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NANO-OPTICS
NANO-OPTICS
Fundamentals, Experimental
Methods, and Applications

Edited by

SABU THOMAS
YVES GROHENS
GUILLAUME VIGNAUD
NANDAKUMAR KALARIKKAL
JEMY JAMES
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
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Typeset by SPi Global, India
Contributors

Harith Ahmad
Photonics Research Center, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Stuart Bowden
Quantum Energy for Sustainable Solar Technology (QESST) Engineering Research Center,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Dermot Brabazon
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, & Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Jenu V. Chacko
Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation (LOCI), University of Wisconsin at
Madison, Madison, WI, United States
Balu Chandra
International School of Photonics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin,
Kerala, India
Judith M. Dawes
MQ Photonics Research Center, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Joydeep Dutta
Functional Materials division, Materials and Nano-Physics Department, ICT School, KTH
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Nitin Eapen
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Karsten Fleischer
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, & Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Stephen Goodnick
Quantum Energy for Sustainable Solar Technology (QESST) Engineering Research Center,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Yves Grohens
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France
Banshi D. Gupta
Physics Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

ix
x Contributors

Sulaiman Wadi Harun

Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Christiana Honsberg
Quantum Energy for Sustainable Solar Technology (QESST) Engineering Research Center,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Jemy James
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France; International and
Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
Jerry Jose
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Blessy Joseph
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France; International and
Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
Nandakumar Kalarikkal
School of Pure and Applied Physics; International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Changhyoup Lee
Institute of Theoretical Solid State Physics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe,
Germany
Kwang-Geol Lee
Department of Physics, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
Juby Alphonsa Mathew
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
 anna McCarthy
E
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, & Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Waleed Soliman Mohammed
Center of Research in Optoelectronics, Communication and Control Systems (BU-CROCCS),
School of Engineering, Bangkok University, Pathum Thani, Thailand
Rajesh V. Nair
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar, Punjab, India
Parvathy Nancy
School of Pure and Applied Physics; International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
 Contributors xi

Anisha Pathak
Physics Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Hazli Rafis Abdul Rahim
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur; Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka, Malaysia
Siti Aisyah Reduan
Photonics Research Center, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Carsten Rockstuhl
Institute of Theoretical Solid State Physics; Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
Swasti Saxena
Department of Applied Physics, Sardar Valla Bhai National Institute of Technology, Surat,
Gujarat, India
Vivek Semwal
Physics Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ashin Shaji
Institute of Physics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
Sithara P. Sreenilayam
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, & Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Ankit Kumar Srivastava
School of Applied Natural Science, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Mark Tame
Department of Physics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
Kavintheran Thambiratnam
Photonics Research Center, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Siddharth Thokchom
National Institute of Technology Manipur, Imphal, India
Sabu Thomas
School of Chemical Sciences; International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Zian Cheak Tiu
Photonics Research Center, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Jijo P. Ulahannan
Department of Physics, Government College, Kasaragod, Kerala, India
Guillaume Vignaud
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France
About the Editors

Prof. Sabu Thomas is Vice Chancellor of Mahatma

Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India. He is
also Director of the School of Energy Materials,
Professor at the School of Chemical Sciences
and the founding Director of the International and
Inter-University Centre for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology, at Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala. Prof. Thomas is an outstanding
leader with sustained international acclaim for his
work in polymer science, polymer nanocomposites,
elastomers, polymer blends, interpenetrating polymer
networks, polymer membranes, nanoscience, nano-
medicine, and green nanotechnology.

Prof. Yves Grohens is Director of ComposiTIC

Laboratory at the University of South Brittany,
France. His research interests include interface science
in nano and bio-composites. He is also involved in
research on confinement in model thin films and its
applications, (bio)polymers and their blends, and
bio-composites. Interfaces and adhesion of polymers
with natural reinforcing agents is one of the hot topics
for applications in transportations and others. He is
involved in many French and European networks
focusing on these topics. He works with many French
and some international companies including Arkema,
PSA, Cooper Santard, CSP, and Airbus.

xiii
xiv About the Editors

Prof. Nandakumar Kalarikkal is Director of the

International and Inter-University Centre for
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, and the School
of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam, Kerala, India. The research
works of his group include the syntheses, characteri-
zation, and applications of various nanomaterials,
LASER-matter interactions, ion irradiation effects
on various novel materials, and phase transitions.

Dr. Guillaume Vignaud is Assistant Professor of

Physics at the University of South Brittany, France.
His areas of expertise include polymer thin films,
ultrathin films and interfaces, thin film deposition,
material characterization, X-ray diffraction, and
nanomaterials synthesis.

Dr. Jemy James obtained his Ph.D. from the

University of South Brittany, France, and is presently
working at WITec GmbH, India. He was previously a
junior research fellow at Mahatma Gandhi Univer-
sity, Kottayam, Kerala, India.
CHAPTER 1

From nature: Optics, nanotechnology,

and nano-optics
Ashin
a
Shajia, Jemy Jamesb,c, Parvathy Nancyc,d
Institute of Physics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
b
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France
c
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam,
Kerala, India
d
School of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

1. Introduction
Nanomaterials are abundant in nature, since everything in our world is composed of very
small particles. As a result, nanotechnology is always inspired by nature and natural phe-
nomena. The properties of the materials created by nature through evolutionary pro-
cesses are highly efficient or optimal, hence the use of natural materials directly in the
development of nanotechnology is of great importance. Now scientists have a clear idea
of how to create nanoscale materials with unique properties that never existed before.
Products using nanomaterials are now available in the market, such as nanoscale silver
as an antibacterial [1], sunscreen with nanoscale titanium dioxide that prevents sunburn
[2], application in the field of electronics as in batteries, targeted drug delivery, nanofilms
for coatings, water filtration, etc. [3] Molecular-level manipulation is the ultimate base of
nanotechnology, but that doesn’t mean that this field of science always deals only with
artificial materials.
In nature, molecules organize themselves into complex structures that could support
life, similar to the present nanotechnology that we are used to. Nature constructs every-
thing atom by atom, and understanding the basic principle of natural systems will help
nanoscientists to design artificial nanomaterials. For example, oncologists are looking into
nanotechnology as a potential way to treat cancer with targeted drug delivery by the use
of nanomedicine [4]. The inspiration for this is from the viruses that seek out a specific
type of cell to attack in a living organism. Similarly, optically transparent materials have
been improved by imitating the nanostructures found in the wings of insects. Finding
inspiration from nature’s nanotech is becoming big business nowadays.
Nano-optics or nanophotonics has become a serious topic of research over the past
decades. The interaction of light with nanometer-scale particles has developed into a new
and separate branch from conventional photonics research topics due to its massive pres-
ence in the natural world and also from an application point of view. On the nanometer

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2 Nano-optics

scale, materials including metals, semiconductors, dielectrics, and polymers exhibit inter-
esting properties, especially optical properties [5]. Particles that come under a size range of
nanometers show special phenomena that are not predictable as in their bulk counter-
parts. Making use of these properties of the nanoparticles in the field of optics and pho-
tonics is the core of nanophotonics [6]. The major aim of this chapter is to give a brief
introduction to the presence of nanotechnology and nanophotonics in the natural world
rather than the artificially created nano universe. Without going into deeper theoretical
aspects, this chapter presents an overall picture of the influence and existence of nano-
technology in nature.

2. Nature and optics

In nature, optical phenomena are observable as a result of the interaction of matter and
light; interactions of light from the sun and moon with particles in the atmosphere,
clouds, water, dust, etc. are the reason for some of the common natural optical phenom-
enon like mirages and rainbows (Fig. 1). Many of these natural phenomena in nature arise
from the optical properties of the atmosphere and due to the presence of other objects in
nature or sometimes even due to the visual illusion created by the human eye, such as
entoptic phenomena [7].
The particle and wave nature of the light also influences this kind of phenomenon.
Some are quite delicate and noticeable only by precise scientific measuring instruments.
One of the notable observations is the bending of light from a star by the sun, observed
during the time of the solar eclipse. This demonstrates that space is curved, as predicted by
Einstein in his theory of relativity. Most optical phenomena can be explained on the basis
of the classical electromagnetic explanation of light. But in practical applications, a
completely electromagnetic description of light is often difficult to apply in practice.
So for practical applications, optics is usually demonstrated using simplified models, like
geometric optics, that treat light as a collection of rays that travel in a straight line and
bend from a surface when they pass through or reflect from it. Wave optics or physical
optics is a more inclusive model of light, which explains the wave nature of such phe-
nomena as diffraction and interference, which cannot be explained using geometric
optics.
Based on the history of light in nature, the first accepted model to explain the nature
of light is the ray-based model of light, and later on, the wave model of light. The intro-
duction of the electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the rediscovery of light
waves as electromagnetic radiation. Even so, there are some phenomena in nature that
can be explained only by considering the fact that light has both wavelike and particle-
like nature (dual nature of light), effects that require quantum mechanical explanations.
Quantum optics is the field of science that deals with the application of quantum mechan-
ics to optical systems. When considering the particle-like nature of light, light is
 From nature: Optics, nanotechnology, and nano-optics 3

Fig. 1 Some of the common optical phenomena happening in nature: (A) double rainbow and
supernumerary rainbows on the inside of the primary arc; (B) very bright sun dogs in Fargo, North
Dakota; (C) the reflection of Mount Hood in Mirror Lake; (D) a 22° halo around the sun, as seen in
the sky over Annapurna Base Camp, Annapurna, Nepal. ((A) Eric Rolph at English Wikipedia (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg), “Double-alaskan-rainbow,” size and
shape of the image by Ashin Shaji, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/legalcode; (D) Anton
Yankovyi (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Halo_in_the_Himalayas.jpg), size and shape of the
image by Ashin Shaji, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode.)

considered as a collection of particles called photons. Optical science is an important and

applicable field of science in many related disciplines like astronomy, photography, var-
ious engineering fields, and especially in medical fields like optometry and ophthalmol-
ogy. Practical implementation of optics is found in everyday life and in a variety of
technologies like telescopes, mirrors, lenses, microscopes, lasers, optical fibers, etc.
Most colors in nature originate due to selective adsorption resulting from the pigmen-
tation embedded in the body or surface of an object. However, a certain range of intense
and bright contrast colors result from the interaction of light with nano- and microstruc-
tures, which leads to the appearance of color by coherent scattering, interference, and
diffraction without any absorption. These colors are commonly known as “structural
colors” [8]. The structures that help to modulate light leading to structural colors are part
of the family of photonic structures in nature.
4 Nano-optics

Photonic structures can be defined as regular structures with periodicities matching

with the order of the wavelength of the light [9]. Structural colors have been a hot topic
of research for centuries, and the involvement of micro- and nanostructures in them was
introduced by Hooke (1665), Newton (1704), and Lord Rayleigh (1917) [8]. The first
ever imaging and a detailed study of structural elements that induce structural colors were
suggested by Anderson and Richards [10] after the introduction of the electron micro-
scope. The interest in natural structural colors was found to increase due to the fast
growth in the field of optical spectroscopy and scanning/transmission microscopy. These
spectroscopic techniques help to investigate the details of the complex nano and micro-
structures with unique optical characteristics that evolved and existed solely in nature for
millions of years [11].
Optical issues like high reflectivity or transmission, strong polarization of light,
dichroism, spectral filtering, etc., can be controlled with the help of the natural world
since nature provides solutions for all these in the form of nanostructures of different
morphological varieties. Thus, nature offers an abundant number of road maps for
multifunctional micro- and nanostructures that show outstanding dynamic and distinc-
tive coloration. This kind of structured material originates as a result of evolution over
millions of years and invites the interest of scientists to carry out deeper research that
may build the basis of future optical devices. It can find applications in medical diag-
nostics, communication, information processing, and devices with functionalities that
can go beyond the current stage. Therefore, the biomimetic approach is currently a hot
field of science. For the purpose of solving complex human problems, imitation or
copying the models, systems, or solutions from nature is known as biomimetic or bio-
mimicry [12].

3. Nanotechnology in nature
Nanoscience and nanotechnology always find inspiration from nature. Some common
nanostructures that are visible in nature include inorganic materials such as carbonaceous
soot, clay, organic natural thin films, and a variety of organic nanostructures such as pro-
teins, insects, and crustacean shells. These structures cause a range of behaviors in nature
together with the wettability of surfaces, the brightness of butterfly wings, and also the
adhesive properties of the lizard’s foot.
The coloration of many varieties of beetles and butterflies is created by sets of rigor-
ously spaced nanoscopic pillars. Fabricated from sugars like chitosan, or proteins like ker-
atin, the widths of slits between the pillars are designed to control light to attain certain
colors or effects like iridescence. One advantage of this strategy is resilience. Pigments
tend to bleach with exposure to light; however, structural colors are stable for remarkably
long periods.
 From nature: Optics, nanotechnology, and nano-optics 5

A study of structural coloration in metallic-blue marble berries [13] where the spec-
imens collected in 1974, that had maintained their color despite being long dead. Sim-
ilarly, a lotus leaf is an example of an engineered surface because of its physical and
chemical conditions at the micro- and nanometer scale, able to provide a self-cleaning
effect. Wilhelm Barthlott, a German botanist, is considered to be the discoverer of the
Lotus effect [14] as he applied for its patent in 1994. He found out that the combination
of the chemical makeup of the surface and also the micro-and nano-projections on the
surface were the reason behind the effect. The protrusions [15] of the lotus leaf are

10 μm high, with every protrusion covered in bumps of a hydrophobic, waxy material
that is roughly 100 nm in height. The chitin polymer and epicuticular wax projections
allow the leaf to trap air. Water droplets ride on the tips of the projections and result in a
bed of air to make a super-hydrophobic surface (Fig. 2). Scientists designed this behavior

Fig. 2 Examples of self-cleaning surfaces in nature and their SEM images [16]. (Permission has been
granted through the Copyright Clearance Center’s Rights Link service.)
6 Nano-optics

into the product Lotusan®, a self-cleaning paint. This paint mimics the microstructure of
the surface of a lotus leaf once it dries and cures within the environment. Small peaks and
valleys on the surface minimize the contact area for water and dirt, keeping the surface
clean. Various merchandise is currently on the market that mimics this hydrophobic
property, including consumer goods, spray coatings, plungers, toilet fixtures, automotive
components, etc.
Researchers at several universities are synthesizing biomimetic nanocomposites to
form robust materials to be used in lightweight armor systems, structures in transportation
systems, sturdy electronics, aerospace applications, etc. Nature has evolved an advanced
bottom-up approach for fabricating nanostructured materials that have great mechanical
strength and toughness. One of nature’s toughest materials is nacre, which is best known
as the iridescent mother-of-pearl made by mollusks. Mollusks produce nacre by depos-
iting amorphous calcium carbonate (CaCO3) onto porous layers of polysaccharide chitin.
The mineral then crystallizes, producing stacks of CaCO3 that are separated by layers of
organic material. Its strength comes from the brick-like assembly (interlocked) of the
molecules [17].
A lizard’s feet will bind firmly to any solid surface in a short time, and detach with no
apparent effort (Fig. 3). This adhesion is purely physical, with no chemical interaction
between the feet and the surface. The active adhesive layer of the gecko’s foot is a
branched nanoscopic layer of bristles known as “spatula” that measure about 200 nm
in length. Several thousand of those spatulae are connected to micron-sized “seta.” Both
spatulae and seta are fabricated from very flexible keratin. Although research into the finer
details of the spatulae’s attachment and detachment mechanism is in progress, the actual
fact is that they operate with no sticky chemicals. It is an impressive piece of design by
Mother Nature. That they are self-cleaning, immune to self-matting (the seta don’t stick
to each other), and detached by default (including from each other) are other interesting
features of geckos’ feet [18, 20]. These options have prompted ideas and suggestions that
in the future, glues, screws, and rivets may all be made by a single method, casting keratin
or similar material into completely different molds.
Magnetotactic bacteria possess the extraordinary ability to sense minute magnetic
fields, together with the Earth’s own magnetic field, using tiny chains of nanocrystals
known as magnetosomes (Fig. 4). These are grains sized between 30 and 50 nm, made
from either magnetite (a type of iron oxide) or, less commonly, greghite (an iron-sulfur
combo). Several types of magnetosomes work together to provide a foldable “compass
needle” that is many times more sensitive than its artificial counterparts. Magnetotactic
bacteria are pond-dwelling and only need to navigate short distances. However, their
precision is incredible. By varying the grain size, these bacteria can store information
since the growth is controlled by the most magnetically sensitive atomic arrangements
[22]. However, oxygen and sulfur combine rapidly with iron to provide magnetite,
greghite, or more than 50 other compounds, only a couple of which are magnetic. Hence
Fig. 3 Nanoengineered structures from nature: (A) microstructure and schematic illustration of gecko feet [18]; (B) micro/nanoarchitecture in the
wings of a butterfly [19]. (Permission has been granted through the Copyright Clearance Center’s Rights Link service.)
CHAPTER 2

Nano-optics: Challenges, trends,

and future
Jemy Jamesa,c, Balu Chandrab, Blessy Josephc, Parvathy Nancyc,e, Ashin Shajid,
Jerry Josec, Nandakumar Kalarikkalc,e, Yves Grohensa, Guillaume Vignauda,
Sabu Thomasc,f
a
FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, University of Southern Brittany, Lorient, France
b
International School of Photonics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala, India
c
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
d
Institute of Physics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
e
School of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
f
School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

1. An outlook
If technological advancements and their impact on the general public are considered, the
last 200 years can clearly be described as the most progressive period of humankind. The
advent of electricity and the subsequent emergence of electronic devices initiated a
unique revolution. As technology advanced, the sizes of electronic devices became
smaller and smaller. In 1960, when Theodore Maiman built the first laser, the world wit-
nessed the metamorphosis of light as a counterpart to electricity. Devices that harness the
nature of light are termed photonic devices, and just as electronic devices evolved over
time, photonic devices are now evolving at a faster rate.
As stated earlier, devices are getting smaller and smaller and right now, the minimum
size parameters of electronic devices have reduced to a few tens of nanometers nm
(1 nm ¼ 1  109 m). This was a fundamental problem when photonic devices started
getting smaller. And as we found out more and more about the problem, the problem
itself opened a doorway to completely unprecedented physical phenomena. It gave birth
to a new branch of science, nano-optics, which deal with understanding and tailoring the
complex behavior of light in nanometer dimensions.
Global communication, and in particular internet and long-distance telephony, is
now based primarily on optical fiber technology. The main advantage of optical waves
compared to radio waves is the high frequency, which allows high data transmission rates.
Nowadays, several terabits per second can be transmitted in a single fiber, which repre-
sents an increase by a factor of 1 million to what could be achieved 50 years ago with radio
signal transmission. The number of optical fiber cables being installed globally is increas-
ing rapidly. Fiber optics is also important for a huge number of other applications, such as

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20 Nano-optics

in medicine, laser technology, and sensors. An interesting example of the use of fiber-
optic communication in science is the advanced fiber optics network developed at the
Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Geneva, which will transfer large amounts of
information obtained by particle detectors to computer centers all over the world.

1.1 A historical perspective

Let there be light and there was light
Genesis 1:3
Historically, light was a center of interest for numerous inquisitive people: philosophers
were interested in its nature and scientists wanted to interpret its associated phenomena.
In antiquity, the Egyptians attempted to discover the mystery of light and to know its
structure. From a philosophical point of view, their attempts were fruitless. However,
in practice, they implemented impressive mechanisms based mainly on reflection.
The Greeks also attempted to decode the enigma of light and considered it a contin-
uous phenomenon propagating in the form of a substance current called the “visual ray.”
Nevertheless, based on the work of the Egyptians, they established rules for light deflec-
tion. One of the most impressive legacies of the Greeks in optics is the mirror of Archi-
medes. Aristotle, interested in the sensation in general, refused to admit the existence of
the visual ray and believed in the analogy between light and sound, whose vibratory
nature was already known.
In the 11th century, the thesis of the visual ray was definitively abandoned by the
Iraqi Ibn Al-Haytham, whose work revolutionized optics. He detached optics from its
philosophical envelope and embedded it in the framework of physics and mathematical
sciences. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like
shadows, eclipses, and rainbows, and speculated on the physical nature of light.
Al-Haytham’s optics entered Spain in the 12th century and was adopted by Grossteste,
who affirmed the analogy between light and sound, and thoroughly investigated the
matter of geometrical optics.
After the contributions of the geometro-opticians, Snell and Descartes (see Fig. 1)
studied the refraction phenomenon and stated that the speed of light is as high as the cov-
ered medium is dense. This hypothesis was contested by Fermat, who attributed indices
to the media. Foucault in the 19th century came out in favor of Fermat. This more mod-
ern progress still dealt only with geometrical optics, which considered that the behavior
of light with respect to obstacles is expressed uniquely in terms of absorption, reflection,
or refraction.
However, in the 17th century, Grimaldi, using a simple experiment, observed the
progressive transition between light and shadow and regarded the corpuscular theory,
supposing the rectilinear propagation of light, as insufficient to explain such an effect.
Despite Newton’s support of the corpuscular theory (he believed that the light
Another random document with
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 tics, 396
Sheif, 347
Sheikh, the, 380
Shemar, 283
Shiel, Lady, 154
Shiraz, 218
climate, 224
famine at, 253
game at, 221
gardens of, 223
ladies, 219
lambs, 220
pipe-clay, 334
priest, 140
unhealthiness, 224
water, 241
wine, 229
women, intrigues of the, 276
Shirazi, gaiety of the, 219
Shirts, 317
Shitūr Gūlū, 226
Shoemakers, 190
Shoes, 321
Shooting antelope, 88
from the saddle, 84
Shopkeepers, 189
Shrine at Kūm, 387
of a saint, 362
Shulwar, 321
Shūr ab, 387
Shūrgistan, 261
Shushan, the palace, 109
Sick-leave, 207
Sick-room, a Persian, 244
Signs of wealth of Imād-u-Dowlet, 112
Silence of young married women, strange, 132
Silver doors, 196
Singers, Persian, 114
Sinsin, 386
Sir A. Kemball, 208
H. Rawlinson, 109
F. Goldsmid, 56, 157
Oliver St. John, 350
Sitting, mode of, 318
Skilled house-decorators, 164
Slavery in Persia, 326
Sleepers in mosques, 197
Smoking, 31
Snakes, 307
superstition as to, 306
Snipe, 116
double, 107
Snow-chair, 272
in Turkey, 213
Socks, 321
Soh, 384
Souhāli, 326
Soup Gework, 143
Spears, 179
Spurious cavalry officer, 73
Staff, health of the, 296
Stages, list of, 411
Stanley, the traveller, 224
Steamer, Caspian, 211
Steelyards, 221
Stone doors, 142
mortars, huge, 360
Storing wine, 58
Story, Persian, 285
Story-teller, 44
Straw, cut, its uses, 175
Stripped, I am, 263
Students, cells of, 197
Studs of horses, 89
Substitute for bells, 139
Successful Armenians, 143
Suez, 342
Suffid Rūd, 400
Suicide of a scorpion, 249
Suleiman Mirza, 90
Summer palace, 372
Sunset gun, 284
Sunstroke, dangers of, 375
Supposed lioness, 35
Surmeh, 260
Susmani girls, 114
Susmanis, 108
Swamp, shooting in a, 117
Swollen eyes, 213
Syudabad Pass, 101
Syud at Kasvin, 208
Houssein, 71
Syuds, dress of, 320
Hassan and Houssein, 153
the three, their fate, 156

T⸺, Mr., 27
Tabriz maund, 220
Tager, 188
Takhtrowan, 368
Taking quinine, 398
Talár, 57
Talisman, 290
Talking lark, 94
Tame pigs, 302
Tame gazelle, 167
lion, 306
partridges, 308
Tanks, 198
Tannūr or oven, 335
Tarantass, 12
Tarantulas, 248
Tattooing, 323
Tax-man at Dehbeed, 133
Tax of turkeys, 144
Taylor, Consul, 212
Taziana, the, 380
Tazzia, 279
Tazzias, dervishes at, 281
T-cloths, marks on, 194
Teachers of religion and law, 338
Teetotaler, a, 380
Teheran, 28, 372
races, 214
Teleet, 136
Telega, 11
Telegraph office, 198
flight of Baabi women to, 154
Telegraph poles, wooden, 80
Temple at Kangawar, 107
Tenets of Baabis, 339
Tent for Tazzia, 280
pitching, 399
Tents, 107
“The Sticks,” 377
Thief-catching, 85
Thieves, gang of, 269
Thorns in feet, 267
Tiflis, 14, 17
“Tiger’s boy,” 341
Tiled dome, 196
halls, 197
mosque, 197
Tile inscription, 177
work gates, 372
Titles, 38, 289
Tobeh, 388
Toffee, expensive, 80
Token, custom of the, 250
Tomb of Cyrus, 355
Esther and Mordecai, 75
Hafiz, 279
Saadi, 278
Tombs of the Kings, 119
Tombstone bridges, 163
Toolahs, 306
Trade credits, 188
in Teheran, 373
Traders, economy of, 172
Trades, 197
Traffic in drink in Julfa, 141
Transit of Venus, 331
Trap-horses, 352
Travellers’ law, 132
Travelling in Persia, 413
when ill, 208
Treasure finding, 76
of Darius, 78
 trove in Julfa, 361
Trebizonde, 212
to Teheran, 213
Trees, sacred, 364
Tsaritzin, 406
Tumbakū, 30
Tūmbūn, 324
Turkeys, 375
in Julfa, 144
Turkish barber, 6
chibouques, 6
coffee-houses, 6
saddle, 7
use of, 24
Turkomanchai, 27
Turkoman horses, 104

Uncleanliness of Armenians, 316

Ungrateful baker, an, 183
Uniform, I appear in, 48
in Russia, 15
Unleavened bread, 335
Unripe fruit, eating of, 168
Ussher on the Meana bug, 217
tomb of Cyrus, 355
Ussher’s description of Persepolis, 217
Usury, 192
Utū-Kesh, 191, 333
Vaccination, 363
Vails, 68
Valliāt, 366
Valley of Yezdikhast, 261
Value of land, 175
Van cats, 305
Variable climate, 339
Varieties of kabob, 297
Vassilliardes, M., 401
Vegetables, 170, 300
Vegetation near Caspian, 400
Veil, the, 325
Venus, transit of, 331
Vienna, stay in, 4
Virgin, Pass of the, 350
Virtuoso, story of a, 37
Visit to Baabis, 201
Imād-u-Dowlet, 112
Visits, Persian, 28
Viticulture, 310
Volga, the, 405

W⸺, Mr., 133

Wages of servants, 67
Walker’s road, 350
Walling up alive, wholesale, 203
Walton, Mr. H. V., 137, 167
Want of roads, 248
Washerman, the, 333
Watch-dogs, 306
Watch-towers, 177
Water-fowl, 301
Water-melons, 169
Water of Shiraz, 241
Water-pipes, 29
Wedding of Kasim, 282
We find treasure, 80
Weighing, 221
corn, 192
Weights, 220
Well of death, the, 275
Wheat, 174
White eunuch, 39
Wholesale and retail, 188
walling up alive, 203
Wild asparagus, 168
ass, the, 308
ducks, 176
flowers, 173
geese, 116
pig, 177
sow, 178
Wine, Cholar, 229
cost of, 234
jars, 230
 Kerman, 235
Kishmish, 159
making, 232
mode of packing, 236
purity of, 235
sellers, Armenian, 142
Shiraz, 229
varieties of, 235
Winter room, my, 206
Wisdom of a judge, 184
Women, bastinadoed, 122
costume of, 323
educated, 339
execution of two, 122
hair of, 323
head-dress of, 131
of Shiraz, intrigues of, 276
out-door dress of, 325
Women, sentimentality of, 339
Woodcut, Persian facsimile, 287
Wrestling, 98

X⸺, Mr., 330

Yabū, 107, 348

Yakhjal, 240
Yapunjah, 319
Yari Khan, 78
Yarns, 329
Yezd, 162
marble, 114, 276
 nammads, 152
Yezdikhast, 261, 357
Yezeed, 283
Yezeedis, 126
Young pigs, 178

Zalābi, 284
Zambūreks, 52
Zangi, Spring of, 241
Zenda Rūd, 135, 193
Zerejumah, 317
Zergūn, 260, 354
Zil-es-Sultan, 146, 154, 203, 205, 365
accident to, 255
and his dogs, 366
and the bear, 227
boat of, 248
character of, 366
conversation with, 155
dress of, 257
his kalāat, 258
illnesses of, 149
petition to, 155
politeness of, 366
procession of, 256
prospects of, 199
rudeness of, 367
Zinjan, 154, 272
Zoban-i-Gūngishk, 359
Zoological Gardens, 35
 THE END.
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 BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
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