Parameter Aliran Dua Fase-B

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PARAMETERS OF TWO PHASE FLOW

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INTRODUCTION
Natural circulation in a closed loop
• heat sink at an elevation higher than the
heat source
• The flow can be single phase or two phase SINK
Natural Circulation Flow Rate

- balance between the driving and the resisting
forces Pd  Pf  Pl  Pa

SOURCE
where ΔPd   ρdz

- parameters of interest
(a) density(single & two phase) Fig1.
FIG.1 A Rectangular
A RECTANGULAR Closed
CLOSED
NATURAL CIRCULATION LOOP
(b) pressure loss components Natural Circulation loop
- the driving force in a natural circulation loop is small
IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Nuclear Power Plants, ICTP, Trieste, June 25-29,2007
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INTRODUCTION
Heat Transfer in Source
FUEL CLAD
• Resistance to heat transfer is

restricted to a thin layer A SMALL SEGMENT
OF FLOW TUBE
q = h ( Tw - Tb)
This expression underscores the
importance of the film heat transfer
coefficient, h. TEMPERATURE
PROFILE
• The maximum heat flux achievable
in fuel is mainly limited by
Critical Heat Flux (CHF).
- Departure from Nucleate Boiling COOLANT
(DNB)
Fig.2. Radial Temperature
- Dryout FIG.2 RADIAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Distribution in Fuel and Coolant
IN FUEL AND COOLANT

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INTRODUCTION
STEAM Heat Transfer In Sink

• In PWR and PHWR, primary coolant transports
heat to steam generator. Secondary fluid starts
boiling
• In BWR primary coolant itself boils
• In condenser condensation of steam takes place
STEAM
FEED WATER
INLET
COOLING WATER COOLING WATER

OUT CONDENSED IN
PRIMARY PRIMARY
COOLANT COOLANT WATER
INLET OUTLET
Steam Generator Condenser
G.3 STEAM GENERATOR FIG.4 CONDENSER
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INTRODUCTION
REACTOR
VESSEL
STEAM DRYER
&
SEPERATOR
STEAM LINE
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
TURBINE
REACTOR
CORE
JET PUMP
STEAM
RECIRCULATION GENERATOR
PUMP
PRESSURIZER ELECTRICAL
FEED WATER
PUMP GENERATOR
Boiling Water Reactor TURBINE
BOILING WATER REACTOR
CORE
FEED WATER
PUMP
REACTOR COOLANT
SYSTEM REACTOR
COOLANT
PUMP Pressurized Water Reactor

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INTRODUCTION
In new generation of reactors,

a large water pool is being used
as heat sink
• Thermal stratification in the
pool is an important
phenomenon
Isolation Condenser Immersed in

Large Water Pool

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INTRODUCTION
DENSITY
NATURAL CIRCULATION FLOW
IN CLOSED LOOP RATE PRESSURE
LOSS
THERMAL STRATIFICATION
SOURCE SINK
IN POOL
HEAT TRANSFER CRITICAL HEAT BOILING CONDENSATION

COEFFICENT FLUX
Important Phenomena/Parameters Relevant to Natural Circulation

A number
FIG.5 of correlations
IMPORTANT PHENOMENAgiven in the following
/ PARAMETERS RELEVANTsections are
derived TObased on CIRCULATION
NATURAL experimentalINdata
CLOSEDgenerated
LOOP with forced
circulation. Though in most of the cases these correlations can be
used for natural circulation, applicability of these correlations for
natural circulation should be judiciously checked when secondary
flows are present like natural circulation through large diameter
pipe at low Reynolds number.
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NATURAL CIRCULATION FLOW RATE
Density
• Single phase flow - established relationships for thermophysical
properties of fluid (IAEA, 1997) exist
• Two phase flow - it is necessary to predict void fraction accurately
to determine density.
 =   G  (1   )  L
Void Fraction ()
Cross section area occupied by vapor
 = LIQUID-VAPOR MIXTURE LIQUID VAPOR
Total channel cross section area
Void fraction correlations

SMALL AL AG
• slip ratio models HEIGHT
• K models and HEATED

• correlations based on the CHANNEL
drift flux model
Two Phase Flow In a Vertical Heated Channel

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VOID FRACTION
Slip Ratio Models
1 Mass flow rate of vapor

 = x
 1 - x  G where
Mass flow rate of vapor  Mass flow rate of liquid
1+  S
 x  L
• empirical equation for the slip ratio, S (=u G/uL)
• For homogeneous flow, uG = uL and S = 1

• usually, the slip ratio is more than unity for both horizontal and
vertical flows
• A commonly used slip ratio model is Modified Smith (Mochizuki and
Ishii (1992))
0.5
 L 1 
  K   1 
 G x 
S  K  (1  K)  
 1 
 1  K  1  where K = 0.95 tanh(5.0x)+0.05
  x  

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VOID FRACTION
K MODEL
• by multiplying the homogeneous void fraction, , by a constant
K; Armand (1947) : K = 0.833 + 0.167x
Drift flux model
• largest number of correlations for void fraction are based on the
drift flux model
• The general expression is
jG
 = where
C0 [ jG + jL] + VGj
VGj is the drift velocity ( = uG - j, where j is the mixture velocity)
and for homogeneous flow C0 = 1 and VGj = 0
• The various models differ only in C0 and VGj which are empirical
in nature.
• The Chexal and Lellouche (1996) correlation is applicable over a
wide range of parameters
• Details of this and some other commonly used correlations can
be obtained from IAEA-TECDOC (IAEA, 2001).
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PRESSURE DROP
Components of Pressure Drop
Total pressure drop has three components

- Pf, due to skin friction (also known as friction pressure drop)
- Pl , due to form friction (also known as local pressure drop)
- Pa , acceleration pressure drop
Configurations considered
- friction pressure loss:
(a) circular pipe (b) annulus and (c ) rod cluster
- local pressure loss:
(a) spacer (b) bottom and top tie plates and (c ) configurations
causing flow area changes like contraction, expansion, bends,
tees, valves etc.

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PRESSURE DROP COMPONENTS
Friction Pressure Drop

• Irreversible component of pressure drop caused by shear
stress at the wall
fL W2
 pf =
Dh 2 A
2
where Dh is equal to 4 times flow area / wetted perimeter
• occurs all along the length and hence referred to as distributed

pressure drop
• applicable for single-phase and homogeneous two-phase flows
• The following pressure drop correlations are applicable to steady

state fully developed flow

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FRICTION PRESSURE DROP
Circular pipe
Adiabatic single-phase flow
Fully developed laminar flow:
f = 64 / Re for Reynolds number less than 2000
Turbulent flow:
(a) Blasius (1913) : f = 0.316 Re-0.25 3000  Re  105
1  e / D 2.51 
(b) Colebrook (1938) : f = 0.86 ln   Re > 3000
 3.7 Re f 
(c) Filonenko (1948) : f = [1.82 log(Re) - 1.64] - 2
4 x 103  Re  1012
For switch over from laminar to turbulent

if ft > fL then f = ft

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FRICTION PRESSURE DROP – CIRCULAR PIPE
Diabatic Single-phase Flow

• Generally isothermal friction factor correlations are used with properties
evaluated at the film temperature, Tf
Tf = 0.4 (TW - Tb) + Tb
• Multiplying the isothermal friction factor with a correction coefficient, F

F = (b/w)-0.28 Leung and Groeneveld
Adiabatic two-phase Flow

• Empirical correlations based on homogeneous model
• Empirical correlations based on two-phase friction
multiplier concept
• Direct empirical models
• Flow pattern specific models

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FRICTION PRESSURE DROP – CIRCULAR PIPE
Homogeneous flow model

The friction factor is calculated using equations given for single phase
using two-phase viscosity in calculating the Reynolds number
Cicchitti (1960) :  = x  G + (1- x)  L
Multiplier concept
Two-phase pressure drop is calculated from single-phase pressure
drop by multiplying with two-phase friction factor multiplier
(dp / dz )TPF (dp / dz )TPF (dp / dz)TPF (dp / dz)TPF
 =
2
LO ;  GO =
2
;  =2
L and  G =
2
(dp / dz )LO (dp / dz )GO (dp / dz)L (dp / dz)G

Denominators refer to the single-phase pressure gradient for flow in
the same duct with mass flow rates corresponding to the mixture
flow rate in case of LO2 and GO2 and individual phases in case of L2
and G2
2
 LO 2  1- x 
Lottes-Flinn (1956) : =  
 1- 
Martinelli – Nelson (1948) is a commonly used correlation in this category
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FRICTION PRESSURE DROP
Diabatic two-phase Flow

• Tarasova (1966) : two phase friction pressure drop is higher in a
heated channel
• Koehler and Kastner (1988) :two phase pressure drops are same for
heated and unheated channels
• Leung and Groeneveld : two phase multiplier is larger for low heat
flux than high heat flux
• There is no well established procedure to take the affect of heat flux
into account and alternate approaches are suggested in IAEA-
TECDOC (IAEA, 2001)
Annulus
• Correlations for circular pipe are normally used for the calculation of
single phase pressure drop in annulus using the hydraulic diameter
concept
• For two-phase pressure drop, the same concept is expected to be
applicable

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FRICTION PRESSURE DROP – ROD BUNDLE
Rod bundle
• PWRs and BWRs
- fuel bundles are long (approx. 1.8 to 4.5 m)
- grid spacers
- total pressure drop comprises pressure drop in bare rod bundle and
the spacers
• PHWRs
- fuel bundles are of 0.5 m length having end plates
- split-wart spacers
- total pressure drop is sometimes expressed in terms of overall loss
coefficient due to the closeness of the spacers and the complex
geometry of the end plates
• FBRs
- Wire wrapped bundles are used

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BWR – ROD BUNDLE

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PHWR ROD BUNDLE – SPLIT WART SPACER

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PHWR ROD BUNDLE – WIRE WRAP SPACER

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FUEL BUNDLE – PRESSURE DROP
Wire wrapped rod bundles
Rehme (1968 and 1969) : L  u 2R U B
P = fR
Dh 2 UG
U G = U S + U D + UK ; U B = US + U D
0.5 2.16
p d p
F=( t ) + [7.6 m ( t )2] and uR = u. F
D H D
64 0.0816
fR   Where ReR = Re F and Re = (uR Dh)/
Re R Re 0.133
R
Bare rod bundles

Single-phase
Correlations for circular pipes using hydraulic diameter of the rod bundle
K1 - is provided as a function of pt/D (pitch to
Kays (1979) : f = fcir K1
diameter ratio)
Two-phase
CNEN (Marinelli et al., 1973) pTPF = 1.7205x10-6 (L M0.852) / Dh1.242
M is given by: M = [xvG+(1-x)vL]G2
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LOCAL PRESSURE DROP
This is the localized irreversible pressure drop component caused by

change in flow geometry and flow direction. Pressure drop across valves,
elbows, tee, spacer, etc. are examples. The local pressure drop is given by
2
W
 pl = K
2 A2
Grid spacers
• Extremely difficult to establish a pressure loss coefficient correlation
of general validity for grid spacers. But methods of calculation
reasonably accurate for design purpose can be achieved
Single-phase
p = K  VB2/ 2
can get reasonable value of ‘K ’from Idelchik (1986)

Rehme (1973): K = Cv 2 where  = Ag/AB
For ReB  5x104, Cv = 6 to 7

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LOCAL PRESSURE DROP
Grid spacers -Two phase flow

Homogeneous model: p = K(Resat) v G2/2
v = x vG + (1-x) vL
KSPF G
2
 L G2 G
2
Slip model:  pTPF = = KSPF = KTPF
2  2L 2L
1
 =   G + (1 -  )  L ;  =
 1 - x  G
1+  S
 x  L
Grillo and Marinelli (1970) : S = 2 for grid spacers
Tie plate
• Structurally joins all the fuel pins at the ends
• Flow areas at downstream and upstream are different unlike spacer
• Located in the unheated portion of the bundle
Contraction and expansion model for local pressure losses,friction along
thickness
For two-phase : The homogeneous & the slip model described earlier

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TIE PLATE

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LOCAL PRESSURE DROP
Area changes
Single phase : Idelchik (1986)
Two phase: 
2 (1 - A r ) 
 L  
Romey [see Lottes (1961) : p = 2
G Ar 1 + x  - 1 
L     G  

Bends and fittings
Single phase : Idelchik (1986)
Two phase : Chisholm & Sutherland (1969)
0.5
 pTP   PG    PG 
= 1+   + C 
 pL   PL    PL 
  v fg   v G
0.5

0.5
 vL 
0.5

C  1  (C 2  1)  
     
  G   v L
v   vG  
where vfg = vG - vL, and C2 is a constant
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LOCAL PRESSURE DROP
Bends and fittings
a) Bends
R/D 1 3 5 7
C2 for normal bend 4.35 3.40 2.20 1.00
C2 for bend with upstream 3.10 2.50 1.75 1.00

disturbance within 50 L/D
b) Tees
C2 = 1.75
c) Valves
C2 = 1.5 for gate valves

= 2.3 for globe valves

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ACCELERATION PRESSURE DROP
Reversible component of pressure drop caused by a change in flow area
or density. Expansion, contraction and fluid flowing through a heated
section are the examples.
Area Change :
( 1 - A 2r ) W2 
 pa =
2 A 20  L
A0 = smaller flow area.  = 1 for single-phase and for two-phase  is given by:
 x3 (1 - x ) 3   G L 
 =  2 2+ 2  
 G   L (1 -  )   x  L + (1 - x)  G 
2
Density change:

 1   1   
 pa = G  2
  
 (  m ) o   (  m ) i  
 
Two phase:
1 (1 - x ) 2
x
2
= ( + )
m  G   L (1 -  )
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HEAT TRANSFER IN SOURCE
Film Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)

h, is normally expressed in terms of Nusselt Number : Nu = hd / k
Single phase Laminar flow
• Constant wall temperature: local Nusselt Number reaches a value of 3.65

asymptotically
• Constant heat flux: local Nusselt number reaches a value of 4.36 asymptotically
Single phase Turbulent flow
Dittus Boelter equation : Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 . Pr0.4
Sieder Tate equation : Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 . Pr0.4.( w/ b )0.14

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FLO W H EAT TR AN SFER
Two phase flow

PATTERNS R EG IO NS
SIN G LE- C O N EC TIVE
PH ASE H EAT TR AN SFER
Complexities of the flow boiling mechanisms

H VAPO UR TO VAPO UR
- bubble growth and departure

- distribution of the two phases G D RO P
FLO W
LIQ UID DEFICIENT
R EG IO N
- departure from thermodynamic
equilibrium
- characteristics of the heat transfer
surface ANNU LAR
FLO W W ITH
- effect of fluid properties F
ENTR AIN M ENT
FO R CED
C O N VECTIVE HEAT
TRAN SFER THRO UG H
Saturated flow boiling correlations LIQ UID FILM
E ANNU LAR
FLO W
Kandlikar’s Correlation (Kandlikar, 1990)
D SLUG SATUR ATED
N UC LEATE
h TP FLO W
 C1Co C2 (25FrLO ) C5  C 3 Bo C4 (Fr

BO ILING
Ffl LO )C 6 Ffl C
h B
BU BBLY
FLO W
SU BC O O LED BO ILING
Co is the convection number and Bo is the

A SIN G LE C O N VECTIVE
boiling number. Ffl is the fluid dependent PH ASE
LIQ UID
H EAT TR AN SFER
TO LIQ U ID
Parameter.
FIG .8 : REG IO NS O F HEAT TRANSFER IN
CO NVECTIVE BO ILING
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Constants in Kandlikar’s correlation
Constant Convective Nucleate boiling

region region
C1 1.1360 0.6683
C2 -0.9 -0.2
C3 667.2 1058.0
C4 0.7 0.7
C5 * 0.3 0.3
*C5=0 for vertical tubes, and for horizontal tubes with FrLO  0.04
h, is evaluated using the two sets of constants the higher of
the two values represents the predicted value

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Chen’s Correlation (Chen, 1966)

h TP = h mic +h mac
hmic is the nucleate boiling part and hmac is the convective part
h mic = hFoster-Zuber .S
h mac = hDittus – Boelter . F
S, suppression factor is the ratio of effective superheat to wall superheat

1
S

1  2.53 x 10 -6 Re 1.17
L 
F, the enhancement factor is a function of the Martinelli Parameter χtt
0.736
1  1  1
F  1 for  0.1 F  2.35   0.213 for  0.1
χ tt  χ tt  χ tt

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Forster – Zuber Correlation (Forster-Zuber, 1955)
 0.045 0.49 0.25 
0.79
 k L C pL ρ L g 
h  0.0012  0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24  ΔTW0.24
Δp0.75
 σ μ L h LG ρ G 
 
where ΔT  TW - Tsat
Δp  Pwall temperatu re - P
Subcooled flow
Chen’s correlation (Chen, 1963)
hsub=hmac+hmic
where,
hmac=hdittus-boelter hmic=hforster-zuber.S
Jens and Lottes (1951) 1 

exp 62   Tsat 
P
h  
3
 25 
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CRITICAL HEAT FLUX (CHF)
Boiling crisis occurs when the heat flux is raised to such a high level
that the heated surface can no longer support continuous liquid
contact. This heat flux is usually referred to as the critical heat flux
(CHF).Failure of the heated surface may occur once the CHF is
exceeded
CHF mechanisms
a)DNB (departure from nucleate boiling)
• In subcooled and saturated nucleate boiling (approximate quality

range: from –5% to +5%)
• The bubble population density near the heated surface increases with
increasing heat flux and a so-called bubble boundary layer often
forms
• If this layer is sufficiently thick it can impede the flow of coolant to
the heated surface
• This in turn leads to a further increase in bubble population until the
wall becomes so hot that a vapour patch forms over the heated
surface

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b) Dryout
• In the annular dispersed flow regime (high void fraction) Continuous

thinning of the liquid film takes place due to the combined effect of
entrainment and evaporation
• If the net droplet deposition rate does not balance the evaporation
rate the liquid film breaks down
CHF Prediction Methodology
A uniformly heated tube cooled internally by a fluid flowing at a steady

rate vertically upwards
CHF = ƒ(De ,G , ΔH in; P, E)

E takes into account effect of the surface
Over 400 correlations for CHF in tubes are currently in existence that
indicates the complex state-of-the-art of predicting CHF phenomena.

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Analytical Models
- Annular film dryout model
- Bubbly layer model
- Helmholtz instability model
the models are still less accurate than empirical correlations
Empirical methods
Inlet-conditions-type prediction methods
N DO = ƒ(P in, G in, T in, c/s, L H) NDO= Critical Power

cannot be used for predicting the location and magnitude of CHF
Local-conditions –type prediction methods

CHF = (P,G,X DO, c/s )
- the local CHF is dependent only on the local conditions and not on
upstream history
- the most common method for predicting CHF
- over 400 empirical correlations of this type
- limited range of application
BARC
CHF look-up Table Method
• The CHF look up table is basically a normalized data bank
• International CHF look up table [Groeneveld et al. (1996)]

- pressure (P) : 0.1 – 20 Mpa
- mass flux (G) : 0-7500 kg.m –2.s-1
- quality (X) : –50% to 100%
The CHF needs to be modified to account for bundle specific effects
CHFbundle = CHFtable x K1 x K2 x K3 xK4 x K5 x K6 x K7 x K8
K1 to K8 are correction factors to account for specific bundle effects

BARC
Table-3: The 1995 CHF Look-Up Table for CHF in 8 mm Tubes (in kW/m2)

BARC
CHF LOOK-UP TABLE – CORRECTION FACTORS
FACTOR FORM COMMENTS
K1 Sub channel or Tube Includes the observed diameter
Diameter For 2  D hy  25 mm : effect on CHF. This effect is
Cross- Section Geometry 
K 1  0.008 D hy 1 2 slightly quality dependent.
Factor
For D hy  25 mm
K 1  0.57
K2 , Bundle-Geometry  
K 2  min 1, 0.5  2 δ d  exp  0.5x 1 3  This is a tentative expression, an
Factor empirically derived factor is
preferred. K 2 is also a weak function
of P, G and X.
K3 , Mid-Plane Spacer 
K 3  1  Aexp  B L sp D hy  This factor has been validated over
L G 1000 
A  1.5 K 0.5
Factor for a 37- element 0.2 a limited range of spacer
Bundle B  0.1 geometries.
h
K4 , Heated - Length For L D hy  5 : Inclusion of correctly predicts
Factor  
K 4  exp D hy L exp 2 α h   the diminishing length effect at
α h  X ρ L X ρ L  1  X  ρ G  subcooled conditions.
For X  0 : K 5  1.0
K5 , Axial Flux Tong’s F-factor method (1972)
For X  0 : K 5  q loc q BLA
Distribution Factor May also be used within narrow
For X  0 : K 6  q(z) avg q(z) max
ranges of conditions.
K6 , Radial or Tentative recommendation only and
For X  0 : K 6  1.0
Circumferential Flux to be used with well-balanced
Distribution Factor bundle. May be used for estimating
the effect of flux tilts across
BARC α h  X ρ L X ρ L  1  X  ρ G  subcooled conditions.
CHF LOOK-UP TABLE – CORRECTION
K5 , Axial Flux FACTORS
For X  0 : K 5  1.0
Tong’s F-factor method (1972)
For X  0 : K 5  q loc q BLA
Distribution Factor May also be used within narrow
For X  0 : K 6  q(z) avg q(z) max
ranges of conditions.
K6 , Radial or Tentative recommendation only and
For X  0 : K 6  1.0
Circumferential Flux to be used with well-balanced
Distribution Factor bundle. May be used for estimating
the effect of flux tilts across
elements. Otherwise method of Yin
(1991) is recommended.
K7 , Flow- Orientation 
K 7  1  exp  T1 30.5  This equation was developed by
Factor where Wong and Groeneveld (1990) based
1 X 
2
fLG 2 on the balance of turbulent and
T1   
 1  α  gD hy ρ L ρ L  ρ G α 0.5
gravitational forces. The void
fraction is evaluated with the
fL is the friction factor of the correlation of Premoli et al. (1970)
channel.
K8 , Vertical Low- Flow G   400 kg m 2 s 1 or X  0 : For α h  0.8 :
Factor K8  1 C1  1.0
For α hom  0.8 :
 400  G  0 kg m 2 s 1 : Use linear
interpolation between table value 0.8  0.2 ρ L
ρG
for upward flow and value predicted C1 
α hom  (1  α hom ) ρL
form ρG
CHF  CHF G  0,X  0 1  α hom  C1
Minus sign refers to downward
flow. G=0, X=0 refers to pool
boiling.

BARC
HEAT TRANSFER IN SINK
BOILING
Boiling takes place on the secondary side of steam generators.
Correlations for ‘h’ given earlier can be used.
CONDENSATION
Vapor starts condensing on the
surface when the surface is
cooled below the saturation
temperature of vapor
Two distinct forms of condensation:
Film condensation: condensate

wets the surface and forms a liquid
film on the surface
Dropwise condensation:
condensed vapor forms droplets
on the surface
Fig. 9. Filmwise and Dropwise Condensation
BARC
CONDENSATION
Dropwise condensation: part of the surface is in contact with vapor
leading to higher heat transfer rates.
Film condensation: the surface is blanketed by a liquid film of

increasing thickness and this “liquid wall” between solid surface and
the vapor serves as a resistance to heat transfer
Flow regimes in condensation heat transfer
Re 
.
4m
Re<30
30<Re<1800
flow is clearly laminar
flow is wavy-laminar
p L
Re>1800 flow is turbulent
disagreement exists about the value of Re at which the flow

becomes wavy-laminar

BARC
CONDENSATION
Vertical Plates
Laminar Flow on a smooth vertical plate 1
1
L
4  gρ L ρ L  ρ G h fg k  3 4
Nusselt: h  h ave   h x dx  h x  L  0.943
L

L0 3  μ L Tsat  T w L 
Does not take into account
- nonlinear temperature profile in the liquid film
-cooling of the liquid below the saturation temperature
Replace hfg with h fg  h fg  0.68C pL Tsat  Tw 
h fg  h fg  0.68C pL Tsat  Tw 
Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical Plates
•Waves make it difficult to obtain analytical solutions
•Increase in heat transfer due to wave is on an average about 20 percent
1/3
Rek L  g 
Kutateladze (1963): h vert,wavy   2  30<Re<1800 , ρG<<ρL
1.08Re 1.22
 5.2  ν L 
BARC
CONDENSATION
Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
4Q conden 4Ah Tsat  Tw 

Re  
pμ L h fg
*
pμ L h *fg
 1

 Rek L  g  
3
  2  
Labuntsov(1957): h vert,turbulent
 8750  58Pr  0.5
Re 0.75
 253    νL  
 
Re>1800 ,ρG<<ρL TL = (Tsat +Tw)/2.
Vertical Tubes:
Above equation with length of tube as characteristic length
Horizontal Tubes and spheres:
 
 gρ L ρ L  ρ G h *fg k 3L 
 0.729
1/4
h horiz 
 μ L Tsat  TW D 
Sphere: replace 0.729 by 0.815

BARC
CONDENSATION
Comparison of Vertical (L) and Horizontal Tube (D)
1/4
h vert  D
 1.29  Setting hvert = hhoriz, L = 1.294 D = 2.77D
h horiz L
For L>2.77D,heat transfer coefficient will be higher in horizontal position
It is common practice to place the tubes in a condenser horizontally
Horizontal Tube Banks
Horizontal tubes on top of each other
 gρ L ρ L  ρ G h k
1/4
* 3
 1
 0.729 
fg L
h horiz,Ntubes  h horiz,1tube
 μ L Tsat  Tw ND
1/4
 N
N = No. of tubes

BARC
CONDENSATION
Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes
Strongly influenced by
- vapor velocity
- rate of liquid accumulation on the walls
For low vapor velocities-
 gρ L ρ L  ρ G k 
1/4

3
Chato (1962): internal

h  0.555   fg
h 
3
C T  T 
w 
L
 μ L Tsat  Tw  
pL sat
8 
 ρ G VG D 
Re G     35,000
 μ G  inlet
TL average of the wall and saturated steam temperatures

BARC
EFFECT OF NON-CONDENSABLES
Effect of the presence of noncondensable gases
When the vapor mixed with a noncondensable gas condenses,

the noncondensable gas remains in the vicinity of the
condensate layer and acts as a barrier between the vapor and
the condensate layer
Vapor now must diffuse through the noncondensable gas first

before reaching the surface
Most condensers used in power plants operate at pressure below

the atmospheric pressure and operation at such a low pressure
raises the possibility of air leaking into the condensers

BARC
2000
Heat Transfer Coefficient, W/m K

1800 Dehbi
2
1600 Uchida
Model
1400
1200
P = 3.0 bar
1000 o
(Tb-Tw) = 30 C
800 L = 0.91 m
600
¡ 400
200
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mass fraction of non-condensable gas (air)
Fig. 10 Condensation in presence of Fig. 11. Heat transfer coefficient Vs.

non-condensables Mass fraction (Maheshwari et al. (2004))
Condensation when steam/noncondensable mixture is nonflowing

0.7
 Wnc 
Uchida(1956): h Uchida  380 
 1  Wnc 
BARC
Condensation when steam/noncondensable mixture is nonflowing
L0.05 3.7  28.7Ptot   2438  458.3Ptot logW nc 

Dehbi (1991) h Dehbi 
Tb  Tw 0.25
Condensation when steam / noncondensable gas flowing inside

vertical tube
Siddique et al. (1992) Nu(x)  1.137Re G

0.404
Wa1.105Ja 0.741
Wa = air mass fraction in the steam/air mixture

Ja = CpG (Tb-Twi)/hfg

BARC
Formation of horizontal layers of fluid of varying temperature with the
warmer layers of fluid placed above the cooler ones
Large pool of water is increasingly being used as heat sink in new

generation of advanced reactors
Stratification influences heat transfer to pool to a great extent and

heat storage capacity of the pool in the form of sensible heat is
significantly reduced
The forces involved are

- buoyancy force
- viscous force
- inertia force
In many cases, one has to consider surface tension and turbulence. In
case of free surface, mass transfer and heat transfer are to be
considered at the free surface

BARC
Transient CFD models are

being developed for the
prediction of flow patterns &
temperature profiles.
Stress is on developing
better turbulence models.
For validation of theoretical
results,experimental data are
being generated.
In most of the region there is no

flow indicating thermal stratification
In the region.
Velocity Plots in a side heated cavity

BARC
THERMAL STRATIFICATION IN LARGE POOLS

BARC
OTHER RELEVANT PHENOMENA
CARRYOVER
• Two-phase mixture leaving the of the reactor enters the steam drum.
• water separation is effected by gravity in steam drum.
• Carryover is a phenomenon associated with droplet entrainment.
• Carryover is to be restricted to about 0.2%, by appropriate measures
and should be predicted accurately.
Film entrainment :
- entrainment of droplets by mechanisms like roll wave shear-off and is
typified by presence of a wavy interface of liquid film and vapor along
the direction of flow.
- Dispersed annular flow is the typical flow regime exemplifying the film
entrainment
Pool entrainment :
- entrainment of droplets from the surface of pool due to bursting of
bubbles and break-up of liquid jet
- is typified by the presence of liquid pool and turbulent liquid vapor
flow

BARC
CARRYOVER
steam to turbine
Modeling requires droplet
Entrainment is found to
formation mechanism and
be a function of steam
prediction of average or
velocity and height from
maximum droplet size
the free surface
distribution
steam with
liquid droplets
feeder pipe
with sparger
liquid water with
steam bubbles
baffle plates
two-phase flow from two-phase flow from

core to steam drum core to steam drum
recirculation flow to core
Schematic
Schematic
Fig. 14 Schematic of steam
of steam of depicting
drum steam
drum drum
depicting to&&depict
carryover
carryover carryunder
carryunder
carryover & carryunder phenomena
BARC
CARRYUNDER
Carryunder is the entrainment of gas bubbles with the recirculating

liquid
- undesirable in a natural circulation

system
- Carryunder depends on bubble dynamics and
configuration
Bubble dynamics
- governed by various forces of which the drag force is most

significant and most uncertain
- researchers have empirically obtained the drag coefficient for
various flow regimes

BARC
CARRYUNDER
Configuration
• Baffle spacing and liquid level with respect to baffle tip
- Increasing the baffle spacing first increases Carryunder due to large
inter-baffle space then decreases due to very low liquid velocity in the
inter-baffle space
- with regard to baffle space, Carryunder may be attributed to area
dominated regime and velocity dominated regime
steam to turbine
steam with
liquid droplets
feeder pipe
with sparger
Schematic of steam drum depicting
carryover & carryunder
liquid water with
steam bubbles
baffle plates
two-phase flow from two-phase flow from

core to steam drum core to steam drum
recirculation flow to core
Schematic
Fig. 14 Schematic of depicting
of steam drum steam carryover
drum to&depict carryunder
carryover & carryunder phenomena
BARC
Parallel Channel Effect

Interaction between multiple parallel flow paths may become a critical
phenomenon mainly in respect of instability
• oscillation in one group of channels 180 out of phase with oscillation
in another group
- instability may not be detectable by monitoring total flow in the loop
• possibility of number of flow configurations in which some channels may
have flow direction opposite to others and some may even stagnate
Effect of Non-condensable Gases
Containment
Containment is the final physical barrier to prevent release of
radioactivity to environment
• it is necessary to remove energy released into the containment under

accidental condition
• Passive containment coolers are commonly used
- building condensers provided at the top of the containment
is an example
BARC
PASSIVE CONTAINMENT COOLER
GDWP
Passive Containment Cooler

BARC
Effect of Non-condensable Gases
Containment
• The performance is highly impaired by the presence of non-condensables

- Besides air present, depending on the severity of accident,
hydrogen may also get released
• It is necessary to predict distribution of hydrogen, steam and air in the
containment to assess the performance of the condensers
- Potential stratification and separation of steam and non-condensables
constitute an important factor for containment cooling
- Theoretical and experimental studies are being conducted
Primary Loop
• Non-condensables, if released may get accumulated at specific
locations
• In a PHWR non-condensables may accumulate at the top of the
inverted U tubes of steam generators
• This may reduce or completely stop flow through the tube
BARC
Vortex Formation in Pool

• In many advanced reactor design a large pool of water is provided which
acts as
- heat sink
- source for low pressure injection of coolant
• Gravity flow through small outlet pipes may lead to vortex
formation.Depending on the orientation of the outlet port and depth of
water, air or gas may get entrained
Fluid Mixing
• coolant entering the pressure vessel may have different temperature
and boron concentration
• In absence of proper mixing
- difference in temperature may lead to unacceptable thermal gradient
- Difference in boron concentration may cause boron-diluted coolant to
enter the core
In recent years, more emphasis is placed on fluid mixing phenomena to
avoid boron dilution and thermal gradient.

BARC
Counter-Current Flow Limitation (CCFL)
• countercurrent flow limitation (CCFL) determines the maximum rate

at which one phase can flow countercurrently to another phase
• It is of great importance in connection with the safety analysis of
reactor systems
- steam produced in the core of a PWR flows upward through the hot leg
- countercurrently flows the injected emergency core cooling water
- Steam condensed in steam generator also flows back to the core
- Steam going out of core partly or totally inhibits the water flow into the
core
• The CCFL has been studied by a large number of researchers, both
experimentally and analytically, mostly in vertical pipes. The CCFL in
horizontal or nearly horizontal geometries has received comparatively
little attention
• H.T. Kim (2002) has studied CCFL and the study revealed the effect of
L/D of pipes on CCFL phenomena

BARC
COUNTER CURRENT FLOW LIMITATION
STEAM GENERATOR
REACTOR
VESSEL
UPPER
HOT LEG PLENUM
DOWN-
COMER
COOLING WATER CORE
LOWER
PLENUM
Countercurrent Flow of Steam and Cooling Water in Hot Leg of PWR

BARC
CONCLUSIONS
An account of various phenomena encountered in the

natural circulation systems of a nuclear reactor is provided.
Thermohydraulic relationships related to these phenomena
are given as examples. References are given that contain
more relationships covering wider range of parameters to
choose from. Some of the phenomena are very briefly
described. For these phenomena, references are given which
will provide deeper insight into these phenomena.


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BARC

PARAMETERS OF TWO PHASE FLOW

Natural Circulation Flow Rate

forces Pd  Pf  Pl  Pa

where ΔPd   ρdz

- the driving force in a natural circulation loop is small

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

• Resistance to heat transfer is

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

STEAM Heat Transfer In Sink

COOLING WATER COOLING WATER

Boiling Water Reactor TURBINE

BOILING WATER REACTOR

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

In new generation of reactors,

Isolation Condenser Immersed in

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

HEAT TRANSFER CRITICAL HEAT BOILING CONDENSATION

Important Phenomena/Parameters Relevant to Natural Circulation

Void fraction correlations

• K models and HEATED

drift flux model

Two Phase Flow In a Vertical Heated Channel

1 Mass flow rate of vapor

• empirical equation for the slip ratio, S (=u G/uL)

• For homogeneous flow, uG = uL and S = 1

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Components of Pressure Drop

Total pressure drop has three components

- friction pressure loss:

(a) circular pipe (b) annulus and (c ) rod cluster

- local pressure loss:

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Friction Pressure Drop

where Dh is equal to 4 times flow area / wetted perimeter

• occurs all along the length and hence referred to as distributed

• applicable for single-phase and homogeneous two-phase flows

• The following pressure drop correlations are applicable to steady

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

f = 64 / Re for Reynolds number less than 2000

For switch over from laminar to turbulent

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Diabatic Single-phase Flow

• Multiplying the isothermal friction factor with a correction coefficient, F

Adiabatic two-phase Flow

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Homogeneous flow model

(dp / dz )LO (dp / dz )GO (dp / dz)L (dp / dz)G

Diabatic two-phase Flow

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Bare rod bundles

This is the localized irreversible pressure drop component caused by

can get reasonable value of ‘K ’from Idelchik (1986)

For ReB  5x104, Cv = 6 to 7

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

Grid spacers -Two phase flow

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

IAEA Training Course/Workshop on Natural Circulation in Water Cooled

C2 for normal bend 4.35 3.40 2.20 1.00