Byzantine art

Ngh thut Byzantine l thut ng thng c dng m t nhng sn phm ngh thut thuc ch Byzantine t khong th k 5 cho n s sp ca triu i Constantinople nm 1453. Thut ng ny cng c dng cho ngh thut ca nhng bang thuc min ng Orthodox ng thi vi ch Byzantine v b nh hng v mt vn ha bi n, m khng thc s l mt phn ca n (s thnh vng ca Byzantine), nh Bulgaria, Serbia, hay Rus v cn cho ngh thut ca Cng ha Venice v Vng quc Sicily, c nhng lien h gn gi vi ch Byzantine mc cho vic nhng phn khc nhau ca vn ha Ty u. Ngh thut sn sinh bi Nhng ngi Thin cha gio ng Orthodox sng trong ch Ottoman thng c gi l Hu Byzantine. Nhng truyn thng ngh thut xc nh bt ngun t ch Byzantine, c bit lin quan ti hi ha hnh tng v kin trc nh th, c duy tr Hy Lp, Serbia, Bulgaria, Nga, v nhng nc ng Orthodox cho ti ngy nay. Byzantine art is the term commonly used to describe the artistic products of the Byzantine Empire from about the 5th century until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. The term can also be used for the art of Eastern Orthodox states which were contemporary with the Byzantine Empire and were culturally influenced by it, without actually being part of it (the "Byzantine commonwealth"), such as Bulgaria, Serbia, or Rus and also for the art of the Republic of Venice and Kingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. Art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire is often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day.

Introduction
Ngay khi ch Byzantine i din cho s lien tc chnh tr ca ch La M, ngh thut Byzantine pht trin ra ngoi ngh thut ca ch La M, m chnh n b nh hng mt cch su sc bi ngh thut Hy Lp c i. Ngh thut Byzantine khng bao gi nh mt hnh nh ca di sn c in ny. Th Byzantine, Constantinople, c t im vi mt s lng ln nhng iu khc c in, mc d chng cui cng tr thnh mt vt th ca mt s tnh trng kh x dnh cho c dn ca n. V thc vy, ngh thut sinh ra trong sut ch Byzantine, mc d c nh du bi nhng s phc hi nh k ca mt thm m c in, trn ht tt c c nh du bi s pht trin ca mt thm m mi. c im ni bt nht ca thm m mi ny l s tru tng, hay tnh cht phn t nhin ca n. Nu ngh thut c in c nh du bi s c gng sng to nhng i din bt chc thc t cng gn cng tt, th ngh thut Byzantine dng nh phi b ri c gng ny ng h mt s tip cn mang tnh biu tng hn. Just as the Byzantine Empire represented the political continuation of the Roman Empire, Byzantine art developed out of the art of the Roman Empire, which was itself profoundly influenced by ancient Greek art. Byzantine art never lost sight of this classical heritage. The Byzantine capital, Constantinople, was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures,[1] although they eventually became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants.[2] And indeed, the art produced during the Byzantine Empire, although marked by periodic revivals of a classical aesthetic, was above all marked by the development of a new aesthetic.

The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its abstract, or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach.

Nhng bc tiu ha ca Rabula Gospel, th k 6 th hin bn cht biu tng v khi qut ca ngh thut Byzantine. Miniatures of the 6th-century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art. Bn cht v nhng nguyn nhn ca s bin i ny, phn ln din ra trong sut khong thi gian c xa sau , l mt ti ca tranh lun hc gi hng th k. Giorgio Vasari gn cho n s gim st v nhng tiu chun v k nng ngh thut, m ngc li c phc hi bi nhng ngi ng thi vi ng Phc hng Italia. Mc d quan im ny thnh thong c phc hi, mt cch ng ch nht bi Bernard Berenson, nhng hc gi hin i c khuyng hng chp nhn mt quan im tch cc hn v thm m Byzantine. Alois Riegl v Josef Strzygowski, nhng tc gi vo u th k 20, trn ht tt c chu trch nhim cho s ti nh gi ca ngh thut c mun. Riegl nhn thy n nh l s pht trin t nhin ca nhng khuynh hng hin hu trong Ngh thut La M, trong khi ngc li Strzygowski xem n nh mt sn phm ca nhng nh hng t phng ng. Nhng ng gp ng ch gn y vo tranh lun bao gm ca Ernst Kitzinger, ngi truy nguyn mt s bin chng gia tru tng v nhng khuyng hng c Hy Lp trong thi gian c xa mun, v John Onians, ngi nhn thy mt s gia tng trong phn ng th gic trong thi k c xa mun, qua mt ngi quan st c th nhn mt iu g m trong thut ng ca th k 20 hon ton tru tng v thy n mang tnh i din. The nature and causes of this transformation, which largely took place during late antiquity, have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries.[3] Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in artistic skills and standards, which had in turn been revived by his contemporaries in the Italian Renaissance. Although this point of view has been occasionally revived, most notably by

Bernard Berenson,[4] modern scholars tend to take a more positive view of the Byzantine aesthetic. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski, writing in the early 20th century, were above all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art.[5] Riegl saw it as a natural development of preexisting tendencies in Roman art, whereas Strzygowski viewed it as a product of oriental influences. Notable recent contributions to the debate include those of Ernst Kitzinger,[6] who traced a dialectic between abstract" and "Hellenistic tendencies in late antiquity, and John Onians,[7] who saw an increase in visual response in late antiquity, through which a viewer could look at something which was in twentieth-century terms purely abstract and find it representational. Trong bt k trng hp no, cuc tranh lun thun ty l hin i: r rang l a s nhng ngi xem Byzantine khng xem nh ngh thut ca h l tru tng hay tri vi t nhin. Nh Cyril Mango quan st, s trn trng ca ring chng ta dnh cho ngh thut Byzantine xut pht phn ln t s tht l ngh thut ny khng mang tnh t nhin; nhng chnh nhng ngi Byzantine, nh gi bi nhng pht biu hin cn, xem n nh c tnh t nhin cao v trc tip theo truyn thng ca Phidias, Apelles, v Zeuxis. In any case, the debate is purely modern: it is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their art to be abstract or unnaturalistic. As Cyril Mango has observed, our own appreciation of Byzantine art stems largely from the fact that this art is not naturalistic; yet the Byzantines themselves, judging by their extant statements, regarded it as being highly naturalistic and as being directly in the tradition of Phidias, Apelles, and Zeuxis.[8]

Bch ha Nerezi gn Skopje (1164), vi s phi trn c o ca chng vi bi kch cao , tnh nhn vn phng pht, v ch ngha hin thc cht phc, d bo cch tip cn ca Giotto v nhng ngh s Phc hng Italia nguyn thy khc. Frescoes in Nerezi near Skopje (1164), with their unique blend of high tragedy, gentle humanity, and homespun realism, anticipate the approach of Giotto and other proto-Renaissance Italian artists.[citation needed] Vn ch quan ca ngh thut Byzantine honh trng chnh yu l tn gio v ch: hai ch thng c kt hp, nh trong nhng bc chn dung ca nhng hong Byzantine mun, m trang tr cho ni tht ca nh th Hagia Sophia Constantinople, th k 6. Nhng bn tm ny mt phn l kt qu ca bn cht chuyn quyn v sung o ca x hi Byzantine, v mt phn l kt qu ca cu trc kinh t ca n: s giu c ca ch c tp trung vo bn tay ca

nh th v vn phng ch, do c c hi ln nht m trch nhng nhim v ngh thut v i. The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. These preoccupations are partly a result of the pious and autocratic nature of Byzantine society, and partly a result of its economic structure: the wealth of the empire was concentrated in the hands of the church and the imperial office, which therefore had the greatest opportunity to undertake monumental artistic commissions. Tuy nhin, ngh thut tn gio khng b gii hn ti trang tr honh trng ca ni tht nh th. Mt trong nhng th loi quan trng nht ca ngh thut Byzantine l hnh tng, mt hnh nh ca Cha, c M ng trinh, hay mt v thnh, c dng nh mt vt th ca s sung knh trong nh th Orthodox v nh ring tng t. Nhng hnh tng mang tnh tn gio hn l thm m v bn cht: c bit sau s kt thc ca s bi tr thnh tng, chng c hiu l biu th cho s hin din c nht ca hnh nh c m t bng phng tin ca mt s ging nhau vi dng v c duy tr qua nhng tiu chun ca s i din c duy tr mt cch cn thn. Religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, the Virgin, or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes alike. Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature: especially after the end of iconoclasm, they were understood to manifest the unique presence of the figure depicted by means of a likeness to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation.[9] S soi sng ca nhng bn tho l mt th loi chnh na ca ngh thut Byzantine. Nhng vn bn c minh ha thng thng nht l tn gio, c chnh kinh thnh (c bit l nhng bi Thnh ca) v nhng vn bn cu nguyn hay thn hc (nh Ladder of Divine Ascent ca John Climacus hay nhng bi thuyt php ca Gregory of Nazianzus). Nhng vn bn trn tc cng c chiu sng: nhng v d quan trng bao gm Alexander Romance v lch s ca John Skylitzes. The illumination of manuscripts was another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself (particularly the Psalms) and devotional or theological texts (such as the Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus or the homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus). Secular texts were also illuminated: important examples include the Alexander Romance and the history of John Skylitzes. Ngi Byzantine k tha s ng vc ca Thin cha gio tin k v iu khc honh trng trong ngh thut tn gio, v to ra ch nhng chm ni, trong rt t nhng s tn ti l bt c th g ging nh kch c i sng, trong s tng phn mnh vi ngh thut trung c ca pha Ty, ni m iu khc honh trng phc hi t ngh thut Carolingian. Nhng ng voi nh cng phn ln di dng chm ni. Ngh thut thiu s hay xa hoa (ngha l nhng ng voi, tranh v trn men, trang sc, kim ngh, gm s, ) c sn xut vi s lng ln thng qua thi k Byzantine. Nhiu trong s nhng th ny cng mang tnh tn gio v bn cht, mc d mt s lng ln nhng vt vi trang tr th tc hoc khng i din c to ra: v d, nhng ng voi i din cho nhng ch t thn thoi c in, v gm c trang tr vi nhng hnh v c l xut pht t nhng thin anh hung ca Akritic.

The Byzantines inherited the Early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief. Minor or luxury arts (i.e. ivories, steatites, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, ceramics, etc.) were produced in large number throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were also religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology, and ceramics decorated with figures that may derive from the Akritic epics.

Periods
Early Byzantine art Ngh thut Byzantine thi k u

L t mt tranh b i bng ng voi ca Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus, quan chp chnh ti cao Constantinople, nm 506. Areobindus c th hin bn trn, ang lm ch ta nhng tr chi Hippodrome, c m t pha di Leaf from an ivory diptych of Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus, consul in Constantinople, 506. Areobindus is shown above, presiding over the games in the Hippodrome, depicted beneath. Hai s kin c tm quan trng nn tng ti s pht trin ca mt nn ngh thut Byzantine c o. Mt, Sc lnh Milan, c ban ra bi nhng hong Constantine I v Licinius vo nm 313, cho php s th phng Thin cha cng khai, v dn ti s pht trin ca ngh thut Thin cha gio honh trng. Hai, s cng hin ca Constantinople vo nm 330 to ra mt trung tm ngh thut mi to ln dnh cho na pha ng ca ch, v mt trung tm ngh thut Thin cha gio c bit. Nhng truyn thng ngh thut khc n r trong nhng thnh ph i ch nh Alexandria, Antioch, v Rome, nhng n khng din ra cho ti khi tt c nhng thnh ph ny sp - hai ci u tin n vi Arabs v Rome ti Goths m Constantinople thit lp uy th ca mnh. Two events were of fundamental importance to the development of a unique, Byzantine art. First, the Edict of Milan, issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, and led to the development of a monumental, Christian art. Second, the dedication of Constantinople in 330 created a great new artistic centre for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian one. Other artistic traditions flourished in rival cities such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, but it was not until all of these cities had fallen - the first two to the Arabs and Rome to the Goths - that Constantinople established its supremacy. Constantine cng hin n lc to ln cho s trang tr ca Constantinople, t im nhng khng gian cng cng vi nhiu tng i c xa, v xy dng mt mt khu ch c ch ng bi hng ct pocfia mang tng ca ng. Nhng nh th Constantinopolitan chnh c xy dng di thi Constantine v con trai ng Constantine II, bao gm nhng nn mng nguyn thy ca Hagia Sophia v nh th the Holy Apostles. Chin lc xy dng chnh k tip Constantinople c ti tr boi73i Theodosius I. Tng i cn li quan trng nht ca thi k ny l ct obelisk v b c dng ln bi Theodosius trong trng ua. Nh th cn li sm nht Constantinople l ta Basilica of St. John ti tu vin Stoudios, c xy dng vo th k th 5. Constantine devoted great effort to the decoration of Constantinople, adorning its public spaces with ancient statuary,[10] and building a forum dominated by a porphyry column that carried a statue of himself.[11] Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles.[12] The next major building campaign in Constantinople was sponsored by Theodosius I. The most important surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome.[13] The earliest surviving church in Constantinople is the Basilica of St. John at the Stoudios Monastery, built in the fifth century.[14] Do s xy dng li sau v s ph hy, rt t nhng tng i Constantinopolitan ca thi k u cn li. Tuy nhin, s pht trin ca ngh thut honh trng Byzantine ban u vn c th c truy nguyn qua nhng cu trc cn li trong nhng thnh ph khc. V d, nhng nh th quan trng u tin c tm thy Rome (bao gm Santa Sabina v Santa Maria Maggiore), v Thessaloniki (Rotunda v Basilica Acheiropoietos).

Due to subsequent rebuilding and destruction, relatively few Constantinopolitan monuments of this early period survive. However, the development of monumental early Byzantine art can still be traced through surviving structures in other cities. For example, important early churches are found in Rome (including Santa Sabina and Santa Maria Maggiore),[15] and in Thessaloniki (the Rotunda and the Acheiropoietos Basilica).[16] Nhiu bn tho c soi sng quan trng, va thing ling va trn th, cn li t thi k s khai ny. Nhng tc gi c in, bao gm Virgil (i din bi Vergilius Vaticanus v Vergilius Romanus) v Homer (i din bi Ambrosian Iliad), c minh ha vi nhng bc tranh trn thut. Nhng bn tho kinh thnh c gii thch ca thi k ny cn li ch trong nhng mnh ghp: v d, mnh Quedlinburg Itala l mt phn nh ca nhng g ng l phi l mt bn sao c minh ha nhiu ca quyn sch Cc vua 1. Ngh thut Byzantine s khai cng c nh du bi s reo mm ca chm khc ng voi. Nhng tranh ng voi b i, thng c trang tr cu k, c ban tng nh nhng mn qu bi nhng quan chp chnh ti cao mi c b nhim. Nhng a bc l hnh thc ngh thut xa x quan trng khc: trong s ci hoang ph nht t thi k ny l Missorium ca Theodosius I. Sarcophagi tip tc c to ra vi s lng ln A number of important illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, survive from this early period. Classical authors, including Virgil (represented by the Vergilius Vaticanus[17] and the Vergilius Romanus[18]) and Homer (represented by the Ambrosian Iliad), were illustrated with narrative paintings. Illuminated biblical manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example, the Quedlinburg Itala fragment is a small portion of what must have been a lavishly illustrated copy of 1 Kings.[19] Early Byzantine art was also marked by the cultivation of ivory carving.[20] Ivory diptychs, often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts by newly appointed consuls.[21] Silver plates were another important form of luxury art:[22] among the most lavish from this period is the Missorium of Theodosius I.[23] Sarcophagi continued to be produced in great numbers.

[edit] The Age of Justinian

Thi k Justinian Nhng thay i quan trng trong ngh thut Byzantine trng hp vi vng triu Justinian I (527-565). Justinian cng hin phn nhiu trong triu i ca mnh ti chinh phc Italia, Bc Phi v Ty Ban Nha. ng cng t nn mng cho s chuyn ch ca nc Byzantine, son lut l v p t quan im tn gio ln tt c nhng thn dn ca ng bng lut php. Significant changes in Byzantine art coincided with the reign of Justinian I (527-565). Justinian devoted much of his reign to reconquering Italy, North Africa and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the imperial absolutism of the Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing his religious views on all his subjects by law.[24]

Tranh Mosaic t San Vitale Ravenna, th hin hong Justinian v gio hong Maximian ca Ravenna c vy quanh bi nhng gio s v qun lnh. Mosaic from San Vitale in Ravenna, showing the Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian of Ravenna surrounded by clerics and soldiers. Mt thnh t quan trng trong d n ca Justinian v vic i mi ch l mt chng trnh xy dng khng l, c m t trong mt quyn sch, Buildings, c vit bi s gia ta n ca Justinian, Procopius. Justinian nng cp, ti xy dng, hoc t nn mng cho v s nhng nh th mi trong phm vi Constantinople, bao gm Hagia Sophia, b ph hy trong sut nhng cuc ni lon Nika, nh th the Holy Apostles, v nh th Saints Sergius v Bacchus. Justinian cng xy dng nhiu nh th v nhng cng s bn ngoi th ca ch, bao gm tu vin St. Catherine trn bn o Sinai, v Basilica of St. John Ephesus. A significant component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation was a massive building program, which was described in a book, the Buildings, written by Justinian's court historian, Procopius.[25] Justinian renovated, rebuilt, or founded anew countless churches within Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia,[26] which had been destroyed during the Nika riots, the Church of the Holy Apostles,[27] and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus.[28] Justinian also built a number of churches and fortifications outside of the imperial capital, including the Monastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai Peninsula,[29] and the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus.[30] Nhiu nh th chnh ca thi k ny c xy dng nhng tnh bi nhng gim mc a phng bt chc nhng nn tng Constaninopolitan mi. Basilica of San Vitale Ravenna, c xy dng bi gim mc Maximianus. Trang tr ca San Vitake bao gm nhng tranh mosaic quan trng ca Justinian v hong hu, Theodora, mc d khng ain tng thm ving nh th. Cng nm trong ghi ch l Basilica Euphrasian Porec. Several major churches of this period were built in the provinces by local bishops in imitation of the new Constantinopolitan foundations. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, was built by Bishop Maximianus. The decoration of San Vitale includes important mosaics of Justinian and his empress, Theodora, although neither ever visited the church.[31] Also of note is the Euphrasian Basilica in Pore.[32] Nhng khm ph kho c th k 19-20 h l mt nhm ln nhng tranh mosaic ca Byzantine thi k u Trung ng. Nhng tnh min ng ca ng La M v sau l ch Byzantine k tha mt truyn thng ngh thut mnh m t thi k c xa mun. Ngh thut mosaic Thin cha gio n r trong khu vc t th k th 4 tr i. Truyn thng lm tranh

mosaic c mang sang k nguyn Umayyad cho n cui th k th 8. Nhng v d cn li quan trng nht l bn Madaba, nhng tranh mosaic ca Mount Nebo, Tu vin Saint Catherine ni Sinai v nh th St. Stephen Kastron Mefaa c (nay l Umm ar-Rasas). 19-20th century archeological discoveries unearthed a large group of Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East. The eastern provinces of the Eastern Roman and later the Byzantine Empires inherited a strong artistic tradition from the Late Antiquity. Christian mosaic art flourished in this area from the 4th century onwards. The tradition of making mosaics was carried on in the Umayyad era until the end of the 8th century. The most important surviving examples are the Madaba Map, the mosaics of Mount Nebo, Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai and the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (now Umm ar-Rasas). Nhng bn tho kinh thnh c gii thch c bo tn mt cch nguyn vn u tin c nin i vo na u th k 6, ng ch nht l Vienna Genesis, sch phc m Rossano, v sch phc m Sinope. Vienna Dioscurides l mt chuyn lun tho mc c nhiu minh ha, c tng nh mt mn qu cho qu tc Byzantine Julia Anicia. Nhng iu khc ng voi quan trng ca thi k ny bao gm ng voi Barberini, c l m t chnh Justinian, v ng voi Archangel bo tang Anh quc. a bc tip tc c trang tr vi nhng cnh tr c v t thn thoi c in; v d, mt ci a c bo tn trong Cabinet des Mdailles, Paris, m t Hercules u vt vi s t Nemean The first fully preserved illuminated biblical manuscripts date to the first half of the sixth century, most notably the Vienna Genesis,[33] the Rossano Gospels,[34] and the Sinope Gospels.[35] The Vienna Dioscurides is a lavishly illustrated botanical treatise, presented as a gift to the Byzantine aristocrat Julia Anicia.[36] Important ivory sculptures of this period include the Barberini ivory, which probably depicts Justinian himself,[37] and the Archangel ivory in the British Museum.[38] Silver plate continued to be decorated with scenes drawn from classical mythology; for example, a plate preserved in the Cabinet des Mdailles, Paris, depicts Hercules wrestling the Nemean lion.

[edit] The seventh-century crisis S khng hong th k th 7

Tranh Mosaic t nh th Hagios Demetrios Thessaloniki, cui th k 7 u th k 8, th hin St. Demetrios vi ngi cng tin. Mosaic from the church of Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki, late 7th or early 8th century, showing St. Demetrios with donors. Thi i Justinian c theo sau bi mt s sa xt v chnh tr, bi v phn ln nhng t ai xm chim ca Justinian mt v ch i mt vi khng hong su sc vi s xm phm ca Avars, Slavs, Persians v Arabs vo th k 7. Constantinople cng b nt bi s mu thun tn gio v chnh tr. Phn ln nhng d n honh trng cn li ng k nht ca thi k ny c m nhim bn ngoi th ca ch. Nh th Hagios Demetrios Thessaloniki c xy dng li sau mt ha hon vo gia th k th 7. Nhng phn mi bao gm tranh mosaic c thc hin theo mt phong cch tru tng ng ch . Nh th Koimesis Nicaea (ngy nay l Iznik), b ph hy vo u th k 20 nhng c ghi vo ti liu qua nhng hnh chp, chng minh cho s cn li ng thi ca mt phong cch c in hn trong trang tr nh th. Nhng nh th Rome, vn cn l mt lnh th ca Byzantine giai on ny, cng bao gm nhng chng trnh trang tr cn li quan trng, c bit Santa Maria Antiqua, Sant Agnese fuori le mura, v thnh ng ca San Venanzio San Giovanni Laterano. Nhng nh mosaic Byzantine c l cng ng gp nhiu vo trang tr ca nhng tng i Umayyad s khai, bao gm Dome of the Rock Jerusalem v Great Mosque of Damascus. The Age of Justinian was followed by a political decline, since most of Justinian's conquests were lost and the Empire faced acute crisis with the invasions of the Avars, Slavs, Persians and Arabs in the 7th century. Constantinople was also wracked by religious and political conflict.[39] The most significant surviving monumental projects of this period were undertaken outside of the imperial capital. The church of Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki was rebuilt after a fire in the mid-seventh century. The new sections include mosaics executed in a remarkably abstract style.[40] The church of the Koimesis in Nicaea (present-day Iznik), destroyed in the early 20th

century but documented through photographs, demonstrates the simultaneous survival of a more classical style of church decoration.[41] The churches of Rome, still a Byzantine territory in this period, also include important surviving decorative programs, especially Santa Maria Antiqua, Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, and the Chapel of San Venanzio in San Giovanni in Laterano.[42] Byzantine mosaicists probably also contributed to the decoration of the early Umayyad monuments, including the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus.
[43]

Nhng tc phm quan trng ca ngh thut xa hoa t thi k ny bao gm nhng a bc David, c sn xut trong sut triu i Heraclius, v m t nhng cnh t cuc sng ca vua David, ngi Do Thi. Nhng bn tho cn li ng ch l sch phc m Syriac, nh ci gi l kinh thnh Syriac ca Paris. Tuy nhin, London Canon Tables mang bng chng cho s sn xut lien tc ca nhng sch phc m Hy Lp. Important works of luxury art from this period include the silver David Plates, produced during the reign of Heraclius, and depicting scenes from the life of the Hebrew king David.[44] The most notable surviving manuscripts are Syriac gospel books, such as the so-called Syriac Bible of Paris.[45] However, the London Canon Tables bear witness to the continuing production of lavish gospel books in Greek.[46] Giai don gia Justinian v s bi tr thnh tng nhn thy nhng thay i quan trng trong vai tr ca tn gio v x hi ca nhng hnh nh trong phm vi Byzantium. S sung knh ca acheiropoieta, hay nhng hnh nh thnh linh khng c lm bi bn tay con ngi tr thnh mt hin tng ng k, v trong mt s quan im nhng hnh nh ny c tn nhim vi vic cu vt nhng thnh ph khi tn cng qun s. Vo cui th k 7, nhng hnh nh ca cc thnh c xem nh l nhng ca s thng qua mt ngi c th giao tip vi hnh v c m t. Proskynesis trc khi nhng hnh nh ny c chng thc trong nhng vn bn t cui th k 7. Nhng pht trin ny nh du s khi u ca mt thuyt thn hc v nhng hnh tng The period between Justinian and iconoclasm saw major changes in the social and religious roles of images within Byzantium. The veneration of acheiropoieta, or holy images "not made by human hands," became a significant phenomenon, and in some instances these images were credited with saving cities from military assault. By the end of the seventh century, certain images of saints had come to be viewed as "windows" through which one could communicate with the figure depicted. Proskynesis before images is also attested in texts from the late seventh century. These developments mark the beginnings of a theology of icons.[47] ng thi, tranh lun v vai tr chnh ca ngh thut trong trang tr ca nh th c tng cng. Ba tiu chun ca y ban Quinisext ca nm 692 xc nh nhng tranh ci trong lnh vc ny: s cm on ca nhng i din ca thp gi trn va h nh th (tiu chun 73), s cm on i din ca Cha nh l cu (tiu chun 82), v lnh cm chung chng li nhng hnh nh, cho d chng l tranh hay di dng no i chng na, m thu ht con mt v lm sai lc suy ngh, v xi dc n ti s nhen nhm ca nhng vui th c bn (tiu chun 100). At the same time, the debate over the proper role of art in the decoration of churches intensified. Three canons of the Quinisext Council of 692 addressed controversies in this area: prohibition of the representation of the cross on church pavements (Canon 73), prohibition of the representation of Christ as a lamb (Canon 82), and a general injunction against "pictures, whether they are in paintings or in what way so ever, which attract the eye and corrupt the mind, and incite it to the enkindling of base pleasures" (Canon 100).

[edit] Iconoclasm Bi tr thnh tng

Thn mt tri trn c xe nga, bao quanh bi nhng thng v hong o. T Vat. Gr. Nm 1291, Handy Tables ca Ptolemy, c to ra trong sut triu i Constantine V Helios in his chariot, surrounded by symbols of the months and of the zodiac. From Vat. Gr. 1291, the "Handy Tables" of Ptolemy, produced during the reign of Constantine V. S tranh ci v vai tr ca ngh thut trong s th phng cui cng dn ti giai on Byzantine bi tr thnh tng. Nhng bc pht ri rc ca s bi tr thnh tng trong nhng phn t ca cc gim mc a phng c chng nhn trong Tiu sut nhng nm 720. Vo nm 726, mt trn ng t di nc gia nhng hn o ca Thera v Therasia c gii thch bi Hong Leo III nh l mt k hiu ca s gin d ca Cha, v dn Leo ti vic g b mt hnh tng ni ting ca Cha khi Cng Chalke bn ngoi cung in ch. Tuy nhin, s bi tr thnh tng c l khng tr thnh chnh sch ca ch cho ti vng triu con ca Leo, Constantine V. y ban Hieria, c triu tp di Constantine vo nm 754, cm s sn xut cc hnh tng ca Cha. S kin ny m mn cho giai on Bi tr thnh tng, ko di vi nhng gin on cho ti nm 843. Intense debate over the role of art in worship led eventually to the period of "Byzantine iconoclasm."[48] Sporadic outbreaks of iconoclasm on the part of local bishops are attested in Asia Minor during the 720s. In 726, an underwater earthquake between the islands of Thera and Therasia was interpreted by Emperor Leo III as a sign of God's anger, and may have led Leo to remove a famous icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate outside the imperial palace.[49] However, iconoclasm probably did not become imperial policy until the reign of Leo's son, Constantine V. The Council of Hieria, convened under Constantine in 754, proscribed the manufacture of icons of Christ. This inaugurated the Iconoclastic period, which lasted, with interruptions, until 843. Trong khi s bi tr thnh tng gii hn mt cch nghim trng vai tr ca ngh thut tn gio, v dn ti s g b mt s tranh mosaic v tng nim sm hn v (c th) s ph hy lc c ca nhng hnh tng c th mang i c, n khng bao gi hnh thnh mt lnh cm hon chnh ln s sn xut ngh thut to hnh. Nhng ngun ti liu vit phong ph ch ra rng

ngh thut th tc (ngha l nhng cnh sn bn v s m t nhng tr chi trong trng ua) tip tc c sn xut, v mt s cc tng i c th tn ti mt cch an ton ti gian on ny (ng ch nht l bn tho ca Ptolemy Handy Tables, ngy nay c Vaticam gi) minh chng rng nhng ngh s thnh ph vn duy tr mt cht lng sn xut cao. While iconoclasm severely restricted the role of religious art, and led to the removal of some earlier apse mosaics and (possibly) the sporadic destruction of portable icons, it never constituted a total ban on the production of figural art. Ample literary sources indicate that secular art (i.e. hunting scenes and depictions of the games in the hippodrome) continued to be produced,[50] and the few monuments that can be securely dated to the period (most notably the manuscript of Ptolemy's "Handy Tables" today held by the Vatican[51]) demonstrate that metropolitan artists maintained a high quality of production.[52] Nhng nh th c nin i trong giai on ny gm Hagia Eirene Constantinople, c xy dng li vo nhng nm 760 theo sau s ph hy bi trn ng t na9m 740. Ni tht ca Hagia Eirene, p o bi tranh mosaic ln xuyn qua ni cu kinh, mt trong nhng v d c bo tn tt nht ca tran tr nh th thi k bi tr thnh tng. Nh th Hagia Sophia Thessaloniki cng c xy dng li vo cui th k th 8. Major churches dating to this period include Hagia Eirene in Constantinople, which was rebuilt in the 760s following its destruction by an earthquake in 740. The interior of Hagia Eirene, which is dominated by a large mosaic cross in the apse, is one of the best-preserved examples of iconoclastic church decoration.[53] The church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki was also rebuilt in the late 8th century.[54] Nhng nh khc c xy bn ngoi ch trong sut giai on ny, nhng c trang tr theo phong cch hnh dng Byzantine, cng c th chng minh cho nhng hot ng lien tc ca cc ngh s Byzantine. c bit quan trng v mt ny l nhng tranh mosaic nguyn gc ca gio ng Palatine Aachen (do b ph hy hoc trng tu qu nng) v nhng bch ha trong nh th Maria nhng li vo nhng khu ch Castelseprio. Certain churches built outside of the empire during this period, but decorated in a figural, "Byzantine," style, may also bear witness to the continuing activities of Byzantine artists. Particularly important in this regard are the original mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (since either destroyed or heavily restored) and the frescoes in the Church of Maria foris portas in Castelseprio.

[edit] Macedonian Art Ngh thut Macedonian

Main article: Macedonian art (Byzantine)

Mt v d v tc phm ng voi Macedonia: Bng mi ngi t v o ca Sebaste, nay troong bo tang Bode, Berlin. An example of Macedonian ivorywork: the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, now in the Bode Museum, Berlin. Nhng lut l ca y ban Hieria c gi li bi mt y ban nh th mi vo nm 843, c c hnh cho ti ngy ny trong nh th ng Orthodox nh Chin thng ca Orthodoxy. Vo nm 867, s lp t ca mt tranh mosaic cu kinh mi Hagia Sophia m t c m ng tring v Hi nhi c c hnh bi Patriarch Photios trong mt bi thuyt php ni ting nh l mt thng li i vi ma qu ca s bi tr thnh tng. Sau trong cng nm, Hong Basil I, c gi l ngi Macedonia ln lm vua; kt qu l giai on sau ca ngh thut Byzantine thnh thong c gi l Phc hng Macedonia, mc d thut ng c vn mt cch y hoi nghi (n khng phi l Macedonian cng khng phi l Phc hng, ni mt cch nghim khc) The rulings of the Council of Hieria were reversed by a new church council in 843, celebrated to this day in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy." In 867, the installation of a new apse mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the Virgin and Child was celebrated by the Patriarch Photios in a famous homily as a victory over the evils of iconoclasm. Later in the same year, the Emperor Basil I, called "the Macedonian," acceded to the throne; as a result the following period of Byzantine art has sometimes been called the "Macedonian Renaissance", although the term is doubly problematic (it was neither "Macedonian", nor, strictly speaking, a "Renaissance"). Vo th k th 9 v 10, tnh hnh qun i ca ch ci thin, v s bo tr cho ngh thut v kin trc tng ln. Nhng nh th mi c ln nhim v, v hnh thc kin trc tiu chun (hnh vung thnh gi) v ch trang tr ca nh th Byzantine trung c c tiu chun ha. Nhng v d cn li chnh yu bao gm Hosios Loukas Boeotia, v tu vin Daphni gn Athens v Nea Moni Chios. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Empire's military situation improved, and patronage of art and architecture increased. New churches were commissioned, and the standard architectural form (the "cross-in-square") and decorative scheme of the Middle Byzantine church were

standardised. Major surviving examples include Hosios Loukas in Boeotia, the Daphni Monastery near Athens and Nea Moni on Chios. c mt s hi phc ca mi quan tm trong s m t nhng ch t thn thoi c in (nh trn hp trap Veroli) v trong vic s dng mt phong cch c in din t tn gio, v c bit l Di chc c, nhng ch (trong Paris Psalter v Joshua Roll l nhng v d quan trng. Giai on Macedinian cng nhn thy s phc hi ca k thut c xa cui trong chm khc ng boi. Nhiu tranh b i, b bat rang tr bng ng voi cn li, nh tranh b ba Harbaville v mt tranh b ba ti Luton Hoo, c nin i t triu i Nicephorus Phocas. There was a revival of interest in the depiction of subjects from classical mythology (as on the Veroli Casket) and in the use of a "classical" style to depict religious, and particularly Old Testament, subjects (of which the Paris Psalter and the Joshua Roll are important examples) The Macedonian period also saw a revival of the late antique technique of ivory carving. Many ornate ivory triptychs and diptychs survive, such as the Harbaville Triptych and a triptych at Luton Hoo, dating from the reign of Nicephorus Phocas).

[edit] Comnenian Age Thi k Comnenian

Nhng hong Macedonian c k tc bi vng triu Komnenian, bt u t triu i ca Alexios I Komnenos vo nm 1081. Byzantium phi chu ng mt giai on chuyn ch nghim trng theo sau cuc chin ca Manzinkert vo nm 1071 v s mt mt sau ca Tiu cho ngi Th Nh K. Tuy nhin, gia on Komnenoi em li s n nh cho ch, (1081-1185), v trong sut thi gian ca th k 12, chin dch y nng lng ca h lm nhiu trng tu c ngi ca ch. Komnenoi l nhng nh ti tr ln ca ngh thut, v vi s h tr ca h, cc ngh s Byzantine tip tc i ti xu hng ch ngha c nhn v cm xuac1 ln hn, trong Theotokos of Vladimir, chu trnh ca tranh mosaic ti Daphni, v nhng bch ha ti Nerezi l nhng v d tiu biu. iu khc ng voi v nhng cht liu mc tin khc ca ngh thut dn dn m ng cho ngh thut tranh tng v hnh tng, m ln u tin t c s ph bin rng khp ch. Ngoi tr nhng hnh tng v, c nhng th loi khc nhau ng ch l mosaic v gm The Macedonian emperors were followed by the Komnenian dynasty, beginning with the reign of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081. Byzantium had recently suffered a period of severe dislocation following the battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor to the Turks. However, the Komnenoi brought stability to the empire, (10811185), and during the course of the twelfth century their energetic campaigning did much to restore the fortunes of the empire. The Komnenoi were great patrons of the arts, and with their support Byzantine artists continued to move in the direction of greater humanism and emotion, of which the Theotokos of Vladimir, the cycle of mosaics at Daphni, and the murals at Nerezi yield important examples. Ivory sculpture and other expensive mediums of art gradually gave way to frescoes and icons, which for the first time gained widespread popularity across the Empire. Apart from painted icons, there were other varieties - notably the mosaic and ceramic ones.

L truyn tin t Ohrid, mt trong nhng hnh tng c khm phc nht ca ch ngha Kiu cch Paleologan, c so snh vi nhng tc phm p nht ca cc ngh s Italia ng thi. The Annunciation from Ohrid, one of the most admired icons of the Paleologan Mannerism, bears comparison with the finest contemporary works by Italian artists. Mt trong nhng tc phm Byzantine p nht ca giai on ny c l c tm thy bn ngoi ch: trong cc tranh mosaic ca Gelati, Kiev, Torcello, Venice, Monreale, Cefal, v Palermo. V d, Basilica of St. Mark ca Vernice, bt u nm 1063, da trn nh th ln the Holy of Apostles Constantine, ngy nay b ph hy, v v th l mt d m ca thi k Justinian. Nhng thi quen tch tr ca ngi Vernice c ngha l basilica cng l mt bo tang ln ca nhng tc phm ngh thut ca Byzantine thuc mi th loi. Some of the finest Byzantine work of this period may be found outside the Empire: in the mosaics of Gelati, Kiev, Torcello, Venice, Monreale, Cefal and Palermo. For instance, Venice's Basilica of St Mark, begun in 1063, was based on the great Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, now destroyed, and is thus an echo of the age of Justinian. The acquisitive habits of the Venetians mean that the basilica is also a great museum of Byzantine artworks of all kinds (e.g., Pala d'Oro).

[edit] Palaeologan Age Thi k Palaeologan

Tm trm nm ca vn ha Byzantine lien tc b kt thc cch t ngt vo nm 1204 vi vic nh bi Constantinople bi cc hip s ca cuc Thp t chinh ln 4, mt thm ha t m ch khng bao gi phc hi c. Mc d nhng ngi Byzantine tr li thnh ph nm 1261, ch sau ch l mt thnh bang nh v yu t b gii hn ti bn o Hy lp v nhng hn o ca Aegean. Eight hundred years of continuous Byzantine culture were brought to an abrupt end in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople by the knights of the Fourth Crusade, a disaster from which the

Empire never recovered. Although the Byzantines regained the city in 1261, the Empire was thereafter a small and weak state confined to the Greek peninsula and the islands of the Aegean. Tuy nhin vng triu Palaeologan, bt u vi Micheal VII Paleeologus vo nm 1259, l thi k vng son cui cng ca ngh thut Byzantine, mt phn bi s trao i vn ha gia tng gia cc ngh s Byzantine v Italia. Nhng ngh s Byzantine pht trin mi quan tm mi trong cnh quan v nhng khung cnh ng qu, v ngh thut mosaic truyn thng (trong nh th Chora Constantinople l v d hin cn p nht) dn dn m ng cho nhng chu k chi tit ca nhng tng thut tranh tng (nh c chng minh trong mt nhm ln cc nh th Mystras). Nhng hnh tng, m tr thnh mt phng tin cho biu hin ngh thut, c m t bi mt thi t kh hnh hn, s trn trng mi dnh cho nhng cht lng trang tr ca hi ha v s ch t m ti cc chi tit, c c tn gi ph bin ca Ch ngha Kiu cch Paleologan cho giai on ni chung. Nevertheless the Palaeologan Dynasty, beginning with Michael VIII Palaeologus in 1259, was a last golden age of Byzantine art, partly because of the increasing cultural exchange between Byzantine and Italian artists. Byzantine artists developed a new interest in landscapes and pastoral scenes, and the traditional mosaic-work (of which the Chora Church in Constantinople is the finest extant example) gradually gave way to detailed cycles of narrative frescoes (as evidenced in a large group of Mystras churches). The icons, which became a favoured medium for artistic expression, were characterized by a less austere attitude, new appreciation for purely decorative qualities of painting and meticulous attention to details, earning the popular name of the Paleologan Mannerism for the period in general. Crete c cai tr bi nhng ngi Venice k t nm 1211, v trng phi Cretan v hi ha hnh tng dn dn gii thiu nhng yu t pha Ty vo phong cch ca n, v xut khu nhiu hnh tng ti pha Ty. Sau s sp ca ch, Crete tr thnh trung tm ca ngh thut Hy Lp cho ti khi n cng ri vo tay ngi Th Nh K nm 1669. Crete had been ruled by the Venetians since 1211, and the Cretan school of icon-painting gradually introduced Western elements into its style, and exported large numbers of icons to the West. After the fall of the Empire, Crete became the centre of Greek art, until it too fell to the Turks in 1669.

[edit] Legacy Di sn

Basilica St. Mark Vernice, ni nhp khu nhng nh mosaic Byzantine c thc y bi nhng ngi Italia m h o to. St Mark's Basilica in Venice, where imported Byzantine mosaicists were succeeded by Italians they had trained. S trng l ca ngh thut Byzantine lun nm trong tm tr ca nhng ngh s v ngi bo tr phng Ty u thi trung c, v nhiu trong s nhng tro lu quan trng nht trong giai on ny l nhng c gng nhn thc to ra ngh thut ph hp ng k c La M c in v ngh thut Byzantine ng thi. iu ny c bit l trng hp cho ngh thut Carolingian v Ottonian ch. Nhng sn phm xa hoa t ch c nh gi cao, v t ti cho v d khu chon ct Anglo-Saxon Sutton Hoo hong gia Suffolk ca nhng nm 620, bao gm nhiu mu bc. La Byzantine c bit gi tr v nhng s lng ln c phn phi nh l nhng mn qu ngoi giao t Constantinople. C nhng h s ca cc ngh s Byzantine lm vic pha Ty, c bit trong sut giai on bi tr thnh tng, v mt s tc phm, nh nhng tranh tng ti Castelseprio v nhng tiu ha trong nhng sch phc m v s ln ngi Vienna, dng nh c to ra bi nhng hnh v nh th. The splendour of Byzantine art was always in the mind of early medieval Western artists and patrons, and many of the most important movements in the period were conscious attempts to produce art fit to stand next to both classical Roman and contemporary Byzantine art. This was especially the case for the imperial Carolingian art and Ottonian art. Luxury products from the Empire were highly valued, and reached for example the royal Anglo-Saxon Sutton Hoo burial in Suffolk of the 620s, which contains several pieces of silver. Byzantine silks were especially valued and large quantities were distributed as diplomatic gifts from Constantinople. There are records of Byzantine artists working in the West, especially during the period of iconoclasm, and some works, like the frescos at Castelseprio and miniatures in the Vienna Coronation Gospels, seem to have been produced by such figures. c bit, nhng nhm ngh s mosaic c gi i nh nhng ng tc ngoi giao bi cc hong ti Italia, ni m h thng o to nhng ngi a phng tip tc cng vic ca h theo mt phong cch b nh hng nng n bi Byzantium. Vernice v Norman Sicily l nhng trung tm c th ca nhng nh hng Byzantine. Nhng bc tranh cn li sm nht pha Ty theo phong cch b nh hng mt cch nng n bi nhng hnh tng Byzantine, cho n khi mt phong cch phng Ty khc hn bt u pht trin Italia Trecento; bi tng thut vn cn b nh hng v truyn thng ca Vasari v nhng ngi khc c cu truyn ca hi ha phng Ty bt u nh l mt s ly khai bi Cimabue v sau l Giotto t nhng hn ch ca truyn thng Byzantine. Ni chung, s nh hng ca ngh thut Byzantine ln chu u gim mnh vo th k 14 nu khng mun ni l sm hn, mc d tm quan trng vn tip tc ca nhng hc gi Byzantine di c vo trong thi k Phc hng nhng khu vc khc. In particular, teams of mosaic artists were despatched as diplomatic gestures by emperors to Italy, where they often trained locals to continue their work in a style heavily influenced by Byzantium. Venice and Norman Sicily were particular centres of Byzantine influence. The earliest surviving panel paintings in the West were in a style heavily influenced by contemporary Byzantine icons, until a distinctive Western style began to develop in Italy in the Trecento; the traditional and still influential narrative of Vasari and others has the story of Western painting begin as a breakaway by Cimabue and then Giotto from the shackles of the Byzantine tradition. In general Byzantine artistic influence on Europe was in steep decline by the 14th century if not

earlier, despite the continued importance of migrated Byzantine scholars in the Renaissance in other areas. Ngh thut Hi gio bt u vi nhng ngh s v th th cng phn ln c o to theo phong cch Byzantine, v thng qua ni dung n d c gim bt nhiu, nhng phong cch Byzantine vn cn l mt nh hng ln ln ngh thut Hi gio, v nhng ngh s Byzantine tip tc c nhp khu cho nhng tc phm quan trng dnh cho mt lc no , c bit l mosaic. Islamic art began with artists and craftsmen mostly trained in Byzantine styles, and though figurative content was greatly reduced, Byzantine decorative styles remained a great influence on Islamic art, and Byzantine artists continued to be imported for important works for some time, especially for mosaics.

Bch ha Chnh thng hin i t Israel dng mt s m t v s ra i ca Cha thay i mt cht qua mt thin nin k. Modern Orthodox mural from Israel using a depiction of the Nativity of Christ little changed in over a millennium. K nguyn Byzantine chnh thc i n hi kt vi s sp ca Constantinople ti Th Nh K Ottoman vo nm 1453, nhng vo thi gian ny, di sn vn ha Byzantine c khuch tn mt cch rng ri, mang i bi s tri rng ca Thin cha gio Chnh thng, ti Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania v quan trng nht, ti Nga, ni tr thnh trung tm ca th gii Chnh thng theo sau s chinh phc Ottoman ca Balkan. Thm ch di s cai tr ca Ottoman, nhng truyn thng Byzantine v tranh hnh tng v nhng ngh thut t l nh khc cn li, c bit Crete v Rhodes di s cai tr ca ngi Vernice, ni m mt phong cch hu Byzantine di s nh hng ngy cng tng tn ti thm hai th k na, to ra nhng ngh s bao gm El Greco, ngi c o to trng Cretan l trng hu Byzantine mnh m nht, xut khu lng ln nhng hnh tng ti chu u. The Byzantine era properly defined came to an end with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, but by this time the Byzantine cultural heritage had been widely diffused, carried by the spread of Orthodox Christianity, to Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania and, most importantly, to Russia, which became the centre of the Orthodox world following the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. Even under Ottoman rule, Byzantine traditions in icon-painting and other small-scale arts survived, especially in the Venetian-ruled Crete and Rhodes, where a "post-Byzantine" style under increasing Western influence survived for a further two centuries, producing artists including El Greco whose training was in the Cretan School which was the most vigorous post-Byzantine school, exporting great numbers of icons to Europe. Hi ha hnh tng Nga bt u vic p dng v bt chc hon ton ngh thut Byzantine, nh ngh thut ca nhng quc gia Chnh thng khc, v vn cn bo tn cc k trong ngh thut m

t bng hnh tng, mc d phong cch hi ha ca n pht trin nhng c im khc bit, bao gm nhng nh hng t ngh thut phng Ty hu Phc hng. Tt c nhng nh th Chnh thng pha ng bo v c nhng truyn thng ca h v phng din hnh thc v ni dung ca hnh nh, v v d nhng miu t Chnh thng hin i v s ra i ca Cha thay i cht t trong ni dung t nhng g c pht trin trong th k th 6. Russian icon painting began by entirely adopting and imitating Byzantine art, as did the art of other Orthodox nations, and has remained extremely conservative in iconography, although its painting style has developed distinct characteristics, including influences from post-Renaissance Western art. All the Eastern Orthodox churches have retained highly protective of their traditions in terms of the form and content of images and, for example, modern Orthodox depictions of the Nativity of Christ vary little in content from those developed in the 6th century.