Appendix

Table A.1 Common conversion factors

To convert from To Multiply by

Length
Foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048
Inch (in.) m 0.0254
Mass
Pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.4536
Ounce kg 0.0254
Area
ft2 m2 0.0929
in.2 m2 0.645
103
Volume
ft3 m3 0.0283
in.3 m3 16.38
106
Density
lb ft3 kg m3 16.018
Pressure
Atm pascal (Pa) 0.1013
106
lbf in.2 (psia) Pa 6.894
103
mm Hg (torr) Pa 133.32
Force
lbf newton (N) 4.448
dyne N 1.000
105
Work
ft lbf joule (J) 1.3558
erg J 1.000
107
Power
ft lbf s1 watt (W) 1.3558
hp W 745.7
Energy
Kcal joule (J) 4186.8
BTU J 1.055
103
Continued

669
670 Appendix

Table A.1 Common conversion factors—Cont’d

To convert from To Multiply by
Viscosity
Poise Pa s 0.100
Centipoise (cp) Pa s 1.000
103
Diffusivity (ft2 h1) m2 s1 25.81
106
Thermal conductivity
Btu ft1 h1 F1 Wm1 K1 1.731
Heat transfer coefficient
Btu ft2 h1 F1 Wm2 K1 5.678
Ionizing radiation dose
Rad Gy 0.01

Table A.2 Typical composition of selected foods

Composition per 100 g edible portion

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate

Food (g) (g) (g) (g)

Fruits and nuts

Apples 84.1 0.3 0.4 14.9
Bananas 74.8 1.2 0.2 23.0
Grapes 81.6 0.8 0.4 16.7
Oranges 87.2 0.9 0.2 11.2
Peaches 86.9 0.5 0.1 12.0
Almonds 4.7 18.6 54.1 19.6
Peanuts, roasted 2.6 26.9 44.2 23.6
Peanut butter 1.7 26.1 47.8 21.0
Walnuts 3.3 15.0 64.4 15.6
Vegetables
Artichoke 83.7 2.9 0.4 11.9
Beans, green 88.9 2.4 0.2 7.7
Broccoli 89.9 3.3 0.2 5.5
Cauliflower 91.7 2.4 0.2 4.9
Corn, sweet 73.9 3.7 1.2 20.5
Mushroom 91.1 2.4 0.3 4.0
Peas 74.3 6.7 0.4 17.7
Potatoes 77.8 2.0 0.1 19.1
Tomato 94.1 1.0 0.3 4.0
 Appendix 671

Table A.2 Typical composition of selected foods—Cont’d

Composition per 100 g edible portion

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate

Food (g) (g) (g) (g)
Cereal products
Wheat flour 12.0 9.2 1.0 73.8
Rice, white 12.3 7.6 0.3 79.4
Corn meal 12.0 9.0 3.4 74.5
Corn flakes 3.6 8.1 0.4 85.0
Bread, white 35.5 8.1 2.2 51.4
Dairy products
Milk, cow, and whole 87.0 3.5 3.9 4.9
Milk, cow, and nonfat 90.5 3.5 0.1 5.1
Cheese, cottage 76.5 19.5 0.5 2.0
Cheese, cheddar 37.0 25.0 32.2 2.1
Cream, heavy 59.0 2.3 35.0 3.2
Cream, light 72.5 32.9 20.0 4.0
Butter 15.5 0.6 81.0 0.4
Ice cream 62.1 4.0 12.5 20.6
Meat, poultry, and eggs
Beef, hamburger, and 47.0 22.0 30.0 0
cooked
Lamb, leg 63.7 18.0 17.5 0
Chicken, roaster 66.0 20.2 12.6 0
Eggs, whole 74.0 12.8 11.5 0.7
Fish
Cod 82.6 16.5 0.4 0
Herring 67.2 18.3 12.5 0
Salmon 63.4 17.4 16.5 0
Tuna, canned 60.0 29.0 8.2 0
From Heinz Nutritional Research Division, 1958. Nutritional Data, H.J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, PA.
672 Appendix

Table A.3 Viscosity and density of gases and liquids

Material T (°C) μ (Pa s) ρ (kg m23) Source

Gases at 1 atm
Air 0 17.2
106 1.29 1
Air 20 18.5
106 1.205 1
Air 60 20.0
106 1.075 1
Air 100 21.8
106 0.95 1
CO2 20 14.8
106 1.84 1
Water vapor 100 12.5
106 0.597 1
Water vapor 200 16.3
106 0.452 1
Liquids
Water 0 1.79
103 999 1
Water 20 1.00
103 998 1
Water 40 0.664
103 992 1
Water 60 0.466
103 983 1
Water 80 0.355
103 972 1
Water 100 0.281
103 958 1
Ethanol 20 1.20
103 790 1
Gycerol 20 1.490 1261 1
Edible oils 20 0.05–0.2 920–950 1
Edible oils 100 5–2
103 880–900 1
Milk 20 2
103 1032 1
Milk 70 0.7
103 1012 1
Beer 0 1.3
103 1000 1
Honey 25 6 1400 1
Sucrose soln. 20% (w/w) 20 1.945
103 1080 2
Sucrose soln. 20% (w/w) 50 0.97
103 2
Sucrose soln. 20% (w/w) 80 0.59
103 2
Sucrose soln. 40% (w/w) 20 6.167
103 1180 2
Sucrose soln. 40% (w/w) 50 2.49
103 2
Sucrose soln. 40% (w/w) 80 1.32
103 2
Sucrose soln. 60% (w/w) 20 58.49
103 1290 2
Sucrose soln. 60% (w/w) 50 14.0
103 2
Sucrose soln. 60% (w/w) 80 5.2
103 2
Sucrose soln. 80% (w/w) 20 1410 2
Sources: Bimbenet, J.J., Duquenoy, A., Trystram, G., 2002. Genie des Procedes Alimentaires,
Dunod, Paris; Pancoast, H.M., Junk, W.R., 1980. Handbook of Sugars. The Avi Publishing Company,
Westport, CT.
 Appendix 673

Table A.4 Thermal properties of materials

Thermal Specific Thermal
Temperature, conductivity, heat, CP diffusivity, α
Material T (°C) K (Wm K) (J kg21 K) (m2 s21)

Gases at 1 atm
Air 0 0.0240 1005 18.6
106
Air 20 0.0256 1006 21.2
106
Air 100 0.0314 1012 33.0
106
Hydrogen 20 0.1850 14,250 153.0
106
Water 100 0.0242 2030 19.0
106
vapor
Water 200 0.0300 1960 32.6
106
vapor
Liquids
Water 20 0.599 4180 0.143
106
Water 60 0.652 4180 0.161
106
Water 100 0.684 4210 0.170
106
Ethanol 20 0.167 2440 0.087
106
Edible oils 20 0.17 2500 0.070
106
Milk 20 0.56 4000 0.135
106
Sucrose 20 0.54 3800 0.131
106
soln. 20%
w/w
Solids
Copper 370 420 105
106
Aluminum 230 900 95
106
Steel 60 460 16
106
Stainless 15 480 4
106
steel
Concrete 1.1 850 0.65
106
Glass 0.75 800 0.35
106
Water ice 0 2.22 2100 1.14
106
Extracted from Bimbenet, J.J., Duquenoy, A., Trystram, G., 2002. Genie des Procedes Alimentaires.
Dunod, Paris.
674 Appendix

Table A.5 Emissivity of surfaces

Material Temperature (°C) Emissivity (ε)

Aluminum, polished 220–580 0.039–0.057

Aluminum, oxidized 200–600 0.11–0.19
Steel plate, rough 30–400 0.94–0.97
Stainless steel 200–500 0.44–0.36
Concrete tiles 1000 0.63
Glass 200–550 0.95–0.85
Water 0–100 0.95–0.963
Ice 0 0.63
Adapted from Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., Andersen, L.B., 1960. Principles of Unit
Operations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Table A.6 US standard sieves

US sieve no. Sieve opening (μm)

4 4760
6 3360
8 2380
10 2000
20 840
30 590
40 420
50 297
60 250
80 177
100 149
120 125
140 105
170 88
200 74
270 53
Adapted from Perry, J.H. (Ed.), 1950. Chemical Engineers Handbook, third ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
 Appendix 675

Table A.7 Properties of saturated steam-temperature table

Enthalpy
Entropy (kJ kg21) (kJ kg21 K)
Temperature Pressure
(°C) (kPa) Liquid Gas λ Liquid Gas

10 1.228 42 2520 2478 0.15 8.901

20 2.339 84 2538 2454 0.30 8.667
30 4.246 126 2556 2430 0.44 8.453
40 7.384 168 2574 2407 0.57 8.257
50 12.35 209 2592 2383 0.70 8.076
60 19.94 251 2610 2358 0.83 7.910
70 31.19 293 2627 2334 0.95 7.755
80 47.39 335 2644 2309 1.08 7.612
90 70.14 377 2660 2283 1.19 7.479
100 101.3 419 2676 2257 1.31 7.355
110 143.3 461 2691 2230 1.42 7.239
120 198.5 504 2706 2203 1.53 7.130
130 207.1 546 2720 2174 1.63 7.027
140 361.3 589 2734 2145 1.74 6.930
150 475.8 632 2746 2114 1.84 6.838
160 617.8 676 2758 2083 1.94 6.750
170 791.7 719 2769 2049 2.04 6.666
180 1002 763 2778 2015 2.14 6.586
190 1254 808 2786 1979 2.24 6.508
200 1554 852 2793 1941 2.33 6.432
λ ¼ latent heat of evaporation.
This is an abridged summary table. For more detailed data please consult: Keenan, J.H., Keyes, F.G.,
Hill, P.G., Moore, J.G., 1969. Steam Tables: Thermodynamic Properties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid
and Solid Phases. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
676 Appendix

Table A.8 Properties of saturated steam-pressure table

Entropy
Enthalpy (kJ kg21) (kJ kg21 K)
Pressure Temperature
(kPa) (°C) Liquid Vapor λ Liquid Vapor

10 46 192 2585 2393 0.649 8.150

20 60 251 2610 2359 0.832 7.908
40 76 318 2637 2319 1.026 7.670
75 92 384 2663 2279 1.213 7.456
100 100 417 2675 2258 1.303 7.359
150 111 467 2694 2227 1.434 7.223
200 120 505 2707 2202 1.530 7.127
250 127 535 2717 2182 1.607 7.053
300 134 561 2725 2164 1.672 6.992
350 139 584 2732 2148 1.725 6.940
400 144 605 2739 2134 1.777 6.896
450 148 623 2744 2121 1.821 6.856
500 152 640 2749 2109 1.861 6.821
550 156 656 2753 2097 1.897 6.789
600 159 671 2757 2086 1.932 6.760
650 162 684 2760 2076 1.963 6.733
700 165 697 2763 2066 1.992 6.708
750 168 710 2766 2056 2.020 6.685
800 170 721 2769 2048 2.046 6.663
850 173 732 2772 2040 2.071 6.642
900 175 743 2774 2031 2.095 6.623
950 178 753 2776 2023 2.117 6.604
1000 180 763 2778 2015 2.139 6.586
λ ¼ latent heat of evaporation.
This is an abridged summary table. For more detailed data please consult: Keenan, J.H., Keyes, F.G.,
Hill, P.G., Moore, J.G., 1969. Steam Tables: Thermodynamic Properties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid
and Solid Phases. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Table A.9 Properties of superheated steam
Pressure (kPa)

100 200 300 400 500

Temperature (°C) h s h s h s h s h s
100 2676 7.361
150 2776 7.623 2769 7.279 2761 7.078 2753 6.930
200 2875 7.834 2870 7.507 2866 7.311 2860 7.171 2855 7.059
250 2974 8.033 2971 7.709 2968 7.517 2964 7.379 2961 7.271
300 3074 8.216 3072 7.893 3069 7.702 3067 7.566 3064 7.460
400 3278 8.543 3277 8.222 3275 8.033 3273 7.898 3272 7.794
500 3488 8.834 3487 8.513 3486 8.325 3485 8.191 3483 8.087
600 3705 9.098 3704 8.777 3703 8.589 3702 8.456 3702 7.352

h ¼ enthalpy, kJ kg1 s ¼ entropy, kJ kg1 K.

This is an abridged summary table. For more detailed data please consult: Keenan, J.H., Keyes, F.G., Hill, P.G., Moore, J.G., 1969. Steam Tables: Thermodynamic
Properties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid and Solid Phases. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Appendix
677
678 Appendix

Table A.10 Vapor pressure of liquid water and ice below 0°C
Temperature (°C) pwater (Pa) Pice (Pa)

0 610.5 610.5
0.5 588.7 585.9
1 567.7 562.2
1.5 547.3 539.3
2 527.4 517.3
2.5 508.3 496.2
3 489.7 475.7
3.5 472.0 456.2
4 454.6 437.3
4.5 437.8 419.2
5 421.7 401.7
6 390.8 368.6
7 362.0 338.2
8 335.2 310.1
9 310.1 284.1
10 286.5 260.0
11 264.9 238.0
12 244.5 217.6
13 225.4 198.6
14 208.0 181.4
18 125.2
23 77.3
28 46.8
33 33.3
43 9.9
53 3.8

Table A.11 Freezing point of ideal aqueous solutions

Water activity Freezing temperature (°C)

1.00 0.0
0.98 2.1
0.96 4.2
0.94 6.3
0.92 8.6
0.90 10.8
 Appendix 679

Table A.12 Vapor-liquid equilibrium data for ethanol-water mixtures at 1 atm

Ethanol in vapor

Ethanol in liquid % mol or % mass % mol % mass

0 0.0 0.0
1 6.5 10.0
3 20.5 24.8
5 32.2 38.0
10 43.7 52.0
15 50.1 59.5
20 53.2 64.8
25 55.4 68.6
30 57.5 71.4
35 59.4 73.3
40 61.4 74.7
45 63.2 75.9
50 62.2 77.1
55 67.6 78.2
60 70.3 79.4
65 72.6 80.7
70 75.4 82.2
75 78.6 83.9
80 82.1 85.9
85 85.8 88.3
90 89.8 91.3
95 94.7 95.0
97 96.8 96.9
99 98.95 98.9
100 100 100
Azeotrope mixture 89.40 95.57
680 Appendix

Table A.13 Boiling point of sucrose solutions at 1 atm

Concentration (degrees Brix) Boiling temperature (°C)

33.33 100.67
50.00 101.62
60.00 102.70
66.67 103.85
71.43 105.04
75.00 106.23
77.78 107.20
80.00 108.55
Extracted from Pancoast, H.M., Junk, W.R., 1980. Handbook of Sugars, The Avi Publishing Company,
Westport, CT.

Table A.14 Electrical conductivity of some materials

Material Ca Ab at 0°C Ab at 100°C

NaCl solution 1 65.8 352.5

10 63.2 335.0
100 57.7 295.6
200 55.6 287.0
500 44.0
1000 42.5 247.0
Glucose solution 0.4 0.13 (at 20°C)
κ
105 at 18°C
Butter 646–701
Olive oil 993
κ ¼ specific conductance (ohm1 cm1).
a
C ¼ concentration (mmol L1).
b
A ¼ 106 κ C1a.
Extracted from West, C.J. (Ed.), 1933. International Critical Tables, National Academy of Science, New
York.
 Appendix 681

Table A.15 Thermodynamic properties of saturated R-134a

h (kJ kg21) s (kJ kg21 K21)

T (°C) P (kPa) v (gas) (m3 kg21) Liquid Gas Liquid Gas

50 29.4 0.61 136 368 0.743 1.782

45 39.1 0.47 142 371 0.770 1.773
40 51.1 0.36 148 374 0.797 1.765
35 66.1 0.28 155 377 0.823 1.759
30 84.3 0.23 161 381 0.849 1.752
25 106 0.18 167 384 0.875 1.747
20 133 0.15 174 387 0.901 1.742
15 164 0.12 180 390 0.926 1.738
10 201 0.10 187 393 0.951 1.734
5 243 0.083 193 396 0.976 1.731
0 293 0.069 200 399 1.000 1.728
5 350 0.058 207 402 1.024 1.725
10 415 0.049 214 405 1.048 1.723
15 489 0.042 220 407 1.073 1.721
20 572 0.036 228 410 1.096 1.719
25 666 0.031 235 413 1.120 1.717
30 771 0.027 242 415 1.144 1.716
35 888 0.023 249 417 1.168 1.714
40 1017 0.020 257 420 1.191 1.712
45 1160 0.017 264 422 1.215 1.710
50 1319 0.015 272 424 1.238 1.709
v ¼ specific volume; h ¼ enthalpy; s ¼ entropy.
Notes: This is an abridged summary table. For more detailed data please consult: http://refrigerants.
dupont.com or http://eng.sdsu.edu/testcenter/testheme
 682
Table A.16 Thermodynamic properties of superheated R-134a

Appendix
Pressure (kPa) (saturation temperature, °C)

50 (240) 100 (226) 200 (210) 400 (9) 600 (21.5) 1000 (39.3)

Temperature (°C) h s h s h s h s h s h s
40 374 1.767
35 378 1.783
30 382 1.799
25 386 1.814 384 1.753
20 389 1.830 388 1.768
15 393 1.845 392 1.784
10 397 1.860 396 1.799
5 401 1.875 400 1.815 397 1.750
0 405 1.889 404 1.830 401 1.766
5 409 1.904 408 1.844 406 1.781
10 413 1.919 412 1.859 410 1.797 405 1.727
15 417 1.933 416 1.874 414 1.812 410 1.743
20 421 1.947 421 1.888 418 1.827 414 1.759
25 426 1.961 425 1.903 423 1.841 419 1.775 414 1.730
30 430 1.976 429 1.917 427 1.856 423 1.790 419 1.746
35 434 1.989 433 1.931 432 1.870 428 1.805 424 1.762
40 438 2.003 438 1.945 436 1.885 433 1.820 429 1.778 420 1.715
45 443 2.017 442 1.959 441 1.890 437 1.835 434 1.793 426 1.732
50 447 2.031 447 1.973 445 1.913 442 1.849 439 1.809 431 1.749
55 452 2.044 451 1.986 450 1.927 447 1.864 443 1.823 437 1.766
60 456 2.058 455 2.000 454 1.941 451 1.878 448 1.838 442 1.782
65 461 2.072 460 2.014 459 1.954 456 1.892 453 1.853 447 1.972
70 465 2.085 465 2.027 463 1.968 461 1.906 458 1.867 452 1.813
75 470 2.098 493 2.040 468 1.981 466 1.920 663 1.881 457 1.828
80 475 2.111 474 2.054 473 19,995 470 1.934 468 1.895 463 1.842

h ¼ enthalpy; s ¼ entropy.
Notes: This is an abridged summary table. For more detailed data please consult: http://refrigerants.dupont.com or http://eng.sdsu.edu/testcenter/testheme
Table A.17 Properties of air at atmospheric pressure
Temperature Density Viscosity Thermal conductivity Specific heat Prandl number
(°C) (kg m23) (Pa s) (Wm21 K21) (J kg21 K21) (dimensionless)
0 1.25 17.5
106 0.0238 1010 0.74
20 1.16 18.2
106 0.0252 1012 0.73
40 1.09 19.1
106 0.0265 1014 0.73
60 1.03 20.0
106 0.0280 1017 0.72
80 0.97 20.8
106 0.0293 1019 0.72
100 0.92 21.7
106 0.0308 1022 0.72
120 0.87 22.6
106 0.0320 1025 0.72
140 0.83 23.3
106 0.0334 1027 0.72
160 0.79 24.1
106 0.0345 1030 0.72
180 0.75 24.9
106 0.0357 1032 0.72
200 0.72 25.7
106 0.0370 1035 0.72

Appendix
683
684 Appendix

Table A.18 Surface tension of selected liquids against air at 20°C

Liquid Surface tension, γ (dyn cm21) Surface tension, γ (N m21)

Water 73 0.073
Ethanol 22 0.022
Methanol 23 0.023
Glycerol 63 0.063
n-Hexane 18 0.018
Edible oil (typical) 30 0.038
Honey (typical) 110 0.11

0.07
Transition zone

0.06

Turbulent zone
0.05
Friction factor

0.04
e /D = 0.001
0.03
Laminar zone

e /D = 0.0001
0.02
Smooth pipe

0.01

0
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06
Reynolds number
FIG. A.1
Friction factors for flow in pipes.
Adapted from Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., Andersen, L.B., 1960. Principles of Unit
Operations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 Appendix 685

0.1
100% 60%

%
40%

80
0.09 50 20% 10%
0.08
H, kg water vapor/kg dry air

0.07
5%
0.06 Wet bulb temperature, (°C)

0.05
40
0.04

0.03
30
0.02
20
0.01

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Dry bulb temperature, (°C)
FIG. A.2
Psychrometric chart.

100
Power function (ϕ)

10
Baffled

Unbaffled

1
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Reynolds number
FIG. A.3
Mixing power function, turbine impellers.
Adapted from McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., 1956. Unit operations of chemical engineering. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
686 Appendix

100

Power function (ϕ)

10

Baffled
1

Unbaffled

0.1
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Reynolds number
FIG. A.4
Mixing power function, propeller impellers.
Adapted from McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., 1956. Unit operations of chemical engineering. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.

NBi = 0.5
NBi = 1
0.1

Q
NBi = 2

0.01

NBi = ∞

0.001
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
a t/L2
FIG. A.5
Unsteady heat transfer in a slab: temperature at the central plane. L ¼ Half thickness of
the slab.
Adapted from Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., Andersen, L.B., 1960. Principles of Unit
Operations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 Appendix 687

NBi = 0.5
0.1

NBi = ∞ NBi = 2 NBi = 1

0.01

0.001
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
a t/R2
FIG. A.6
Unsteady heat transfer in an infinite cylinder: temperature at the central axis. R ¼ radius of
the cylinder.
Adapted from Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., Andersen, L.B., 1960. Principles of Unit
Operations. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

0.1

NBi = 0.5
Q

NBi = 2 NBi = 1
0.01

NBi = ∞

0.001
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
a t/R2
FIG. A.7
Unsteady heat transfer in a sphere: temperature at the geometric center. R ¼ radius of the
sphere.
Adapted from Foust, A.S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Maus, L., Andersen, L.B., 1960. Principles of Unit
Operations, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
688 Appendix

Infinite slab

0.1

Infinite cylinder
E

E= Sphere
0.01

0.001
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Dt/z2
FIG. A.8
Unsteady state mass transfer. Mass-average concentration. Z ¼ half thickness of slab, radius
of cylinder or sphere.
Adapted from Treybal, R.E., 1968. Mass Transfer Operations, second ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
erf(X )

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
X
FIG. A.9
Error function.