Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dams and Environment Effects On Soils
Dams and Environment Effects On Soils
KYIV – 2004
Nora-Print
UDK 627.8 + 631.4/6
УДК 627.8 + 631.4.6
ISBN
Approved for publication by the Institute of Plant Cultivation, Soil Science and
Ecology of National Agricultural University of Ukraine.
1. Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 4
7. Large reservoirs of arid zone impact on the coastal soils (on example
of the Kapchagay reservoir) …………………………………………. 51
9. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 78
Dam and reservoir construction has been considered the most important and
indispensable condition for the economic and social development of the world,
especially the regions with insufficient water resources. The beginning of the third
millennium, according to the estimates of international organizations (FAO, ICID
and ICOLD) sees this planet embellished with over 45000 of large reservoirs and a
multitude of smaller ponds. Every year about 200 new capacious receptacles of
water are put into operation. Water management construction, including the
creation of reservoirs, is increasingly shifting to the developing regions. New
gigantic reservoirs appear in Asia, Africa and South America changing the socio-
economic situation of the communities. In the states with rapidly growing
population, a real crisis with drinking water supply can be overcome only by the
river flow regulation and water accumulation in the reservoirs. The problem of
interbasin water distribution becomes ever more challenging and not pliable to
solution without dams and reservoirs.
Dams and reservoirs are generally constructed for the purposes of power
generation, irrigation, transportation development, flood control, fish production,
recreation, etc. More often than not they are multipurpose and fulfill the main and
concomitant assignments. According to the information provided by the
International Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), the multipurpose
reservoirs make up nearly 50% of their total number.
At the same time, a large-scale water management construction involving the
creation of dams and reservoirs caused no less large-scale environmental changes
not only near the constructed objects but in the river basins as a whole. These
changes include the flooding of large areas of productive soils in the river valleys
by the reservoirs, waterlogging, salination and formation of swamps on the
reservoir coasts, environmental changes in the tail bief of the hydraulic engineering
structures, aridization of landscapes in the lower reaches and deltas of the rivers,
changes in the pedogenic conditions on the coasts of lakes and seas, fed by the
rivers and profound transformation of hydrological and hydrochemical regimes of
the rivers accompanied by water quality degradation and its unsuitability for water
supply and irrigation, etc.
As an outcome of all these changes, the construction of dams and reservoirs in
the last decades has been met with a powerful resistance of environmental experts
and in some cases with that of the local population. Scientific community has been
divided into two camps of supporters and opponents of dams. Differing approaches
to the problem appeared in the international organizations and programs created
under the aegis of the UN – ICOLD, DDP, ICID and others. In such a situation it
may be useful to report the research conclusions derived from the investigations of
large dams’ impact on the environment including the effects on the soils on the
territory of the New Independent States (NIS) or former Soviet Union, many of the
data being obtained by the authors as a result of a long-term research work.
2. DAM CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
Dam and reservoir construction has its own history entwined in the history of
the world civilization and documented in many works (World Register of Dams,
1971, 1998, 2000; Vendrow and Dyakonov, 1976; Reservoirs of the World, 1979;
Reservoir Impact on the Environment, 1986, et al). According to these materials,
the origin of the first dams and reservoirs was linked with the origin of settled
farming in the arid regions. Over 4 thousand years ago, the construction of dams
for the irrigation of lands was initiated in Egypt, Mesopotamia and China.
In Egypt with its dry climate and only the narrow Nile River floodplain that
could be cultivated, the first dams were constructed about 3000-2500 B.C. for the
irrigation with natural flooding and no canals. Since the third millennium B.C., the
dams and reservoirs were constructed in China and India for irrigation and flood
control in the river valleys. Since ancient times, the Mesopotamian lands were
irrigated in the basins of the Tigris and Euphrates.
There is an evidence preserved to this day about the construction of dams and
reservoirs in Central Anatolia (about 1400 B.C.), Syria (about 1300 B.C.) and in
the ancient state of Urartu (about 700 B.C.). In the first millennium B.C. the dams
with reservoirs were being constructed in Mesopotamia, Iran and other countries.
The Aztecs, Incas and Maya probably had the world’s most effective
hydrotechnical and erosion-control structures. The archeologists (Matheny and
Gurr, 1979) found a complex system of Mayan bench terraces, dams and other
water-diverting devices, and underground water-storage cisterns and walls in
southeastern Mexico.
Europe began to see the construction of dams with the reservoirs since about
the second century B.C. in Greece, Italy, France and other countries. Numerous
dams were constructed to make possible the operation of windmills here in the first
millennium A.D. In the European part of Russia such dams appeared over 300
years ago.
A new period in the construction of dams and reservoirs in the world started in
the 18-19th centuries in the epoch of the great industrial revolution in Great Britain,
Germany, France, Chechia, Poland, Russia and the USA for the purposes of
industrial and communal water supply and for the development of navigation.
The next period in the history of dams started between the 19th and 20th
centuries and was connected with the construction of hydropower plants in the
countries of Europe, USA, and Japan and later in many other countries (Reservoirs
of the World, 1979). In the former Soviet Union (now NIS), an intensive reservoir
construction was deployed since the second quarter of the 20 th century mainly for
the electric power generation. With the end of the Second World War a new
grandiose period began in the history of hydraulic technique construction which
lasts to this day, when the purposes of such construction serve to solve some rather
involved problems of hydropower generation, water supply for consumption,
irrigation and recreation. The very beginning of this period was witnessing the
construction of the large reservoirs on the rivers of the plain part of the Soviet
Union. Then some gigantic power-generating reservoirs were constructed in the
east of the former USSR and some irrigation-providing ones – in its south. The
largest cascades of the reservoirs were created in this period, including Volzhsky
and Angaro-Yeniseysky cascade in Russia, Dnipro (Dniepr) cascade in Ukraine
and Syrdaryinsky and Amudaryinsky cascades in the republics of Central Asia.
Among the continents, the richest in the number of dams are North America
with a multitude of large reservoirs in the USA and Canada, Asia with many
smaller-sized reservoirs in Japan, India and China, and also Europe. In Africa even
at the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century there were only a few large
reservoirs, while now there are already four of the largest reservoirs of the world.
In the last 3-4 decades, mostly gigantic reservoirs are being constructed in the
world. The largest modern-day reservoirs, if not take into account the lake-
reservoir Victoria on the Nile River (204.8 km3), are Bratskoye on the Angara
(169.3 km3), Caribba on the Zambezi (160.3 km3), Nasser on the Nile (157 km3);
the largest by the area Volta (8480 km2) and Kuybyshevskoe on the Volga (6450
km2). Some gigantic reservoirs are constructed in China.
On the NIS territory, there are 150 thousand of reservoirs and ponds of varying
size with a total useful capacity about 450 km3, but the number of large reservoirs
is over 200. Approximately 70% of the reservoirs’ useful capacity is concentrated
in an excessively wet taiga and only one-third – in the forest-steppe, steppe,
semidesert and desert zones.
A borderline between the second and the third millennia is characterized by an
evident reduction of dam construction in the developed countries of the world, but
there is no sign of such a reduction in the developing countries despite the
resistance of the environmentalists and (very often) that of a local population.
3. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DAMS
AND RESERVOIRS FOR THE NIS REGION
The Dnipro (Dniepr) flow regulation performed in Ukraine in the 50-70s of the
last century and connected with construction of a cascade of 6 reservoirs brought
about the inundation of about 0.7 mln ha of fertile lands in the river valley. It also
brought about the changes of conditions for agriculture, forestry and recreation on
the adjacent lands, particularly in the wet zone of the waterlogged soils.
The series or cascade of the reservoirs (Fig. 2) crosses all natural zones of
Ukraine, from the Forest zone (Polissya) in the north to the Arid Steppe zone in the
south. But we managed to carry out our research only on the three upper reservoirs:
Kyivs’ke (Forest zone), Kanivs’ke (northern part of the Forest-Steppe zone) and
Kremenchuks’ke (the south of the Forest-Steppe zone). In 1993-1995 our research
activities had been financed partly by the Ukrainian Ministry for Agriculture and
Food Production. But later on they were conducted a little bit unsystematically by
the undergraduate and graduate students of the National Agricultural University
under Professor V.M. Starodubtsev direction. A sizable aid in our research result
generalization in 1999-2000 had been kindly granted to us by George Soros
Foundation (Research Support Scheme, Grant 629/1998).
6.1. Kyivs’ke reservoir.
Kyivs’ke reservoir had been constructed in 1965 in the Forest zone to the north
of Ukrainian capital the city of Kyiv. Since then it regulates the runoff of the
Dnipro and Prypyat’. While constructing it, some large-scale engineering practices
had been realized to protect the Dnipro – Desna inter-basin territory from
inundation and waterlogging. Thus along the entire left bank a protective dam and
a large drainage canal diverting the infiltration water into the Dnipro below the
hydropower plant had been constructed. But the soils on the part of the lower
coasts (left bank and northern part of the right bank) are subject to waterlogging on
a strip from some hundreds meters to 0.5-1.0 km wide. Right-bank soils especially
along a segment stretching from the village of Lyutizh to the Kyivs’ka
hydroaccumulative power plant continue to erode as a result of abrasion
(streambank disruption) and landslide processes.
As Kyivs’ke reservoir is situated in the Forest soil-climatic zone, the soils
around it are mainly soddy-podzolic including slightly and cryptopodzolic sandy
and loamy-sandy ones employed predominantly in forestry not being productive
enough for agricultural crops. But moderately podzolic loamy-sandy soils are
important for crop production.
Our soil surveys allowed us to carry out a zoning of the territory adjacent to the
Kyivs’ke reservoir by the character and extent of changes of ecologo-ameliorative
soil conditions (Fig. 3).
Regions I to III were identified on the left-bank coast where the soils are subject
to waterlogging by infiltration water flowing from the reservoir to the drainage
canal. The extent of soil waterlogging (wetness) generally increases from the north
(region I) to the south (region III). Soil cover of the region I and its
geomorphological and hydrogeological conditions were characterized by a series
of soil profiles on the line 1 (Fig. 4), placed in the northern part of the left-bank
coast in the location of recreation camp “Perlyna” extending from the bank to the
village of Loshakova Guta. Zonal soils here are represented by the soddy-
cryptopodzolic sandy and loamy-sandy ones suitable for the growth of a coniferous
forest. In the depression of topography, near the coastline (line 1, profile 2) with
high water table (less than 1-2 m deep), mainly slightly waterlogged soddy-
cryptopodzolic slightly gleyed soils are formed now. The features of gleying now
appeared in the lower part of their profile and soil acidity is being neutralized, but
agrochemical soil characteristics still did not change much. On the upper elements
of topography (profiles 1 and 3) the soils were not changed, while in the eastern
part of the region, closer to v. Loshakova Guta, the soils are subject to periodic
excessive surface wetness from the small local rivers and to waterlogging by
shallow groundwater. Wet peaty-swamp loamy-sand soils are being formed here
(Fig.4, p. 4).
In the region II, the changes in soils occur by the impact of waterlogging with
infiltration water flowing in a flux sloping to the east, towards the drainage canal.
According to the water table level (Fig.4, line 5 in the locality of Rovzhi dachas –
summer houses), considerable waterlogging of soils occurs only along a narrow
strip 200-250 m wide. Soddy-gleic (meadow) soils form here (profile 11). At the
distance of 300-350 m from the bank (line 5, p.12) the waterlogging is moderate
and the soils here are mainly soddy-weakly-podzolic moderately gleyed, while at
the distance of 400-450 m, they are mainly soddy-weakly-podzolic slightly gleyed
(p.13). Coastal territory near the bank is employed for heylands and pastures but it
overgrows with shrubs. The eastern part of the region is employed in the forestry.
In the region III abutting to the left bank and the dam of a hydropower plant and
characterized by the line 2 and 2a (Fig. 4), the inter-basin territory between the
Dnipro and Desna is protected from the floods by a special-purpose dam with
concrete facing. The ecologo-ameliorative conditions of the soils within the strip
stretching between the protective dam and a drainage canal is also determined by
the presence of infiltration flux from the reservoir to the drain but with a
considerably greater sloping then in the region II. Zonal soils (soddy-slightly-
podzolic) are now buried under a layer of sandy and loamy-sandy sediments
upwashing by land-excavating machinery during the construction of a dam while
the soils form on their surface practically anew under the artificial forest plantings
under the conditions of waterlogging. Closer to the dam the soils are waterlogged
to a less extent (line 2, p. 7, 8), while towards a drainage canal the extent of their
waterlogging becomes moderate and occasionally severe (line 2, p. 9; line 2a, p. 2).
On the right bank coast in the region IV stretching from town of Vyshgorod to
the Irpin’ estuary on the north of v. Lyutizh, the processes of streambank erosion,
landslides and sheet erosion are widespread. Zonal soils here are mainly soddy-
moderate-podzolic loamy-sandy (line 3, p.2), which on the upper watershed
Figure 2. Cascade of Reservoirs on the Dnipro River (Ukraine)
Hydrolytic
Sampling
Soil Name and the Point of Humus, Acidity,
Depth, рНH2O рНKCl
Sampling % m-eq/
cm
100g soil
Left Bank Coast
0-8 0,77 6,40 4,85 1,81
Line 1, p.3; Soddy-crypto-
8-30 0,41 6,70 5,50 1,15
podzolic sandy soil
30-127 0,37 6,60 5,90 1,00
Line1, p.3; Soddy-crypto- 0-22 1,04 7,50 -- --
podzolic gleish sandy soil 22-38 0,90 7,55 -- --
(waterlogged) 38-67 --- 7,35 -- --
0-20 0,85 6,70 5,70 1,82
Line 2, p.7; Soddy-slightly-
20-31 0,33 6,70 5.70 1,82
podzolic sandy soil
31-58 0,14 6,40 5,60 1,22
Line 2, p.9; Soddy-slightly-
0-23 1,20 7,30 6,90 1,71
podzolic gleish sandy soil
40-60 0,59 7,10 6,90 1,28
(waterlogged)
Line 2, p.10; Soddy-gleic 0-26 1,40 7,75 6,95 0,80
(meadow) sandy soil 26-43 0,76. 7,60 6,95 0,81
(waterlogged) 43-76 0,52 7,40 6,90 0,50
0-14 1,72 5,45 4,10 3,68
Line 2, p.5; Soddy-moderately-
14-30 0,83 5Э75 4,35 1,97
podzolic loamy-sandy soil
30-51 0,36 5,85 4,90 1,60
0-30 1,50 - - 1,80
Line 5, p.13; Soddy-slightly-
30-56 0,56 - - 1,05
podzolic loamy-sandy soil
56-98 0,36 - - 0,72
Line 5, p.12; Soddy-slightly-
0-33 1,91 - - 1,53
podzolic gleish loamy-sandy soil
41-61 0,55 - - 0,72
(waterlogged)
Line 5, p.11; Soddy-gleish- 0-26 2,50 - - 1,80
loamy-sandy soil (waterlogged) 58-82 0,16 - - 0,36
Right-Bank Coast
Line 3, p.11; Soddy-moderately- 0-20 1,08 5,45 5,20 1,75
podzolic loamy soil in land-slide 20-32 1,21 5,50 5,15 1,75
deposits (debris) 32-61 0,40 6,50 5,30 0,63
0-9 2,61 - - 1,71
Line 3, p.3; Soddy loamy-
9-19 0,66 - - 1,73
sandyin lana-slide deposits
55-70 1,27 - - 1,35
0-18 1,13 5,30 4,45 2,57
Line 4b, p.3; Soddy-slightly-
18-37 0,60 5,10 4,80 1,28
podzolic sandy soil
37-57 0,27 5,60 5,30 0,45
0-33 1,45 6,70 6,00 1,10
Line 4b, p.2; Soddy-slightly-
33-46 0,45 7,00 5,90 0,90
podzolic gleish (waterlogged)
46-77 0,40 7,05 6,10 0,90
Line 4b, p.1; Soddy-slightly- 0-22 2,23 6,80 5,90 0,90
podzolic gleyed soil 22-46 0,60 6,90 6,10 -
(waterlogged) 46-77 0,40 6,90 6,10 0,70
containing calcium hydrocarbonate and having a pH within 7.25-7.50. Soddy-
podzolic soils usually have an acidic reaction, as is evident from Table 3 (line 1,
p.3; line 2, p.5; line 3, p.11; line 4b, p.3).
In the waterlogged soils of the left-bank coast (line 1, p.2; line 2, p.9,10) pHH2O
increases to 7.35-7.75. At the same time, the hydrolytic acidity decreases and base
saturation percent increases. But in waterlogged soddy-podzolic soils of the right-
bank coast (not by infiltration water but by perched groundwater) the changes in
the physico-chemical properties of soils were not so considerable (Table 3, line 4b,
p. 1, 2)
The general trend for the content of humus in the surface horizons of
waterlogged soils is to increase. Thus in waterlogged soddy-crypto-podzolic sandy
soils (line 1, p.2) humus content in the surface horizon increased to 1.04 % from
0.4-0.8% in their counterpart not subjected to waterlogging (line 1, p.1, 3). In
soddy-slightly-podzolic soils of the line 2 the amount of humus increased with
waterlogging to 1.20-1.40% (p. 9, 10) versus 0.85% in no waterlogged soils (p.7).
In loamy-sandy soddy-podzolic soils of the line 5 the content of humus was within
1.50 (p.13) to 1.91% (p.12).
In the moderately waterlogged soils, subsequently transformed into soddy
(meadow) ones as a result of waterlogging the percent of humus reaches 2.10-
2.50% (line 4, p.1; line 5, p.11). In severely waterlogged swampy soils which are
periodically subject to inundation in addition to continuous waterlogging, the
amount of organic matter in the surface horizon reaches 18.3%.
Our research activities in 2000-2003 made possible to detect some unique for
Ukrainian Polissya processes of soil salinization on the right-bank coast of the
Kyivs’ke reservoir to the north of the Irpin’ floodplain (near the village of
Kozarovychi). On a reservoir cliff 1-1.5 m high at the depth of 0.5 m from the
surface a layer of salt crystal efflorescence had been detected. Further studies on
this plot showed it to be covered by soddy-gleish-podzolised and soddy-gleic (with
the signs of solodization) soils formed in carbonatic slightly saline loams.
Waterlogging of these soils led to salt migration in the profile and to the
appearance of salt efflorescence on the cliffy banks. A significant amount of salts
is detected already at the depth of 30-50 cm, ionic composition of salts in this
horizon being sulfatic-bicarbonate and calcium-sodium (Table 4, line 3v, p.1).
Additionally excavating lines of soil profile on this plot are shown in Fig.5.
Worthy of attention are the changes of radioactive pollution in the soils of the
Kyivs’ke reservoir coast. After Chernobyl disaster, a large amount of radionuclide
had fallen on the reservoir aquatory and on the soils surface of its coasts. Our
investigations of the subsequent radionuclide migration in the coastal soils were
spread on both low waterlogged coasts and high coasts with landslides, abrasion,
and surface erosion (Fig. 4 and 5). It was found that in the first 7-12 years after the
accident on the atomic plant, the radionuclide (137Cs) were leached downwards in
the soil profile to the depth of 15-25 cm and occasionally deeper, depending on
soil type, organic matter content, soil texture and the character of land use (Table
5).
Table 4. Salt Content in the Kyivs’ke reservoir Coastal Soils, %
swampy ones. These areas are of environmental significance and employed mainly
as hunting grounds. The use of these lands in agriculture is not recommended.
Region VII stretches along the “borova” terrace of the Dnipro valley from the
Boryspil’ dachas to the village of Ozheryshche and is covered mainly by soddy-
podzolic soils of sandy and loamy-sandy texture. Only around the village of Tsybli
some loamy chernozemic soils reach the coast. The “borova” terrace itself is
subject to some waterlogging but groundwater here lie sufficiently deep not to
affect considerably the process of soil formation. These areas are important for
environmental protection, forestry and recreation.
Region VIII is a polder system on the village of Leplyavo territory. The
territory is protected from inundating by a dam over which runs the highway
Pereyaslav-Khmel’nytsky – Kaniv. The soils along the dam are soddy and soddy-
gleic of sandy and loamy-sandy texture important for the forestry. Between the
village of Leplyavo and the drain diverting the infiltration water to the Dnipro, in
addition to soddy, there are meadow soils of loamy and loamy-sandy texture which
can be used as grasslands.
A conclusion from the evidence stated above may be that the most challenging
environmental and economic problems on the Kanivs’ke reservoir coasts are the
protection of low coasts from the inundation by polder systems and protection of
high banks from disruption, landslides and other forms of erosion by water. Polder
systems are an efficient way to control air and water relation of the soils protected
from floods. This practice ensures optimal soil wetness and diversion of excess
water by a system of dams, canals and pumping stations. Under the conditions of
market economy taking shape in Ukraine the electric power became so expensive
that the polder system exploitation is no longer economically feasible. Today they
do not implement ameliorative practices to an extent sufficient for the soil water-
air regime optimization. As a result, the grasslands on the polder systems are of
low productivity and need a fundamental improvement.
Radionuclide pollution and migration in the waterlogged soils on the reservoir
coasts is an important environmental characteristic. Only on the Kozyn polder the
surface horizons of soils are slightly polluted by nuclear wastes (137Cs activity is
within 300-400 Bq/kg), but deeper in the profiles the radioactivity sharply
decreases, increasing slightly within the capillary fringe (Table 6, line 10, p. 1, 2).
Wet soils of the left-bank coast are very slightly polluted and only in the village of
Tsybli the waterlogged coastal soils have a noticeable radioactive contamination
all over the profile (Table 6, line 8, p.1). Zonal soils of the right-bank coast subject
to abrasion and landslides are practically no contaminated, except the plot near the
village of Khodoriv, where the radionuclide activity in the surface reaches 340-374
B1/kg and they penetrate 20-30 cm deep (Lin 15, p.1).
Figure 11. Bank Protection with Stone at the Kyivs’ke Reservoir Coast.
December 2002. Photo of V. Starodubtsev.
Table 7. Salt Content in the Kremenchuks’ke Reservoir Coastal Soils
Cation Exchang-
Carbonate
Soil horizon Sampling Humus exchange able
content, pHH2O
index depth, cm content, % capacity, sodium,
%
m-eq/100g m-eq/100g
He,k,s 0-1 4,25 0,68 34,25 6,0 8,75
HI,k,s 1-7 3,77 1,84 45,80 15,0 9,34
Hi,gl,k,s 7-16 4,49 4,92 38,73 8,0 9,91
Hpi,k,gl,s 16-23 3,68 6,96 33,87 5,0 10,19
Hp,gl,k,s 23-45 3,12 9,01 33,67 7,0 9,52
Ph,Gl,k,s 45-57 3,03 3,89 32,00 9,0 10,20
P(h),Gl,k 57-76 1,49 15,36 28,73 8,0 10,00
P,Gl,k 76-114 1,55 10,86 23,67 7,0 9,30
7. LARGE RESERVOIRS OF ARID ZONE IMPACT ON
THE COASTAL SOILS (on example of Kapchagay reservoir)
In arid zone, of all the aspects of reservoir impact on soils and ameliorative
conditions the first place is taken by the processes of soil and ground and surface
water salinization and desalinization. These processes acquire a special
significance on the large reservoirs constructed in between-the-mountain
depressions, where active salt accumulation takes place under natural conditions. A
typical example of such conditions may be the Kapchagay reservoir, on which we
carried out our research activities in 1976-1986.
The reservoir had been constructed on the Ily river in Southern Kazakhstan with
a project capacity of 28.1 km3. The dam on the Ily was constructed in 1970, but the
filling of the basin outstretched for many years as the period between 1974 and
1977 was that of a low water. There also were a number of ecological and water
management problems. The problems include land waterlogging on the low left-
bank reservoir’ coast, landscape desertification on the large area in the Ily delta,
lowering of the lake Balkhash level and the growth of water salinity in it and some
other unfavorable processes. The reservoir is of multiple purposes, including
power generation, irrigation, recreation, fishing industry and transportation.
The area of inundated agricultural lands during the reservoir filling should have
reached with NWL of 475 m – 98 thousand hectares, with NWL of 480 m – 120 th.
ha and with NWL of 485 m – 147 th. ha. The project envisaged the waterlogged
land area on the reservoir coasts (with groundwater table depth within 0-2 m)
calculated on the basis of a hydrogeological prediction to reach with NWL of 475
m – 106 thousand hectares, with NWL of 480 m – 100 th. ha, and with NWL of
485 m – 91 th. ha. In general, the reservoir impact on the coastal soils was
envisaged to be very significant. Therefore, the Kazakhstan Ministry of
Melioration and Water Management entrusted us with a task of long-term
investigations of the processes of coastal soil waterlogging in the course of
reservoir filling to make the prognostication more precise.
Natural conditions of the Kapchagay reservoir region. The reservoir had been
constructed in the Ily between-the-mountain depression within the Almainskaya
oblast of Kazakhstan. The region is well developed economically. The essential
crops here are industrial ones (tobacco and sugar beet), small grains, vegetables,
melons, fruits, vines and in the lower reaches of Ily – rice. Animal husbandry is
well developed.
Climate of the region is a pronounced continental with hot dry summer and a
low-snow winter, typical of deserts and semi-deserts of the subboreal belt. The
average annual temperature depending on hypsometrical geographic position is
within 7.7-9.20C, absolute maximum being 43…440C and absolute minimum –
43…440C. The average July temperature is about 21.3…23.90C, July being the
warmest month of the year. Annual rainfall is within 200-300 mm, the bulk of it
falling in the warmer season of the year. The period with relative air humidity
below 30% lasts from 110 to 150 days.
Hydrology and hydrography. The region has an intensive surface and a well
developed stream pattern, belonging to the Ily basin. The Ily’s length is 1380 km
(1439 km with tributary Tekes) and the area of basin – 140 th. km2. The river rises
in China at an altitude of 4000 m but flows mostly in Kazakhstan and falls into the
Lake Balkhash. The average annual water discharge near the town of Kapchagay
was before the construction of a dam 471 m3/s and the total runoff volume – 14,8
km3, including the losses in the delta (3 km3) and the runoff into the Lake Balkhash
(11.8 km3). It has numerous tributaries rising in the mountains within the Kazakh
territory like the Chilik, Charyn, Turgen, Issyk, Kaskelen, Small and Large
Almatinkas. The tributaries have a specific hydrological regime: they are
plentifully supplied with water within the mountains, but in the discharge cones
they lose a bulk of their runoff primarily on infiltration (50-60%), irrigation and
water supply. But in the lower part of a sloping plainland before the mountain
foothills their runoff sharply increases at the expense of ground water discharge
(seepage). Changes in the Ily runoff connected with the Kapchagay reservoir
construction we discussed earlier (Starodubtsev, 1985; Starodubtsev et al., 2004).
Relief and geologic structure. The Ily mountain-bordered lowland reaches
Kazakhstan from the territory of China by its western part in which Kapchagay
reservoir is being filled. The lowland is framed in the south by the range of
Zailiysky Ala-Tau and in the north it is bordered by the mountain spurs of
Dzhungarsky Ala-Tau. The northern foothills of Zailiysky Ala-Tau border with the
band of the cones of discharge (“debris cones”) which merge to form a train of
prolluvial deposits 10-12 km wide. This is a wavy sloping plainland at the altitude
of 600-1200 m and it is of great value in agriculture. Almaty (Alma-Ata), the
former capital of Kazakhstan is situated here. To the north of the prolluvial train
stretches a slightly sloping plain used for irrigation farming, pastures and as
hunting grounds.
Lower quaternary deposits (Q4) lie at the mountains foots and are represented
by deluvial and proluvial deposits. Boulders, pebbles and gravel dominate in the
basis of these deposits, while upwards the rock fragments become smaller turning
into silty sands and even sandy clays. Foothill plainland was formed on middle
quaternary deposits (Q2), 100-200 m thick. These are mainly loams and loamy
sands with the layers and lenses of sands, gravel and clays. A complex of middle-
and upper quaternary rocks (Q2+3) is also encountered here. These are mainly
alluvial and prolluvial loess-like sediments with strata and lenses of sands and
pebble-gravels. Recent deposits (Q4) are usually shallow. They compose the
floodplain terrace of the Ily and its tributaries.
Ground waters here are represented by various types including those from the
crevices (fissure spring) and from the pores, free-surface waters and those of
artesian aquifers. Waters of tectonic crevices are usually thermal, including sodic
ones. Fissure waters of the solid rocks with good physical and chemical properties
and large debits are the feeders of the mountain rivers. Pore space waters are
widespread in unconsolidated sedimentary rocks of the quaternary period. In the
cones of debris these are quite powerful streams with salt concentration up to 0.5
g/l and calcium hydrocarbonate composition of salts. The cone of debris waters
unload (seep out) over their (cones’) periphery into the ravines and valleys of small
local rivers (“karasu” – black water), but if such drainage is absent, the cone waters
unload themselves by dispersed multiple outlets along the entire bedding plane of
springs, forming seep spots and “saza” sinks. The waters of sandy-clay deposits of
the accumulative plainland on the left-bank coast of the Ily have a less favorable
quality. According to regime, placement conditions and chemical composition, the
waters are divided into headless (not being under hydraulic pressure) groundwater
(perched waters) and waters with hydraulic pressure. Perched waters lie at the
depth not exceeding 5 m, have a stagnant regime and salt concentration up to 50-60
g/l, and even up to 100 g/l near the reservoir banks. But fresh perch waters also
occur in sandy-gravel deposits (lenses). The lower-lying horizons of water are
under pressure which grows with depth and the distance from the mountains. Their
mineralization is below 1 g/l and salt composition – calcium hydrocarbonate.
Soils of the Kapchagay reservoir coasts. Zonal soils of the Ily lowland are light
greyzems and grey-brown desert soils. But the foothill plain along the southern
reservoir coast is occupied mainly by the meadow-greyzemic and meadow soils
affected by salinity and sodicity to varying extent and by large areas of meadow
and ordinary solonchaks. Smaller areas are occupied by meadow-swampy and
swampy soils.
To study the Kapchagay reservoir impact on the coastal soils we carried out
some reconnaissance soil surveys in 1976 along the six transects (lines) over the
reservoir perimeter (Fig. 2). On two of these lines, in 1977, we performed soil and
salinity development survey and mapping and organized perennial (regime)
observations over the dynamics of soil moisture, salt content and ground water
fluctuations. Line 1, 9 km long and 1 km wide, had been projected in the western
part of the southern coast from the village of Frunze to the reservoir cutline; line 2,
20 km long and 1 km wide, had been projected in the central part of the southern
coast from the village of Teskensu (Chilik district) to the reservoir cutline. These
two lines could be employed to characterize such part of the coast within which
according to hydrogeological prediction (Akhmedsafin et al., 1975), the maximum
intensity of reservoir impact should occur.
Within line 1, meadow-greyzem soils with varied salinity dominate occupying
the southern and central parts of it. By hydrogeologic conditions these soils were
formed in the zone of secondary groundwater immersion, the waters lying at depth
of 3-5 m and being fresh or slightly mineralized with satisfactory ground outflow.
Parent rocks here are mostly loess-like loams underlain in the lower part of profile
by sands and soddy-pebbles. The vegetation is represented mostly by camel burr
(Alhagi pseudoalhagi), small reeds, licorice, wormwood, bluegrasses and some
shrubs (Halymodendron halodendron and others). Salt tolerant vegetation (of
Salsola genus) grows saline, while wormwood and camphorosma occupy sodic-
saline soils.
Figure 12. Scheme of Experimental Plots (lines) on the Kapchagay Reservoir Coasts and Predicted Zone of Reservoir
Impact on Coastal Soils with NWL of 485 m (lines 1 and 2 are for regime observation, lines 3-a, 4, 5 and
6 – for reconnaissance survey).
The morphological profile of such soils has moisture increasing with depth
below 50 to 100 cm and indistinct rusty spots of periodic gleying are visible in the
second meter of soil profile depth. Organic matter (humus) content in the surface
horizon reaches 2.13%, the amounts of available forms of phosphorus and
potassium are moderate, while that of hydrolysable nitrogen – high. Carbonate CO2
is within 3-9% and pH within 8.6-10.0, the alkaline reaction growing downwards.
The amount of soluble salts in the upper 1 m layer of non-saline soils is of 11.5
t/ha, while in saline ones it may reach 20-27 t/ha.
Meadow saline soils and solonchaks are widespread in the northern part of
line 1 in the zone of groundwater elevated head (interaction between groundwater
and reservoir seepage water). Water table elevation here is from 3-5 to 1-2 m from
the surface. The band of these saline soils 1-1.5 km wide is stretching along the
coast to the area between the rivers Kaskelen and Issyk (Fig. 12). Ground waters in
these soils had risen the depth of 1-2 m only 5-6 years ago, so they are only
slightly different from the initial meadow-greyzem soils by the extent of gleying,
character of water regime and some morphological properties. The changes in the
essential physico-chemical and agrochemical properties lag in time behind the
changes in soil wetting from ground waters.
The organic matter (humus) content in the surface horizon is 2.47%, the amount
of carbonate CO2 in soil profile is within 3-5%, soil reaction is alkaline (pH 9.9-
10.3). The soils are well supplied with available forms of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. Salt distribution in soil profiles corresponds to the “sweating”
(evaporate) type of water regimes with maximum salt concentration (0.9-1.0%) in
the surface layer and reduction downwards in profiles. Chemically, the salinity
here is sodic-sulfate with sodium predomination. In periodically flooded soils, the
amount of sodium carbonate increases, while the concentration of chlorides
increases in them too, but much less often. As the filling of the reservoir continued
in the years of our research, we observed a gradual shifting of the waterlogging
(wet) zone to the south with additional accumulation of salts in the 0-30 cm up to
51 t/ha and in the 0-100 cm layer – to 60 t/ha. From flooded soils, a large amount
of salts was leached by the flooding water. This process will be considered in more
detail in the next section.
Within the line 2 in wet (waterlogged) zone 2-3 km wide, the meadow
solonchaks are widespread, including crusted and pudgy ones. The entire southern
part of the line 2 is occupied by meadow-greyzemic and meadow saline soils and
the central part – by ordinary solonchaks.
Meadow-greyzems of the line 2 occupy the periphery of the discharge (debris)
cones on the transition to the “saza” band. At the depth of 3-6 m they are underlain
by sands and boulder-gravels. By their properties these soils are close to their
counterparts of the line 1. The main difference is in the extent and character of
salinity. Depending on the amount of salts in the surface layer, the soils are divided
into saline and deep-saline ones. While saline soils contain sulfates and chlorides
(sulfate dominating), deep-saline soils contain mostly sulfates and have mixed
cationic composition. The amount of salts in deep-saline soils is within 53-82 t/ha
in 0-100 cm layer and 120-167 t/ha in 100-200 cm. In saline soils these amounts
respectively are 100-146 and 137-180 t/ha.
Meadow saline soils are in the “saza” band, on the border area between a
foothill plain formed by the discharge cones and near-mountain slightly sloping
plain. The “saza” band is very distinctly expressed along the Chilik-Issyk inter-
valley terrain. Ground waters here lie at depth of 1-3 m coming to the surface in
numerous places. Vegetation is diversified and depends on soil moisture and
salinity. Some “pure azhrek (Aeluropus littoralis) meadow” encounter here, while
with the growth of salinity and reduction of soil wetness because of water table
lowering, new plant species appear such as “chiy” (Lasiagrostis splendens),
licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis), saltwort (Halocnemum strobilaceum,
Petrosimonia brachiata, Suaeda , Salicornia), and wormwood. Salt content in the
upper horizons is high (1-2%) decreasing with depth of a profile. Salt composition
is sulfatic and chloride-sulfatic in the upper horizons often with an increased
alkalinity, but it is sulfate-chloridic in the lower part of soil profile. By mechanical
composition these soils are mostly fine-silt-loams. Organic matter content in the
surface horizon is 3%, the amount of carbonate CO2: 3.5-6.8%, pH: 8.6-9.5.
Ordinary solonchaks occupy a strip 10 km wide along the under-mountain and
plainland which is hypsometrically below the “saza” band. Ground waters here are
at depth of 3-5 m with increased salt concentration. Soil surface is covered with
cracks and salt efflorescences. Vegetation is very scanty, represented exclusively
by salt tolerant salsoles (saltworts) and the shrubs of Tamarix hispida, T. pentrada
and T. elongata. By mechanical composition the solonchaks are fine-silt-loams
close by their properties to meadow-greyzemic soils. Organic matter content in the
surface horizon is within 1.05-2.03% and that of carbonate CO2 – 6.0-6.6%. Soil
reaction is alkaline (pH 8.7-9.5). Soil salinity in the upper 2-meters layer is severe
(1-3% of soluble salts), salinity type is mostly sulfatic and occasionally – chloride-
sulfatic with sodium carbonate “participation”. The amount of salts in the layers 0-
100 cm and 100-200 cm are about 200 and 300 t/ha respectively.
Meadow solonchaks (pudgy and crusty) are spread in the northern part of line 2
on the territory 2-3 km wide adjoining the reservoir. As a result of groundwater
interaction with the reservoir seepage the water table here is within 1-2 (2.5) m and
is the vicinity of a coast – 0.5-1 m. On the surface of pudgy meadow solonchaks,
there is always a thick layer of salts periodically blown up and carried aways by
the wind. The vegetation here is exclusively very salt tolerant. Salt concentration in
the surface horizons is 2-5% and higher but it reduced with depth to 1-3%. Salinity
type is chloride-sulfatic with sodium-cation and sodium carbonate “participation”.
Waterlogging causes the accumulation of predominantly sodium chlorides and
sulfates. The amount of salts reach 600-700 t/ha in the 0-2 m layer; an additional
salt accumulation in the 0-1 m layer as a result of waterlogging is about 51 t/ha.
But this does not take into account the additional amount of salts which
accumulates on the surface as a pudgy loose mass and is periodically transferred by
the wind to the adjacent territories. Organic matter content in the surface horizon is
0.78 to 1.26%, carbonate CO2: 4-6%; pH: 8.8-9.1. The soils are well supplied with
the available phosphorus and potassium.
Due to seasonal and perennial considerable fluctuations of the reservoir level a
strip-shaped area developed on its coast up to 500 m wide with meadow crusted
solonchaks subjected to periodic surface flooding. They differ by the character of
salinity (the presence of salt crust and differing salt composition), vegetation and
lithology (as a result of geologic work by the waves). Territory’s relief had been
leveled during the period of flooding. Vegetation is very scanty consisting of salt
tolerant species (Salicornia and Suaeda genuses). Salt content over the entire soil
profile till watertable is 1-2% and more. Salinity type is sulfate-chloridic and
chloridic with sodium cation. The texture of the upper (to 20-30 cm deep) horizon
is lighter (loamy-sand and sandy-loam) due to the transformation of soil profiles by
the waves. Organic matter content in the surface horizon is within 0.48-0.60%;
carbonate CO2 content is 3.5% pH: 8.9-9.3.
As the reservoir is gradually filled with water, the waterlogging zone shifts to
the south (towards the foothills). A new and new area becomes subjected to
flooding and formation of soil salinity. Severely salt affected soils flooded by the
reservoir become a source of salts for surface waters.
Salt exchange between coastal soils (and subsoils), groundwater and
Kapchagay reservoir aquatory. For a long time, the halochemic processes
occurring in the coastal were not considered as an important factor of surface water
salinization and ameliorative condition changes in soils and subsoils. The most
comprehensive evaluation of the coastal and basin soil participation in salt
exchange with the reservoir water had been done by O.A.Alekin (1960). But his
evaluations for the reservoirs constructed in between-the-mountain depressions of
arid zone proved underestimated. Under conditions of intensive salt accumulation
in soils and ground waters of the Ily between-the-mountain depression, the role of
soil salinity development on the bottom areas feed from water (during reservoir
level fluctuations) are result of capillary rise and evaporation of saline ground
waters proved to be much more significant than supposed. This process leads to a
rapid restoration of salinity in dried soils. During the subsequent stage of reservoir
water level rise these salts are leached again by the masses of reservoir water.
Much more intensive proved the processes waterlogged coastal soil salinization as
well as the unloading of mineralized ground waters into the reservoir basin and
input of salts from the flooded salt lakes, etc.
We began to study the processes of salt exchange from the observations of the
Kapchagay reservoir water mineralization dynamics near the southern coast. First
of all, we determined salt concentration (mineralization) of surface waters on the
reservoir cross-cut line within the second line 15 km wide (Fig. 13). The lowest
mineralization (274 mg/l) and typical for river calcium-hydrocarbonate ionic
composition were characteristic for the deep-water area of the reservoir within the
Ily river-bed. Towards the southern coast (Fig.13, samples 3-10) water
mineralization gradually increased to 355 mg/l at the distance 1.5 km from the
bank and to 533 mg/l near the bank.
Water mineralization, g/l
Figure 13. Cross-Section Hydrochemical Reservoir Profile and the Cyclogramms of Water Ionic Composition
In the same direction, the amounts of sulfates and chlorides increase in anionic
and the amounts of magnesium and sodium - in cationic composition.
Further perennial observation of the Kapchagay reservoir salt concentration
water sampled near the coast showed it to continuously exceed that of the Ily water
at the expense of soil salt leaching and the inflow of ground waters. Thus water
mineralization near the line 2 fluctuated within 364-514 mg/l, while at the line 1 it
was within 395-608 mg/l, in spite of the wavy movement of water and its flow
along the coasts. In winter, when there was no wave movement, water
mineralization reached 660 mg/l (Table 9). But the salinity of water becomes even
higher reaching 1.320-3.504 g/l with reservoir water level elevation when some
saline coastal soils are flooded forming the shallow bays of saline water.
The increase in water salinity is accompanied by the changes in the ionic
composition of water. The first anions to increase are SO42- and Cl-, and the first
cations: Na+ and Mg2+. The relative contents of HCO3- and Ca2+ decrease. But the
changes are not of the same pattern in space and in time, especially during the
periods of reservoir level elevation and subsiding. With the flooding of soils with a
pudgy layer of salts, the processes of sodium carbonate formation take part in both,
water and soil as a result of exchange processes, especially near the line 1.
The next stage of water hydrochemical regime investigations at the southern
reservoir coast were the long-term observations over the flooding of saline lakes
formed on below-the-mountain plain as a result of saline groundwater seepage here.
Actually some brines were formed here with salt content up to 120 g/l and sulfatic-
chloridic salt composition with sodium dominance (Table 10). In the course of
inundation lasting for several years, the masses of salts accumulated in the lakes
were joining the surface waters gradually (by steps), as the hydrologic link
between the lakes and the reservoir was becoming stronger. In spring of 1977,
when the reservoir level was rising, a strait formed between the reservoir and the
lake. Salt content in the lake water decreased to 18-19 g/l as the brines mixed with
the fresh reservoir water. To the fall of 1977 the lake became a bay with intensive
water and salt exchange. Salt content in it reduced to 4-6 g/l and remained such till
July of 1978. In this period, dissolution was taking place of a layer of halite
accumulated on the bottom, but the bottom itself continued to receive some saline
ground waters feeding the lake. With subsequent reservoir level elevation, bank
remaking and strengthening of wind-caused waving, water exchange in the bay
became more intensive and salt concentration in water reduced to 1.1 g/l. Such
conditions remained till the August 1979 when the next step of reservoir level
elevation transformed the observed territory into an open aquatory with intensive
mixing of water and salt concentration reaching 471 mg/l. Therefore, the salt lake
impact on the mineralization of reservoir water lasts over 3 years.
Groundwater mineralization dynamics on periodically flooded coasts and in the
boring wells on the shallow-water aquatory also prove a conclusion, that the inflow
of mineralized ground waters to the inundated parts of the reservoir basin
continues and remains an important source of salts for the surface waters and soils
(Table 11). The observations in the boring wells P-8 and P-11 within the line 2
Table 10. Changes in Salt Lake Water Mineralization in the Course of
Lake Flooding
Sampling Concentration , g.1-1/ m.eq.l-l Total
- -
date HCO3 Cl SO42- Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ salts, g/l
0,210 46,150 31,447 0,400 2,860 39,250 *
21.07.1976 120,317
3,442 1300,050 655,136 20,000 235,178 1703,450
0,146 6,110 5,728 0,690 0,728 4,600 **
22.06.1977 18,002
2,393 172,120 119,326 34,500 59,699 199,640
0,071 6,240 6,345 0,520 0,708 5,220 **
21.07.1977 19,204
2,803 75,780 132,184 26,000 58,219 226,548
0,234 1,349 2,849 0,260 0,180 1,691 ***
21.09.1977 6,563
3,830 38,000 59,370 13,000 14,800 73,400
0,190 2,060 0,672 0,262 0,210 1,034
19.07.1978 4,428 ****
3,114 58,030 13,992 13,100 17,268 44,768
0,210 0,179 0,395 0,108 0,050 0,267
19.09.1978 1,109 ****
3,442 5,042 8,221 5,400 4,111 7,194
13.09.1979 0,239 0,048 0,059 0,050 0,021 0,050
0,471*****
3,920 1,350 1,230 2,500 1,730 2,170
*- no linkage with the reservoir; **- the lake is linked with the reservoir by a
narrow strait; ***- the lake became a bay of a reservoir; ****- the reservoir bay;
*****- the open reservoir aquatory.
showed (Fig. 14, Table 11) that with the coastal waterlogging and shallow flooding
for several years, water mineralization remains very high (47-88 g/l) and its ionic
composition (sulfatic-chloridic with sodium dominance) changes little.
On the line 1 with relatively low groundwater mineralization, coastal
waterlogging bring about a noticeable growth of mineralization, while with the
inundation of this territory the concentration of salts in ground water reduces to the
initial values (Fig. 15, Table 11). But some negative changes, such as sodium
carbonate accumulation, occur in the ionic composition of water.
Salinization – desalinization processes in soils of the periodically flooded
reservoir zone. In complex soil-melioration conditions of the Kapchagay reservoir
coast the alternation of these opposite processes plays an exclusively role in salt
accumulation in soil profiles, their subsequent leaching by surface waters and
another restoration of soil salinity.
In the central part of a coast (line 2) with soil waterlogging occurring in the
band 2-3 km wide, the soils additionally accumulate about 51 t/ha of salts in 1 m
layer, so that their total amount reaches 300 t/ha and more. With subsequent
waterlogging of the soils for the varying periods of time (from half a year to 2-3
years) only part of the soluble salts contained in the upper part of a profile is
leached by the surface water. On each hectare of flooded area, 98 t/ha of salts are
leached from the 0-30 cm layer, 143 t/ha – from the 0-50 cm layer and 260 t/ha –
from 0-100 cm layer of the soil. But the groundwater mineralization remains high
on the inundated area, as we have already stated. Right after a reservoir level
subsiding and liberation of inundated soils from the cover of water, the salinity
rapidly restores itself in soils. The amounts of chloride and sodium ions in saline
soils increase. During just one vegetation period the soils accumulated the
following mean additional amounts of salts: 43 t/ha in 0-30 cm, 76 t/ha in 0-50 cm
and 170 t/ha in 0-100 cm layers of soil. In 1.5 to 2 years, the initial salinity
becomes completely restored and large amounts of salts again become available for
leaching during the seasonal and perennial water level fluctuations in the reservoir.
In the western part of the coast, where the soils are less saline with the coastal
waterlogging occurring on the strip 1.5-2 km wide, the additional salt
accumulations in soils are the following: 51 t/ha in 0-30 cm; 57 t/ha in 0-50 cm and
60 t/ha in 0-100 cm layers of the soil. In waterlogged meadow solonchaks, the total
amount of soluble salts in 0-100 cm layer is, as an average value, within 140-160
t/ha. At the next inundation the salts partly leach out of the soils and become a
source of surface water salinization. The amounts of salts leached from the flooded
soils is from 0-30 cm layer 44 t/ha, from 0-50 cm layer – 48 t/ha and from 0-100
cm layer – 64 t/ha. The subsequent restoration of salinity in soils freed from
flooding with low mineralization of groundwater occurred with intensity of 6-7
t/ha, and with higher groundwater mineralization it reached 15 t/ha during the
period of vegetation. The amount of sodium carbonate and sometimes that of
sodium chloride in salt composition of soils increases.
Examples of waterlogged soil salinity, including the soils subjected to
temporary flooding are given in Table 12.
Prediction of soil-ameliorative conditions on the Kapchagay reservoir coasts.
Hydrogeological prediction performed by mathematical modeling procedure
(Shapiro and Vinnikova, 1980) envisaged that the groundwater head of 0.5 m
would spread to the distance of 23-27 km on the left-bank coast, while the area of
groundwater table and reservoir seepage interaction should reach about 100000 ha.
But already in the first years of our investigations (Starodubtsev, 1981, 1983 and
1986) we found the processes of coastal soil waterlogging to develop at a slower
rate. In the central part of the lowland left-bank coast (line 2), the zone of active
waterlogging and salinization of soils was 2-3 km wide, while in the western part
of the same coast (line 1) it was 1-1.5 km wide. In the eastern part of the same
(left-bank) coast, it was as narrow as 0.4-0.5 km, and on high right-bank of the
Kapchagay reservoir it was just several dozen meters wide. The area of
waterlogged saline coastal soils reached 20000 ha. Those “waterlogging
characteristics” remained practically unchanged till 1990, when our research
activities were completed.
We used the estimation of soil-ameliorative conditions results obtained on the
waterlogged coast with reservoir level 475+_2 m to predict the development of soil
waterlogging with the project reservoir level (485 m). We employed what we
termed “ecologic-genetic series of soil changes” under waterlogging and the
relationships between the extent and character of soil salinity with groundwater
depth and salt concentration.
In the central part of the left-bank coast, the waterlogging changes the soils
increasing their wetness and salinity according to the following scheme:
Ordinary solonchaks
In the western part of the left-bank coast, where the dominating soils were less
saline, they change with waterlogging according to the scheme:
Meadow-greyzemic
non-saline soils
Meadow greyzemic
solonchakic soils
Prediction of soil moisture in waterlogged coastal soils was made on the basis
of experimentally established relationship between groundwater table depth and
amounts of water in investigated layers (Fig. 17). The prediction was made for the
two essential parts of the left-bank coast with varying soil texture for the layers of
0-100 and 0-200 cm and for the spring-to-summer and autumn seasons.
The reservoir had been constructed in Southern Kazakhstan in the Bugun river
valley by the erection of two dams (Fig. 19). The right bank is a premountain
plainland, and the left – watershed upland between the Bugun river and
Karazhantak lowland. Reservoir capacity is 370 mln m3, aquatory area – 6300 ha
and depth: 15-17 m. The reservoir accumulates the Bugun and partly the Arys
runoff for the Prikaratau plainland irrigation. It is filled every year from October to
April, while from June to September the water is discharged for irrigation till its
stores reach a “dead capacity”.
Climate here is a pronounced continental one, dry, with abundant solar
radiation and heat resources. Mean annual rainfall is 178 mm, the precipitation
being more abundant in winter and spring. Mean air temperature is +12oC, absolute
maximal temperature: +490C and absolute minimal one: -390C. Frostless period
lasts 6 to 7 months. Relative air humidity in the summer is very low – below 15-
20% in July.
Geomorphologically, this is a wavy plain with prefoothill elevation joining the
south-eastern foothills of the Karatau ridge. Absolute altitudes on the territory are
200 to 220 m. The surface of the plain is cut by the stream patterns. From the north
to the south, it is transected by the Bugun valley entering it from the Karatau ridge.
Geologically undisturbed early and middle quaternary deposits compose the
ancient terrace of the river valley and are lithologically represented by the loamy,
loamy-sandy and pebble-containing sediments having a total thickness of 60-130
m. The upper quaternary and recent deposits form the upper terrace and the
floodplain of a river valley. The basis of a geologic profile is composed of gravel-
pebbly deposits with the strata clays up to 50 m deep. They are covered by
consolidated clay loams from 2-5 to 35-50 m deep. The recent roof of the
quaternary system is represented loess-like loams 20-30 m deep covering the entire
territory like an undisturbed mantle.
Underground waters form here three aquifers including layer-porosity water
of the middle Oligocene deposits, ground waters of the discharge cones and ground
waters of the proluvial-alluvial deposits. Water in the middle Oligocene horizon is
under pressure and a good quality, the horizon lying in the pebble deposits covered
by the clays at the depth of 120 m. The discharge-cone waters are not salty, with
hydrocarbonate-calcium mineralization. They fill the gravel and pebble deposits
covered by the sands, loamy sands and loams. As the flow moves from the
foothills to the valley, the water becomes more and more under pressure in the
aquifer. The ground waters belonging to the aquifer of proluvial-alluvial deposits
lye in the loess-like loams and loamy sands, forming a “free mirror” of the water
plane at the depth of 3 to 15 m. Vegetation here is represented by wormwood-
ephemeral and wormwood-saltwort associations. Cereal ephemeris (Poa bulbosa
Figure 19. Arys-Turkestan Irrigation System with the Bugun Reservoir
Figure 23. Changes of Soil Salinity on the Bugun Reservoir Coast -test
plot 1 (1-non saline soils, 2-deeply saline, 3-very deeply solonchakic,
4-deeply solonchakic, 5-solonchakic soils, 6-Solonchaks).
Table 14. Changes of Groundwater Mineralization in the Reservoir Impact
Zone for the Period of 1966-1976 (g/l)
Effect of dams on a soil cover is strong enough both at coast of reservoirs, and
in the lower reaches of the rivers. At coast soil waterlogging, formation of swamps,
soil salinization and alkalinization, and also destruction of the banks resulting from
erosion and abrasion, occur. And in the lower reaches of the rivers aridization of
landscapes, soil drying-up or desertification in the river valleys and especially in
deltas, occur.
As a result of long-term investigations of these processes in the countries of
former Soviet Union the wide experience is stored which allows to estimate and to
predict negative consequences for a soil cover because of dams and reservoirs
creation, and also to develop measures on struggle with them.
The greatest losses of agricultural lands occur at inundation by reservoirs on the
plainland rivers. They reach here 10000-24000 hectares per 1 meter of a hydraulic
head of reservoir. To protect the lands from flooding the scientific community
becomes now more oriented on the reservoirs construction not on the plailand
rivers, but in the mountains and foothills.
The changes in soil properties on the reservoir coasts resulting from
waterlogging have a zonal character. In humid regions (the Forest zone) on the low
coast waterlogging take place in a strip up to 1.5-2 km. Here soil gleization and
swamping occurs, sod and peat is formed on a surface, water mode and
agrochemical properties are worsened. At strong waterlogging an available iron
and aluminum concentration increases. And at moderate and weak waterlogging
the contents of organic matter (humus), nitrogen and phosphorus is increased in
these soils. In the lower soil horizons soil acidity decreases resulting from
waterlogging by waters with neutral reaction.
In Forest-Steppe and Steppe zones high coasts, on which soil waterlogging is
very weak, often prevail. And on low coast soil waterlogging can be shown on the
distance from 2-3 till 10-12 km. Waterlogged soils swamping and gleization is
much weaker here, and the important role belongs to processes of soil
alkalinization and salinization.
In semi-desert and desert zones soil salinization occurs first of all because of
waterlogging, that sharply worsens their fertility. On the distance up to 5-6 km and
sometimes it is more, soils can accumulate up to 500-600 t/ha soluble salts in a
layer of 0-2 m. On the bank of reservoirs these salted soils interact with superficial
waters, raising their mineralization.
Our long-term researches at the coast of reservoirs in different natural zones of
Ukraine and Central Asia have allowed determining qualitative features and
quantitative parameters of soil fertility changes. The features of soil evolution and
soil cover transformation are revealed also at waterlogged coasts, which allow
predicting these processes correctly.
10 . AUTHORS’ PUBLICATIONS ON THE PROBLEM
Yegorichev G.A. and Starodubtsev V.M. Soil Ameliorative Conditions in the Bugun
Reservoir Impact Zone / Problems of Soil Melioration in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. Alma-
Ata: Kazakh Academy of Sciences Publication. Kaz.SSR. – 1970. (Егоричев Г.А.,
Стародубцев В.М. Почвенно-мелиоративные условия в зоне влияния Бугуньского
водохранилища / Проблемы мелиорации почв Средней Азии и Казахстана. Алма-Ата: Изд.
АН КазССР. – 1970.).
Starodubtsev V.M. Soil-Ameliorative Processes in the Reservoir Impact Zone // Problems of
Desert Development. N 6. 1977. P.18-26. (Стародубцев В.М. Почвенно-мелиоративные
процессы в зоне влияния водохранилищ // Проблемы освоения пустынь.-№6. – 1977. –
С.18-26).
Starodubtsev V.M. Heat Flow Regime in Wet Soils and Its Utilization for Soil Moisture
Dynamics Prediction // News of the Kazakh Academy of Sciences. Biologic Series.N 1. 1977.
P.66-72. (Стародубцев В.М. Тепловой режим гидроморфных почв и его использование для
прогноза динамики почвенной влаги // Известия АН КазССР. Серия биологическая. -
№1. – 1977. – С.66-72).
Starodubtsev V.M., Nekrasova T.F. and Popov Yu.M. Soil Aridization in the Delta
Plainlands of Southern Kazakhstan Linked With the River Flow Regulation // Problems of
Desert Development. N 5. 1978. P.14-23. (Стародубцев В.М., Некрасова Т.Ф., Попов Ю.М.
Аридизация почв дельтовых равнин Южного Казахстана в связи с зарегулированием
речного стока // Проблемы освоения пустынь. - №5. – 1978. – С.14-23).
Starodubtsev V.M., Kalmynkina E.M., Magasheva R.Yu., etc. Kapchagay Reservoir and the
Changes of Environment / Geography in Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata: Science Publishers. 1980.
P.128-136. (Стародубцев В.М., Калмынкина Е.М., Магашева Р.Ю. и др. Капчагайское
водохранилище и изменения природной среды / География в Казахстане. Алма-Ата:
Наука. – 1980. – С.128-136).
Starodubtsev V.M. Kapchagay Reservoir Impact on Coastal Soils // News of the Kazakh
Academy of Sciences. Biiologic Series. N 3. 1981. P.57-61. (Стародубцев В.М. Влияние
Капчагайского водохранилища на почвы побережья // Известия АН КазССР. Серия
биологическая. - №1. – 1981. – С.57-61).
Starodubtsev V.M. Soil Cover Role in Increasing Salinity of the Kapchagay Reservoir //
News of Kazakh Academy of Sciences. Biological Series. N 3. 1981. P.57-61. (Стародубцев
В.М. Роль почвенного покрова в повышении минерализации воды Капчагайского
водохранилища // Известия АН КазССР. Серия биологическая. - №3. – 1981. – С.57-61).
Starodubtsev V.M. Prediction of Soil-Ameliorative Conditions in the Impact Zone of the
Kapchagay Reservoir // Herald of the Kazakh Academy of Sciences. N 2. 1982. P.47-52.
(Стародубцев В.М. Прогноз почвенно-мелиоративных условий в зоне влияния
Капчагайского водохранилища // Вестник АН КазССР. - №2. – 1982. – С.47-52).
Starodubtsev V.M., Nekrasova T.F. and Popov Yu.M. Changes of Ameliorative Conditions
in the Head Part of the Ily Delta Caused by the Flow Regulation // Water Resources. N 5. 1983.
P.75-84. (Стародубцев В.М., Некрасова Т.Ф., Попов Ю.М. Изменения мелиоративных
условий головной части дельты р.Или при зарегулировании речного стока // Водные
ресурсы. - №5. – 1983. – С.75-84).
Starodubtsev V.M., Bogachev V.P. Ameliorative Evaluation of the Syrdarya Runoff // Soil
Science (Moscow). N 12. 1983. P.90-101. (Стародубцев В.М., Богачев В.П. Мелиоративная
оценка стока р. Сырдарьи // Почвоведение (Москва). - №12. – 1983. – С.90-101).
Starodubtsev V.M., Nekrasova T.F. Environmental Changes in the Ily Basin Connected with
Water Management Construction // Problems of Desert development. N 1. 1983. P.25-33.
(Стародубцев В.М., Некрасова Т.Ф. Изменения природной среды в бассейне р. Или в
связи с водохозяйственным строительством // Проблемы освоения пустынь. - №1. –
1983. – С.25-33).
Starodubtsev V.M. Salt Exchange Processes on the Kapchagay Reservoir Coast // Problems
of Desert Development. N 2. 1984. P.39-48. (Стародубцев В.М. Процессы солеобмена на
побережье Капчагайского водохранилища // Проблемы освоения пустынь. - №2. – 1984. –
С.39-48).
Starodubtsev V.M. Irrigation Effects on the Ameliorative Quality of River Runoff. Alma-Ata:
Science Publishers. 1985. 168 p. (Стародубцев В.М. Влияние орошения на мелиоративные
качества речного стока. Алма-Ата: Наука. – 1985. – 168 с.).
Starodubtsev V.M. Reservoir’s Impact on the Soils. Alma-Ata: Science Publishers. 1986.
296 p. (Влияние водохранилищ на почвы. Алма-Ата: Наука. – 1986. – 296 с.).
Starodubtsev V.M. Changes of Soils in the Zone of Reservoir-Caused Waterlogging /
Influence of Economic activities on Biological Resources of Inland Waters. Alma-Ata: Science
Publishers. 1988. P.129-150. (Стародубцев В.М. Изменения почв в зоне подтопления
водохранилищ / Влияние хозяйственной деятельности на биологические ресурсы
водоемов. Алма-Ата: Наука. – 1988. – С.129-150).
Starodubtsev V.M. The soil and ecological consequences of regulating the discharge of the
rivers in Mesopotamia // Problems of Desert Development. – N 2. – 1998. – P.11-17.
Starodubtsev V.M., Petrenko L.R., Mikala-Dianga R.-A. et al. The Changes in Soils of River
Basins Caused by Large-Scale Construction for the Purposes of Water Management /
Proceedings of 16-th World Congers of Soil Sciences. CD-Rom. Montpellier, France. – 1999.
Starodubtsev V.M., Petrenko L.R., Kazanina O.V. The Effect of Kyiv Reservoir on
Environmental Status of Soils // Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics. Bratislava. – N47. –
5. – 1999. – P.366-377.
Starodubtsev V.M., Petrenko L.R., Titenko M.M. Salt Transportation by the Wind as a
Factor of Salt Regimes of Soils and Landscapes. Kyiv: Nora-Print. – 1999. – 40 p.
Starodubtsev V.M., Kazanina O.V., Nesterov G.I., et al. Changes in the Soils of the Kyivs’ke
Reservoir Coast // Agricultural Sciences News. Kyiv. N 3. 2000. P.294-298. (Стародубцев В.М.,
Казаніна О.В., Нестеров Г.І., та інші // Вісник аграрної науки. - №3. – 2000. – С.50-56).
Starodubtsev V.M., Fedorenko O.L., Umanets K.M., et al. Zoning of Kanivs’ke Reservoir
Coasts by the Character of Soil Changes //NAU Research News. Kyiv. No31. 2000. P.294-298.
(Стародубцев В.М., Федоренко О.Л., Уманець К.М. Районування узбережжя Канівського
водосховища за характером змін грунтів // Науковий вісник НАУ. Київ. - №31. – 2000. –
С.294-298).
Starodubtsev V.M., Kolodyazhnyy O.A., Petrenko L.R., et al. Soil Cover and Land Use.
Kyiv: Nora-Print. – 2000. – 98 p.
Starodubtsev V.M., Petrenko L.R., Fedorenko et al. Radionuclides Pollution in Soils of the
Kyiv Reservoir Coasts after the Chernobyl Accident / 5-th International Symposium and
Exhibition on Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe. Proceeding on CD-
Rom. Prague. – 2001. – 9 p.
Starodubtsev V.M. The Influence of the Dnipro Reservoirs on the Coastal Soils //KhSAU
Research News. Kharkiv. N03. 2001. P.105-108. (Стародубцев В.М. Вплив Дніпровських
водосховищ на грунти узбережжя // Вісник ХДАУ. Харків. - №3. – 2001. – С.105-108).
Starodubtsev V.M., Fedorenko O.L., Burlibaev M.Zh. Assessment of Influence of River
Runoff Regulation on Ecological Situation / Risk Assessment as a Tool for Water Resources
Decision-Making in Central Asia. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht. – 2004.
Starodubtsev V.M., Fedorenko O.L. Evaluation of the Effect of Dnipro River’ Reservoirs on
Coastal Landscapes / Ecological Standardization and Equidosimetry for Radioecology and
Environment Ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht. – 2004.
Starodubtsev V.M., Burlibaev M.Zh., Popov Yu.M. Soil Degradation in the Ily Delta
Connected with Flow Regulation // Problems of Desert Development. N01. 2004.
11. LITERATURE CITED
(abridged list)*
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Наукове видання