stage of adulthood after about age forty-five is called middle age. Finally,
old age is the last stage in a person's life.
physical development -
prenatal -
infancy -
motor skills -
hand-eye coordination -
toddler -
early childhood -
puberty -
adolescence -
adulthood -
middle age -
old age -
1. After a child learns to walk, he or she is considered a toddler. True False

2. Hand-eye coordination begins to develop when a child is a toddler. True False
3. Adolescence is the first stage after a person is fully mature. True False
1. middle age
2. puberty
3. adulthood
4. physical development
5. prenatalearly childhood
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A occurring during pregnancy, before birth
B the stage between forty-five and sixty-five years of age
C the process in which a person develops motor skills
D the stage in which a person reaches sexual maturity
E the stage between toddlerhood and six or seven years of ageF the stage in which a person is fully mature
3. Examine the table.
hand-eye coordination / infancy
1. A Children with good _________________________ often do well at sports.
B During ____________________, children first learn how to move their limbs.
motor skill / old age

2. A Sitting is an early__________________ that babies must learn.
B As people reach ___________________________, they are more likely to develop illnesses.
Adolescence / toddler
3. A The period of _____________________ is the stage just before adulthood.
B The parents were excited when their ________________________ began to walk.
Psychologist: Good afternoon, Mr. Smith. How can I help you?

Parent: I want to talk about my son, James. I'm afraid that he's not developing at the right pace.
Psychologist: Okay. How old is he?
Parent: He's about fourteen months old.
Psychologist: And why do you think 1) _____________________is impaired?
Parent: Well, he doesn't know how to walk yet. But other children his age already do.
Psychologist: Actually, he's fairly normal. Some children don't learn to walk 2) ______________.
Parent: Oh, that's quite a relief.
Psychologist: Your son probably 3) ___________________________, right?
Parent: Yes. He started crawling about three months ago.
Psychologist: In that case, don't worry. Your child is developing 4) ___________________________just fine.
Parent: That's great. Just to be sure, though, 5)_____________________________ start to worry?
Psychologist: Give it another four months or so. If he's 6)___________________________ , bring him in.
Parent: What could that indicate?
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Psychologist: Any number of factors could cause a developmental delay. But please don't worry. I'm sure he's just
fine.
Parent: All right. Thanks for the information.
Why do you think ...? Some children ... Don't worry ...
your own dialogue.
I want to talk about my daughter. / She is four years old and she has trouble using objects like crayons. / I didn't
know that. / Just to be sure, though, at what point should I start to worry?
A: Good afternoon. How can I help you today?
B: __________________________________________________ I'm afraid that her physical development is not
normal.
A: Why do you think she is developing irregularly?
B: ______________________________________________________________________________
A: That's actually normal. Some children don't learn to use those motor skills until they're about five or older.
B: ______________________________________________________________So, I shouldn't worry then?
A: No, don't worry. Your child is developing completely normally.
B: That's good. ______________________________________________________
A: If your child still can't use writing tools in a year or so, you should have her evaluated.
8. Use the conversation from Task 5 to fill out the psychologist's notes about a child.
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Topic 2. Developmental psychology 2.
Theories of development
Cognitive development is the process in which someone learns to

perform mental processes.
✓ Examples of these mental processes include logical reasoning,
perception, etc.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is split into the four
Piagetian stages:
✓ The first is the sensorimotor stage. This stage includes the
development of sensory perception and motor skills.
✓ The next is the preoperational stage, during which children form
concepts and communicate verbally.
✓ The third is the concrete operational stage. This is when children
learn to use logical reasoning and manipulate imaginary
representations of objects.
✓ The final stage is the formal operational stage, during which
children think abstractly.
Lev Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical Theory differed from Piaget's
theory. Instead of emphasizing the child's age, Vygotsky's theory
focused on the child's environment.
The Ecological Systems Theory also focuses on how a child's
environment affects development. According to this theory, there are four types of environments: microsystems,
mesosystems, exosystems, and macrosystems.
✓ Microsystems include direct influences, and mesosystems are the relationships between them.
✓ Exosystems include indirect influences, and macrosystems include cultural influences.
Attachment Theory focuses heavily on the relationship between children and parents. It emphasizes the role of a
caregiver in developing healthy relationships.
Cognitive development -
Piagetian stage -
sensorimotor stage -
preoperational stage -
concrete operational stage -
formal operational stage -
Cultural-Historical Theory -
Ecological Systems Theory -
Microsystems -
Mesosystems -
Exosystems -
Macrosystems -
Attachment Theory -
1. The Piagetian stages describe different cultural effects on children. True False
2. The Cultural-Historical Theory focuses on the role of surroundings. True False
3. Mesosystems are made up of multiple microsystems. True False
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1. preoperational stage
2. cognitive development
3. concrete operational stage
4. Cultural-Historical Theory
5. Mesosystem
6. Exosystem
7. Ecological Systems Theory
A a theory that highlights society's effect on a child's development
B a theory in which four environments affect a child's development
C a collection of factors that indirectly affect a child's development
D the process in which a person learns how to perform mental tasks
E the relationships between a child's different microsystems
F the stage in which a child learns to communicate verbally
G the stage in which a child begins to learn to think logically
Microsystem / Macrosystem / Piagetian stage / Attachment theory
1 An infant’s _______________________________ is usually limited to just immediate family.
2 The relationship between infants and parents is the main focus of ________________________.
3 The sensorimotor stage is the first ___________________________that a child goes through.
4 Cultural attitudes about gender and race are part of a child’s_______________________________.

Student 1: Hey, Rachel. Do you want to review the Piagetian stages together?
Student 2: Sure. Name one and I'll tell you what happens during it. Then, we'll switch.
Student 1: Okay. How about 1) _____________________________stage?
Student 2: That's the third one. Children learn logical thinking during that stage.
Student 1: Correct. It's also when they learn how to 2) _____________________________.
Student 2: Great. Now it's your turn. What occurs during the preoperational stage?
Student 1: 3) _________________________________ is the last - wait, no. It's the second stage, right?
Student 2: Yes, the preoperational stage is the 4) ______________________________.
Student 1: Let's see. That's when the child learns to communicate verbally and 5) _____________________.
Student 2: You're right. Just remember that it's the preoperational, not 6) _______________________, stage.
Student 1: I'll try to remember that. But there are four stages, right? What stage are we missing?
Student 2: The sensorimotor stage. It's when a child develops sensory awareness and motor skills.
Student 1: Right. These stages can be a little confusing, huh?
Student 2: They sure can. We should go over them again.
What happens ...? I think ... Just remember that ...
your own dialogue.
A child is affected by indirect influences, like a parent's friends or workplace. / What does a microsystem refer to?
/ Yes, it refers to the child's immediate surroundings. / Name an environment and I'll tell you what it includes. /
Mesosystems.
A: Do you want to review the Ecological Systems Theory together?

B: Sure. _____________________________________________________________
A: What happens in an exosystem?
B: __________________________________________________________________
A: Correct. Now it's my turn.
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B: __________________________________________________________________
A: I think the child's direct influences, right?
B: __________________________________________________Just remember, it sounds similar to 'macrosystem',
but they're very different.
A: I'll try to remember that. But there's another environment, right? What are we missing?
B: ________________________________________________Those are relationships between microsystems.
A: These environments can be a little confusing.
7. Write a student’s blog post about a theory of cognitive development.
102
Topic 3. Cultural psychology.
The Challenges of Cross-Cultural Psychology
The main task of cross-cultural

psychology is comparing cultures.
However, it differs from standard cultural
psychology. Cultural psychologists
compare culture to identify their
differences. On the other hand, cross-
cultural psychologists seek commonalities
between cultures. This is challenging
because cultures do differ in a number of important ways.
One major difference between cultures is communication style. For instance, high-context cultures often rely heavily
on non-verbal methods of communication. Low-context cultures, on the other
hand, do not. Cultures around the world also place different levels of
importance on time. In a monochronic culture, following a schedule is of the
utmost importance. However, in a polychronic culture, people place minimal
emphasis on timetables and deadlines. Yet another important difference
between cultures is how they define individuals. Individualist cultures define
people based on personality traits and descriptions of the individual person. In
a collectivist culture, individuals are defined by their roles in the community.
But the complexity of individual cultures isn't the only challenge. Cross-cultural
psychologists must also battle their own prejudices. It can be difficult to
overcome one's own ethnocentrism. Additionally, stereotypes about other
cultures can lead to mistaken assumptions. A psychologist must overcome
these obstacles to conduct a fair, unbiased cultural study.
cross-cultural psychology -
cultural psychology -
high-context cultures -
Low-context cultures -
monochronic culture -
polychronic culture -
Individualist cultures -
collectivist culture -
prejudices -
ethnocentrism -
stereotypes -
1. Cultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology both compare cultures. True False
2. According to the article, high-context cultures are usually polychronic. True False
3. Ethnocentrism is an obstacle in cross-cultural psychology. True False

1. cultural psychology
2. cross-cultural psychology
3. collectivist culture
4. individualist culture
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5. low-context culture
6. ethnocentrism
7. polychronic culture
A a branch of science that focuses on cultural similarities
B emphasizing the roles of people in groups
C the belief that one's own group is better than all others
D emphasizing each person's unique personality traits
E people who place little emphasis on schedules and deadlines
F a branch of science that focuses on cultural differences
G a group of people who rely mostly on verbal communication
3.Read the sentence pairs. Choose which word or phrase best fits each blank.
Stereotypes / high-context cultures
1 A Members of ________________________tend to communicate more with gestures.
B Many people believe __________________________that are inaccurate, or exaggerated.
Prejudice / monochronic culture

2 A In a modern____________________, meeting deadlines is very important.
B Many people feel ______________towards a group without ever meeting someone from that group.

Professor: Okay, where were we? Oh, yes. The challenges of cross-cultural psychology. So, psychologists from one
culture often misunderstand the behaviors of another.
Student: Sorry to interrupt, but why is that? Isn't psychological analysis a universal science?
Professor: Not exactly. Cultural prejudices affect psychology more than other sciences.
Student: I don't see why. Psychologists just need to apply objective reasoning, right?
Professor: Well, I'll give you an example. Remember our discussion about 1) ______________________?
Student: Yeah, they're the ones 2) ______________________about time.
Professor: Right. 3) ______________________________of that practice?
Student: A disregard for schedules? It's 4) _________________________________. I mean, how does anyone get
anything done?
Professor: See, that's a 5) __________________________. You just applied your own ethnocentrism to another
culture.
Student: Oh, I see what you're getting at. With that attitude, I can't possibly conduct 6________________.
Professor: Exactly. Now, what would people from a polychronic culture think of you?
Student: Hmm, that's a good question. They'd probably think I'm unnaturally obsessed with time.
Professor: Right. Their ways may seem strange to you. But your ways are just as strange to them.
Sorry to interrupt ... Remember our discussion about ...? I see what you're ...
your own dialogue.
I'll give you an example. / What do you think of that practice? / Psychologists from one culture often
misunderstand the behaviors of another. / What would people from a low-context culture think of you? / You just
made a stereotype about a whole group.
A: __________________________________________________________________________________
B: Sorry to interrupt, but why is that? Isn't psychological analysis a universal science?
A: Not exactly. __________________________________________Remember our discussion about low-context
cultures?
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B: They're the ones who don't use gestures to communicate.
A: Right. ____________________________________________________________________
B: Not using gestures? It's pretty weird. I mean, those people must have pretty unsophisticated communication
skills.
A: See, that's a cultural prejudice. ___________________________________________________________
B: I see what you're getting at. With that attitude, I can't possibly conduct an objective study.
A: Exactly. ______________________________________________________________________________
B: That's a good question. They'd probably think I'm being unclear in my communication.
7. Use the article and the conversation from Task 4 to write a student’s notes on cultural psychology. Include: a
concept that psychologists might study, how prejudices can affect such a study, and how psychologists can overcome
their prejudices.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Topic 4. Social Psychology and the Individual.

In this course, we will study
the important field of
social psychology. In
general, this branch of
psychology studies how
society influences
individuals. We will focus
on the way society shapes
personal attitudes. In this
course, students are
encouraged to share their
own life experiences.
The first half of the course
addresses social cognition. This area of social psychology focuses specifically on mental processes. Our discussions will
concentrate heavily on the process of impression formation. This includes one of the major drivers of human behavior:
social comparison. We will also examine the biases that occur during impression formation, including person-
positivity bias. Then we'll analyze the complex factors that contribute to cognitive dissonance.
The second half of the course will focus on theories of attribution. These examine how people explain their own
actions and those of others. A major component of this field is the influence of formal biases. As we'll discuss, people
often overemphasize environmental factors in attribution. This occurs in both the fundamental attribution error and
the actor-observer effect. Finally, we'll review a recent study on self-handicapping. This is a type of self-fulfilling
prophecy in which people prevent their own success.

1 The course lets students discuss personal experiences. True False
2 Person-positivity bias occurs during social comparison. True False
3 Students will examine a recent study on a type of self-fulfilling prophecy. True False
105
social psychology –
personal attitudes –
social cognition –
impression formation –
social comparison –
person-positivity bias –
cognitive dissonance –
attribution –
actor-observer effect –
self-handicapping –
self-fulfilling prophecy –
1. Personal
2. person-positivity bias
3. self-fulfilling prophecy
4. actor-observer effect
5. social psychology
6. attribution
7. fundamental attribution error
A the process of causing something by believing it to be true

B the act of overemphasizing the role of personality in behavior
C relating to the attitudes or characteristics of an individual
D the study of society's influences on people's minds and behaviors
E the act of forming more positive attitudes about individuals than groups
F the act of attributing one's own behavior to events, not personality
G an explanation of the cause of something
Impression formation / social comparison / attitude / self-handicapping / cognitive dissonance / social cognition
1 Intentionally not preparing for an exam can be a type of_______________________________.

2 The woman’s conflicting opinions caused a state of ____________________________ in her mind.
3 _____________________ can create a general idea about a person within a few seconds.
4 The study on ____________________________examined how relationships affect thought processes.
5 Many people use __________________________ to measure their own success.
6 The woman has a generally negative ____________________________about her coworkers.
4. What is a potential disadvantage of using social comparison? Use the words below to fill in the gaps.
Should / false / circumstances / process / problems
Social comparison is an important psychological_____________________, but it can sometimes cause___________.
Each person's individual _____________________ are different, and social comparison could give someone a ______
sense of what he or she ________________ have or do.
I believe there are a couple of… I guess you have… I mean…
Psychologist: Okay, Nancy. Last week, we discussed your dissatisfaction with your job.
Patient: Right. I just feel like I can't do well in that environment.
Psychologist: I believe there are a couple of factors affecting you. For one, you're relying too much on1)__________.
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Patient: What 2) __________________________________?
Psychologist: You always 3) ___________________________ to your coworkers' success. In particular, you focus too
much on Tim.
Patient: But Tim always does so well. 4) __________________________why he gets so much attention.
Psychologist: Well, analyzing Tim isn't 5) ______________________________. You need to focus on your own work.
Patient: Okay, I guess you 6) _______________________. After all, he doesn't even work in my department.
Psychologist: Right. Now, the other problem is a little trickier. I think I see some self-handicapping in your behavior.
Patient: Self-handicapping? You mean, I'm stopping myself from succeeding?
Psychologist: That's exactly right. You keep saying that you don't care about this job.
Patient: I don't. How is that preventing my success?
Psychologist: I believe it's a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you change your attitude, it might improve your performance.
Patient: Hmm. That's a lot to think about.
your own dialogue.
But my husband is behaving in such a selfish and inconsiderate way. / You mean, I'm having conflicting thoughts?
/ If he affects me, then I must affect him. / I just feel like I'm not living in a supportive environment. / What
does that mean?
A: Last week, we discussed your dissatisfaction with your marriage.

B: Right.________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I believe there are a couple of factors affecting you. For one, you're experiencing the actor-observer effect.
B:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: You always blame your husband's behavior on poor personality traits. But you attribute your own behavior to the
environment.
B:_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Blaming it all on his personality isn't helping. Maybe you need to look at how your behavior is influencing the
situation.
B: I guess you have a point. ________________________________________________________________________
A: Right. Now, the other problem is a little trickier. I think I see some cognitive dissonance in your attitude.
B: Cognitive dissonance? __________________________________________________________________________
A: That's exactly right. You say that you don't want to live with your husband anymore. But you also clearly still love
him very much.
8. Use the conversation from Task 7 to write the psychologist’s notes about a patient. Include: The patient’s problem,
which social factors may be affecting him or her, and what advised him or her to do.
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Topic 5. Social Psychology and Groups.
How Groups Behave
When people are in groups, their individual behavior changes. For
example, two students are solving a simple problem. While solving
it, they know they are being observed by others. Social facilitation
causes one student to solve the problem quickly and without error.
However, another student might fail in the same situation. Social
inhibition causes this student to imagine the possibility of
embarrassment. Both students were given the same task. But the
presence of observers affected their behavior in different ways.
Group polarization and groupthink are especially common in
groups sharing an interest. There's often a group belief system or
agreed upon approach to issues. This structure relies on
conformity, compliance, and obedience. Members may share an
interest in altruism. Consequently, they all donate funds to the
same organization.
On the other hand, the existence of a group can also be harmful.
Extreme conformity can lead to deindividuation. In emergency
situations, the larger the group, the less likely an individual is to
act. The bystander effect occurs as a result of diffusion of responsibility. Each individual believes someone else will
take a necessary action. Eventually, no one acts at all.
But in any case, the existence of a group affects an individual's behavior. Sometimes the results are positive, and
sometimes they are negative.
Group –
Social facilitation –
Social inhibition –
Group polarization –
Groupthink –
Conformity –
Compliance –
Obedience –
Altruism –
Deindividuation –
The bystander effect –
diffusion of responsibility –

1 What is the passage mainly about?
A reasons that people should join groups
B the impact of a group on behavior
C types of groups with shared interests
D characteristics that bring individuals together
2 Which of the following is a positive consequence of a group dynamic?

A deindividuation
B diffusion of responsibility
C social facilitation
D bystander effect
3 Which of the following is NOT required to maintain a group?

A social inhibition
B conformity
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C altruism
D obedience
1. social inhibition
2. groupthink
3. diffusion of responsibility
4. conformity
5. group polarization
6. compliance
A the inclination to make extreme decisions as a group despite individual tendencies

B the tendency of a group of people to approach issues as one
C similar thoughts or behavior in line with members of a group
D the restriction of behavior to avoid embarrassment when observed by others
E the tendency to assume another member of a group will take action
F the process of acting as someone was requested or ordered
Altruism / group
1 A The professor started a(n)___________________ for new students.
B The man exhibited____________________________ by donating money to the charity.
social facilitation / obedience
2 A The student's performance improved as a result of________________________________ .
B The leader of the group expected__________________________ from the members.
bystander effect / deindividuation
3 A Nobody in the crowd took action, demonstrating the___________________________________ .
B The lecture on_____________________________ was about losing one’s own individuality.
Professor: We're discussing the dynamics of groups next week. Did you prepare something yet?
Student: I came up with some scenarios to present.
Professor: Oh, great! Tell me about them.
Student: Take, for example, a person getting robbed on a busy street. What would you do in that situation?
Professor: 1) ____________________________________ the students will say?
Student: I think we'll see a lot of altruism. Most people believe they would take action.
Professor: Right. However, studies show that 2) _______________________________________ is very powerful.
Student: So, you're saying their actual behavior might be different. 3) ________________________the crime occur?
Professor: Exactly. In emergency situations, there's a diffusion of responsibility. Most people 4) _____________held
accountable.
Student: Hmm. That'll be interesting, then.
Professor: I agree. Did you have 5) ___________________________?
Student: Yes. I want to use a fraternity 6) ____________________________.
Professor: Good. That's very familiar to college students too. And members often experience deindividuation.
Student: I see it in some of my friends in those organizations. They dress, act, and think alike.
Professor: And that's actually an example of conformity. Good job. You prepared well.

What did you think ...? Take for example ... Exactly.
your own dialogue.We might just watch the crime occur. / Yes, it was very interesting. / Most people believed
they would take action.
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A: What did you think about the lecture on group behavior?
B: I enjoyed it! Take, for example, when he spoke about a person getting robbed on a busy street. _______________
A: Right. But the studies show that the bystander effect is very powerful.
B: I know. Our actual behavior might be different. ___________________________
A: Exactly. In emergency situations, there's a diffusion of responsibility. Most people don't want to be held
accountable.
B: ______________________________________.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to write an evaluation of a psychology lecture.
Psych Lecture Evaluation

Professor: Pam Archer
Lecture Topic: The Dynamics of Groups
Overall Assessment: Professor Archer’s ____________ was very _____________________. We discussed the
impact groups have on behaviors and decisions. We were presented with an example of a
_____________________ getting mugged on a______________ street. Then, we were asked how we’d react to
that situation. Everyone agreed that someone should help the victim. However, no one knew whether they’d
actually do _______________. I think the ___________ was interesting and informative. I never knew the
existence of a group impacted ______________ so much. It’d be interesting to discuss other examples to
understand more.
Змістовий модуль VII. Research and Experiments.

Topic 6. Research and Experiments 1.
East University. Departments and Programs Psychology.

East University's Psychology Department has a rich history of
research and experiments. Studies at the university provide
information on the student population. Data from these cohort
studies inform faculty of the state of the university. We believe
this is necessary to provide the best opportunities for our
students. Consequently, we focus on both correlational research
and statistical research for descriptive research).
A recent cross-sectional study concentrated on our athletic
program. Conducting research on the entire program would be
difficult to accomplish. Therefore, we only followed one team
throughout one term. We gathered quantitative information
from various sources These statistics showed the team's
qualitative differences during the year. Our ultimate analysis
demonstrated the need for stronger leadership on a team.
Additionally, we noted the need for players to take on different
roles.
Currently, we're analyzing a longitudinal study of the senior class.
We polled them regarding their educational experience, as well
as their career goals. That makes this study both retrospective
and prospective. We hope to see a causal relationship between
curriculum decisions and career prospects. That information will allow us to tailor courses better to students' needs.

1 Data collected from the department's studies are reviewed by faculty. True False
2 The psychology department prefers correlational research instead of descriptive research. True False
3 The university conducted a longitudinal study of its athletic program. True False
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Population –
Data –
Cohort studies –
Correlational research –
statistical research –
descriptive research –
cross-sectional study –
quantitative –
qualitative –
longitudinal study –
retrospective –
prospective –
causal relationship –
1. cohort study
2. correlational research
3. statistical research
4. causal relationship
5. longitudinal study
6. prospective
7. cross-sectional study
A a type of study relating to something in the future

B a type of study relating to a population or a representative sample of that population
C a type of study analyzing people with a common characteristic or experience
D the connection between two events, where the second is the result of the first
E relating to the survey of a group over time to observe changing factors
F a type of study involving dependent or related factors
G a type of study that relies on descriptive data rather than causes
1. A study showed an increase in the number of residents since last year. (p _ p _ _ _ _ i o _)

2. The information in the report was related to the goodness or badness of the subjects. (_ u _ l _ _ a t _ _ e)
3. Experiments require the collection and analysis of facts and figures. (_ _ _ _)
4. The professor relied on measurable statistics for his research. (q u _ n _ _ _ a t _ _ _)
5.The university conducted a backward-looking study on student experiences. (_ e _ r _ _ _ e _ _ _ v e)

Professor 1: I'm submitting a proposal to the university tomorrow. I 1) ______________________ a cohort study,
but I need approval first.
Professor 2: What population will be your focus?
Professor 1: Students who received scholarships 2) _____________________university.
Professor 2: That's interesting. 3) __________________________retrospective?
Professor 1: No, prospective. I'm focusing on how their scholarships relate to their futures.
Professor 2: I'd think correlational research would be 4) ___________________________.
Professor 1: It would be, but I prefer longitudinal studies. Changes over time are the 5) __________________ to me.
Professor 2: 6) __________________________. I hope your research supports your hypothesis.
Professor 1: I hope so as well. Are you conducting any new research?
Professor 2: Not yet. I'm still completing the analysis of my last study.
Professor 1: Oh, I thought you finished that already.
Professor 2: The statistical research is completed. I just need to analyze the data now.
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Professor 1: Ah, I see. Well, contact me if you need help. I'm always happy to double-check calculations.
Professor 2: Thanks! I'll contact you later in the week.

I plan to ... Are you conducting ...? I prefer ...
your own dialogue
Psychology students. / Yes, I prefer retrospective studies. / I think so, too. / I plan to conduct a cohort study, but I
need approval first.
A: Are you conducting any new research?
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: What population will be your focus?
B: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: That's interesting. Will the study be retrospective?
B: ______________________________________________________ I'm focusing on the students' backgrounds and
choice to study psychology.
A: I see. I think you might encounter a causal relationship.
B:____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the webpage and the conversations from Tasks 4 to write an email to a colleague about a research project.
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Ethics in Research.
All forms of experimental research
require responsibility and oversight.
Of course, regulations differ
depending on the type of research or
experiment. However, there is
always an ethical or moral
justification for the regulation
Researchers must act accordingly,
regardless of the experiment.
When dealing with a human subject, the subject's age is important. Any study involving minors requires consent from
the parents. The researcher should conduct an interview with the family before research begins. This is a chance to
establish defined boundaries for the study. If anyone is uncomfortable, they can choose not to participate.
An animal study doesn't have the same ethical concerns as a human study. That's why some studies begin with an
analysis of primates, Primates are similar to humans, but are studied under different ethical guidelines. Often, field
experiments are favored over the laboratory for an animal study. Confining animals in a laboratory can be
uncomfortable and possibly unethical. Also, it doesn't provide the same benefits as an observational study. A natural
environment is the best place for real-world results.
While discovery is important, research should avoid putting its subjects in danger. Ethical regulations are important,
and ensure research does not cause undue harm.
experimental research -
regulations -
ethical or moral -
a human subject -
consent -
interview -
defined -
animal study -
guidelines -
field experiments -
benefit -
observational study -

A an example of an unethical animal study
B changes to ethical guidelines in recent years
C appropriate ethical considerations for researchers
D a plan to ensure ethical research in an upcoming study
2 According to the article, which is NOT true about animal studies?

A They require consent from certain agencies.
B They have different regulations than human studies.
C They may be problematic in a laboratory.
D They are best analyzed through field observation.
3 According to the passage, why should the boundaries of an experiment be well defined?
A Strict guidelines govern the process.
B Uncomfortable subjects can choose not to participate.
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C Researchers must determine which ethical guidelines are important.
D Studies with human subjects are typically dangerous.
1. observational study
2. human subject
3. moral
4. experimental research
5. guideline
6. defined
7. benefit
8. minor
A a rule, policy, or recommendation outlining ideal methods

B a person who is the focus of an experiment or research
C relating to someone's personal beliefs
D a study in which the placement of subjects is not determined by the researcher
E the process of using data and controlled studies to validate a hypothesis
F the positive or helpful result of something
G relating to boundaries
H a child or a person who is younger than a particular age
Regulations / interview / field experiment / Consent / animal study / ethical
1 The researcher preferred a(n) ______________________ to the laboratory setting.

2 A(n) _________________________________ with the researcher helped the subject understand the study better.
3 A number of primates were observed during the_______________________________.
4 ____________________________from parents was required in order to study the school children.
5 The professor prepared a list of ___________________________concerns about the plans for the study.
6 All psychology experiments are governed by strict _________________________________________.
Psychologist 1: Hey, Marvin. I'm about to test a new drug. Do you have experience with animal studies?
Psychologist 2: No. I only deal with human subjects.
Psychologist 1: Why is that? Isn't it beneficial 1) __________________________with animals and humans?
Psychologist 2: Of course. However, 2) ________________________variables working with animals.
Psychologist 1: You could eliminate those variables in a laboratory.
Psychologist 2: I prefer a field experiment. That's 3) ___________________________with human subjects.
Psychologist 1: Issues with human subjects can arise as well. The ethical guidelines are much stricter.
Psychologist 2: I realize that. 4) ____________________________regulations prevent many complications.
Psychologist 1: I actually prefer 5) __________________________as well. But this is a drug for minors.
Psychologist 2: What's the significance of that?
Psychologist 1: Research with minors requires 6) ________________________. That's difficult to acquire at times.
Psychologist 2: I see what you're saying. The regulations are especially strict.
Psychologist 1: Exactly. Hey, you work with children a lot. How do you deal with parents?
Psychologist 2: I discuss the entire experiment with them beforehand. And I always update them before I make any
changes.
Psychologist 1: That sounds reasonable.
Do you have experience with ...? That sounds ... How do you ...?
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your own dialogue.
How do you deal with parents? / Do you have experience with children? / That sounds reasonable.
A: I'm about ready to start my experiment. __________________________________________________________
B: Yes. The ethical guidelines are quite strict and research with minors requires parental consent. That's difficult to
acquire at times.
A: Exactly. Hey, you work with children a lot. _______________________________________________________
B: I discuss the entire experiment with them beforehand. And I always update them before I make any changes.
A:___________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the words below to fill out the research proposal.
Minors / changes /research /consent / interactions / final / human / parents / details / ethical
Research/Experiment Proposal Intended

Research/Experiment: Twin Study
Subject(s): Ben and Jake Miller (10-year-old boys)
Description: I plan to observe the _______________of 10-year-old twin boys. Since they are
_________________subjects as well as_____________, there are a number of _______________ considerations. I
already held interviews with the boys’______________. They gave their _________________ and agreed to come to
every meeting. If I make any __________________ to my plan, I’ll discuss it with them immediately. Currently, all
preliminary ______________are in place. Approval of this proposal is the ________________step. A quick response is
appreciated. I would like to start my ______________________ before the end of the month. Thank you.

RESEARCH ASSISTANT NEEDED!

Content Industries is looking for a research assistant for our field team.
We specialize in content analysis and computer simulation. Data
collection is the foundation of our work. As a research assistant, you'll
work with members of the data collection team.
Responsibilities:
✓ Performing an archival search at the beginning of each study - This
is used to create our pre- and post-study computer models. It aids in
our meta-analysis and streamlines our process.
✓ Selecting subjects from our target demographic
- Ideally, this group should be a random sample. But sometimes we'll
need a particular selection of respondents.
✓ Adequately explaining instructions for self-reports before
respondents complete the study.
Qualifications:
✓ The ideal candidate will have experience administering a survey.
✓ You should have an understanding of how a case study is analyzed.
This is not a requirement, but it is preferred.
✓ We require some experience characterizing data.
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✓ Knowledge of the different levels of measurement is a bonus. Otherwise, we'll train you regarding the following:
• Nominal measurement
• Interval measurement
• Ordinal measurement
• Ratio measurement
If you're interested, complete the application on our website. We will contact qualified applicants to set up an
interview.
content analysis -
computer simulation -
Data collection -
Responsibilities -
archival search -
meta-analysis -
random sample -
Qualifications -
Survey -
case study -
Nominal measurement -
Interval measurement -
Ordinal measurement -
Ratio measurement –

1 The company specializes in computer simulation. True False
2 The research assistant will work independently. True False
3 Applicants must be familiar with nominal measurement. True False
1. case study
2. computer simulation
3. data collection
4. random sample
5. nominal measurement
A a digital program or model used to replicate something
B the process of gathering and preparing information
C a subset of a population that is chosen without design or purpose
D a real-life event observed as the subject of analysis
E a characterization of data by name, category, or label
3. Place the words or phrases from the word bank in the correct box.
ordinal measurement / content analysis / meta-analysis / survey / ratio measurement / interval measurement
/ archival search / self-report
Collection Methods Examination Methods Characterizations of Data
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Interviewer: Welcome to Content Industries. We appreciate your interest in the research assistant position.
Applicant: Thank you for inviting me in today.
Interviewer: Of course. I 1) ___________________________. Could you talk about your experience in more detail?
Applicant: Sure. I previously worked as a research assistant for an advertising firm. 2) ________________________
administering surveys and self-reports.
Interviewer: Was analysis part of your job?
Applicant: Not specifically. 3)____________________________, large projects, I performed some meta-analysis.
Interviewer: It's 4) ____________________________you have some experience performing post-survey tasks.
Applicant: I also have experience with pre-survey tasks.
Interviewer: Oh, really? 5) _________________________?
Applicant: Well, I typically performed the archival searches as well.
Interviewer: So, you're familiar with historical data?
Applicant: Yes. I'm comfortable 6) _____________________________ of data collection.
Interviewer: Hmm. Often, young research assistants aren't comfortable with the older databases.
Applicant: My old firm had a lot of large projects. I had many opportunities to learn.
Interviewer: I see. You're definitely a strong candidate. Let's talk about your experience with data characterization.
Could you talk about ...? I previously worked as ... So, you're familiar with ...
your own dialogue.
I believe so. / I'm most comfortable with nominal measurement and ordinal measurement. / Yes, I was involved
in research and analysis. / I previously worked for a consulting firm.
A: I reviewed your application. Could you talk about your experience in more detail?
B: __________________________________________________We performed data collection for private
companies.
A: Was analysis part of your job?
B: ______________________________________But I primarily focused on characterization of data post-collection.
A: So, you're familiar with different levels of measurement?
B: Yes. _______________________________________________________________________________________
A: This position requires interval and ratio measurement. Do you think you can handle those?
B: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
A: That's great to hear. You're definitely a strong candidate.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the applicant evaluation.
Applicant Evaluation
Applicant’s Name: Shawn Spencer
Position: Research Assistant/Field Team
Would you hire the applicant? Y / N
Why or why not? The research assistant position will be an integral part of the field team. He or she will perform
____________________and administer surveys. From time to time, __________________________may be
required. The ideal candidate must have _________________________ in this field, and be able to take on new
tasks when requested. Shawn is a very qualified _____________________. He has experience in
_________________, collection, and _________________________. He won’t need much characterization training
since he’s already _______________________with the ________________________. I think he’ll be a great
addition to the field team.
117
Змістовий модуль VIІI. Mental Disorders.
Topic 9. Mental Disorders 1.

The DSM is a manual that defines and classifies mental disorders. It provides researchers, clinicians, and many others
with standardized criteria of these disorders. This lets clinicians diagnose patients consistently and accurately. It also
allows people to learn more about abnormal psychology.
The APA published the first edition of the
DSM in 1952. And the manual is still
subject to occasional revisions. For many
years, the DSM used a multi-axial system
of diagnosis. In this system, clinicians
separated patients' symptoms into
several categories, or axes. Although the
multi-axial system is no longer used,
some of its principles still apply. For
example, on one axis, clinicians noted
symptoms related to a person's mental
state. On another, they identified a patient's overall level of functioning. Clinicians still assess these factors, but they
do so in a more holistic manner.
There are some critics of the DSM. They say that it labels conditions that are not really mental health disorders. Others
argue that it is unreliable and often inaccurate. However, the DSM still has widespread support. Supporters point to
the DSM's consistency with international standards. Its diagnoses correspond well with the ICD, published by the
WHO. The DSM continues to be a primary resource for clinicians, researchers, insurance companies, and drug
manufacturers.
DSM –
mental disorder –
standardized –
abnormal psychology –
APA –
Revision –
multi-axial system –
system –
symptom –
identified -
condition –
ICD –
WHO –

1 The multi-axial system is a recent addition to the DSM. True False
2 Critics argue that the DSM is not consistent with international standards. True False
3 Several different professional industries use the DSM. True False
1. multi-axial system
2. ICD
3. mental disorder
4. revision
5. WHO
6. DSM
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7. APA
8. abnormal psychology
A a change intended to improve something
B an organization of psychiatrists who set standards
C a disruption of a person's thoughts, feelings, and sometimes behavior
D a manual that classifies problems with mental functioning
E an organization that is dedicated to international public health
F a system in which symptoms were placed into different categories
G a diagnostic resource that is considered an international standard
H the study of problems with the human mind.
1 Depression can be a sign of a larger problem. (_ y _ p _ o _)

2 The woman went to see a psychologist because she was in a disturbed state of being. (_ _ n _ _ t _ o _)
3 The psychologist used the DSM to determine the man's illness. (d _ a _ _ o _ e)
4 The patient asked for another professional opinion when the doctor could not recognize his problem.(_ d _ n _ _ f _)
Student: How can clinicians diagnose mental disorders?

Professor: It's similar to the way a medical doctor diagnoses an illness.
Student: Yes, but that seems much more difficult with mental disorders.
Professor: I'm glad you brought that up. Why do you think so?
Student: Well, let's say I want to know if I have diabetes. I can just get a simple blood test. But that's not an option if
I'm suffering from depression.
Professor: That's very true. Diagnosing a mental disorder is a more complex process.
Student: I know it requires asking a lot of questions. How 1) ________________________when you have enough
information?
Professor: That can be tricky. But at some point, a good psychologist will start to 2) ___________________________.
Student: I see. I guess I'd be concerned about one psychologist 3) ____________________________than another.
Professor: That's why clinicians 4) ___________________________.
Student: Oh, of course! That provides 5) _____________________________for each set of symptoms.
Professor: Yes, it does. And the DSM criteria 6) ______________________________in the ICD, too.
Student: So, diagnoses are the same all over the world?
Professor: Yes, for the most part.
How can clinicians diagnose ...? I'd be concerned about ... Oh, of course!
your own dialogue.
I guess I'd be concerned about a psychologist mistaking a set of symptoms for the wrong condition. / How do you
know when you have the right information? / How can clinicians diagnose mental disorders? / Oh, of course!
A: ____________________________________________________________________________ It seems difficult.
B: Yes. Identifying a psychological condition often depends on getting reliable information from the patient.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: It's tricky. But at some point, a good psychologist will uncover the root causes of behavior.
A: I see. ________________________________________________________________________________________
B: That's why clinicians use the DSM.
A: _________________________________________________That provides standardized diagnoses for each set of
symptoms.
B: Yes. And it's updated to reflect the latest changes in psychological healthcare.
119
7. Use the encyclopedia article from Task 1 to fill out the essay about the DSM.
The DSM is an important tool for mental health professionals. It is a _________________________that includes
information, including diagnostic ___________________________, for a variety of mental ______________________.
Mental health professionals, like psychiatrists and psychologists can use the DSM to _______________________ their
patients. First, a ____________________evaluates a patient’s _________________. Then, the clinician consults the
DSM. Finally, the clinician determines if the patient’s ______________________match up with any mental
_______________in the DSM. Other industries, such as ___________________________companies and drug
________________, also rely on the _______________________________.

Shale Valley SV Mental Health Services

Dr. Friedman's Notes
9:00 AM-Leah Nelson (new patient)
I met with Ms. Nelson this morning. She is clearly suffering from some kind
of anxiety disorder. She did not display or mention any particular phobias.
She also did not present any symptoms of panic disorder. I asked her about
severely traumatic events in her past.
She responded that she had none, so it's unlikely that - she has a stress
disorder, like PTSD. At this time, I feel fairly confident with a diagnosis of
generalized anxiety disorder. I scheduled another appointment to explore
her condition further.
10:00 AM-Hector Bloom (diagnosed with OCD)
Mr. Bloom continues to improve his ability to control his compulsions. He
reports that his obsessions are diminished, which suggests that his
medication is working. I feel optimistic about his continued recovery.
11:00 AM-Gertrude Collins (referral from mental health facility)
Ms. Collins was recently released from the county mental health facility. She was admitted last month for severe
depression, and she is now on a course of mood-stabilizing medication. This looks like a clear case of a mood disorder.
But her problem isn't strictly depression. She also exhibits periods of energetic and irresponsible behavior. I'd like to
explore the possibility of bipolar disorder.
anxiety disorder –
phobia –
panic disorder –
stress disorder -
PTSD –
generalized anxiety disorder –
OCD –
Compulsion –
Obsession –
Depression –
mood disorder –
bipolar disorder –

1 What is true about the patient with an anxiety disorder?
120
A She was previously diagnosed with panic disorder.
B She recently experienced a traumatic event.
C She is not responding to a course of medication.
D She is most likely suffering from generalized anxiety disorder.
2 What is NOT true about the patient with OCD?

A His obsessions are diminished.
B The doctor expects him to improve.
C He is taking an effective medication.
D The doctor suspects he has additional conditions.
3 What is a likely diagnosis for the patient released from the facility?
A panic disorder
B bipolar disorder
C stress disorder
D obsessive compulsive disorder
1. Phobia
2. panic disorder
3. OCD
4. generalized anxiety disorder
5. PTSD
6. bipolar disorder
7. obsession
8. depression
A an intense, debilitating fear

B a mood disorder characterized by periods of high activity and sadness
C a condition in which a person is nervous in many or all situations
D a condition in which a person feels sad and has low self-esteem
E an idea that a person cannot stop thinking about
F a stress condition related to traumatic event
G a condition in which a person has attacks of overwhelming fear
H a condition in which a person engages in rituals to avoid bad thoughts
anxiety disorder / mood disorder / compulsion / stress disorder

1 For some people with OCD, hand-washing is a(n) _____________________________.
2 A(n) __________________________ is a disorder in which people experience high levels of nervousness.
3 PTSD is an example of a(n)____________________________.
4 A(n) _________________________________ might cause irrational levels of energy, sadness, or both.
Psychologist 1: Hey, Helen. I'm sending you another patient this week.
Psychologist 2: Oh, yeah? What's the story with this one?
Psychologist 1: She came to the hospital last month 1) ____________________. We treated her for severe depression.
Psychologist 2: But you're 2) ____________________her now?
Psychologist 1: Yes. The medication really 3) ______________________. But she needs regular care.
Psychologist 2: I see. So, you think it's a standard case of depression?
Psychologist 1: Actually, I don't. I think you should explore the possibility of 4) _____________________.
Psychologist 2: Oh, she must be exhibiting some 5)______________________________ .
Psychologist 1: Yes, she is. She 6) _________________________ of extreme energy. Then she's back to deep
depression again.
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Psychologist 2: Hmm. That does sound like bipolar disorder.
Psychologist 1: Right. Oh, and she also shows signs of an anxiety disorder. Sometimes, she has sudden attacks of fear
and anxiety.
Psychologist 2: Could be panic disorder. I'll look into it. All this will be in your notes, right?
Psychologist 1: Yes, of course. And feel free to call me if you have any questions.
What's the story ...? So, you think ...? I'll look into it.
your own dialogue.
What's the story with this one? / He must have a traumatic event in his past. / But you're ready to release him now?
/ That does sound like a stress disorder. / So, you think it's a standard case of a panic disorder?
A: I'm sending you another patient this week.

B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: He came to the hospital last month with an anxiety disorder. We treated him for panic attacks.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. The medication really helped. But he needs regular care.
B: I see. ________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Actually, I don't. I think you should also explore the possibility of PTSD.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. It happened during his time in the military. But it's difficult to get him to talk about it.
B: _______________________________________________I'll look into it. All this will be in your notes, right?
A: Yes, of course. And feel free to call me if you have any questions.
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the patient referral.
Patient: Kevin Fischer

Referred by: Dr. Kingston
Referred to: Dr. Simmons
The patient was hospitalized for _______________. We treated him with _______________and reduced the number
and severity of his ______________. I conducted several therapy sessions with the patient, and it looks like he definitely
suffers from a severe mood disorder. However, I don’t think it’s just ___________. In our sessions, he mentioned periods
of irrational stress, brought on by various triggers. This indicated___________. He has a ____________background, so
I doubt that it’s generalized anxiety ____________. But PTSD might be worth exploring.
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Schizophrenic Disorders
Schizophrenic disorders are the root of many social and emotional problems. People with schizophrenia display a range
of symptoms. Various subcategories reflect common patterns.
The most commonly diagnosed form is disorganized schizophrenia. This is indicated by various disturbances in
thought, speech and behavior. Catatonic schizophrenia and paranoid schizophrenia are often more pronounced, and
can be severely debilitating. Some cases of schizophrenia do not follow one particular pattern. These are tougher to
assess, and are classified as undifferentiated schizophrenia.
With the right treatment, many schizophrenic patients live normal, functional lives. However, with any type of
schizophrenia, some symptoms typically remain. This is called residual schizophrenia.
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders involve problems with memory or identity. For example, some people experience dissociative
amnesia. They lose parts of their memories following a traumatic event. It might cause a dissociative fugue. This
causes someone to travel to another place without remembering why. Another well-known dissociative disorder is
dissociative identity disorder. It occurs when a person switches from one distinct personality to another.
Mental Disorders in Children
Mental Disorders in Children The most common diagnosis in children is ADHD Other disorders, like autism, fall into
the broader category of PDD. Many children have some kind of PDD. Major disturbances, like depression and
schizophrenia, are rarely diagnosed in children.
disorganized schizophrenia –
Catatonic schizophrenia –
paranoid schizophrenia –
undifferentiated schizophrenia –
residual schizophrenia –
dissociative amnesia –
dissociative fugue –
dissociative identity disorder –
ADHD –
Autism –
PDD -

1 Any type of schizophrenia can become residual schizophrenia. True False
2 Dissociative amnesia often leads to a dissociative fugue. True False
3 Some forms of schizophrenia are very common in children. True False
1. dissociative fugue
2. PDD
3. catatonic schizophrenia
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4. disorganized schizophrenia
5. ADHD
6. residual schizophrenia
7. autism
8. paranoid schizophrenia
A a condition in which a person stays in the same position

B a developmental disorder in which a person has trouble interacting
C a condition characterized by delusions
D a category of mental disorders in which a child has delays in basic areas
E a condition in which a person travels far away and forgets his or her identity
F a condition in which a person has disrupted speech
G a condition in which a person's symptoms are reduced, but not cured
H a disorder in which a person has difficulty concentrating
1 The woman has a condition featuring multiple personalities. (_ _ s _ _ c _ _ t _ _ e) (_ d _ _ t _ _ y) (d _ _ o _ _ _ r)

2 The patient had a disorder in which he was not well-connected to reality and had disorganized thoughts.
(s _ _ i _ _ _ h _ _ n _ _) (_ i _ _ r _ _ r)
3 Following a traumatic event, the man suffered from memory loss brought on by the traumatic event.
(d _ _ s _ _ i _ _ _ v _) (a _ _ e _ _ a)
4 The doctor diagnosed his patient with a form of schizophrenia that did not follow any established patter
(u _ _ _ f _ _ r _ _ t _ a _ _ d) (_ c _ _ z _ p _ _ e _ _ a)
5 The psychologist specialized in disorders that are characterized by a change in memory or identity.
(d _ s _ _ c _ _ t _ _ e) (_ i _ o _ _ _ r s)
Student 1: Do you want to review for tomorrow's exam?

Student 2: Yeah, I keep mixing up the types of schizophrenic disorders.
Student 1: So do I. Let's start with 1) _____________________________.
Student 2: Isn't that the one 2) _________________________________?
Student 1: That doesn't sound right. I 3) ____________________________________paranoid schizophrenia.
Student 2: Oh, yeah, you're right. So, disorganized schizophrenia is indicated 4) _________________________and
strange behavior.
Student 1: That's it. So, what is 5) ________________________________________?
Student 2: I definitely know that one. That's when a person stays 6) ___________________________for a long time.
What about undifferentiated schizophrenia?
Student 1: That happens after a patient gets treatment. The symptoms are reduced, but not completely gone.
Student 2: No, that's not it. I think you just described residual schizophrenia.
Student 1: Wait, really? So, undifferentiated schizophrenia must be that general category.
Student 2: Right. That's the classification when one of the other types doesn't fit.
Student 1: Wow, these are confusing. We should probably go over them again.
Student 2: Sure. Let's start from the beginning.
I keep mixing up ... That doesn't sound ... I definitely know ...
your own dialogue.
Let's start with dissociative amnesia. / That doesn't sound right. / We should probably go over these again. / So,
what is dissociative identify disorder? / Do you want to review for tomorrow's exam?
124
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Yes. I keep mixing up the dissociative disorders.
A: So, do I. ______________________________________________________________________________________
B: Isn't that the one that causes the person to wander off somewhere?
A: __________________________________________________________ I think you're describing a dissociative
fugue.
B: You're right. Dissociative amnesia is memory loss, when someone can't remember his or her identity. It often occurs
along with a fugue state.
A: That's it. ______________________________________________________________________________________
B: I definitely know that one. That's when a person has more than one personality in his or her mind.
A: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: Sure. Let's start from the beginning.
7. Use the textbook chapter in Task 1 to fill out the essay on the differences between mental disorders.
Two major types of dissociative disorders are dissociative ______________________and dissociative identity
___________________________. They both involve ______________________________with
_____________________and identity. Patients with these disorders often have trouble maintaining relationships
with others. However, the two conditions present different _________________________. Dissociative amnesia is
characterized by loss of _____________________following a ______________________event. Dissociative identity
disorder is often very pronounced, causing a _________________________to have distinctly separate
________________which they can _____________________between. Often the patient cannot remember what they
did in an alternate personality.

Symptom Chart for Personality Disorders

For reference only-not intended for use as a diagnostic
tool.
Paranoid personality disorder - The main characteristic
of this disorder is a person's general distrust for others.
A paranoid person believes that other people intend to
harm him or her.
Schizoid personality disorder - The central features of
this disorder are dysfunctional relationships and
isolation. The schizoid person does not desire social
interaction.
Schizotypal personality disorder - This disorder is
characterized by disturbances in thinking and
perception.
Antisocial personality disorder - A major feature of this
disorder is deceptive, manipulative behavior. Other
symptoms are trouble with relationships and hostility.
Borderline personality disorder - Emotional instability,
low self-esteem, and trouble with relationships are
typical symptoms of borderline cases.
125
Histrionic personality disorder - People with this disorder are often deceitful, controlling, and jealous. They place
exaggerated importance on themselves and their emotions.
Narcissistic personality disorder - This disorder is indicated by extreme notions of self-importance. Other symptoms
include hostility, depression, and unfairly blaming others.
Dependent personality disorder - The main symptoms of this disorder are relationship problems, poor self-image,
and anxiety. Dependent people constantly need others for validation, support, and direction.
Avoidant personality disorder - An avoidant person is generally afraid of how others regard him or her. Consequently,
this disorder involves avoidance of personal relationships and interactions.
Paranoid personality disorder –

Characteristic –
Schizoid personality disorder –
Schizotypal personality disorder –
Antisocial personality disorder –
Borderline personality disorder –
self-esteem –
Histrionic personality disorder –
Exaggerated –
Narcissistic personality disorder –
Dependent personality disorder –
Avoidant personality disorder -

1 What is the purpose of the poster?
A to pair personality disorders with symptoms
B to list treatment options for personality disorders
C to identify the causes of personality disorders
D to compare personality disorders with other mental disorders
2 Which is NOT a feature of narcissistic personality disorder?

A self-absorption
B hostility
C depression
D poor self-image
3 Which condition involves a need for other people?

A paranoid personality disorder
B antisocial personality disorder
C dependent personality disorder
D avoidant personality disorder
2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-D).
1. Characteristic
2. self-image
3. exaggerated
4. self-esteem
A the way a person thinks others view him or her

B a category of qualities or features
C the way a person views him- or herself
D overemphasized
126
1.personality disorder / antisocial personality disorder

A With any _______________________________________, a patient’s actions often violate society’s expectations.
B People with _________________________________________do not have respect for other people’s feelings.
2. avoidant personality disorder / narcissistic personality disorder

A The patient was diagnosed with ____________________________________because his self-important attitude.
B _____________________________________makes someone want to stay at home and never interact with others.
3. schizoid personality disorder / schizotypal personality disorder

A People with ______________________________ are not interested in having meaningful relationships.
B _______________________________________causes patients to perceive reality differently than other people do.
Psychologist 1: Hey, Terrence. I could use some help with a diagnosis.

Psychologist 2: Of course, Lisa. What's up?
Psychologist 1: I know you specialize in personality disorders. Clearly, my patient has one.
Psychologist 2: Okay. What are his symptoms?
Psychologist 1: He has trouble maintaining 1) ___________________________.
Psychologist 2: That's the case with 2) ______________________________. What else is there?
Psychologist 1: Well, he's 3) __________________________of other people.
Psychologist 2: Hmm. That narrows it down a little bit. We could be looking at 4) __________________________.
Psychologist 1: Would 4) ______________________________he has emotional outbursts?
Psychologist 2: Not necessarily. Tell me, does he 6) ______________________________of events in his life?
Psychologist 1: Yes, he's very dramatic. He interprets insignificant actions as major attacks or offenses.
Psychologist 2: Ah, now we're getting somewhere. I bet he demands a lot of attention, too.
Psychologist 1: Oh, sure. His emotional episodes usually happen in public.
Psychologist 2: Well, I can't say for sure. But you should definitely look into histrionic personality disorder.
Psychologist 1: Oh, of course! I'll check it out. Thanks for your help.
He has trouble ... That narrows it down ... I bet ...
your own dialogue.
It sounds to me like he has dependent personality disorder. / I bet even from people he barely knows. / That's pretty
common. / We could be looking at a borderline case. / Tell me, does he constantly seek your approval? / What are
his symptoms?
A: I have a new patient and I could use some help with a diagnosis.
B: Sure. _________________________________________________________________________________________
A: He's got serious relationship problems.
B: ________________________________________________________________What else is there?
A: He has very low self-esteem. He doesn't think anyone likes him.
B: That narrows it down. ___________________________________________________________________________
A: Would that explain why he can't be at home alone?
B: Not really. ____________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. In fact, he seems to need everyone's approval.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes!
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Oh, of course! I'll check it out. Thanks for your help.
127
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the patient assessment.
Patient: Herman Cahill
Mr. Cahill is exhibiting a number of __________________________of a ________________________ disorder.

Primarily, he has very low ___________________________. He often assumed others don’t
__________________him. He can’t be ________________________and he constantly seeks other people's
____________________. I now think this is a case of __________________________disorder.
Змістовий модуль IX. Treatment. Career options.
Topic 13. Treatment.

About Us
Treatment Center
Westview Treatment Center is a full-service provider of medical and therapeutic treatments. We practice free
association or psychodynamic therapy in most sessions.
What We Do
All of our psychoanalysts possess MDs. That means they can prescribe antipsychotics, antidepressants, and
tranquilizers. We do not, however, perform invasive medical procedures on site. Patients requiring psychosurgery or
electroconvulsive therapy are referred to a specialist facility. We recognize that each patient is different. We
supplement each course of psychoanalysis with additional, appropriate therapies.
Treatments and Programs
- Behaviors and Depression
• We have excellent specialists in behavioral therapy. This focuses on the thoughts and feelings that cause certain
behaviors. For a more in-depth focus, we offer cognitive therapy. In that program, we work to resolve negative
thinking and self-esteem issues.
- Personal Growth
• Humanistic therapy and existential therapy focus on personal anxieties. We work on
confronting issues such as ambition, responsibility, and isolation
- Group Sessions
• Some patients benefit from interactive therapies. That's why we offer group therapy. Some patients find comfort
simply in knowing they are not alone. And they can learn from each other's experiences. Family therapy is also
available to help families resolve conflicts and support each other.
128
free association –
psychodynamic therapy –
antipsychotics –
antidepressants –
tranquilizers –
psychosurgery –
electroconvulsive therapy –
psychoanalysis –
behavioral therapy –
cognitive therapy –
Humanistic therapy –
existential therapy –
group therapy –
Family therapy -
Complete the table.
1. cognitive therapy
2. humanistic therapy
3. psychoanalysis
4. existential therapy
5. behavioral therapy
6. family therapy
7. group therapy
A a treatment used to resolve conflicts between family members

B a treatment in which multiple patients to discuss their issues together
C a treatment that confronts issues of the realities of existence
D a treatment that adjusts negative thinking and self-esteem
E a treatment focusing on individual thought and personal growth
F the discussion of dreams, feelings, and memories with a psychoanalyst
G a treatment focusing on habits and actions, and the thoughts that cause them
3. Place the words or phrases from the word bank under the correct headings.
129
Psychosurgery / psychodynamic therapy / tranquilizer / free association / antipsychotic / antidepressant / ECT
Medications Medical Procedures Therapy Techniques
Psychologist: Okay, Rhonda. Let's discuss your treatment.

Patient: Sure. What are my options?
Psychologist: I think you'll benefit from standard psychoanalysis.
Patient: And that will help with the anxiety I'm feeling?
Psychologist: I believe so. We'll focus mostly on psychodynamic therapy. It opens up your unconscious mind.
Patient: Oh, I see. I thought you'd prescribe some medication.
Psychologist: Well, we need to 1) _______________________the issue. If we can resolve it without tranquilizers, we
should.
Patient: Okay. I really just 2) _________________________this way anymore.
Psychologist: I completely understand. I hope that's what this treatment plan 3) ___________________________.
Patient: Do you 4) ____________________________recommendations?
Psychologist: I'd like you to consider 5) ____________________________.
Patient: 6) _____________________________help me?
Psychologist: Family dynamics can be the cause of social anxiety. If I observe your family, I'll be able to understand
your situation better.
Patient: I'm not too comfortable with that. Is that really necessary?
Psychologist: No, it's just one method. Maybe I can observe your interactions in group therapy instead.
Patient: Yeah, that sounds better.
Let's discuss ... I'd like you to consider ... Is that really necessary?
your own dialogue.
What do you have in mind? / Do you have any other recommendations? / Is that really necessary? / Alright. / And that
will help with the anxiety I'm feeling?
A: Let's discuss your treatment.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Since you're experiencing undesirable behavior, we'll focus on behavioral therapy. It deals with the thoughts and
feelings that cause those behaviors.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Yes. We'll focus on cognitive therapy to resolve your negative thinking and self-esteem issues.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I'd like you to consider group therapy at a later stage.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: If I observe your interactions in group, I'll be able to understand your situation better. If we can resolve it without
tranquilizers, we should.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the treatment plan for a patient.
130
Westview Treatment Center – Treatment Plan
Patient: Samantha Franklin

Psychoanalyst: Dr. Ted Mercer
Overview of Plan: Ms. Franklin suffers from depression and social anxiety. Neither emotional disorder is severe
enough for invasive procedures. I recommended ______________________________therapy and cognitive
_____________. There seems to be something hidden that’s causing her anxiety. The therapy should unlock her
unconscious and uncover that issue. We’ll begin weekly sessions in a few days. Depending on the speed of her
improvement, I would like to put her in ___________________________therapy. If she doesn’t seem to improve,
I might consider prescribing a mild _____________________________. That’s a last resort, though. I believe
regular ___________________and occasional ___________________________________ sessions are all she’ll
need.
Topic 14. Applications.

CareerNow.com Psychology
So, you're pursuing a psychology degree. But maybe you're not sure
what to do with it. Career Now is here to help! There are many exciting
fields for psychologists.
Many psychology majors practice clinical psychology. While this is a
common field, it's not the only option. For example, school
psychology uses clinical and educational psychology to improve the
educational environment. Psychologists in this field work with
students, educators, parents, and community members. And that's
just one way to help your community. You could also pursue
community psychology. There, you'll focus on the relationships
amongst individuals, communities, and society at large.
Just like schools and communities, the workplace also needs
psychologists. Industrial psychology and organizational psychology
relate to businesses and personnel matters. These fields primarily deal
with industry, business decisions, and human factors. They're also
used in occupational health psychology to address workplace-related
health issues.
In psychology, new fields are always emerging. Sport psychology is a
relatively recent field that combines kinesiology and psychology. It's
ideal for those who already have a hard science background.
Additionally, forensic psychology and legal psychology are fascinating fields that explore criminal justice.
So, what will YOU do with your psychology degree?

A postings for available jobs in psychology
B tips for choosing a university psychology program
C educational requirements for a career in psychology
D fields to pursue with a degree in psychology
2 Which of the following focuses on improving the workplace?
131
A human factors
B community psychology
C forensic psychology
D educational psychology
3 What is NOT true about sport psychology?

A It is usually applied alongside school psychology.
B It is a relatively recent field of psychology.
C It is recommended for those with a hard science background.
D It is a combination of psychology and a physical science.
clinical psychology –
school psychology –
educational psychology
community psychology –
Industrial psychology –
organizational psychology –
human factors –
occupational health psychology –
Sport psychology –
forensic psychology –
legal psychology –
1. community psychology
2. human factors
3. clinical psychology
4. sport psychology
5. educational psychology
6. legal psychology
A ergonomics, industrial design, and operations research for the workplace

B the study of relationships amongst individuals, communities, and society
C the relationship between psychology and athletic performance
D the study of human learning and effective teaching techniques
E the application of law to psychology
F a general field that focuses on behavior and relationships
1. A Sport psychology helped the woman understand courtroom rules.

B The man researched industrial psychology to improve his office.
2. A In clinical psychology, most psychologists focus on the criminal mind.

B The court called an expert in forensic psychology to give evidence.
3. A School psychology is a field that attempts to improve student performance.

B There were a number of human factors involved in the court case.
Student: Thanks for meeting with me. I want to talk about career options with a psychology degree.
Advisor: You can do a lot with that degree. What are your particular interests?
132
Student: Hmm. Well, I'm very creative. I really like improving systems and processes.
Advisor: Great! For starters, there's industrial psychology.
Student: I'm not 1) ______________________. What is it?
Advisor: It's the application of 2) ___________________________and industrial issues.
Student: Really? 3) _________________________creative at all.
Advisor: Actually, it is. One major component is 4) ______________________. Are you familiar with that?
Student: I think so. That's the design of 5) ________________________, right?
Advisor: Exactly. You 6) ________________________organizational psychology. That's where you'd analyze and
improve employees' workplace experiences.
Student: Huh. Actually, that sounds perfect for me!
Advisor: I figured you'd like that. See, there are more options than you might realize.
Student: Do you suggest any particular courses?
Advisor: I recommend our course in occupational health psychology. It combines some of those other fields I
mentioned.
Student: I'll sign up for that. Thanks for your help!
I want to talk about ... I recommend ... I'm not familiar with ...
your own dialogue.
It's about the relationship of individuals and their communities. / But school psychology and educational
psychology might have more opportunities for that. / In that case, I recommend community psychology. / You can
do a lot with it. / I'll send you an email.
A: I'm concerned about my options. What can I do with a psychology degree?
B: _________________________________________________________________What are your interests?
A: I actually like being involved in my community. I'm a people-person.
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: I'm not familiar with that. What is it?
B: _____________________________________________________________________________________________
A: Would I get to work with children?
B: Possibly. _____________________________________________________________________________________
A: That sounds interesting to me. Can you give me more information on it?
B: Sure. ________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Use the conversation from Task 6 to fill out the email from an advisor to a student.
Hi Maxine,
I’m happy to give you some ideas for a career path. You mentioned that you like being ____________________ in
the _______________________and you are a ___________________-___________________. I think
_________________psychology would be a great choice for you. You’d have the opportunity to help
_______________ improve their ______________________. Another field you might consider is
_______________psychology. That would let you help ______________________ improve their performance and
general well-being. There’s a great education _________________________course, if that interests you.
Hope that helps!
Professor Calhoun.
133
Topic 15. Career Options.
Job Board (by industry)
Academics
→ East University is looking for an academic psychologist.
Responsibilities include empirical research and regular
publication in scholarly journals. We prefer a candidate who
already possesses a PsyD or PhD. But we will consider graduate
students who are still finishing a doctoral degree program. Click
for full posting.
→ The Arbor Academy is interested in a school psychologist
and a psychometrician for temporary contracts. We need fully
qualified candidates with an MA or specialist license. The
psychologist will help students achieve performance goals.
Click for full posting.
Private Firms
→ A major multi-product brand seeks a consumer
psychologist. You must understand different marketing
strategies. The psychologist will assess and report on poorly
performing products. Click for full posting.
→ A full-time engineering psychologist is needed for
temporary project. This regional firm recently doubled in size.
However, we cannot afford to upgrade to a larger office space.
We need ideas for organizational and ergonomic
improvements. Click for full posting.
Government Agencies
→ Winfields Air Base requires a military psychologist. The primary responsibility is to evaluate military personnel
before deployment. Click for full posting.
→ The Department of Education needs a consulting psychologist. The job involves the assessment of educational
structure in public schools. We prefer someone with experience as a clinical psychologist or counseling psychologist.
We also require an EdD. Click for full posting.
Complete the table:
134
academic psychologist –
PsyD –
PhD –
school psychologist –
psychometrician –
MA –
consumer psychologist –
engineering psychologis –
military psychologist -
consulting psychologist –
clinical psychologist –
counseling psychologist -
1. consulting psychologist
2. school psychologist
3. EdD
4. counseling psychologist
5. academic psychologist
6. psychometrician
7. clinical psychologist
8. PhD
A someone who specializes in learning and behavioral issues in children

B a general post-graduate or doctoral degree
C someone who specializes in scientific, scholarly, and empirical research
D someone who specializes in personality and behavioral issues
E a post-graduate research or doctoral degree in education
F someone who specializes in the psychological measurement of knowledge
G someone who specializes in assessment and intervention
H someone who specializes in counseling, training, or career development
PsyD / engineering psychologist / military psychologist / consumer psychologist / MA

1 The student studied for two years to earn her ______________________________.
2 All of the pilots had to meet with a(n) ________________________before deploying.
3 At the end of the doctoral program, the student will receive a(n) ___________________________.
4 The manufacturer ordered a marketing report from a(n) ___________________________.
5 The ________________________________ redesigned the office space to make it more efficient.
Interviewer: Thank you for coming in on such short notice.

Applicant: No problem. I'm really interested in working for a government agency. Especially in the educational field.
Interviewer: I'm glad to hear it. Now, 1) ______________________your experience is actually with private firms.
Applicant: Right. I was a 2) ________________________at a large corporation for a few years.
Interviewer: What 3) __________________________there?
Applicant: I managed 4) _________________________. I also performed some duties of a counseling psychologist.
Interviewer: Do you have any other specialized experience?
Applicant: Yes. I did my clinical internship assisting a 5) _________________________. I helped with performance
improvement.
135
Interviewer: Oh, really! I wasn't 6) _________________________. Did you work with psychometrics?Applicant: Yes.
In fact, that was a major component of my doctoral dissertation.
Interviewer: I'm glad you mentioned that. That experience should be really helpful in this position.
Applicant: I hope so. I enjoyed working in the private sector. But I'm ready to get back to an education focus.
Interviewer: That's excellent.

What were your responsibilities? I'm really interested in ... That should be helpful in ...
your own dialogue.
That should be helpful in this position. / Thank you for coming in on such short notice. / What were your
responsibilities in your previous position?
A: ___________________________________________________________________________________________
B: No problem. I'm really interested in working for a government agency. Especially in the educational field.
A: That's good to hear. ___________________________________________________________________________
B: I was a school psychologist for a public district after I got my EdD and I'm a licensed psychometrician.
A: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
B: I hope so. I enjoy working in education.
7. Use the words below to fill out the applicant evaluation.
Clinical / evaluations / required / qualified /license / position / posting / testing / licensed / PhD / fit
Applicant Evaluation Form
Applicant: Daniel Banks

Position: Psychometrician
Would you hire this person? Y/N
Why or why not? Daniel is a very _______________ candidate. He’s most recently worked as a
_________________psychometrician. He’s conducted ______________________ of various personality and IQ
_______________programs. He has more than the ______________________education and experience. He has a
________________and an up-to-date __________________. Prior to his current ___________________, he
worked as a school psychologist and ______________________psychologist. We requested this type of experience
in our __________________. I believe he’s the best candidate and will be a great ________________________ for
our team.
136
Glossary
A
Abnormal psychology is the study of problems or disorders in the human mind.
An academic psychologist is a person who specializes in the scholarly, scientific, and empirical aspects of psychology,
and generally has a doctoral degree in psychology.
The actor-observer effect is a situation in which someone attributes the actions of other people to their personal
traits, but attributes his or her own actions to external circumstances.
ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is a mental disorder in which a person has extreme difficulty
concentrating and also struggles to remain quiet and still.
Adolescence is a stage of life following puberty during which a child grows into an adult.
Adulthood is a stage life that occurs after a person is fully mature.
Altruism is action or the desire to act in a way that benefits others without regard for oneself.
An animal study is a type of research focusing exclusively on animals.
An antidepressant is a type of drug used to reduce or prevent depression.
An antipsychotic is a type of drug used to treat a mental psychosis, such as schizophrenia, mania, depression, or
paranoia.
Antisocial personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person does not care about the rights of others
and frequently violates those rights, generally beginning from a young age.
An anxiety disorder is a type of mental disorder that is characterized by high levels of nervousness.
The APA (American Psychiatric Association) is an organization of psychiatrists that publishes the DSM and other
literature related to psychiatry.
Archival search is the process of searching through old databases, or archives, in order to find information.
Attachment Theory is a theory of psychological development that states that a child must be around one of his or
her primary caregivers for most of the day in order to develop healthy relationships.
An attitude is an evidence-based, positive or negative judgment that someone forms of a person, object, or idea,
and which affects the person's behavior.
An attribution is an explanation of the cause behind a person's behavior.
Autism is a kind of P.D.D. in which a person has difficulty communicating and interacting with others and also
engages in repetitive behaviors, like rocking or waving.
Avoidant personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person avoids personal interaction because he or
she is anxious or afraid of others' opinions of him or her.
137
B
Behavioral therapy is a treatment method which focuses on behaviors, and the thoughts and feelings that cause
them.
A benefit is the positive or helpful result of something.
Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder in which a person suffers from major changes in mood, usually ranging from
extremely active and energetic to deeply depressed.
Borderline personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person has strange mood disturbances, problems
with self-image, unhealthy relationships, and extreme thinking.
The bystander effect is a social occurrence wherein people are less likely to help a victim in an emergency situation
when surrounded by other people, often as a result of diffusion of responsibility.
A case study is real-life event or happening that can be observed as an example of something more general.
Catatonic schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia in which a person often stays in the same, inactive state for long
periods of time.
A causal relationship is the connection between two events in which one event is the result of the other.
A characteristic is a category of qualities or features.
A clinical psychologist is a person who specializes in personality and behavioral issues, and possesses at least a
bachelor's degree in psychology, but most likely a doctoral degree.
Clinical psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on personality and behavioral issues.
Cognitive development is a process in which a person learns to perform mental processes like thinking and
reasoning.
Cognitive dissonance is the state of conflict that occurs when a person holds two beliefs that are inconsistent
psychologically, or when the person's beliefs do not match his or her behavior.
Cognitive therapy is a behavioral therapy treatment method for mental or emotional disorders which focuses on
adjusting negative thinking and self-esteem.
A cohort study, or panel study, is a type of observational, longitudinal study in which a group of people who share a
common characteristic or experience are analyzed.
A collectivist culture emphasizes the role of people in groups, such as in families and communities.
Community psychology is the study of the relationships amongst individuals, their communities, and society at large.
Compliance is the process of acting as requested or ordered.
138
A compulsion is an action or set of actions that a person feels compelled or obligated to do, and a failure to follow
through will lead to extreme anxiety.
A computer simulation is a computer-generated program or model that is used to replicate a process.
The concrete operational stage is the third stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in which a child learns
to think logically and manipulate mental representations of actual objects.
A condition is an ongoing state of being, and often describes chronic medical problems.
Conformity is the tendency of group members to exhibit the same behaviors as other members of a group.
Consent is permission to do something or for something to happen.
A consulting psychologist is a person who specializes in assessment and intervention, and is often also a clinical
psychologist or counseling psychologist with at least a master's in psychology.
A consumer psychologist is a person who specializes in individual and societal consumer behavior, and possesses at
least a bachelor's degree in psychology.
Content analysis, or textual analysis, is a way to study human communication.
Correlational research is a type of study regarding dependent or related factors and how they change together over
time.
A counseling psychologist is a person who specializes in counseling, supervision, training, or career development,
and possesses a license in addition to a doctoral degree.
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the similarities between behaviors and mental
processes of different and diverse cultures.
A cross-sectional study involves an entire population or a representative sample of that population.
Cultural psychology is branch of psychology that focuses on the way that cultural factors influence behaviors and
mental processes.
The Cultural-Historical Theory is a theory of cognitive development, developed by Lev Vygotsky, in which interaction
with other people and society heavily influences the development of a child's cognitive functions.
Data are statistics or information used to analyze, calculate, or explain something.
Data collection is the process of gathering and preparing data for the purpose of providing information or
maintaining a record.
If something is defined, it has boundaries and an identifiable nature.
Deindividuation is the removal of individuality from a person's actions, behavior, and decisions.
Dependent personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person requires the constant help or presence
of other people, and seems unable to function on his or her own.
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Depression is a mood disorder in which a person feels sad, has low self-esteem, and loses interest in things he or she
previously enjoyed.
Descriptive research, or statistical research, is a type of study that includes characteristics or statistical data about
the people or things being studied, but not the causes or implications of those data.
To diagnose a medical condition is to identify the cause of the problem.
Diffusion of responsibility is a social occurrence in which people are less likely to take responsibility for a situation
because they assume someone else will take the necessary action.
Disorganized schizophrenia is a common form of schizophrenia in which a person has very disturbed speech, strange
behavior, and a generally disrupted personality.
Dissociative amnesia is a dissociative disorder in which a person loses parts of his or her memory following a
traumatic event.
A dissociative disorder is a type of mental disorder in which a person suffers from disturbances in his or her
memory, identity, or the way he or she views the world.
A dissociative fugue is a dissociative disorder in which a person leaves his or her normal physical surroundings and
travels to a new place, and often includes a loss of memory regarding his or her previous life and identity.
Dissociative identity disorder is a dissociative disorder in which a person has two or more personalities that are
unaware of the others' existence.
The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is the APA's official reference guide to the
symptoms and definitions of mental disorders, which is used in the United States and other countries.
Early childhood is a stage of life ranging from toddlerhood to six or seven years of age.
The Ecological Systems Theory is a theory of cognitive development that states that development is affected by four
types of environments: microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, and macrosystems.
An EdD is a post-graduate doctoral or research degree in education.
Educational psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on human learning in different educational
environments, effective teaching techniques, and the psychological issues that arise in schools.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, is a medical procedure involving electric shocks for people
experiencing mental disease or disorder.
An engineering psychologist is a person who designs and improves the workplace to make it more user-friendly, and
possess at least a bachelor's degree in psychology.
If something is ethical, it is governed by or consistent with the values of a group or society.
Ethnocentrism is the belief that a person's own ethnic group, religion, or nation is better than all others.
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If something is exaggerated, it is emphasized more than is necessary or appropriate.
Existential therapy is a treatment method which focuses on confronting issues of the realities of existence, such as
death, freedom, responsibility, isolation, and meaninglessness.
An exosystem is a collection of factors that indirectly affect a child's development, such as the lives of the child's
parents away from home.
Experimental research is the process of using data and controlled studies to validate or reject a hypothesis.
Family therapy is a treatment method in which multiple family members participate in the same therapy sessions,
often to examine and resolve problems between them.
A field experiment is an experiment occurring in a real environment rather than a controlled laboratory.
Forensic psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the understanding and application of psychology
within the justice system.
The formal operational stage is the last stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in which a child learns to
think about abstract ideas and situations.
Free association is a psychoanalytic technique which focuses on the use of unrestricted expression and
communication in order to access a person's unconscious mind.
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize a person's personality and underemphasize
the situation when explaining the person's behavior.
Generalized anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder in which a person suffers from high levels of nervousness much
or all of the time and with no specific triggers.
A group is a collection of things or people sharing a similar characteristic or quality.
Group polarization is the inclination of a group to make extreme decisions, even if the tendency of each individual is
to behave otherwise.
Group therapy is a treatment method for mental or emotional disorders in which multiple patients talk about their
problems together.
Groupthink is the process or occurrence of approaching issues as a collective or by consensus rather than
individually and independently.
A guideline is a rule, policy, or recommendation showing the ideal ways in which something should be done.
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H
Hand-eye coordination is a person's ability to use his or her hands quickly and precisely in response to what he or
she sees.
A high-context culture is a culture in which people with a shared history and attitudes pay close attention to
nonverbal communication.
Histrionic personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person is very dramatic and emotional, and
constantly desires attention from others.
Human factors is a field of psychology that focuses on ergonomics, industrial design, and operations research in
order to design equipment and devices suited to the human body and mental processes.
A human subject is a person studied as part of an experiment or research.
Humanistic therapy is a treatment method which focuses on individual thought and personal growth.
The ICD (International Classification of Diseases) is a tool to help medical professionals around the world diagnose
and manage people's health problems.
To identify something is to determine what it is.
Impression formation is the process in which someone forms attitudes about other people based on inferences as
well as direct information.
An individualist culture emphasizes the personality traits that are unique to each person.
Industrial psychology is the application of psychology to business and industrial issues, including development,
decision-making, and personnel decisions, and is often seen as a companion to organizational psychology.
Infancy is the first year of a person's life.
Interval measurement is the characterization of data by order and the size of gaps between data points, rather than
focusing on data points' relationship to zero.
An interview is an official meeting between two or more people for the purpose of arranging a future professional
relationship.
Legal psychology is the application of psychology to the law, and is notably less clinical than forensic psychology.
A longitudinal study surveys a group over time in order to observe changing factors.
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A low-context culture is a culture in which people emphasize direct verbal communication and do not assume a
shared history and set of attitudes.
MA (Master of Arts), is a degree in one of the humanities that is earned after a bachelor's degree, typically through a
two-year program.
A macrosystem is a collection of cultural factors that influence a child's development, such as socioeconomic status
and ethnicity.
A mental disorder is a disruption of a person's thoughts and emotions, and may include changes in a person's
behavior.
A mesosystem is a collection of relationships between a child's microsystems, such as the relationship between a
child's life at home and at school.
Meta-analysis is the process of comparing and contrasting the results of different studies in order to discover
informative relationships amongst them.
A microsystem is a collection of the groups that most immediately affect a child's development, such as schools or
families.
Middle age is a stage of life that occurs between mid-adulthood and old age, and generally lasts from about forty-
five to sixty-five years of age.
A military psychologist is a person who specializes in the application of psychology to behaviors of military
personnel as they relate to military operations and training.
A minor is a child or a person who is under a particular age, and who has certain legal protections that are different
from those of adults.
A monochronic culture is a culture for which timetables, such as deadlines and schedules, are very important.
A mood disorder is a type of mental disorder in which a person suffers from a disturbance in his or her general
emotional state.
If something is moral, it is governed by or consistent with someone's personal values and beliefs.
A motor skill is one of the skills a person uses to move his or her body parts to perform particular actions.
The multi-axial system is an organizational structure that the DSM used for many years, in which clinicians placed
patients' symptoms in a variety of different categories, called axes.
Narcissistic personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person is overly concerned with his or her
power, appearance, and status.
Nominal measurement is the characterization of data by name, category, or label.
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O
Obedience is willingness to do something that someone else has requested or ordered.
An observational study is a study in which the placement of subjects into a control group or a treated group is not
determined by the researcher.
An obsession is an idea or subject that a person cannot stop thinking about, and is usually negative.
Occupational health psychology is the application of health psychology to industrial and organizational fields,
focusing on the psychosocial features of workplace-related health issues.
OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder) is a mental disorder in which a person has many intrusive and disturbing
thoughts, or obsessions, which he or she deals with by engaging in strict, ritualistic behavior, or compulsions.
Old age is a stage of life in which a person approaches or surpasses the average life span of a human being.
Ordinal measurement is the characterization of data by rankings or numerical orders.
Organizational psychology is the application of psychology to the structure and organization of the workplace and
the people within it, and is often seen as a companion to industrial psychology.
Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder in which a person periodically suffers attacks of extreme and overwhelming
fear.
Paranoid personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person is nervous, suspicious of other people, and
anxious about perceived threats.
Paranoid schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia in which a person suffers from delusions, or inaccurate
understandings about reality, and feels angry or anxious about these delusions.
PDD (pervasive developmental disorder) is a category of mental disorders in which a person suffers from delays in
basic areas like communicating and interacting appropriately with others.
If something is personal, it relates to the attitudes, characteristics, or experiences of a specific person.
A personality disorder is a pattern of behavior that does not match society's expectations.
Person-positivity bias is an attitude that occurs during impression formation, in which someone tends to have more
positive regard for individuals than groups, even when the individuals are members of those groups.
A phobia is a very intense, debilitating, and usually irrational fear.
Physical development is the process in which a human physically grows and develops motor skills.
The Piagetian stages are four stages of cognitive development that humans go through, according to Jean Piaget's
theory, and include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal
operational stage.
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A polychronic culture is a culture that does not place much importance on timetables, such as deadlines or
schedules.
A population is the entire group of people or things that are the subject of research or an experiment.
A prejudice is a preconceived idea that a person has about something, which is not based on actual evidence.
If something is prenatal, it occurs during pregnancy, before birth.
The preoperational stage is the second stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in which a child learns to
form concepts and develops verbal communication.
A prospective study relates to something that will occur in the future.
Psychoanalysis is a way to explain and treat mental or emotional illness in which a patient discusses dreams,
feelings, and memories with a psychoanalyst.
Psychodynamic therapy is a treatment for mental disorders which focuses on revealing a patient's unconscious
mind.
A psychometrician is a person who specializes in the psychological measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes,
and personality, and possesses a psychometric qualification with a clinical or educational background.
Psychosurgery, or neurosurgery for mental disorder, is a medical procedure involving brain surgery for people
experiencing mental disorders.
A PsyD (professional doctoral degree) in psychology.
PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) is a stress disorder in which a person experiences very high levels of stress
following a traumatic event, and this stress often interferes with a person's ability to live a normal life.
Puberty is the stage of life in which a person reaches sexual maturity and becomes capable of reproduction.
If something is quantitative, it relates to the amount of something that exists.
A random sample is a subset of a population or group that is chosen without design or purpose.
Ratio measurement is the characterization of data using interval measurement and a zero starting point in order to
compare data.
A regulation is a rule or guideline that controls objects or actions in a professional environment.
Residual schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia that occurs when a person's symptoms of schizophrenia are
reduced, but not completely eliminated.
A retrospective study relates to something that occurred in the past.
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A revision is a change to a piece of work, generally intended to improve or update it.
Schizoid personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person is not interested in having friends, spends
much of his or her time alone, and is very secretive and non-emotional.
A schizophrenic disorder is a type of mental disorder in which a person is not well-connected to reality, has
disturbed thoughts and language, and does not have good social relationships with others.
Schizotypal personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person is nervous in social situations, acts in a
strange manner, and holds beliefs that are considered abnormal.
A school psychologist is a person who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and learning issues in
schools, and possesses at least a master's or specialist degree in psychology.
School psychology is the combined application of clinical and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment
of behavioral and learning issues in schools.
Self-esteem is a person's opinion of him- or herself.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a situation in which someone believes something to be true, and then it becomes true
because of the person's direct or indirect influence.
Self-handicapping is an attribution bias in which someone does not apply effort or places obstacles in his or her own
path in order to avoid feeling responsible if he or she fails at something.
Self-image is a person's assumption about other people's opinions of him or her.
A self-report is a type of study or survey wherein various people read and respond to questions by themselves,
without researcher involvement.
The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in which a child learns to
interpret sensory information and develops motor skills.
Social cognition is an area of psychology focused on social influences on mental processes such as perception,
thought, and memory.
Social comparison is a process described by the social-comparison theory, in which a person judges his or her own
abilities and accomplishments by comparing them to those of someone else.
Social facilitation is the inclination of people to perform better on certain tasks when they know they are being
observed by others.
Social inhibition is a conscious or subconscious restriction of behavior in social settings due to a feeling of potential
embarrassment.
Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the ways in which people's behaviors and mental processes
are influenced by other people.
Sport psychology is the combined application of kinesiology and psychology in order to understand the relationship
between psychological factors and athletic performance.
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If something is standardized, it is made consistent with other, similar things throughout a particular group or
industry.
Statistical research, or descriptive research, is a type of study that includes characteristics or statistical data about
the people or things being studied, but not the causes or implications of those data.
A stereotype is an impression of a group in which a person assumes that all members of the group share common
traits.
A stress disorder is a type of mental disorder in which a person feels high levels of stress most or all of the time.
A survey is a targeted questionnaire presented by a researcher to various people in order to gain information about
something.
A symptom is a sign or an effect of a something.
A toddler is a very young child who is beginning to learn how to walk.
A tranquilizer is a type of drug used to relax or become calm.
Undifferentiated schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia that does not fit into the other categories of
schizophrenia diagnoses.
The WHO (World Health Organization) is an international body that is concerned with the public health of people
around the world.
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Додаток
Тексти для самостійного опрацювання і самоперевірки.
Introducing Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words
“psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular
topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. And many people have direct knowledge about
psychology because they have visited psychologists, for instance, school counselors, family therapists, and religious,
marriage, or bereavement counselors.
Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide counseling and therapy for people in distress. But there
are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that
you are probably not aware of.
Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behavior
of humans and animals. For instance, the psychologists in the Psychology Department at the University of Maryland
study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how
birds recognize each other, how praying mantises hear, how people from different cultures react differently in
negotiation, and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study such topics as alcohol
and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or helpful, and the
psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion. Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they
use a variety of methods, including observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them
understand behavior.
Answer the questions:
1. Where does the word “psychology” come from?
2. What does it mean?
3. What do psychologists do?
4. Where do they work?
Lobes of the Brain

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 2). The frontal lobe is located
in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The frontal lobe is involved
in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the motor cortex, which is involved in planning and
coordinating movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s
area, which is essential for language production.
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People who suffer damage to Broca’s area have great difficulty
producing language of any form. For example, Padma was an electrical
engineer who was socially active and a caring, involved mother. About
twenty years ago, she was in a car accident and suffered damage to
her Broca’s area. She completely lost the ability to speak and form any
kind of meaningful language. There is nothing wrong with her mouth
or her vocal cords, but she is unable to produce words. She can follow
directions but can’t respond verbally, and she can read but no longer
write. She can do routine tasks like running to the market to buy milk,
but she could not communicate verbally if a situation called for it.
The brain’s parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from
the body’s senses. It contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from
across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which
means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are generally maintained on the surface of the somatosensory
cortex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the
portion that processes information from the wrist.
Damage to either Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area can result in language deficits. The types of deficits are very
different, however, depending on which area is affected.
The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head (temporal means “near the temples”), and is associated with
hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for
processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke’s area, important for speech
comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca’s area have difficulty producing
language, those with damage to Wernicke’s area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand
it.
The occipital lobe is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible
for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a
close relationship between the position of an object in a person’s visual field and the position of that object’s
representation on the cortex. You will learn much more about how visual information is processed in the occipital lobe
when you study sensation and perception.
Brain injuries
The brain is quite a complex body organ. It is a part of the central nervous system which includes the brain and the
spinal cord. When the spinal cord is affected due to disease or trauma, functional difficulties might appear. The
resulting effects on the body depend on the location of injury to the spinal cord. In the brain, the location of the
injury will affect how the body works and how thinking occurs.
Brain injury is a common partner to spinal cord injury. Even though an injury to the brain can affect just that one
spot, the brain is intertwined in its functioning. An injury to one part can affect other parts of the brain and the
entire nervous system.
There are basically six parts of the brain. Each part contains important structures. This
information is a very general overview of the basic functions of the parts. Neuropsychological
testing can isolate specific areas of the brain that are affected by injury thereby tailoring a
specific treatment plan. Watch the video about brain injuries (scan the QR-code):
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Aftereffects of injuries to various parts of the brain:
The lobe: Problems with:
1. Frontal lobe Decision making

Attention
Personality
Problem solving
Verbal expression
Spontaneity
Emotions
Movement initiation
2. Temporal lobe: Spoken words

Selective attention
Sexuality
Inhibitions
Aggression
Identification
Categorization
Facial recognition
Location of objects
3. Parietal lobe: Object classification

Tactile processing
Academic skills
Cognitive ability
Directional Understanding
Hand-eye coordination
Spatial orientation
4. Occipital lobe: Vision

Visual field
Location objects
Color identification
Hallucinations
Word blindness
Movement perception
Reading/writing
Visual processing
5. Cerebellum: Gross & fine motor skills

Voluntary motor skills
Balance
Equilibrium
Coordination
Postural controls
Eye movement
6. Brain stem: Body temperature

Heart rate
Breathing
Balance
Movement
Swallowing
Vertigo
Nausea
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Choose the right answer:
1. Damage to the ________ disrupts one’s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one’s ability to produce
words intact.
a. Broca’s area or
b. Wernicke’s area
c. occipital lobe
d. amygdalae
2. In which part of the brain is auditory cortex located?

a. Frontal lobe
b. Temporal lobe
c. Parietal lobe
d. Occipital lobe
3. In which part of the brain is Broca’s area located?

a. Frontal lobe
b. Temporal lobe
c. Parietal lobe
d. Occipital lobe
4. The visual cortex processes visual information. In which part of the brain is it located?
a. Frontal lobe
b. Temporal lobe
c. Parietal lobe
d. Occipital lobe
5. The injuries to occipital lobe lead to:

a. Cognitive disability
b. Problems with selective attention
c. Problems with vision
d. Problems with coordination
6. The injuries to brain stem lead to:

a. Nausea
b. Problems with hand-eye coordination
c. Aggression
d. Problems with verbal expression
7. Damage to the ________ disrupts one’s ability to read or to write.

a. Frontal lobe
b. Temporal lobe
c. Parietal lobe
d. Occipital lobe
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Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted from structures (glands) in the body which pass through the bloodstream
to cause changes in our body or behavior. The network of glands is called the endocrine system.
Endocrine Gland Main Hormones Effects
Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolic rate and

protein synthesis
Fight or flight response: increased

Adrenal medulla Adrenaline and noradrenaline heart rate, blood pressure, release
of glucose and fats (for energy)
Release of glucose and fats for

Adrenal cortex Corticosteroids
energy; suppression of the immune
system
Testes Testosterone Male sexual characteristics, muscle

mass
Female sexual characteristics,

Ovaries Oestrogen menstruation, pregnancy
Pineal Melatonin Sleep-wake cycle
Biological Rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian.

The physiological processes of living organisms follow repetitive cyclical variations over certain periods of time. These
bodily rhythms have implications for behavior, emotion and mental processes.
There are 3 types of bodily rhythms:

Circadian rhythms: follow a 24-hour cycle: e.g. the sleep-waking cycle
Ultradian rhythms: occur more than once a day: e.g. the cycles of REM and NREM sleep in a single night’s sleep
Infradian rhythms: occur less than once a day: e.g. menstruation (monthly) or hibernation (yearly)
All bodily rhythms are controlled by an interaction of:

Endogenous pacemakers (EP’s). Internal biological structures that control and regulate the rhythm.
Exogenous zeitgebers (time givers) (EZ’s). External environmental factors that influence the rhythm.
Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of biological activity. A woman’s menstrual cycle is an example of a biological
rhythm—a recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 days—a lunar
month—but many biological cycles are much shorter. Biological rhythms such as the menstrual cycle are called
infradian rhythms because they last longer than 24 hours, and others that last less than 24 hours are called ultradian
rhythms.
Changes in body temperature and alertness that fluctuate cyclically over a 24-hour period are examples of a circadian
rhythm. A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Alertness is
associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures.
Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environment’s natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious
example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and
body temperature. Some circadian rhythms play a role in changes in our state of consciousness.
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Research indicates that humans (as well as
other animals and plants) have a biological
clock, or an innate timing device, comprised
of specific molecules (proteins) that interact
in cells throughout the body. Biological clocks
are found in nearly every tissue and organ.
Researchers have identified similar genes in
people, fruit flies, mice, fungi, and several
other organisms that are responsible for
making the clock’s components. In the brain,
the hypothalamus, which lies above the
pituitary gland, is a main center of
homeostasis. Homeostasis is the tendency to
maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a
biological system.
Problems with Circadian Rhythms

Generally, and for most people, our circadian
cycles are aligned with the outside world. For
example, most people sleep during the night
and are awake during the day. One important
regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormone melatonin. The pineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the
brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the
immune system during. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. People rely on zeitgebers,
or external cues, such as light, atmospheric conditions, temperature, and social interactions, to set the appropriate
biological clock.
There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. For instance, some people would say they are
morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. These individual differences in circadian
patterns of activity are known as a person’s chronotype. A person’s individual chronotype may show that a person has
a greater propensity to sleep earlier and wake up earlier (a morning lark), or to stay up late and sleep in (a night owl).
Morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation. Sleep regulation refers to the brain’s control of
switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world.
Common Circadian Rhythm Disorders and Causes

Being out of sync with your circadian rhythm can affect your mental and physical health. It can leave you feeling tire,
unalert, with increased hunger, and susceptible to health conditions. Eating in sync with your circadian rhythm is
crucial for improving your health. If a person eats out of sync of this rhythm, then they may be at a higher risk for
cardiovascular, diabetes, and obesity.
Here is a list of circadian rhythm disruptors:
Jet Lag – Jet lag occurs after you have traveled across time zones. It can leave you feeling tired and out of sync. The
time in which your body is used to the sun going down is either earlier or later. You may begin to have insomnia,
digestive problems, and headaches for a few days following jet lag.
Shift Work – People that work night shifts may struggle to get enough sleep because of irregular sleeping patterns.
This may include insomnia during the day and struggling to stay awake through the night at work.
Altered Sleep Phases – Four phases of altered sleep affect circadian rhythm, which are as follows.
 Delayed Sleep Phase: This is a sleep pattern that is delayed by a couple of hours. For example, a person may
not go to sleep until 2 or 3 in the morning and sleep till 10 a.m. Adolescents are most known for this sleep
phase.
 Advanced Sleep Phase: This is when a person goes to bed much earlier and wake up much earlier than most
people. This phase is common among elderly individuals.
 Irregular Sleep Phase: This phase is when a person’s sleep is so irregular that they are taking multiple naps
throughout a 24-hour period. There is no consistency in their sleep pattern.
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 Non-24-H Sleep Phase: This is when a person may go to sleep later and later or wakes up later and later every
day. The times in which they go to sleep and wake up, are not consistent. Those that are blind may experience
this the most.
Symptoms of Circadian Rhythm Disorder
 Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

 Daytime sleepiness or sleepiness during shift work
 Feeling fatigued or exhausted
 Difficulty concentrating
 Decreased alertness
 Lack of control over emotions and mood
 Headaches
 Digestive problems
1. Choose the right answer:

1. The body’s biological clock is located in the ________.
a. Hippocampus
b. hypothalamus
c. thalamus
d. pituitary gland
2. ________ cycles occur roughly once every 24 hours.

a. Rotating
b. Circadian
c. Infradian
d. Ultradian
3. __________________rhythms last longer than 24 hours.

a. Circadian
b. Infradian
c. Ultradian
d. Endogenous
4. Feeling fatigued or exhausted is the symptom of ______________rythm disorder.

a. delayed Sleep
b. infradian
c. ultradian
d. circadian
2. Generally, humans are considered diurnal which means we are awake during the day and asleep during the night.
Many rodents, on the other hand, are nocturnal. Why do you think different animals have such different sleep-wake
cycles?
3. Find out the ways of treating disruption of circadian rhythm.
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Memory
“Life without memory is no life at all, just as intelligence without the possibility of expression is not really intelligence.
Our memory is a coherence, our reason, our feeling, even our action. Without it, we are nothing.” – Louis Buñuel
BASIC MEMORY MODEL
What we usually think of as “memory” in day-to-day usage is actually long-term memory, but there are also
important short-term and sensory memory processes, which must be worked through before a long-term memory
can be established. The different types of memory each have their own particular mode of operation, but they all
cooperate in the process of memorization, and can be seen as three necessary steps in forming a lasting memory.
SHORT TERM / WORKING MEMORY
Short-term memory acts as a kind of “scratch-pad” for temporary recall of the information which is being processed
at any point in time, and has been referred to as "the brain's Post-it note". It can be thought of as the ability to
remember and process information at the same time. It holds a small amount of information (typically around 7 items
or even less) in mind in an active, readily-available state for a short period of time (typically from 10 to 15 seconds, or
sometimes up to a minute).
However, this information will quickly disappear forever unless we make a conscious effort to retain it, and short-
term memory is a necessary step toward the next stage of retention, long-term memory. The transfer of information
to long-term memory for more permanent storage can be facilitated or improved by mental repetition of the
information or, even more effectively, by giving it a meaning and associating it with other previously acquired
knowledge. Motivation is also a consideration, in that information relating to a subject of strong interest to a person,
is more likely to be retained in long-term memory.
?? Did You Know??

Short-term working memory appears to operate phonologically.
For instance, whereas English speakers can typically hold seven digits in short-term memory, Chinese speakers
can typically remember ten digits.
This is because Chinese number words are all single syllables, whereas English are not.
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Typically, information is transferred from the short-term or working memory to the long-term memory within just a
few seconds, although the exact mechanisms by which this transfer takes place, and whether all or only some
memories are retained permanently, remain controversial topics among experts. Richard Schiffrin, in particular, is well
known for his work in the 1960s suggesting that ALL memories automatically pass from a short-term to a long-term
store after a short time (known as the modal or multi-store or Atkinson-Schiffrin model).
ATKINSON SHIFFRIN MODEL
Ways for improving memory

Can't find your car keys? Forget your grocery list? Can't remember the name of the personal trainer you liked at the
gym? You're not alone. Everyone forgets things occasionally. Still, memory loss is nothing to take lightly.
Although there are no guarantees when it comes to preventing memory loss or dementia, certain activities might help.
Consider seven simple ways to sharpen your memory — and know when to seek help for memory loss.
1. Include physical activity in your daily routine

Physical activity increases blood flow to your whole body, including your brain. This might help keep your memory
sharp.
For most healthy adults, the Department of Health and Human Services recommends at least 150 minutes a week of
moderate aerobic activity, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes a week of vigorous aerobic activity, such as jogging —
preferably spread throughout the week. If you don't have time for a full workout, squeeze in a few 10-minute walks
throughout the day.
2. Stay mentally active

Just as physical activity helps keep your body in shape, mentally stimulating activities help keep your brain in shape —
and might keep memory loss at bay. Do crossword puzzles. Play bridge. Take alternate routes when driving. Learn to
play a musical instrument. Volunteer at a local school or community organization.
3. Socialize regularly
Social interaction helps ward off depression and stress, both of which can contribute to memory loss. Look for
opportunities to get together with loved ones, friends and others — especially if you live alone.
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4. Get organized
You're more likely to forget things if your home is cluttered and your notes are in disarray. Jot down tasks,
appointments and other events in a special notebook, calendar or electronic planner.
You might even repeat each entry out loud as you jot it down to help cement it in your memory. Keep to-do lists
current and check off items you've completed. Set aside a place for your wallet, keys, glasses and other essentials.
Limit distractions and don't do too many things at once. If you focus on the information that you're trying to retain,
you're more likely to recall it later. It might also help to connect what you're trying to retain to a favorite song or
another familiar concept.
5. Sleep well
Sleep plays an important role in helping you consolidate
your memories, so you can recall them down the road.
Make getting enough sleep a priority. Most adults need
seven to nine hours of sleep a day.
6. Eat a healthy diet

A healthy diet might be as good for your brain as it is for
your heart. Eat fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
Choose low-fat protein sources, such as fish, beans and
skinless poultry. What you drink counts, too. Too much alcohol can lead to confusion and memory loss. So can drug
use.
7. Focus Your Attention.

Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to move from your short-term memory
into your long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of distractions
such as television, music, and other diversions.
Getting rid of distractions might be a challenge, especially if you are surrounded by boisterous roommates or noisy
children. Set aside a short period of time to be alone. Ask your roommates to give you some space or ask your partner
to take the kids for an hour so you can focus on your work.

1. ______________ memory holds a small amount of information (typically around 7 items or even less) in mind in an
active state.
a. long-term
b. sensitive
c. short-term
d. explicit
2. The transfer of information to long-term memory can be facilitated by ____________.

a. motivation
b. repetition
c. intelligence
d. scratch-pad
3. Sleep well and your memory will get _____________.

a. organized
b. improved
c. chunked
d. socialized
2. Find out the other ways for improving memory. What ways are the best personally for you?
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Myers & Briggs' 16 Personality Types
The 16 personality types were created by Isabel Myers and Katharine
Briggs, developers of the MBTI® assessment. Myers and Briggs created
their personality typology to help people discover their own strengths
and gain a better understanding of how people are different.
When you discover your own personality type, you'll understand more
clearly why you do the things you do. You will gain confidence in your
strengths and be better able to make decisions that suit your true
nature.
INFP. The Healer

INFPs are imaginative idealists, guided by their own core values and beliefs. To a Healer, possibilities are paramount;
the reality of the moment is only of passing concern. They see potential for a better future, and pursue truth and
meaning with their own flair.
INTJ. The Mastermind

INTJs are analytical problem-solvers, eager to improve systems and processes with their innovative ideas. They have
a talent for seeing possibilities for improvement, whether at work, at home, or in themselves.
INFJ. The Counselor

INFJs are creative nurturers with a strong sense of personal integrity and a drive to help others realize their potential.
Creative and dedicated, they have a talent for helping others with original solutions to their personal challenges.
INTP. The Architect

INTPs are philosophical innovators, fascinated by logical analysis, systems, and design. They are
preoccupied with theory, and search for the universal law behind everything they see. They
want to understand the unifying themes of life, in all their complexity.
ENFP. The Champion

ENFPs are people-centered creators with a focus on possibilities and a contagious enthusiasm for new ideas, people
and activities. Energetic, warm, and passionate, ENFPs love to help other people explore their creative potential.
ENTJ. The Commander

ENTJs are strategic leaders, motivated to organize change. They are quick to see inefficiency and
conceptualize new solutions, and enjoy developing long-range plans to accomplish their vision.
They excel at logical reasoning and are usually articulate and quick-witted.
ENTP. The Visionary

ENTPs are inspired innovators, motivated to find new solutions to intellectually challenging problems. They are curious
and clever, and seek to comprehend the people, systems, and principles that surround them.
ENFJ. The Teacher

ENFJs are idealist organizers, driven to implement their vision of what is best for humanity. They often act as catalysts
for human growth because of their ability to see potential in other people and their charisma in persuading others to
their ideas.
ISFJ. The Protector
ISFJs are industrious caretakers, loyal to traditions and organizations. They are practical, compassionate, and caring,
and are motivated to provide for others and protect them from the perils of life.
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ISFP. The Composer
ISFPs are gentle caretakers who live in the present moment and enjoy their surroundings with
cheerful, low-key enthusiasm. They are flexible and spontaneous, and like to go with the flow to
enjoy what life has to offer.
ISTJ. The Inspector

ISTJs are responsible organizers, driven to create and enforce order within systems and institutions. They are neat and
orderly, inside and out, and tend to have a procedure for everything they do.
ISTP. The Craftsperson

ISTPs are observant artisans with an understanding of mechanics and an interest in troubleshooting. They approach
their environments with a flexible logic, looking for practical solutions to the problems at hand.
ESFJ. The Provider

ESFJs are conscientious helpers, sensitive to the needs of others and energetically dedicated to their responsibilities.
They are highly attuned to their emotional environment and attentive to both the feelings of others and the perception
others have of them.
ESFP. The Performer

ESFPs are vivacious entertainers who charm and engage those around them. They are spontaneous, energetic, and
fun-loving, and take pleasure in the things around them: food, clothes, nature, animals, and especially people.
ESTJ. The Supervisor

ESTJs are hardworking traditionalists, eager to take charge in organizing projects and people. Orderly, rule-abiding,
and conscientious, ESTJs like to get things done, and tend to go about projects in a systematic, methodical way.
ESTP. The Dynamo

ESTPs are energetic thrillseekers who are at their best when putting out fires, whether literal or
metaphorical. They bring a sense of dynamic energy to their interactions with others and the
world around them.
About the 16 Personality Types

Personality typing is a system of categorizing people according to their tendencies to think and act in particular ways.
Personality typing attempts to find the broadest, most important ways in which people are different, and make sense
of these differences by sorting people into meaningful groups.
What is personality typing?

Myers and Briggs proposed that there were four key dimensions that could be used to categorize people:
 Introversion vs. Extraversion
 Sensing vs. Intuition
 Thinking vs. Feeling
 Judging vs. Perceiving
Each of the four dimensions was described as a dichotomy, or an either/or choice between two styles of being. Myers
and Briggs described this as a "preference" and proposed that any individual should be able to identify a preferred
style on each of the four dimensions. The sum of a person's four preferred styles becomes their personality type.
Myers and Briggs theorized that our preferences on each of the four dimensions would combine to create predictable
patterns in thought and behavior, so that people with the same four preferences would share many commonalities in
the way they approach their lives, from the hobbies they choose to the work that might suit them.
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What is the meaning of the four letters in a personality type?
Each of the four letters in a personality type code stands for a preference in your style of thinking or behaving.
I/E: Introversion or Extraversion

The Introversion/Extraversion dimension describes how a person manages their energy.
Introverts are energized by spending quiet time alone or with a small group. They tend to be more reserved and
thoughtful.
Extraverts are energized by spending time with people and in busy, active surroundings. They tend to be more
expressive and outspoken.
S/N: Sensing or iNtuition

The Sensing/Intuition dimension describes how an individual processes information.
Sensors focus on their five senses and are interested in information they can directly see, hear, feel, and so on. They
tend to be hands-on learners and are often described as "practical."
Intuitives focus on a more abstract level of thinking; they are more interested in theories, patterns, and explanations.
They are often more concerned with the future than the present and are often described as "creative."
T/F: Thinking or Feeling

The Thinking/Feeling dimension describes how people make decisions.
Thinkers tend to make decisions with their heads; they are interested in finding the most logical, reasonable choice.
Feelers tend to make decisions with their hearts; they are interested in how a decision will affect people, and whether
it fits in with their values.
J/P: Judging or Perceiving

The Judging/Perceiving dimension describes how people approach structure in their lives.
Judgers appreciate structure and order; they like things planned, and dislike last-minute changes.
Perceivers appreciate flexibility and spontaneity; they like to leave things open so they can change their minds.
1. Take the test (scan the QR-code):
2. Write an essay (describe your personality, give the reasons whether you agree with the result of the test or not).
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Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions
Psychologist Robert Plutchik created the Plutchik Model
shown above. It shows 8 basic emotions: joy, trust, fear,
surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger, and disgust.
Plutchik’s wheel of emotions organizes these 8 basic
emotions based on the physiological purpose of each. The
model is actually the little “ice cream cone” which unfolds
to the emotions wheel.
As you’ll see below, this framework helps bring clarity to

emotions, which can sometimes feel mysterious and
overwhelming. To improve your understanding of
emotions, Plutchik’s wheel of emotions is a great place to
start – and we included an interpretation guide below!
So, what do all those colors and petals mean?
Primary: The eight sectors are designed to indicate that there are eight primary emotions: anger, anticipation, joy,
trust, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust.
Opposites: Each primary emotion has a polar opposite. These are based on the physiological reaction each emotion
creates in animals (including humans… Plutchik studied animals!):
Joy is the opposite of sadness. Physiology: Connect vs withdraw

Fear is the opposite of anger. Physiology: Get small and hide vs get big and loud
Anticipation is the opposite of surprise. Physiology: Examine closely vs jump back
Disgust is the opposite of trust. Physiology: Reject vs embrace
Combinations: The emotions with no color represent an emotion that is a mix of the 2 primary emotions. For example,
anticipation and joy combine to be optimism. Joy and trust combine to be love. Emotions are often complex, and being
able to recognize when a feeling is actually a combination of two or more distinct feelings is a helpful skill.
There are also tertiary feelings, not shown on the feelings wheel, that are a combination of 3.
Intensity: The cone’s vertical dimension represents intensity – emotions intensify as they move from the outside to
the center of the wheel, which is also indicated by the color: The darker the shade, the more intense the emotion. For
example, anger at its least level of intensity is annoyance. At its highest level of intensity, anger becomes rage. Or, a
feeling of boredom can intensify to loathing if left unchecked, which is dark purple.
This is an important rule about emotions to be aware of in relationships: If left unchecked, emotions can intensify.
Herein lies the wisdom of enhancing your emotional vocabulary: it’s the bedrock of effectively navigating emotions.
The emotion wheel is a tool that enables people to describe and verbalize their emotions, as well as understand the
relationship between and intensity of their feelings. The ability to articulate and identify emotions is an important
component of emotional intelligence.
People can use the wheel to identify their emotions and come to terms to how they are feeling, make informed
decisions, seek resolution, gain closure, and, ultimately, become more self-aware and self-compassionate.
Choose the right answer.

1. __________________is a combination of anticipation + joy.
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a. disapproval
b. optimism
c. awe
d. remorse
2. __________________is a combination of anticipation + anger.

a. aggressiveness
b. submission
c. contempt
d. love
3. Sadness at its highest level of intensity is ________________.

a. pensiveness
b. awe
c. grief
d. rage
4. What emotion is opposite to anticipation?

a. amazement
b. surprise
c. fear
d. distraction
5. The darker the shade ___________________the emotion.

a. the worse
b. the better
c. the more intense
d. the weaker
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Tips for dealing with stress
1. Avoid Caffeine, Alcohol, and Nicotine.
Avoid, or at least reduce, your consumption of nicotine and any drinks containing caffeine and alcohol. Caffeine and
nicotine are stimulants and so will increase your level of stress rather than reduce it.
Alcohol is a depressant when taken in large quantities, but acts as a stimulant in smaller quantities. Therefore, using
alcohol as a way to alleviate stress is not ultimately helpful.
Swap caffeinated and alcoholic drinks for water, herbal teas, or diluted natural fruit juices and aim to keep yourself
hydrated as this will enable your body to cope better with stress.
You should also aim to avoid or reduce your intake of refined sugars - they are contained in many manufactured foods
(even in savoury foods such as salad dressings and bread) and can cause energy crashes which may lead you to feel
tired and irritable. In general, try to eat a healthy, well-balanced and nutritious diet.
2. Indulge in Physical Activity

Stressful situations increase the level of stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol in your body.
These are the “fight or flight” hormones that evolution has hard-wired into our brains and which are designed to
protect us from immediate bodily harm when we are under threat. However, stress in the modern age is rarely
remedied by a fight or flight response, and so physical exercise can be used as a surrogate to metabolize the excessive
stress hormones and restore your body and mind to a calmer, more relaxed state.
When you feel stressed and tense, go for a brisk walk in fresh air. Try to incorporate some physical activity into your
daily routine on a regular basis, either before or after work, or at lunchtime. Regular physical activity will also improve
the quality of your sleep.
3. Get More Sleep

A lack of sleep is a significant cause of stress. Unfortunately though, stress also interrupts our sleep as thoughts keep
whirling through our heads, stopping us from relaxing enough to fall asleep.
Rather than relying on medication, your aim should be to maximise your relaxation before going to sleep. Make sure
that your bedroom is a tranquil oasis with no
reminders of the things that cause you stress.
Avoid caffeine during the evening, as well as
excessive alcohol if you know that this leads to
disturbed sleep. Stop doing any mentally
demanding work several hours before going to
bed so that you give your brain time to calm
down. Try taking a warm bath or reading a
calming, undemanding book for a few minutes to
relax your body, tire your eyes and help you
forget about the things that worry you.
You should also aim to go to bed at roughly the
same time each day so that your mind and body
get used to a predictable bedtime routine.
4. Try Relaxation Techniques
Each day, try to relax with a stress reduction technique. There are many tried and tested ways to reduce stress so try
a few and see what works best for you.
For example, try self-hypnosis which is very easy and can be done anywhere, even at your desk or in the car. One very
simple technique is to focus on a word or phrase that has a positive meaning to you. Words such as "calm" "love" and
"peace" work well, or you could think of a self-affirming mantra such as “I deserve calm in my life” or “Grant me
serenity”. Focus on your chosen word or phrase; if you find your mind has wandered or you become aware of intrusive
thoughts entering your mind, simply disregard them and return your focus to the chosen word or phrase. If you find
yourself becoming tense again later, simply silently repeat your word or phrase.
Don't worry if you find it difficult to relax at first. Relaxation is a skill that needs to be learned and will improve with
practice.
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5. Talk to Someone
Just talking to someone about how you feel can be helpful.
Talking can work by either distracting you from your stressful thoughts or releasing some of the built-up tension by
discussing it.
Stress can cloud your judgement and prevent you from seeing things clearly. Talking things through with a friend, work
colleague, or even a trained professional, can help you find solutions to your stress and put your problems into
perspective.
6. Keep a Stress Diary

Keeping a stress diary for a few weeks is an effective stress management tool as it will help you become more aware
of the situations which cause you to become stressed.
Note down the date, time and place of each stressful episode, and note what you were doing, who you were with, and
how you felt both physically and emotionally. Give each stressful episode a stress rating (on, say, a 1-10 scale) and
use the diary to understand what triggers your stress and how effective you are in stressful situations. This will enable
you to avoid stressful situations and develop better coping mechanisms.
7. Take Control
Stress can be triggered by a problem that may on the surface seem
impossible to solve. Learning how to find solutions to your problems
will help you feel more in control thereby lowering your level of
stress.
One problem-solving technique involves writing down the problem
and coming up with as many possible solutions as you can. Decide on
the good and bad points of each one and select the best solution.
Write down each step that you need to take as part of the solution:
what will be done, how will it be done, when will it be done, who is
involved and where will it take place.
8. Manage Your Time

At times, we all feel overburdened by our 'To Do' list and this is a common cause of stress. Accept that you cannot do
everything at once and start to prioritise and diarise your tasks.
Make a list of all the things that you need to do and list them in order of genuine priority. Note what tasks you need
to do personally and what can be delegated to others to do. Record which tasks need to be done immediately, in the
next week, in the next month, or when time allows.
By editing what might have started out as an overwhelming and unmanageable task list, you can break it down into a
series of smaller, more manageable tasks spread out over a longer time frame, with some tasks removed from the list
entirely through delegation.
Remember as well to create buffer times to deal with unexpected and emergency tasks, and to include time for your
own relaxation and well-being.
9. Learn to Say ‘No’

A common cause of stress is having too much to do and too little time in which to do it. And yet in this situation, many
people will still agree to take on additional responsibility. Learning to say “No” to additional or unimportant requests
will help to reduce your level of stress, and may also help you develop more self-confidence.
To learn to say “No”, you need to understand why you find it difficult. Many people find it hard to say “No” because
they want to help and are trying to be nice and to be liked. For others, it is a fear of conflict, rejection or missed
opportunities. Remember that these barriers to saying “No” are all self-created.
You might feel reluctant to respond to a request with a straight “No”, at least at first. Instead think of some pre-
prepared phrases to let other people down more gently. Practice saying phrases such as:
“I am sorry but I can’t commit to this as I have other priorities at the moment.”
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“Now is not a good time as I’m in the middle of something. Why don’t you ask me again at….?”
“I’d love to do this, but …”
10. Rest If You Are Ill

If you are feeling unwell, do not feel that you have to carry on regardless. A short spell of rest will enable the body to
recover faster.
If you think you may be depressed, then it is important that you seek help.
1. Give your pros and cons for each tip. What tips work for you?
2. Come up with your own tips how to deal with stress.
Classical Conditioning
Does the name Ivan Pavlov ring a bell? Even if you are new to the study of psychology, chances are that you have
heard of Pavlov and his famous dogs.
Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments
in classical conditioning. As we discussed briefly in the previous section, classical conditioning is a process by which we
learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the
learning process now known as classical conditioning.
Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident. Pavlov was a
physiologist, not a psychologist. Physiologists study the life processes of organisms, from the
molecular level to the level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms. Pavlov’s area of interest
was the digestive system (Hunt, 2007). In his studies with dogs, Pavlov surgically implanted tubes
inside dogs’ cheeks to collect saliva. He then measured the amount of saliva produced in response
to various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at
the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the
laboratory assistants’ footsteps.
In Pavlov’s experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The meat powder in this
situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’
salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before
conditioning, think of the dogs’ stimulus and response like this:
Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would
sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder. The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS),
which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they
just heard the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs. Quite
simply this pairing means:
Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an
unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not
produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food)
is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus
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(bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a
conditioned stimulus.
Answer the questions:

1. Classical conditioning also applies to humans, even babies. For example, Sara buys formula in blue canisters for
her six-month-old daughter, Angelina. Whenever Sara takes out a formula container, Angelina gets excited, tries to
reach toward the food, and most likely salivates. Why does Angelina get excited when she sees the formula canister?
What are the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR here?
2. If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to water, what are the UCS, CS, and CR?
3. Can you think of an example in your life of how classical conditioning has produced a positive emotional response,
such as happiness or excitement? How about a negative emotional response, such as fear, anxiety, or anger?
Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is probably the most controversial and misunderstood psychological theorist. When
reading Freud’s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no
such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some
of the controversy over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the
workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.
To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. He said
that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious. Our unconscious refers
to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access.
According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and
pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives. Our personality is the result of our
efforts to balance these two competing forces. Freud suggested that we can understand this by imagining three
interacting systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego.
The job of the ego, or self, is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the
superego.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego’s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and
superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective
measures known as defense mechanisms ([link]). When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause an individual
anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual’s unconscious mind uses ego defense
mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to
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unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we
are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we
all use ego defense mechanisms.
There are several different types of defense mechanisms. For instance, in repression, anxiety-causing memories from
consciousness are blocked. As an analogy, let’s say your car is making a strange noise, but because you do not have
the money to get it fixed, you just turn up the radio so that you no longer hear the strange noise. Eventually you forget
about it. Similarly, in the human psyche, if a memory is too overwhelming to deal with, it might be repressed and thus
removed from conscious awareness (Freud, 1920). This repressed memory might cause symptoms in other areas.
Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that work to reduce anxiety.

1. _____________________is the result of our efforts to balance two competing forces.
a. consciousness
b. psyche
c. personality
d. intelligence
2. Unconscious _______________contains our most primitive drives or urges.

a. id
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b. ego
c. superego
d. mind
3. ________________________acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave.
a. id
b. ego
c. superego
d. psyche
4. _________________is the rational part of our personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the
part of our personality that is seen by others.
a. id
b. psyche
c. superego
d. ego
2. What are some examples of defense mechanisms that you have used yourself or have witnessed others using?
Gene-Environment Interactions
Genes do not exist in a vacuum. Although we are all biological organisms, we also exist in an environment that is
incredibly important in determining not only when and how our genes express themselves, but also in what
combination. Each of us represents a unique interaction between our genetic makeup and our environment; range of
reaction is one way to describe this interaction. Range of reaction asserts that our genes set the boundaries within
which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall.
For example, if an individual’s genetic makeup predisposes her to high levels of intellectual potential and she is reared
in a rich, stimulating environment, then she will be more likely to achieve her full potential than if she were raised
under conditions of significant deprivation. According to the concept of range of reaction, genes set definite limits on
potential, and environment determines how much of that potential is achieved.
Another perspective on the interaction between genes and the environment is the concept of genetic environmental
correlation. Stated simply, our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of
our genes. Not only do our genes and environment interact, as in range of reaction, but they also influence one another
bidirectionally. For example, the child of an NBA player would probably be exposed to basketball from an early age.
Such exposure might allow the child to realize his or her full genetic, athletic potential. Thus, the parents’ genes, which
the child shares, influence the child’s environment, and that environment, in turn, is well suited to support the child’s
genetic potential.
Two jigsaw puzzle pieces are shown; one depicts images of

houses, and the other depicts a helical DNA strand.
Nature and nurture work together like complex pieces of a
human puzzle. The interaction of our environment and genes
makes us the individuals we are.
In another approach to gene-environment interactions, the

field of epigenetics looks beyond the genotype itself and
studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different
ways. In other words, researchers study how the same
genotype can lead to very different phenotypes. As mentioned earlier, gene expression is often influenced by
168
environmental context in ways that are not entirely obvious. For instance, identical twins share the same genetic
information (identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same
in each; in contrast, fraternal twins develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the genetic
material varies as with non-twin siblings). But even with identical genes, there remains an incredible amount of
variability in how gene expression can unfold over the course of
each twin’s life. Sometimes, one twin will develop a disease and
the other will not. In one example, Tiffany, an identical twin,
died from cancer at age 7, but her twin, now 19 years old, has
never had cancer. Although these individuals share an identical
genotype, their phenotypes differ as a result of how that genetic
information is expressed over time. The epigenetic perspective
is very different from range of reaction, because here the
genotype is not fixed and limited.
Genes affect more than our physical characteristics. Indeed,
scientists have found genetic linkages to a number of behavioral
characteristics, ranging from basic personality traits to sexual orientation to spirituality. Genes are also associated with
temperament and a number of psychological disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. So while it is true that
genes provide the biological blueprints for our cells, tissues, organs, and body, they also have significant impact on our
experiences and our behaviors.
Let’s look at the following findings regarding schizophrenia in light of our three views of gene-environment
interactions. Which view do you think best explains this evidence?
In a study of people who were given up for adoption, adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia and who
had been raised in a disturbed family environment were much more likely to develop schizophrenia or another
psychotic disorder than were any of the other groups in the study:
 Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in disturbed
family environments, 36.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
 Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in healthy
family environments, 5.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
 Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in
disturbed family environments, 5.3% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
 Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in
healthy family environments, 4.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
The study shows that adoptees with high genetic risk were especially likely to develop schizophrenia only if they were
raised in disturbed home environments. This research lends credibility to the notion that both genetic vulnerability
and environmental stress are necessary for schizophrenia to develop, and that genes alone do not tell the full tale.
Creative task:
You share half of your genetic makeup with each of your parents, but you are no doubt very different from both of
them. Spend a few minutes jotting down the similarities and differences between you and your parents. How do you
think your unique environment and experiences have contributed to some of the differences you see?
169
Piaget's Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive
development is not just about acquiring knowledge; the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world.
Watch the video (scan the QR-code):
Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and environmental
events, and children pass through a series of stages. Piaget's stages are:
Piaget’s Four Stages:

Stage Age Goal
Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought
Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought
Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Abstract thought
The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follow the same invariant (unchanging) order. All children
go through the same stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate).
Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on
English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions
that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the
thinking of adults and children. Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s
intelligence:
Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason
(think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.
Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive creatures waiting for someone
to fill their heads with knowledge.
The best way to understand children’s reasoning was to see things from their point of view.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of
grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of
number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.
Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and
sometimes controlled observation too. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.
He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold
conversations.
Tasks:
1. Describe the Piaget's stages of development.
2. What are the main principles of children’s development according to Piaget?
3. What were his main ways of studying children’s development?
170
Social psychology
Social psychology examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. Social
psychologists assert that an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations.
Essentially, people will change their behavior to align with the social situation at hand. If we are in a new situation or
are unsure how to behave, we will take our cues from other individuals.
The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intra- and interpersonal levels. Intrapersonal topics (those that
pertain to the individual) include emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition (the ways in which we think
about ourselves and others). Interpersonal topics (those that pertain to dyads and groups) include helping behavior,
aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationships, and group processes and intergroup
relationships.
Social psychology deals with all kinds of interactions between

people, spanning a wide range of how we connect: from
moments of confrontation to moments of working together and
helping others, as shown here.
Social psychologists focus on how people construe or interpret situations and how these interpretations influence
their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how
situational variables interact to influence behavior. In this chapter, we discuss the intrapersonal processes of self-
presentation, cognitive dissonance and attitude change, and the interpersonal processes of conformity and obedience,
aggression and altruism, and, finally, love and attraction.
SITUATIONAL AND DISPOSITIONAL INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR

Behavior is a product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences, social roles, and the presence of bystanders) and
of the person (e.g., personality characteristics). Subfields of psychology tend to focus on one influence or behavior
over others. Situationism is the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment
and surroundings. In contrast, dispositionism holds that our behavior is determined by internal factors.
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR

In the United States, the predominant culture tends to favor a dispositional approach in explaining human behavior.
Why do you think this is? We tend to think that people are in control of their own behaviors, and, therefore, any
behavior change must be due to something internal, such as their personality, habits, or temperament. According to
some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations—or attributions—for the
behavior of other people. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to
underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. They tend to fail to recognize when the behavior
of another is due to situational variables, and thus to the person’s state. This erroneous assumption is called the
fundamental attribution error.
To better understand, imagine this scenario: Greg returns home from work, and upon opening the front door his wife
happily greets him and inquires about his day. Instead of greeting his wife, Greg yells at her, “Leave me alone!” Why
did Greg yell at his wife? How would someone committing the fundamental attribution error explain Greg’s behavior?
The most common response is that Greg is a mean, angry, or unfriendly person (his traits). This is an internal or
dispositional explanation. However, imagine that Greg was just laid off from his job due to company downsizing. Would
your explanation for Greg’s behavior change? Your revised explanation might be that Greg was frustrated and
171
disappointed for losing his job; therefore, he was in a bad mood (his state). This is now an external or situational
explanation for Greg’s behavior.
As demonstrated in the example above, the fundamental attribution error is considered a powerful influence in how
we explain the behaviors of others. However, it should be noted that some researchers have suggested that the
fundamental attribution error may not be as powerful as it is often portrayed.
People from an individualistic culture, that is, a culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have
the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. Individualistic cultures, which tend to be found in
western countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, promote a focus on the individual.
Therefore, a person’s disposition is thought to be the primary explanation for her behavior. In contrast, people from
a collectivistic culture, that is, a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends,
and community, are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error.
Tasks:
1. Think of examples of the fundamental attribution error in your life.
2. Compare and contrast situational influences and dispositional influences and give an example of each. Explain how
situational influences and dispositional influences might explain inappropriate behavior.
3. Provide an example of how people from individualistic and collectivistic cultures would differ in explaining why they
won an important sporting event.
4. Provide a personal example of an experience in which your behavior was influenced by the power of the situation.
5. Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental attribution error?
172
Approaches to Research
There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain
behavior and the cognitive and biological processes that underlie it. Some methods rely on observational techniques.
Other approaches involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging
from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to well-controlled experiments.
Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for
certain types of research questions.
CLINICAL OR CASE STUDIES

In 2011, the New York Times published a feature story on Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These
particular twins are unique because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head. There is evidence
that the two girls are connected in a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most
incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for
processing.
To learn more about Krista and Tatiana,
watch this New York Times video about their
lives (scan the QR-code):
The implications of this potential connection mean that it

might be possible for one twin to experience the sensations of
the other twin. For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly
funny television program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if
she is not watching the program. This particular possibility has
piqued the interest of many neuroscientists who seek to
understand how the brain uses sensory information.
These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain, and since their condition is very rare, it is likely
that as long as their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely throughout their lives to gain as much
information as possible.
In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a
few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would they do
this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small number of people, they can gain a tremendous amount
of insight into those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any
other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the
particular phenomenon being studied.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the
behavior in its natural context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways if they know they
are being observed. How do researchers obtain
accurate information when people tend to hide
their natural behavior? As an example, imagine
that your professor asks everyone in your class
to raise their hand if they always wash their
hands after using the restroom. Chances are
that almost everyone in the classroom will raise
their hand, but do you think hand washing after
every trip to the restroom is really that
universal?
173
Many individuals do not feel comfortable answering a
question honestly. But if we are committed to finding out
the facts about hand washing, we have other options
available to us.
Suppose we send a classmate into the restroom to
actually watch whether everyone washes their hands
after using the restroom. Will our observer blend into the
restroom environment by wearing a white lab coat,
sitting with a clipboard, and staring at the sinks? We
want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps
standing at one of the sinks pretending to put in contact lenses while secretly recording the relevant information.
This type of observational study is called naturalistic observation: observing behavior in its natural setting. The greatest
benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural
setting.
The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom
study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing behavior and no one came
in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new
place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no
control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In
addition, this type of observational research often
requires significant investments of time, money, and a
good dose of luck.
Another potential problem in observational research is
observer bias. Generally, people who act as observers are
closely involved in the research project and may
unconsciously skew their observations to fit their
research goals or expectations. To protect against this
type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria
established for the types of behaviors recorded and how
those behaviors should be classified.
1.Choose the correct answer:

1. Scientists conduct _______________when they focus on one person or just a few individuals.
a. a case study
b. observational research
c. naturalistic observation
d. bias
2. One of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its _______________.
a. behavior
b. clinical study
c. natural context
d. naturalistic observation
3. Naturalistic observation ________________.

a. investigates a phenomenon in depth, from various perspectives
b. is possible to repeat
c. is impossible to replicate
d. has wider scope than case study
2. Think over which method can serve as a tool within the other?
3. Which method would you use to study the behavior of underprivileged children?
174
Mental Illness
A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes
significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitting,
or occur as a single episode. Many disorders have been described, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between
specific disorders. Such disorders may be diagnosed by a mental health professional.
The causes of mental disorders are often unclear. Theories may incorporate findings from a range of fields. Mental
disorders are usually defined by a combination of how a person behaves, feels, perceives, or thinks. This may be
associated with particular regions or functions of the brain, often in a social context. A mental disorder is one aspect
of mental health. Cultural and religious beliefs, as well as social norms, should be taken into account when making a
diagnosis
Diagnostic Criteria
In psychiatry the psychiatrist must be able to validly and reliably diagnose different mental illnesses. The first
systematic attempt to do this was by Emil Kraepelin who published the first recognized textbook on psychiatry in 1883.
Kraepelin claimed that certain groups of symptoms occur together sufficiently frequently for them to be called a
disease. He regarded each mental illness as a distinct type and set out to describe its origins, symptoms, course and
outcomes.
Kraepelin’s work is the basis of modern classification systems.
The two most important are:
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

This is the classification system used by the American Psychiatric Association. The first version (DSM 1) was published
in 1952. The latest version is DSM V published in 2013.
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

This is published by The World Health Organisation. Mental disorders were included for the first time in 1948 (ICD 6).
The current version is ICD 10 published in 1992. The eleventh revision of the ICD, the ICD-11, was accepted by WHO's
World Health Assembly (WHA) on 25 May 2019.
The diagnosis
In order to diagnose someone, you would usually need some/all of the following:
 Clinical interview
 Careful observation of behavior, mood states, etc.
 Medical records
 Psychometric tests
On the basis of the diagnosis, the psychiatrist will prescribe treatment such as drugs, psychosurgery or brain
stimulation treatments. However, since the 1970s psychiatrists have predominantly treated mental illnesses using
drugs.
However, studies have shown that diagnosis is not a reliable tool. Rosenhan (1973) conducted an experiment where
the aim was to see whether psychiatrists could reliably distinguish between people who were mentally ill and those
who were not.
The study consists of two conditions from which in one the hospital was informed that patients will be coming that
are not actually mentally ill when in fact no patients were sent at all. In this condition the psychiatrists only diagnosed
41 out of 193 patients as being mentally ill when in reality all patients were mentally ill.
175
In the other conditions, 8 people were told to report at the hospital that they hear noises in their head. As soon as
they were administrated, they behaved normally. The doctors in this condition still classified these patients as insane,
with a case of dormant schizophrenia.
Rosenhan concluded that no psychiatrist can easily diagnose the sane from insane. Though Rosenhan delivered a very
accurate report on diagnoses of patients, Rosenhan was criticised for deceiving the hospital for claiming that sane
patients were being sent over, though none were actually sent.
Schizophrenia
The main biological explanations of schizophrenia are as follows:
 Genetics – there is considerable evidence of a genetic
predisposition to develop schizophrenia.
 Biochemistry – the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated
levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.
 Neuroanatomy – differences in brain structure (abnormalities
in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles) have
been identified in people with schizophrenia.
Depression
The main biological explanations of depression are as follows:
 Genetic – there is considerable evidence that the predisposition to develop depression is inherited.
 Biochemistry, e.g. Amine hypothesis – low levels of mono amines predominantly noradrenaline and serotonin.
 Neuroanatomy – damage to amine pathways in post-stroke patients.
 Neuroendocrine (hormonal) factors – the importance of stress hormones (e.g. cortisol) and over activity of
the HPA axis which is responsible for the stress response.
OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder)
The main biological explanations of OCD are as follows:
 Genetic – there is some evidence of a tendency to inherit OCD, with a gene (Sapap3)
recently identified.
 Biochemistry – serotonin deficiency has been implicated.
 Neuroanatomy – dysfunctions of the orbital frontal cortex (OFC) over-activity in basal
ganglia and caudate-nucleus thalamus have been proposed.
 Evolutionary – adaptive advantages of hoarding, grooming, etc.
Drug Treatment
The main drugs used in the treatment of depression, anxiety and OCD are mono-
amine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), tricyclic antidepressants and selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Antipsychotic drugs can be used to treat schizophrenia by blocking d2

(dopamine) receptors. There are different generations of antipsychotics:
 Typical antipsychotics – e.g. chlorpromazine, block d2 receptors in several brain areas.

 Less typical antipsychotics – e.g. pimozide, often used as a last resort when other drugs have failed.
 Atypical antipsychotics – e.g. risperidone. Some atypicals also block serotonin receptors.
176
Effectiveness
 Anti-psychotics have long been established as a relatively cheap, effective treatment, which rapidly reduce
symptoms and enable many people to live relatively normal lives.
 Relapse is likely when drugs are discontinued.
 Drug treatment is usually superiour to no treatment.
 Between 50 – 65% of patients benefit from drug treatments.
Appropriateness
 Drugs do not deal with the cause of the problem; they only reduce the symptoms.
 Anti-psychotics produce a range of side effects including motor tremors and weight gain. These lead a
proportion of patients to discontinue treatment.
 Patients often welcome drug therapy, as it is quicker, easier and less threatening than talk therapy.
 Some drugs cause dependency.
 Ethical issues including informed consent, and the dehumanizing effects of some treatments.
1. Choose the correct answer(s):

1. The doctor will judge that the 'patient' is exhibiting abnormal behavior by:
a. observing the patient
b. asking questions
c. what the relatives and others near to the patient say
d. the context
2. The main explanation for mental illness is ______________:

a. genetic
b. biochemistry
c. neuroanatomy
d. neuroendocrine (hormonal) factors
2. What are the main ways for treating mental diseases?

3. What way is the most effective?
4. Are psychologists qualified to treat mental diseases? What should they do in the case the patient needs drug
treatment?
177
Література
1. Гитович Р.А . Learning Psychology in English: учебно-методический комплекс / Гитович Р.А., Ковальчук С.В. М.:
Изд. центр ЕАОИ, 2010. 158 с.
2. Коваленко П.І. К56 Англійська мова для психологів. Серія «Підручники і навчальні посібники». Ростов н / Д:
«Фенікс», 2000. 352 с
3. Кузьменко А.О. Збірка тренінгових вправ та задач з англійської мови за професійним спрямуванням
(Психологія) : навч. посіб. / А.О. Кузьменко. Дніпро: Середняк Т.К., 2018. 130 с.
4. Кузьо Л. І. English for Specific Purposes: Psychology in Use. Part I (Англійська мова для спеціальних цілей:
Психологія у практиці. Частина I): навчальний посібник / Л.І. Кузьо. Львів: ЛьвДУВС, 2018. 88 с.
5. Латигіна А.Г. Базовий курс англійської мови для психологів. Essential English for Psychologists: підручник / А.Г.
Латигіна, С.М. Буленок. Київ : Київ. нац. торг.-екон. ун-т, 2015. 396 с.
6. Нікошкова Є.В. Англійська мова для психологів / навчальний посібник для студентів вищих навчальних
закладів, Москва, 2004. 152 с.
7. Одарчук С. І. Одарчук Н. А. Англійська мова для психологів. English for psychologists: Навч. посіб. для студ.
вищ. навч. закл., які навчаються за спец. “Психологія” . К.: МАУП, 2006. 200 с.
8. Сердійчук, Л. П. English for Psychology Students (Англійська мова для студентів-психологів). Житомир: Вид-во
ЖДУ ім. Івана Франка, 2015. 84 с.
9. Psychology: Carrer Paths / Timothy Gilliand, Jenny Dooley. EU: Express publishing, 2017. 120 p.
10. Teacher’s Guide. Psychology: Carrer Paths / Timothy Gilliand, Jenny Dooley. EU: Express publishing, 2017. 128 p.
ЕЛЕКТРОННІ РЕСУРСИ В МЕРЕЖІ ІНТЕРНЕТ:
1. Application Express DigiBooks: Career Paths Psychology. URL: https://www.expressdigibooks.com/

2. Career Paths Psychology. URL: http://www.careerpaths-esp.com
3. Career Paths Psychology. URL: http://www.expresspublishing.co.uk
4. Classics in the History of Psychology. URL: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
5. Excelling Psychology. URL: http://excellingpsychology.blogspot.com/
6. Lumen Learning Psychology. URL: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/intropsychmaster/
7. Obsessive compulsive disorder. URL: https://youarecollective.ca/blogs/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/what-is-
obsessive-compulsive-disorder
8. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/
9. Very well Mind. URL: https://www.verywellmind.com/identifying-schizophrenia-in-children-4155780
10. 16 personalities. URL: https://www.16personalities.com/free-personality-test
11. Глосарій термінів з психології англійською мовою. URL: https://dictionary.apa.org/
12. Мультимовний перекладач. http://www.multitran.com
13. Навчальне відео. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/magazine/could-conjoined-twins-share-a-
mind.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0
14. Навчальне відео. URL:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/video/ezoic/view?videoID=4c541ece593c77635082af0152ccb30f733f0401
15. Навчальне відео. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlYiDxNcMdc&t=197s
16. Словник термінів з психології англійською. URL: https://www.itseducation.asia/psychology
В оформленні підручника використано зображення, розміщені в мережі Інтернет для вільного використання
та зображення з додатку Application Express DigiBooks.
178
Навчальние видання
ЛИТВАК Ольга Анатоліївна

КОРНЕЛЮК Богдан Васильович
«English for Psychologists»

Навчальний посібник для студентів спеціальності 053 Психологія
Тираж 100 прим.
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КОМУНАЛЬНИЙ ЗАКЛАД ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ

English for Psychologists

Литвак О.А., Корнелюк Б.В.

УДК 811.111: 159.9 (075.8)

© Литвак О. А., Корнелюк Б.В., 2021

Змістовий модуль II. Psychological processes.

Розділ II. Book 2.

Змістовий модуль ІV. Different schools of modern Psychology.

Змістовий модуль V. Branches of Psychology.

Змістовий модуль VII. Research and Experiments.

Змістовий модуль VIІI. Mental Disorders.

Змістовий модуль IX. Treatment. Career options.

Змістовий модуль 1. The basics of Psychology. The Brain.

Choose the correct answers:

1 What is the purpose of the website?

2 Which of the following is NOT part of the psychology program?

3 What does the psychology program cover first?

A. to try to cure a medical condition

1 A The doctor will assess the condition with medicine.

2 A The brain directs many processes, so it has many different functions.

4. Listen to the dialogue and complete the conversation.

5. Learn the phrases and make your own sentences:

7.Fill out the worksheet.

Topic 2. The Central Nervous System.

The Central Nervous System.

2 Which of the following is NOT a function of the brain?

3 What is the difference between white matter and gray matter?

2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-F).

A information that comes from the sense organs

3. Fill out the worksheet:

Reflex / central nervous system / integrate / spinal cord

1 The___________ is located in a person’s back.

4. Listen to the dialogue and complete the conversation.

5. Learn the phrases and make your own sentences:

7. Fill out the worksheet.

The Peripheral Nervous System

Choose the correct answers:

2 Which of the following is NOT a division of the PNS?

3 What is true about the autonomic nervous system?

2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-F).

3. Read the sentences and choose the correct words or phrases.

4. Listen to the dialogue and complete the conversation.

5. Learn the phrases and make your own sentences:

Topic 4. The Brain 1.

1 What is the chapter mainly about?

2 Which of the following is NOT true of the cerebrum?

3 Which of the following is part of the occipital lobe?

2. Match the words or phrases with the definitions (A-H).

A one half of something round

3. Write a word or phrase that is similar in meaning to the underlined part.

1. The scientist studies the largest division of the human brain. (_ e _ _ b _ _ m)

4. Learn the phrases and make your own sentences:

In another part of the brain, hormones control behavior and emotions.

Mark the following statements as True or False:

2. Write a word or phrase that is similar in meaning to the underlined part.

I’m having trouble…. Do you remember…? Actually, …

5. Listen to the dialogue and complete the conversation.

Hormones - These chemicals make the body's cells perform

Neurotransmitters - These chemicals transmit signals from

Neuromodulators - These are groups of neurotransmitters.

Mark the following statements as True or False:

Endorphins / acetylcholine / endocrine system / regulate / Insulin / norepinephrine

1 The glands of the___________________ exist in various places around the body.