‫وَذَا النُّونِ إِذْ ذَهَبَ مُغَاضِبًا فَظَنَّ أَنْ لَنْ نَقْدِرَ عَلَیهِ فَنَادَى فِی الظُّلُمَاتِ أَنْ‬

‫لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا أَنْتَ سُبْحَانَكَ إِنِّی كُنْتُ مِنَ الظَّالِمِینَ‬

‫و ذاالنون [= یونس‌] را (به یاد آور) در آن هنگام که خشمگین (از میان قوم خود)‬
‫رفت؛ و چنین می‌پنداشت که ما بر او تنگ نخواهیم گرفت؛ (اما موقعی که در کام‬
‫نهنگ فرو رفت‪ )،‬در آن ظلمتها(ی متراکم) صدا زد‪(« :‬خداوندا!) جز تو معبودی‬
‫نیست! منزهی تو! من از ستمکاران بودم»‬
‫سوره مبارکه انبیاء آیه کریمه ‪87‬‬

‫جلسه بیست و هشت‪ ،‬دوشنبه ‪1401/10/5‬‬

 given before
𝐿 = 𝑁 cos 𝛼 − 𝐴 sin 𝛼
𝐷 = 𝑁 sin 𝛼 + 𝐴 cos 𝛼
2
𝛼 𝛼
cos 𝛼 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≅1−
2 2
𝛼2
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑁 1 − − (𝐶𝐷1 + 𝐶𝐴2 )𝛼
2
𝛼2
𝐶𝑙 = 2𝛼 1 − − 𝐶𝐷1 − 𝛼 2 𝛼 ≅ 2𝛼
2
𝐶𝐷 ≅ 𝐶𝐷1 + 𝛼 2
𝑪𝑫𝟏 : wave drag, 𝛼 : induced drag
𝛼2 𝛼
=
2𝛼 2
For the subsonic case for a finite wing
𝑐𝑙 2 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝑙𝛼 1
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = ⇨ 𝑖= ≅
𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑒 𝐶𝑙 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑒 3

Find second order theory of supersonic flow past bodies of revolution by M. D. Van Dyke
NACA-TN-4281
Second Order Slender Body Theory
Axisymmetric Flow
By Milton D. Van Dyke

NACA -N-3716
Comparison of experimental and theoretical
normal-force distributions (including
Reynolds number effects) on an ogive-
cylinder body at Mach number 1.98

The slender body theory gives

𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝑏
𝐶𝑁𝐵 = 2 𝛼 = 2( )2 𝛼 (∗)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅1
𝑪𝑵𝑩 : Normal force coefficient of the body alone
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒇 : ref. area max cross-sectional area of body
 ‫لَوْلَا إِذْ دَخَلْتَ جَنَّتَكَ قُلْتَ مَا شَاءَ اللَّهُ لَا قُوَّةَ إِلَّا بِاللَّهِ إِنْ تَرَنِ أَنَا أَقَلَّ مِنْكَ مَالًا وَوَلَدًا‬

‫چرا هنگامی که وارد باغت شدی‪ ،‬نگفتی‬

‫این نعمتی است که خدا خواسته است؟! قوت (و نیرویی) جز از ناحیه خدا نیست!‬
‫و اگر می‌بینی من از نظر مال و فرزند از تو کمترم (مطلب مهمی نیست)!‬

‫سوره مبارکه کهف آیه کریمه ‪39‬‬

‫ذکر برکت روزی و زینت دنیا‬

‫جلسه بیست و نه‪ ،‬شنبه ‪1401/10/10‬‬

Supersonic Wing Basics
See Bertin, ”Aerodynamics for engineers”, (CHP11, pp.528-59) and ”Some
aerodynamic principles for the design of swept wings” by JA Bagley · 1962
Regions of flow
Since distributions are felt only in the downstream of Mach cone, often 2-D flow
exist on 3-D wings

❖ To have complete 2-D flow for wing (a), the wing ends must be raked inside
the Mach cone emanating from the ends of the leading edge. However the
flow over the entire surface is 2-D only for a certain 𝑀∞ .
❖ As we can see, the region of 2-D flow is a function of geometry and 𝑀∞ .
Subsonic and supersonic leading edges
We resolve the velocity or Mach number in to components perpendicular and
parallel to the leading edge. If 𝑴∞ ⊥ is less than 1, the leading edge is considered
to be subsonic. The boundary between subsonic and supersonic leading edge is
𝑀∞ cos Λ = 1 𝑜𝑟
𝑀∞ sin 𝛽 = 1

−1
1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽 = sin
𝑀∞
𝑠𝑜 𝜷 > 𝝁 ⇒ 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆
𝑠𝑜 𝜷 < 𝝁 ⇒ 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆
Subsonic leading edge
To prevent leading edge separation, the leading edge must be rounded. A leading
edge thrust or suction is present here, unlike supersonic case. This suction force
cancels the drag component of normal force leading to zero net drag, skin friction
excepted (d’Alemberd Paradox).

1. A supersonic (subsonic) leading edge is that portion of the wing leading edge
where the component of free stream velocity normal to the edge is
supersonic(subsonic).
2. A supersonic (subsonic) trailing edge is that portion of the wing trailing edge
where the component of free stream velocity normal to the edge is
supersonic(subsonic).
 Subsonic/supersonic leading/trailing edge
AD and BC : supersonic leading and trailing
edge
AE and DF : subsonic leading edge
EB and FC : subsonic trailing edge
i) supersonic leading and trailing edge (Delta Wing)
ii) subsonic leading edge and supersonic trailing edge (Arrow Wing)
Points on the upper surface within 2-D region which are bounded by
supersonic have flows that are independence of lower surface flows and
vice versa.
A sharp subsonic trailing edge has zero lift loading due to K-J theorem that the
rearward stagnation point be at the trailing edge.
Supersonic leading edge
The local pressure depends only on the local inclination of the surface, the lift
distribution is constant over the chord.

2𝜃
𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝜆

❖ Supersonic airfoils have finite leading and trailing edge lift loading
❖ No suction force in the leading edge, that resulting in an induced drag due to lift
❖ The leading edge should be sharp to minimize wave drag, also to avoid large
pressure drag associated with detached shock wave.
Superposition of effects
Since dealing with small perturbation, the governing equations are linear, hence

we can study separately the effects of thickness, camber, and angel of attack

By linear addition can determine the flow pattern for a combination of the above

effects.
Governing equations of boundary conditions

Use small perturbation (linear potential) equations for a thin wing in supersonic
flow, assume

2
𝑢′ 2
𝑣 ′
𝑀∞ ≪ 1 , 𝑀∞ ≪ 1,…
𝑢∞ 𝑢∞
Which is valid for 1.2 < 𝑀∞ < 5 2
𝑀∞ − 1 𝜑𝑥𝑥 − 𝜑𝑦𝑦 – 𝜑𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝜑 ∶ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

The equation is a linear, second order PDE of the hyperbolic type, small
disturbances are present only in the “zone of action” defined by the Mach cone.
Boundary conditions
i) flow must be tangent to the surface at all points on the wing.
𝑤′ 𝑑𝑧𝑠
ቤ =
𝑢′ + 𝑢∞ 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑑𝑥

𝜑𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑠
ቤ =
𝜑𝑥 + 𝑢∞ 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑑𝑥

𝑍𝑠= 𝑍𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

Use small perturbations
𝑑𝑧𝑠
𝜑𝑧 ቚ = 𝑢∞
𝑧=0 𝑑𝑥
Also at a subsonic trailing edge Kutta condition indicates that 𝐶𝑃𝑢 = 𝐶𝑃𝑙 i.e.
𝑡.𝑒 𝑡.𝑒
local lift at a subsonic trailing edge = 0.
 F-14 Tomcat

Mmax>2

The F-14's wing sweep can be varied between 20 and 68° in flight, and
is automatically controlled by an air data computer. This maintains the
wing sweep to give the optimum lift/drag ratio as the Mach number
varies. The system can be manually overridden by the pilot if necessary.
When the aircraft is parked, the wings can be swept to 75°, where they
overlap the tail to save space on tight carrier decks.

16
 SWEPT WINGS: SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

M∞ < 1

M∞ > 1

17
‫فَسَتَذْكُرُونَ مَا أَقُولُ لَكُمْ وَأُفَوِّضُ أَمْرِی إِلَى اللَّهِ إِنَّ اللَّهَ بَصِیرٌ بِالِِْبَادِ‬

‫و بزودی آنچه را به شما می‌گویم به خاطر خواهید آورد! من کار خود را به خدا‬
‫واگذارم که خداوند نسبت به بندگانش بیناست‬
‫سوره مبارکه غافر آیه کریمه ‪44‬‬

‫جلسه بیست و نه‪ ،‬شنبه ‪1401/10/10‬‬

For an infinite sheared wing

𝜁 = 𝑥 cos Λ − 𝑦 sin Λ
𝜂 = 𝑥 sin Λ + 𝑦 cos Λ
𝜑𝜁𝜁 𝑎2 − 𝜑𝜁2 − 2𝜑𝜁𝑧 𝜑𝜁 𝜑𝑧 + 𝜑𝑧𝑧 𝑎2 − 𝜑𝑧2 = 0 ∗
1
𝑉= (𝜑𝑥2 + 𝜑𝑦2 + 2 2
𝜑𝑧 ) = 𝜑𝑥2 + 𝜑𝑦2 + 𝜑𝑧2

𝛾−1 2
𝑎2 = 𝑎02 − (𝑉 − 𝑉∞2 )
2
Smooth subsonic flow which is desired on the sheared wing is as long as equation
(*) is elliptical every where, discontinues solution is possible when it becomes
hyperbolic.
Theory of PDE shows that the equation changes from elliptic to hyperbolic when
2
𝑎2 − 𝜑𝜁2 + 𝑎2 − 𝜑𝑧2 − 𝜑𝜁𝑧 𝜑𝜁 =0
𝑖.e. when
𝑎2 − 𝜑𝜁2 − 𝜑𝑧2 = 0 (∗∗)
In terms of velocity components
𝜑𝜁 = 𝑉𝜁 = 𝑉∞ cos Λ + 𝑣𝜁
𝜑𝜂 = 𝑉𝜂 = 𝑉∞ sin Λ
𝜑𝑧 = 𝑉𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝜁 2 + 𝑉𝜂 2 + 𝑉𝑧 2
𝑉𝜁 2 + 𝑉𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 2 − 𝑉∞2 sin2 Λ = 𝑎2 (𝑎)
Equation (a) implies that equation (*) is elliptic as long as
𝑉∞⊥ Λ < 𝑎 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉∞⊥ < a
Λ

When
𝑉∞⊥ = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 > 𝑎
Λ
Meteor (missile)
since
𝑉 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑉∞2 sin2 Λ for Λ ≠ 0
𝑀𝑐𝑟 for swept wing is the freestream M at which above equation is satisfied

Note velocity ∥ to leading edge is constant for infinite wing of constant sweep equal to
𝑉∞ sin Λ
Local pressure gradient on the wing are ⊥ to the direction of sweep.
Advantages & disadvantages
❖ desirable effect on transonic wave drag
❖ CG problem
❖ Moves winglets back for greater directional stability
❖ Permit higher cruise M, and greater thickness or 𝐶𝐿 at a given M without drag
divergence
❖ Additional loading at the tip, causes spanwise B.L exacerbating problem of tip stall
and either reducing 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 or increasing required λ for good stall
❖ Increasing structural weight due to increased tip loading and increased structural
span
❖ Stabilizes wing aeroelasticity but destabilizes the a/c
❖ Too much sweep makes it difficult to accommodate the main gear in the wing
For sheared wing

𝛾
2 2 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝐶𝑝+ = 2 1+ 2
𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ −1
𝛾𝑀∞ 𝛾+1 2

Must design a wing such the 𝐶𝑝 is no where <𝐶𝑝+ at the design speed and design 𝐶𝐿

The governing PDE is elliptic every where when

the 𝑉∞⊥ to the isobars (direction of the local pressure gradient) < local speed of sound
 Swept wings
If the wing leading edge is swept aft of the Mach cone as shown

a-a

The disturbances propagated only the

Mach lines “warn” the approaching flow of
present of the wing.
The flow approaching the subsonic leading edge is similar to subsonic flow, even
though can treat the wing as we did in subsonic, use compressibility corrections

Penalties associated with sweep back wings. (some of them will show at subsonic)

❖ Reduction of lift curve slope

❖ Increased drag due to lift
❖ Tip stalling
❖ Reduced effectiveness of high lift devices
❖ Structural considerations (a swept wing has a greater structural span than
straight wing with the same 𝛿 and AR . sweep back introduces additional torsion
due to the applied loads on the wing that act aft of the wing root.)
 For the given wing

Leading edge and trailing edge are supersonic. The tip and center portion of the
wing can be treated with conical flow theory while the remaining 2-D technique.
‫قُلْ يَا عِبَادِيَ الَّذِينَ أَسْرَفُوا عَلَى أَنْفُسِهِمْ لَا تَقْنَطُوا مِنْ رَحْمَةِ اللَّهِ إِنَّ اللَّ َهَ‬
‫يَغْفِرُ الذُّنُوبَ جَمِيعًا إِنَّهُ هُوَ الْغَفُورُ الرَّحِيمُ‬
‫بگو اى بندگانم که زیاده بر خویشتن ستم روا داشتهاید‪ ،‬از رحمت الهى نومید مباشید‪،‬‬
‫چرا که خداوند همه گناهان را مىبخشد‪ ،‬که او آمرزگار مهربان است‬
‫آیه کریمه ‪ 53‬سوره مبارکه زمر‬

‫مو از قالوا بلی تشویش دیرم‬

‫گنه از برگ و باران بیش دیرم‬
‫اگر التقنطوا دستم نگیرد‬
‫مو از یاویلنا اندیش دیرم‬
‫بابا طاهر‬
‫جلسه سی‪ ،‬دوشنبه ‪1401/10/12‬‬
747-100 test data
28
Swept wing of infinite span
Consider first the case of a supersonic leading edge (𝛽 > 𝜇).

This will hold in the 2-D zone of a swept wing, and for the swept wing of large AR,
will approximate the wing .

2-D
(𝑀∞ )𝑒 : equivalent 2-D for swept wing
Now, a moving observer moving at a speed 𝑀∞ cos 𝛼 sin Λ (tangential speed) along
the infinite span , sees a 2-D airfoil flow (except for the B-L flow).
Lets denote subscript ( )𝑒 as the quantities perpendicular to the wing leading
edge. the 𝑀∞ 𝑒 is then

𝑀∞ 𝑒 = (𝑀∞ sin 𝛼)2 +(𝑀∞ cos Λ cos 𝛼)2

= 𝑀∞ sin2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛼 cos 2 Λ

= 𝑀∞ sin2 𝛼 + (1 − sin2 Λ) cos 2 𝛼

2-D
𝑀∞ 𝑒 = 𝑀∞ 1 − sin2 Λ cos2 𝛼
Resolve 𝑀∞ into three components
i. 𝑀∞ cos 𝛼 cos Λ in the plane of the wing ⊥ to leading edge
ii. 𝑀∞ cos 𝛼 sin Λ in the plane of the wing and tangential to the
leading edge
iii. 𝑀∞ sin 𝛼 normal to the plane of the wing
 −1
𝑀∞ sin 𝛼 −1
sin 𝛼 −1
tan 𝛼
𝛼𝑒 = tan = tan = tan
𝑀∞ cos Λ cos 𝛼 cos Λ cos 𝛼 cos Λ
𝑡
𝛿 ∶ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑙
In the plane normal to the leading edge
𝑡 𝛿 2-D
𝛿𝑒 = =
𝑙 cos Λ cos Λ
reference area (l×b)
𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = 𝛾
2
𝑃∞ 𝑀∞ 𝑙𝑏
2
𝐿
𝐶𝐿 𝑒 =
𝛾 2 𝑏
𝑃∞ 𝑀∞ (𝑙 cos Λ)( )
2 𝑒 cos Λ
And
𝐶𝐿 𝑀∞ 𝑒 2
=( )
𝐶𝐿 𝑒 𝑀∞
2𝐷

Substitute for 𝑀∞ 𝑒
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑒 1 − sin2 Λ cos2 𝛼 (∗)
2𝐷
This analysis ignores the spanwise component of velocity and its effect on the skin friction
and most importantly B.L characteristic. How ever this is consistent with our present
assumption.
Now considering only the present drag, D, which is in a direction perpendicular to the
leading edge , then(component of drag in the 𝑀∞ direction ignoring viscous drag)
𝐷 cos Λ
𝐶𝐷 = 𝛾
2
𝑃∞ 𝑀∞ 𝑙𝑏
2
𝐷
𝐶𝐷 𝑒 =
𝛾 2 𝑏
𝑃∞ 𝑀∞ (𝑙 cos Λ)( )
2 𝑒 cos Λ
𝐶𝐷 𝑀∞ 𝑒 2
=( ) cos Λ
𝐶𝐷 𝑒 𝑀∞
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑒 cos Λ 1 − sin2 Λ cos 2 𝛼 (∗∗)
2𝐷

Since the flow is 2-D , 𝐶𝐿 𝑒 and 𝐶𝐷 𝑒 may be found from 2-D supersonic airfoil theory
that discussed in previous course. Then we can use equation (*) and (**) to
determine the value for swept wing . those equations are exact to this point,
except for the influence of crossflow on drag.
Simply the equation for small angels and linearize 2-D airfoil results
cos 𝛼 ≅ 1, sin 𝛼 = 𝛼, tan 𝛼 = 𝛼, tan−1 𝛼 = 𝛼

𝑀∞ 𝑒 = 𝑀∞ 1 − sin2 Λ cos 2 𝛼 = 𝑀∞ cos Λ

Similarly
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑒 cos 2 Λ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑒 cos 3 Λ
If we add skin friction
𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≅ 𝐶𝐷 𝑒 cos 3 Λ + 𝐶𝑓
Combine this with the result from linearized thin supersonic airfoil theory
4𝛼𝑒
𝐶𝐿 𝑒 =
2
𝑀∞ 𝑒−1

2
4 𝑑ℎ
𝐶𝐷 𝑒 = + 𝛼𝑒2 + 𝛼𝑒2 (𝑥)
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑀∞ 𝑒−1

Where h(x) is the airfoil thickness form and 𝛼𝑒 (𝑥) is the local slope of the mean camber
line, ( ) means the average over the airfoil chord
Here we assume the airfoil is symmetric so 𝛼𝑒2 𝑥 = 0
Replace the thickness term by
2
𝑑ℎ
= 𝛿𝑒2
𝑑𝑥
K : depends on the thickness distribution of the profile as seen in the plane ⊥ to the
leading edge .
4
𝐶𝐷 𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒2 + 𝑘𝛿𝑒2
2
𝑀∞ 𝑒−1

Combining
𝛼
4𝛼𝑒 4 4𝛼
𝐶𝐿 = cos2 Λ = cos Λ cos 2 Λ = cos Λ
2 2
2
𝑀∞ 𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ − 1 𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ −1
𝑒−1

4
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = cos Λ
2
𝑀∞ cos2 Λ −1
Note that 𝐶𝐿𝛼 increases as Λ increases for all values of 𝑀∞ 𝑀∞ > 1 .
This is opposite of subsonic case.
A gain from sweepback on this score
4 𝛼2 𝛿2 3
𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 2Λ
+ 𝑘 2Λ
cos Λ + 𝐶𝑓
2 2
𝑀∞ cos Λ − 1 cos cos
4 cos Λ
= 𝛼 2 + 𝛿 2 𝑘 + 𝐶𝑓
2
𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ − 1

In terms of 𝛿𝑒 , we have
4 cos Λ 2
4 cos3 Λ
𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛼 + 𝛿𝑒2 𝑘 + 𝐶𝑓
2 2
𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ − 1 𝑀∞ cos2 Λ − 1
Which the first term introduces wave drag (induced drag) due to lift which increases as
𝐶𝐿 does and the second term introduces wave drag due to thickness which decreases as
Λ increases, but when 𝑀∞ cos Λ → 1 tends to one the thickness drag begins to rise.
To further simplify the analysis, we will assume a symmetric double-wedge profile
where k=1 and also assume 𝐶𝑓 = 0.
4𝛼 cos Λ
2
𝐿 𝑀∞ cos2 Λ − 1
=
𝐷 4 cos Λ 4 cos3 Λ
2
𝛼 + 𝛿𝑒2
2 2
𝑀∞ cos2 Λ − 1 𝑀∞ cos 2 Λ − 1

𝐿 𝛼
= 2
𝐷 𝛼 + cos 2 Λ 𝛿𝑒2
𝐿 𝐷 𝜕 𝐷
To find or get = 0.
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜕𝛼 𝐿

𝜕 𝐿 𝛼 2 + cos 2 Λ 𝛿𝑒2 − 2𝛼 2
= =0
𝜕𝛼 𝐷 𝛼 2 + cos 2 Λ 𝛿𝑒2 2
𝛼 = 𝛿𝑒 cos Λ
4𝛿𝑒 cos 2 Λ
𝐶𝐿 =
2
𝑀∞ cos2 Λ − 1
 𝐿 𝛿𝑒 cos Λ 1
= =
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
cos 2 Λ 𝛿𝑒2 + cos2 Λ 𝛿𝑒2 2𝛿𝑒 cos Λ

𝐷
= 2𝛿𝑒 cos Λ
𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐷 cos Λ
Note Shapiro gets = (???)
𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝛿𝑒

From this result we see that by increase of sweep back, Λ, drag to lift ratio decreases
but it also decreases the angle of attack and lift coefficient at which it occurs.

Equations 𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 and 𝐶𝐿 are valid with in linear theory and to combination of Λ and
𝑀∞ so the leading edge shockwave is attached.
‫وَمَنْ يَتََّقِ اللََّهَ يَجَِْلْ لَهُ مَخْرَجًا‪ ،‬وَيَرْزُقْهُ مِنْ حَیْثُ لَا يَحْتَسِبُ ۚ‬
‫وَمَنْْ يَتَوَكََّلْ عَلَى اللََّهِ فَهُوَ حَسْبُهُ ۚ إِنََّ اللََّ ْهَ بَالِغُ أَمْرِهِ ۚ قَدْ جََِلَْ‬
‫اللََّهُ لِكُلَِّ شَیْءٍ قَدْرًا‬
‫و هر كس تقوای الهی پیشه كند‪ ،‬خداوند راه نجاتی برای او فراهم‬
‫میْكند‪ ،‬و او را از جايی كه گمان ندارد روزی میْدهد؛ و هر كس بر خدا‬
‫توكَّل كند‪ ،‬كفايت امرش را میْكند؛ خداوند فرمان خود را به انجام‬
‫میْرساند؛ و خدا برای هر چیزی اندازهْای قرار داده است!‬
‫آيه شريفه ‪ 2‬و‪ 3‬سوره مباركه طالق‬
‫ذكر بِد از نمازهای واجب‬

‫جلسه بیست و هشت‪ ،‬سه شنبه ‪1400/9/30‬‬

 Similarity rule for supersonic wings
Using the rule , one can relate the flow pattern around any thin wing small 𝛼 in a
supersonic flow to the flow past an afainly related wing at 𝑀∞ = 2.
Similarity transformation
The equation of perturbation for a thin wing in supersonic flow is

2
−𝜆2 𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑦𝑦 + 𝜑𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝜆= 𝑀∞ −1 (∗)

Introduce the transformation

𝑥 ′ ≡ 𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = 𝜆𝑦, 𝑧 ′ = 𝜆𝑧, 𝜑′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) ≡ 𝜆2 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Substitute in equation (*)
−𝜑 ′ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑 ′ 𝑦𝑦 + 𝜑′ 𝑧𝑧 = 0 (∗∗)
Boundary conditions are already satisfied
Comparing equation (**) to equation (*) we notice that equation (**) is similar to equation
(*) if 𝑀∞ = 2 .
The flow 𝜑′(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) refers to a body all of whose lateral dimensions are greater by
the factor 𝝀 than corresponding dimensions of the original body.
The linearized pressure coefficient at corresponding points in the two flows are
′
2 𝜕𝜑 2 2 𝜕𝜑
𝐶𝑝′ = − ′
= − 𝜆 = 𝜆2 𝐶𝑝
𝑢∞ 𝜕𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝜕𝑥
Where 𝐶𝑝′ is the pressure coefficient at 𝑀∞ = 2 for a body where lateral dimensions
are 𝜆 time larger than the corresponding lateral dimensions of the body whose
corresponding pressure coefficient is at 𝑀∞ = 2 .
 Similarity rule
1
𝑪𝒑 ቚ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 = 2 𝑪𝒑 ቤ
𝑀∞ , 𝛿, 𝛼, 𝐴𝑅, , ,
𝑙 𝑡 𝑏
𝜆 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
2, 𝜆𝛿, 𝜆𝛼, 𝜆𝐴𝑅, , ,
𝑙 𝑡 𝑏

Within the assumption of the linear theory, 𝐶𝑝 for supersonic flow is proportion either 𝛼 or
𝛿 if these variables are changed simultaneously and in proportion to each other
1
𝑪𝒑 ቚ = 𝑪 ቤ
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑀∞ , 𝛿, 𝛼, 𝐴𝑅, , ,
𝑙 𝑡 𝑏
𝜆 𝒑 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
2, 𝛿, 𝛼, 𝜆𝐴𝑅, , ,
𝑙 𝑡 𝑏
1
𝐶𝑝 for flow at 𝑀∞ past a given wing is greater by than 𝐶𝑝 at a corresponding point for
𝜆
flow at 𝑀∞ = 2 past a wing which is alike in all respect except that its AR is greater by 𝜆
than that of the original wing .

By integration
1
𝑪𝒑 ቚ = 𝑪 ቤ (𝒂)
𝑀∞ , 𝛿, 𝛼, 𝐴𝑅 𝜆 𝒑 2, 𝛿, 𝛼, 𝜆𝐴𝑅

Similar rule hold for the 𝐶𝑚 and 𝐶𝐷𝑝 coefficients

The form of these rules yields a further rule namely “the linearized theory for
supersonic wings” must depends on 𝑀∞ and AR in such a way that the variables
always appear in the combination 𝐴𝑅 𝑀∞ 2
−1 .

Example:

The fraction of the span at the trailing edge for which 2-D flow exists is given
2𝑙
𝑏−
𝑏1 2 2𝑙
𝑀∞ −1
= =1−
𝑏 𝑏 2
𝐴𝑅 𝑀∞ −1
As a result of equation (a), it is sufficient to solve for the supersonic flow past thin
wings for 𝑀∞ = 2 , after which the general result is obtained by replacing the
term AR, where ever it appears by the term 𝐴𝑅 𝑀∞
2
−1.
 3-D wings, supersonic sources
A method for determining the aerodynamic characteristic of a thin wing of arbitrary
planform using small perturbation flow by placing distributed sources
❖ Similar to that of bodies of revolution
❖ Use a thin, finite, symmetric wing at 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ given wave drag due to thickness
❖ If use doublet distribution, can get the lift and drag due to lift of finite wing at 𝛼.
❖ For a steady, isentropic, and inviscid flow about a 3-D wing at zero lift use the
linearized

Potential equation
2
−(𝑀∞ − 1)𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑦𝑦 + 𝜑𝑧𝑧 = 0
Where
𝜙 = 𝑢∞ 𝑥 + 𝜑
Note near the leading edge can use modified Newtonian
For incompressible flow
𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑦𝑦 + 𝜑𝑧𝑧 = 0
 The velocity potential of flow due to an incompressibility point source situated at
the origin (x,y,z)
𝑄 𝑄
𝜑=− =−
4𝜋 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 4𝜋𝑅
Q = volume flow rate from a source point/unit time
R = radius from the origin
Equipotential lines are concentric sphere around the origin ⇒ streamlines are straight
radial lines

The radial velocity

𝜕𝜑 𝑄
𝑉𝑅 = =
𝜕𝑅 4𝜋𝑅2
Subsonic source, 𝑀∞ < 1
𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑
𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 2 + 2 =0
2 2
𝜕 1− 𝑀∞ 𝑦 𝜕 1− 𝑀∞ 𝑧
 𝑄
𝜑=−
2
4𝜋 𝑥 2 + (1 − 𝑀∞ )(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2
= + + =1
𝑄
ൗ4𝜋𝜑 1 𝑄 1 𝑄
2 4𝜋𝜑 2 4𝜋𝜑
1 − 𝑀∞ 1 − 𝑀∞

The equipotential lines are ellipsoids of revolution

Supersonic flow, 𝑀∞ > 1

𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑
𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 2 + 2 =0 𝑖 = −1
2 2
𝜕 𝑖 𝑀∞ − 1𝑦 𝜕 𝑖 𝑀∞ − 1𝑧
 𝑄
𝜑=−
2
4𝜋 𝑥 2 − (𝑀∞ − 1)(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2
= − − =1
𝑄
ൗ4𝜋𝜑 1 𝑄 1 𝑄
2 2
𝑀∞ − 1 4𝜋𝜑 𝑀∞ − 1 4𝜋𝜑

The equipotential lines are hyperbolics of revolution in the upstream and downstream
Mach cone .
At 𝑀∞ > 1, the equation has real value where
𝑥 2 > (𝑀∞
2
− 1)(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
The region of influence of source (the region of perturbed flow) lies inside the conical
surface represented by
𝑥 2 = (𝑀∞
2
− 1)(𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )
If point located outside this surface, sources have no effect on that point

Actually, supersonic disturbances propagate only down stream.

 ‫سنا َط ْرفَةََ عَینَ ا ََبَدا‬
‫ربّنا ال ت َ ِکلنا علی اَنفُ ِ‬
‫اللّهم اغفر لنا و ارحمنا و تب علینا انّک انت التّواب الرحیم‬

‫دعای حضرت فاطمه زهرای اطهر (س)‬

‫جلسه‌‪‌،30‬سه‌شنبه ‪1400/10/7‬‬

‫‪48‬‬
Method of conical fields
We noted by using the method of supersonic source distribution that on delta wings
at zero AOA the pressure is uniform on straight lines passing thru the apex of the
delta.

A conical field is a flow in which all fluid properties are uniform on rays thru a
common vertex. As we can see conical field have application to the perturbation fluid
properties in a supersonic flow where the B.C.'s are conical.
Conical field:

Mach line

Mach lines
2-D
a) regions of conical field with separate vertex. In region where conical flow overlap
⇒ solution may be added in a linear flow (perturbation velocities may be added)

b) Region A is a 2-D infinite swept wing; region B are not conical, Because the
conical B.C correspond to the Mach lines leaving the L.E Tips and where those
Mach lines cross the opposite wing tips.
Governing Equation:
−𝜆2 𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑦𝑦 + 𝜑𝑧𝑧 = 0 ∶ 𝜆2 = 𝑀∞
2
−1 (1)
Table the partial w.r.t x& regroup.
𝜕 2 𝜕𝜑
2
𝜕 2 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 2 𝜕𝜑
−𝜆 ( )+ 2( )+ ( )=0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥
⇒ −𝜆2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑧𝑧 = 0 (2)
Similarly it can be shown that a solution of Equation (1) for φ(x, y, z) is a solution for
u, v, w, &Cp , all functions in general of (x,y,z).
In cylindrical coordinates, Equation (1) becomes, r,𝜃, 𝜂
1 1
−𝜆2 𝜑𝑥𝑥 + 𝜑𝑟𝑟 + 𝜑𝑟 + 2 𝜑𝜃𝜃 = 0 (3)
𝑟 𝑟
Introduce a conical coordinate system with coordinates q, 𝜃, and x where
𝜆𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜎
𝑞= = 𝑟= 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 (4)
𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼∞
q defines a given cone thru the vertex.

Put Eqn. (3) into those variables.

z y

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜃 𝜆
= + + = 𝜑𝑞
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑥
x

𝜕2𝜑 𝜆 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑞 𝜆2 r
= = 2 𝜑𝑞𝑞
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑟 𝑥

𝜕𝜑 𝜆𝑟
= 𝜑𝑥 − 2 𝜑𝑞
𝜕𝑥 𝑥

𝜕2𝜑 𝜆𝑟 𝜆𝑟 𝜆
= 𝜑𝑥𝑥 − 2𝜑𝑥𝑞 − 𝜑 − 𝜑
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝑞𝑞 𝑥 𝑞

𝜕𝜑
= 𝜑𝜃
𝜕𝜃
 𝑥2
Substitute into Equation (3) & multiply by ⇒
𝜆2

2
1 1
1 − 𝑞 𝜑𝑞𝑞 + − 2𝑞 𝜑𝑞 + 2 𝜑𝜃𝜃 + 2𝑞𝑥 𝜑𝑥𝑞 − 𝑥 2 𝜑𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑞 𝑞

Or
1 1
1 − 𝑞 2 𝜑𝑞𝑞 + 1 − 2𝑞 2 𝜑𝑞 + 2 𝜑𝜃𝜃 + 2𝑞𝑥 𝜑𝑥𝑞 − 𝑥 2 𝜑𝑥𝑥 = 0 (5)
𝑞 𝑞

Now it is easier to work in terms of u since the B.C' s appear in a more convenient
from. But note that for a conical flow, u does not depend on x, only on q &θ. So,
Equation (5) becomes:

1 1
1 − 𝑞 2 𝑢𝑞𝑞 + 1 − 2𝑞 2 𝑢𝑞 + 2 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0 (6)
𝑞 𝑞
By transforming the q variable using the method of Chaplygin.
2𝑆
𝑞= (7)
1 + 𝑆2
we can show that (6) just becomes the Laplace equation.
from Equation (7)
1− 1 − 𝑞2
𝑆= 0 ≤𝑞 ≤1
𝑞
𝜕𝑆 𝑑𝑆 ′
1 − 1 − 𝑞2
& = = 𝑆 = (8)
𝜕𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞2 1 − 𝑞2

1 2 1− 1 − 𝑞2
𝑆 ˊˊ = 3 – 9
𝑞 1− 𝑞 2 ൗ2 𝑞3 1− 𝑞2
Now transforming variables.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑆 ˊ
𝜕𝑢
= =𝑆
𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑆
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 ˊ
𝜕𝑢 ˊˊ
𝜕𝑢 ˊ 2𝜕
2
𝑢
= = 𝑆 = 𝑆 + 𝑆
𝜕𝑞 2 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆 2
Substituting into equation (6)
2 1 1
1 − 𝑞 2 𝑆 ˊ 𝑢𝑆𝑆 + 1 − 2𝑞 2 𝑆 ˊ + 1 − 𝑞 2 𝑆 ˊˊ 𝑢𝑆 + 2 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0
𝑞 𝑞
1 1
⇒ 𝑢𝑆𝑆 + 𝑢𝑆 + 2 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0(10)
𝑆 𝑆
This is just the Laplace equation in (S,θ ) polar coordinate.
The equation is meaningful if 0 ≤ 𝑞 ≤ 1, this is where S is real. Values of q from 0 to 1 in
the Mach cone.
∴ Equation (10) holds only in the Mach cone where the Solution for the perturbation velocities
of the linearized equation yield an elliptic equation.

Hyp. q > 1
Equation (10) does not hold outside of the Mach line
Mach cone where the governing equation can 0 ≤q ≤1
be shown to be hyperbolic. This reminds us of Elliptic
our Solution for the drag of a delta planform.
Now, we can have a Laplace equation (10) to solve for the flow in the 3-D (elliptic
or conical) regions of the flow. We can use all the powerful technique for solving
elliptic problems. It is usually found to be convenient to solve our problem using the
method of complex variables.
Delta wing subsonic leading edge
For a delta wing extends downstream to ∞
Infinite swept wing source distribution

Supersonic leading edge

This zone is bounded by

On the leading edge

and

Then
For an infinite swept wing at arbitrary thickness form
Delta wing-supersonic leading edge
Here the leading edge lies
ahead of the Mach cone from
the vertex and λ>β or n<1
Remember
𝛽 𝛽𝑦
𝑛= & 𝑡=
𝜆 𝑥
Now region 1 is the part of
the wing ahead of the Mach
line and therefore is a zone
of 2-D flow. so if our point
P(x,y) lies in region 1, we
can use the infinite swept
wing result of
𝜏𝑢∞
𝜙𝑥 = 𝑢 = − sing only
𝜆2 −𝛽 2
the leading edge affects the flow.
 Or using the boundary condition
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
𝜏= 𝑢= − =− (1)
𝑢∞ 𝜆2 −𝛽2 𝜆 1−𝑛2
2𝑢
𝐶𝑝 = −
𝑉∞

Which holds for 𝑛<𝑡<1 & 𝑛<1

For a point lying behind the Mach line, we could perform the entire integration as
for the subsonic leading edge case or since the problem is linear we may super
impose solution to avoid sum of the integration. Flow is affected by leading edge,
trailing edge and side edges.

We may then assume that the flow at P(x,y) is that due to an infinitely swept wing
minus the influence of region 2 on P .That is only the absence of the section of
infinite swept wing from region 2 alters the flow at P(x,y) from the 2-D value. So,
we subtract out this influence from the 2-D solution of equation (1).
 𝑤
So, in region 2 we let 𝑞 = − then ϕ is:
𝜋

𝑤 𝑑𝜁𝑑𝜂
𝜑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜑2𝐷 + ඵ (2)
𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝜉)2 −𝜆2 (𝑦 − 𝜂)2 +𝑧 2

By performing this integration, we find (Shapiro part 18.5)

𝑡 2
𝑤 2 1−
𝑢 = 𝜙𝑥 = − 1− sin−1 (𝑛 𝑛
) (3)
𝜆 1−𝑛2 𝜋 1−𝑡 2

For 0<𝑡<𝑛 & 𝑛<1

𝑪𝒑 on a single wedge Deltas
It is convenient to form the parameter
𝐶𝑝 𝜆 𝜙𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝜙𝑥 𝜆
≅ −2 𝜆 = −2
𝜏 𝑢∞ 𝜔 𝜔
Note that 𝐶𝑝 for either a subsonic or supersonic leading edge .This parameter
depends only on t and n for example for

𝑡 2
𝐶𝑝 𝜆 𝜆 𝜔 2 −1 1−
= −2 − 1 − sin 𝑛 𝑛
𝜏 𝜔 𝜆 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋 1 − 𝑡2

𝑡 2
𝐶𝑝 𝜆 2 2 −1 1−
= 1 − sin 𝑛 𝑛 (2)
𝜏 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋 1 − 𝑡2
𝐶𝑝 𝜆 𝛽𝑦
Now plot vs 𝑡 = (see Shapiro vol.2 p.721)
𝜏 𝑥
 𝑪𝒑 on a single wedge Delta
Supersonic leading edge; n<1

a) Pressure is constant between leading edge and

the Mach line
b) Pressure falls of between leading edge and axis
c) Integrating 𝐶𝑝 between t=0 and t=1 (over the
wing) we find that the integrating independent of
n for all n<1. So, the pressure drag at a supersonic
single-wedge delta is independent of sweepback
angle provide the leading edge is supersonic.
Subsonic leading edge; n>1

The pressure distribution is like that of a subsonic flow

note: In all those cases 𝐶𝑝 is constant on a ray from the vertex leading edge on t = const.
This is an interesting result and suggests the use of the method of conical flows.
Drag of a Double- wedge Delta wing
Single wedge delta does not have practical usage, due to blunt T.E. By superposing the
results of single wedge delta's we can calculate the pressure ⇒ drag of a practical wing
planform. y

z
F
D
l

bl G E
x
B E B
D

A A

C
 The analysis superposes two delta's

ሖ D)
i) a single- wedge delta (profile B-D-F-F- ሖ with vertex at B & slope τ1

ሖ with vertex at G & Constant slope of (−𝜏1

ii) &a single wedge delta (profile GFF)
+ 𝜏2 ), where 𝜏2 is a negative number.

∴ in region BDC of the planform the source distribution

𝑤 𝜏1 𝑢∞
𝑞== (1)
𝜋 𝜋
In the region D𝐶 ′ Cof the planform, the source strength is the sum of the superposed
solutions.

σ𝑤 𝜏1 𝑢∞ (−𝜏1 + 𝜏2 )𝑢∞ 𝜏2 𝑢∞
𝑞= = + = (2)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

⇒ B.C are satisfied.

Now we must integrate those source & sink strengths over the appropriate fore cone region
to solve for 𝜑, 𝜑𝑥 &𝐶𝑝 as before.
 This solution will depend, as before one whether the leading- edge is supersonic or
subsonic.
Result for CD (wave drag)

Supersonic L.E. Pressure drag 0.6 0.8

5
4
2-D
3
0.1 0.5 0.9
b
y
So, for a supersonic L.E, the thickness
drag of the delta wing is great than that for
a 2-D wing. M

δ2 represent thickness L

𝛽1 x
𝑛1 = < 1 ⇒ supersonic L. E
𝜆 bl
l
By sweeping the leading-edge behind the Mach line & also placing the point of max.
thickness for enough forward so that the max. Thickness line is behind the Mach line, a
substantial decrease in CD can be obtained.
y
Mach line

1.3
2-D

1.5

bl b-spain
0.1 0.5 0.9 l
b

𝛽1
𝑛1 =
𝜆

𝐶𝐷 𝜆
So, for min. we want b ≅ 0.1&n1 as large as feasible. That is, we move the max
𝛿2

thicken, point to about 10% chord & sweep the wing back as far as possible. This should
work as long as the viscous effects do not seriously alter the pressure distribution.
‫با تشکر صمیمانه از الطاف استاد بزرگوارم‬
‫آقای دکتر محمدرضا سلطانی‬
 ‫ملت عزیز ایران‬
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‫زمین ریخت‪.‬‬
‫جمعه ‪98/10/13‬‬
 ‫رَبََّنَاَآمَنََّا بِمَا أَنْزَلْتَ وَاتََّبَعْنَا الرََّسُولَ فَاكْتُبْنَا مَعَ الشََّاهِدِينَ‬

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‫آیه کریمه ‪ 53‬سوره مبارکه آل عمران‬

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