BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC CONTENTS

POWER TRANSMISSION
A TRAINING COURSE & WORKSHOP ON POWER SYSTEM OPERATION
AND CONTROL
12-15 November 2013 at The Head office of EDL, Vientiane, Laos
PART 1 : Structure of power systems
PART 2 : Transmission line performance
PART 3 : Voltage and power control

Lectured by
Warayut Kampeerawat
Department of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University 1 2

Structure of power systems

PART 1 : SUBTOPICS :
- Electric power system structure
Structure of power systems - Generating system
- Transmission system
- Distribution system
- Load (Consumers)
- Power substations

3 4
 S SUBSTATION
Electric power system structure
(1) (2)
A power system consists of 5 subsystems. GENERATING TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM
S SYSTEM S
Subsystem Voltage level MV HV,EHV
(3)
(1) Generating system MV
DISTRIBUTION S SUBTRANSMISSION
(2) Transmission system HV to EHV (4) SYSTEM SYSTEM
MV,HV HV
(3) Subtransmission system HV
(4) Distribution system LV to HV LV,MV
S (5) S
(5) Load (Consumers) LV to MV LV,MV

LOAD
VOLTAGE LV MV HV EHV UHV
LV
LEVEL
600V 69 kV 230 kV 800 kV 1500 kV
5 6
POWER SYSTEM STRUCTURE

Generating system

PRIMARY ELECTRIC
POWER
ENERGY PLANTS POWER
SOURCES

STEAM TURBINE
THERMAL
GAS TURBINE
ENERGY
DIESEL ENGINE SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
HYDRO HYDRAULIC
ENERGY TURBINE

WIND WIND TURBINE INDUCTION

ENERGY GENERATOR

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTER

ENERGY CELLS
7 8
GENERATING SYSTEM
 Efficiency Comparisons Efficiency Comparisons

Conventional Non-conventional
Power Plants Power Plants

EFFICIENCY (%)
EFFICIENCY (%)
Source.- EURELECTRIC & VGB powertech, 2003 Source. - EURELECTRIC & VGB powertech, 2003

9 10
GENERATING SYSTEM GENERATING SYSTEM

Transmission system Interconnection of transmission systems

Medium voltages High & Extra high voltages
(e.g.12 kV, 13.8 kV, 24 kV,…) (e.g.69 kV, 115 kV, 230 kV,…)
ISOLATED SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
GENERATING STEP-UP TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM TRANSFORMER SYSTEM Electric power sources Electric power sources

HVAC transmission system

- HV transmission lines
BULK POWER (overhead lines, 3-, 3-wire)
FROM POWER LOAD CENTERS
- Overhead ground wires
PLANTS - Towers, Ground electrodes
- Transmission right-of-way

Consumers Consumers
11 12
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
 Parameters of HVAC transmission lines
Advantages of interconnection
Imperfection of conductor Magnetic field
- Cost reduction (e.g. economies of scale, economic + Skin effect inductions
dispatch, unit commitment)
- Increased security & stability
- Increased reliability & continuity of power
delivery

Disadvantages of interconnection
- Complexity for planning, operation & control,
analysis method
Line charging current Leakage current
- Evolution of network problems (e.g. inter-area Ferranti effect + Corona effect
oscillations, subsynchronous resonance)
13 14
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Comparison between HVAC & HVDC

HVDC transmission system
Investment
cost
Converting Converting HVAC
substation substation
HVDC

400 - 800 km

DC line cost

AC line cost
DC terminal cost

AC terminal cost

Distance (km)
15 16
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
 Subtransmission system Distribution system
High & Extra high voltages High voltages High & Extra high voltages Low to High voltages
(e.g.115 kV, 230 kV,…) (e.g. 69 kV, 115 kV,…) (e.g.69 kV,115 kV, 230 kV,…) (e.g.380 V, 12 kV, 22 kV,…)
TRANSMISSION STEP-DOWN SUBTRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION STEP-DOWN DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM TRANSFORMER SYSTEM (SUBTRANSMISSION) TRANSFORMER SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Subtransmission system (overhead or underground) Distribution system (overhead or underground)

Bulk power from
transmission system
Primary distribution system Secondary distribution system
Load center 1 Load center 3 (primary feeder) - LV level
- MV to HV level - Configuration :
S - Configuration : (a) Individual transformer
(a) Radial (b) Common secondary mains
Load center 2 Load center 4
(b) Ring or Loop (c) Banked secondary mains
(c) Network (d) Secondary network
A densely distributed load center in urban area
divided into many smaller load centers. 17 18

Radial Systems
(1) Primary Distribution Networks
Network configuration:
(a) Radial Systems
- Single mainline / Express feeder
- Branched / Very branched mainline
- Multiradial feeder
(b) Ring or Loop Systems Multiradial feeder
- Open-ring
- Closed-ring
- Dual-ring
(c) Network (Grid or Meshed Systems)

19 20
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 Open-ring (Open-loop) Closed-ring (Closed-loop)

Primary Network

21 22
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Individual transformer Common secondary mains

(2) Secondary Distribution Networks (Single service)

Network configuration:
(a) Individual transformer – Single service
- an individual transformer for each consumer
secondary mains
(b) Common secondary mains
- a common secondary main for a group of consumers
(c) Banked secondary mains
- a continuous secondary main for a group of
consumers
(d) Secondary network (Meshed / Grid networks) Banked secondary mains
- a continuous secondary main or grid for a large
group of consumers

23 24
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 Load or consumers
Secondary network
Low to High voltages Low to Medium voltages
(Meshed or Grid networks) (e.g. 380 kV, 22 kV, 115 kV,…) (e.g. 380 V, 4.16 kV, 12 kV,…)
DISTRIBUTION STEP-DOWN LOAD
SYSTEM TRANSFORMER (CONSUMERS)

Load or consumers
(a) Small power rating (LV level)
(b) Densely distributed load (Urban area)
(c) Sparsely distributed load (Rural area)
(d) Large power rating (Commercial &Industrial load)
(e) Concentrated load (MV level)

25 26
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Load Classification According to electrical characteristics :

a) Lighting loads
According to geographical area : b) Heating loads
a) Downtown c) Motor loads
b) Urban d) Electronic loads
c) Suburban e) Special loads (Arc furnaces, Welding,
d) Rural Electrochemical plants, Electric railways

According to human activity related : According to key characteristics :

a) Residential loads a) Static / Dynamic loads
b) Commercial loads b) Linear / Nonlinear loads
c) Industrial loads c) Constant Power / Constant Current /
d) Others (Agricultural, Street lighting, Tractions) Constant Impedance loads
d) Frequency dependent / Voltage dependent loads
27 28
LOAD LOAD
 Downtown Urban
Residential Loads Commercial loads Industrial loads

Suburban Rural - Lighting - Lighting - Induction Motor

- Cooking - Heating - Synchronous motors
- Heating - Air conditioning - AC drives (VSD)
- Air-conditioning - Elevators / Escalators - Process heating / Drying
- Laundry / Cleaning - Water supply / pumps - Welding / Melting
- Home entertainments - Refrigeration
- Lighting
- Ventilation

29 30
LOAD LOAD

Constant Power Running Motor Motor Load Nonlinear Loads

Power Output Current
(P,Q = constant) D
§V ·
Fluorescent : P P0 ¨ ¸ 0.5 d D d 1.8
© V0 ¹
E
§V ·
min max min max Q Q0 ¨ ¸ 1.5 d E d 6
© V0 ¹
Constant Impedance § § V ·2 §V · ·
(Z = constant) Combined ZIP model : P P0 ¨ p1 ¨ ¸  p2 ¨ ¸  p3 ¸
¨ © V0 ¹ © V0 ¹ ¸
© ¹
§ § V ·2 §V · ·
Q Q0 ¨ q1 ¨ ¸  q2 ¨ ¸  q3 ¸
¨ © V0 ¹ © V0 ¹ ¸
I P
© ¹
Constant Current
(I = constant) Frequency dependent: P P0 1  K pf 'f 

Q Q0 1  K qf 'f 
V V
31 32
LOAD LOAD
 Load Curve Load-duration curve
From Load-duration curve, load curve is divided into 3 periods :
a) Peak load (0-15% of operating time)
b) Intermediate load (15-55% of operating time)
c) Base load (>55% of operating time)
- Daily load curves
- Monthly load curves
- Annual load curves Load curve Load-duration curve

Area under load curve = Energy Demand (Watt-Hours)

33 34
LOAD LOAD

Power substations Functional duties of substations

(1) INTERCONNECTION
- Generation Ù Transmission
- Transmission Ù Distribution
- Communication Ù Telemetering ÙProtection
(2) CONVERSION / REGULATION
- Voltage level
- Frequency
- ACÙDC
(3) INTRUMENTATION / MEASUREMENT
(4) HOUSING
- Protective equipment
- Control equipment
35 36
POWER SUBSTATIONS
 Classification of substations
(2) According to constructional features:
- Indoor substations
(1) According to service requirement : - Outdoor substations
- Transformer substations - Underground substations
- Switching substations - Pole-mounted substations
- Power factor correction substations - Mobile substations
- Frequency changer substations
- Converting (AC/DC) substations (3) According to insulation media :
- Industrial substations - Air-Insulated Substations (AIS)
- Traction substations - Gas-Insulated Substations (GIS)

37 38
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS

Air-Insulated Substations Comparisons of Insulations’ Dielectric Strength

(AIS)

Gas-Insulated Substations
(GIS)

Indoor GIS Outdoor GIS 39 40

POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS
 Equipment in substations
- Transformers
- Busbars
- Circuit Breakers
- Disconnecting Switches
- Load Break Switches
- Protective Relays
- Instrument Transformers
- Lightning Arresters
- Capacitor Banks
- Reactors
- HVDC Converters
41 42
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS

Busbar arrangement in substations (1) Single Bus, Single Breaker

(1) Single Bus, Single Breaker

(2) Main and Transfer Bus
(3) Double Bus, Single Breaker
(4) Double Bus, Double Breaker
(5) Breaker and A Half
(6) Ring Bus
- Very low reliable
- The outage of the total system is required for maintenance of the bus.
- Not recommended for heavily loaded substations
- The addition of a sectionalizing CB can minimize the effect of a main
bus failure.

43 44
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS
 (2) Main and Transfer Bus (3)Double Bus, Single Breaker (4) Double Bus, Double Breaker (5) Breaker and a half

- Very low reliable - Moderately reliable

- A transfer bus can be used during
maintenance of the main bus.
POWER SUBSTATIONS
- Highly reliable - Highly reliable
- A bus tie CB allows the transfer of
- Maintenance of a bus or a CB can - Maintenance of a bus or a CB can
circuits form bus to bus during
be done without an outage to any be done without an outage to any
maintenance or failure of a main bus.
45
circuit. circuit. 46
POWER SUBSTATIONS

(6) Ring Bus Comparison of Busbar Arrangements

Arrangement Reliability Flexibility Cost* Required
- Highly reliable in O&M Area
- Maintenance of a bus or a CB Single Bus
1.0
can be done without an outage
to any circuit. Main &
1.76
Transfer Bus
- Load and source circuits should
be alternated connection. Double Bus,
1.78
Single Breaker
Double Bus,
1.80
- Expansion of a ring bus is Double Breaker
limited. Breaker &
1.57
- Relaying is quite complex. a half
Ring Bus
1.56

* Cost is presented as a per unit amount for comparison of configuration.

47 48
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS
 Power Systems
Protection system in substations
A typical protection system consists of 4 components.
(1) Protective Relays : Overcurrent relay, Distance relay, Communication Channels
Local Remote
Differential relay, etc. Substation S S Substation
(2) Switching Devices : Circuit Breakers, Switchgear,
Load break switches,
VT CT
CB Lines
(3) Instrument Transformers : Current transformer (CT),
Voltage transformer (VT) Equipment
CB
(4) Communication Channels : Communication cable, PROTECTIVE
RELAYS CB Loads
Power line carrier (PLC), Microwave, Fiber-optic cable

49
Protection System in a substation 50
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS

Comparisons of Interrupting capability of Control System in substations

Switching Devices
CONTROL SYSTEM MODE:
Device Fault Current Load Current No Load
(1) Manual operation
Switchgear (2) Semi automation operation
9 9 9
Circuit Breaker (3) Automatic operation
9 9 9 (4) Supervisory Control
Load Break 9 9
Switch

Disconnecting 9
Switch

51 52
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS
 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Functions of SCADA :
1) Data Acquisition
2) Data Processing and Monitoring
3) Supervisory Control
4) Alarms and Events Processing

Main components of SCADA :

1) Master Station (MS)
2) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
3) Communication System

53 54
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS

Communication channels Microwave

Communication cable

Power Line Carrier (PLC)

Fiber-optic cable

55 56
POWER SUBSTATIONS POWER SUBSTATIONS
 END OF PART 1

57

Transmission line performance

PART 2 : SUBTOPICS :

Transmission line performances - Transmission line parameters

- Voltage and current on transmission line
- Voltage Regulation
- Power transfer

59 60
 Transmission line parameters
Imperfection of conductor
+ Skin effect
Series Impedance :
(1) Resistance (R) is derived from :
Magnetic field - Imperfection of conductor depending on materials
inductions - Skin effect depending on the operating frequency
(2) Inductive Reactance (X) is derived from :
- Inductance of conductor (self-inductance &
mutual inductance) due to magnetic field induction

Shunt Admittance :
(1) Conductance (G) is derived from :
- Leakage current through suspensions
- Corona effect => ionization of air around conductor
Line charging current Leakage current (2) Capacitance (C) is derived from :
Ferranti effect + Corona effect - Electric fields due to the voltage differences between
two or more conductors (lineÙline, lineÙearth)
61 62
61
LINE PARAMETERS

Transposition of a transmission line Voltage and Current on transmission line

Position 1 Position 1 Position 1
a c b Transmission models :
D31 D12 D31 D31 D12
D12 (1) Distributed-parameter model
c b a
D23 b D23 D23 c (2) Lumped-parameter model
Position 3 Position 3 a Position 3
Position 2 Position 2 Position 2

Position 1
R - series resistance : (/m)
Position 2 L - series inductance : (H/m)
Position 3 G - shunt conductance : (S/m)
C - shunt capacitance : (F/m)
L/3 L/3 L/3

63 64
LINE PARAMETERS
 (1) Distributed-Parameter Model

Sending end Receiving end

*
z R  jZ L : series impedance : /m
*
y G  jZC : shunt admittance S /m
* * * * * * * * ** *
V  'V ( I  'I )( z 'x)  V I  'I V y'x  I
* ** * **
'V | I z 'x 'I V y 'x

65 66
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE

* * *
* ** dV * * d 2V * dI Voltage and Current on transmission line at a distance = x are :
'V | I z 'x zI z
dx dx 2 dx
lim 'x o 0 * differentiate * *
* ** dI * * d 2 I * dV V  x   cosh( Jx ) Vr   Z c sinh( Jx )  I r
'I V y 'x yV y
dx dx 2 dx
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS:
Ix  Yc sinh( Jx ) Vr   cosh( Jx )  I r
* *
d 2V ( x) ** * d 2 I ( x) * * * Vs V(x) x Vr
z yV ( x) z y I ( x)
dx 2 dx 2 Sending end Receiving end
Is I(x) Ir
At x 0 (the receiving end of the line) Ÿ V (0) Vr I (0) I r J zy D  jE : propogation constant
The solution to the above equations is :
D : attenuation constant (neper/m) E : phase constant (radian/m)
V x  cosh( x yz ) Vr   z / y sinh( x yz )  I r Zc z : characteristic impedance (: )
y
Ix  y / z sinh( x yz ) Vr   cosh( x yz )  I r 1 y : characteristic admittance (S)
Yc z
67 Zc 68
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE
 Voltage profile along transmission line Voltage profile along transmission line
V(x) pu
V(x) pu
1.0155
1.06 No load No load
1.01
1.04
0.67SIL
0.67SIL
1.005 5
1.02
1.00SIL
1.00 1.00SIL 1.00 1.00

0.98 0.9955
1.25SIL 1.25SIL
0.96 0.99 9

300 200 100 0 300 200 100 0

x (km) x (km)
SENDING RECEIVING SENDING RECEIVING
END END END END
Transmission line data : Nominal voltage = 500 kV, f = 50 Hz Transmission line data : Nominal voltage = 500 kV, f = 50 Hz
R = 0.028 /km, L = 0.8626 mH/km, C = 0.01379 F/km R = 0.028 /km, L = 0.8626 mH/km, C = 0.01379 F/km
69 70
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE

(2) Lumped-Parameter Model (a) Short transmission lines (l < 80 km)

Transmission lines are often classified according to their Z R  jX L

lengths (l) :  
Is Ir
(a) Short lines : 0-80 km (0-50 miles) Vs Vr
 
(b) Medium length lines : 80-240 km (50-150 miles)
Z ( R  jZ L) u l : total series impedance (:)

(c) Long lines : over 240 km (> 150 miles) Vs Vr  I r Z ªVs º ª1 Z º ªVr º
Is Ir « I » «0 1 » « I »
¬ s¼ ¬ ¼¬ r ¼
71 72
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE
 (b) Medium length lines (80 < l < 240 km) (b1) Nominal T-model
(b1) Nominal T-model

(b2) Nominal S-model

ªVs º ª1  Y  Z / 2  Z  Y Z 2 / 4  º» ªVr º
«I » « «I »
Z ( R  jZ L) u l : total series impedance (:) ¬ s ¼ «¬ Y 1Y Z /2 »¼ ¬ r ¼
Y (G  jZC ) u l : total shunt admittance (S )
73 74
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE

(b2) Nominal S-model (c) Long transmission lines (l > 240 km)
Voltage and Current on transmission line at a distance = x are :

V  x   cosh( Jx ) Vr   Z c sinh( Jx )  I r
Ix  Yc sinh( Jx ) Vr   cosh( Jx )  I r
  Z Voltage and Current at sending end (x = l )are :
ªVs º ª 1  Y / 2 Z º ªVr º
« I » «Y  Y 2 / 4 Z 1   Y / 2  Z » « I » Vs  cosh( Jl ) Vr   Z c sinh( Jl )  I r
¬ s ¼ «¬   »¼ ¬ r ¼
I s  Yc sinh( Jl ) Vr   cosh( Jl )  I r
75 76
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE
 Equivalent T-model Equivalent S-model
Voltage and Current at sending end of transmission line:
ZT / 2 ZT / 2 ZS
   
ªVs º ª cosh Jl Z c sinh Jl º ªVr º Is Ir Is Ir
« I » «Y sinh Jl Vs YT Vr Vs YS / 2 YS / 2 Vr
¬ s¼ ¬ c cosh Jl »¼ «¬ I r »¼
   

J zy D  jE : propogation constant YT YC sinh( Jl ) Z S ZC sinh( Jl )

D : attenuation constant (neper/m) E : phase constant (radian/m)
z : characteristic impedance (:) ZT cosh( Jl )  1 YS cosh( Jl )  1
Zc y
2 YC sinh( Jl ) 2 ZC sinh( Jl )
Yc y
z : characteristic admittance (S)
77 78
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE

Two-port network with ABCD parameters ABCD Parameters

A=D B C
A B Ir V SHORT 1 Z 0
Vs I s r
C D MEDIUM 2
LENGTH 1   ZY 2  Z Z 4 Y Y
(T)  
1 MEDIUM
ªVs º ª A B º ªVr º ªVr º ª A B º ªVs º LENGTH
2
Z Y Y
« I » «C D » « I » « I » «C D » « I » ()
1   ZY 2  4 Z
 
¬ s¼ ¬ ¼¬ r ¼ ¬ r¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ s¼
LONG cosh( Jl ) Z c sinh( Jl ) Yc sinh( Jl )
79 80
TWO-PORT NETWORK
 Voltage Regulation Ferranti effect
Ic
A B Ic X L
Ir
Vs I s Vr ,NL Vs Ic R
C D IcZ

NO LOAD CONDITION :
Vr
0 Vs I c : line charging current
Vs AVr  BI r Vr ,NL “The Ferranti effect is an increase in voltage at the receiving end
A of a long transmission line connected to a very light load or not
Vr ,NL  Vr connected to any load (no load).”
Voltage Regulation (%VR) u100 Line charging current Ÿ | Vr | ! | Vs |
Vr
81 82
VOLTAGE REGULATION

The magnitude of voltage at receiving end (|Vr|) of transmission lines

for different load conditions when |Vs| = 1.0 pu. Power Transfer
|Vr|(pu.) 2.2

2 Characteristic impedance : Zc z
y
1.8
For lossless transmission line : (R = 0, G = 0)
1.6

1.4 Surge impedance : Zc L

C
1.2

1
Heavy load
0.8

0 200 400 600 800 1000 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) = The power delivered by
Line length (km)
Transmission line data : Nominal voltage = 500 kV, f = 50 Hz a line to purely resistive load equal to its surge impedance.
83 84
R = 0.028 /km, L = 0.8626 mH/km, C = 0.01379 F/km
V&I ON TRANSMISSION LINE
 The magnitude of voltage at receiving end (|Vr|) of lossless transmission lines
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) for different load conditions when |Vs| = 1.0 pu.
1.06
Ps  jQ s Pr  jQr |Vr|(pu.) No load

1.04
0.67SIL
1.02

2 2
3 Vr ,LN Vr ,LL 1 1.00SIL
SIL P0 Watts(3I)
Zc Zc 0.98
1.25SIL
Pr < 1SIL : Light load Q s  0, Qr ! 0 Vr ! Vs 0.96
1.43SIL
Pr = 1SIL : Natural load Vr # Vs 0.94
Q s Qr 0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Pr > 1SIL : Heavy load Q s ! 0, Qr  0 Line length (km)
Vr  Vs Transmission line data : Nominal voltage = 500 kV, f = 50 Hz
85 86
R = 0 /km, L = 0.8626 mH/km, C = 0.01379 F/km
POWER TRANSFER POWER TRANSFER

Power transmitted & Power received

Typical overhead transmission line parameters
Ps  jQ s Pr  jQr
Nominal
230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV
Voltage A B
Sending end Receiving end
Vs I s Ir V
R (/km) 0.050 0.037 0.028 0.012 0.005
r
C D
L (mH/km) 1.2945 0.9735 0.8621 0.8727 0.7746
Vs Vs ‘G s ; Vr Vr ‘G r
C (F/km) 0.00894 0.01198 0.01379 0.01320 0.01471
380 285 250 257 230
A A ‘T A ; B B ‘T B ; C C ‘TC ; D D ‘T D
ZC ()

SIL (MW) 140 420 1000 2280 5260 AV  V Vs  AVr

Is = s r Ir =
Note : 1) Bundle conductors used for all lines listed, except for the 230 kV line. B B
2) R, L and C are per-phase values.
3) SIL is three-phase values.
87 88
POWER TRANSFER POWER TRANSFER
 Power at Sending end (per phase) : S s Vs I s* Ps  jQs
For short & lossless Z jX A 1, B X
2 transmission line :
AV V V Y 0 T A 0 o , T B 90 o
Ps = s cos( T B  T A )  s r cos( T B  G s  G r )
B B Power at the Sending end: Power at the receiving end:
2
AV V V |Vs || Vr | |Vs || Vr |
Qs = s sin( T B  T A )  s r sin( T B  G s  G r ) Ps = sin( G s  G r ) Pr = sin( G s  G r )
B B X X
Power at Receiving end (per phase) : S r Vr I r* Pr  jQr |Vs |2 |Vs ||Vr | | Vs || Vr | | Vr |2
2 Qs =  cos(Gs Gr ) Qr = cos(Gs Gr ) 
V V AV X X X X
Pr = s r cos( T B  G r  G s )  r cos( T B  T A )
B B
2
Vs Vr A Vr Maximum Power Transfer : |Vs || Vr |
Qr = sin( T B  G r  G s )  sin( T B - T A ) Pmax =
B B ( G s  G r 90 o ) X
89 90
POWER TRANSFER POWER TRANSFER

Power transfer VS phase angle difference Real and Reactive Power transmitted with Vs Vr

Ps
|Vs || Vr | Vs constant
Pmax =
X 2Pmax
Vr1 ! Vr 2 ! Vr 3
Ps1 QS
Ps 2 Pmax1 ! Pmax 2 ! Pmax 3
Ps 3

Pmax Qr Qs
PS

G1  G 2
o o o
0 90 180 G1  G 2
0o 90o 180o
91 92
POWER TRANSFER POWER TRANSFER
 Receiving end voltage without Reactive power at
receiving end (Qr 0)

Vr Vs cos(G s  G r ) END OF PART 2

QS
1.0 pu Vs 1.0 pu
Vr

PS

G1  G 2
0o 45o 90o
93 94
POWER TRANSFER

Voltage and power control

PART 3 : SUBTOPICS :
Voltage and Power control - Power-Voltage Relation
- Voltage control
- Reactive power compensation
- Real power flow control
- Flexible AC Transmission System

95 96
 Power-Voltage relation Let V2 constant G2 constant
P & Q sensitivity to phase angle difference :
V1 V1 ‘G1 V2 V2 ‘G 2
wP12 ( V2  'V ) V2
cos('G ) c1 u cos('G )
Z jX w'G 'V constant X
P12  jQ12 wQ12 ( V2  'V ) V2
sin('G ) c2 u sin('G )
Let 'G G1  G 2 'V V1  V2 w'G 'V constant X
P & Q transmitted from point 1 to point 2 : P & Q sensitivity to voltage magnitude difference :
wP12 V2
V1 V2 sin('G ) c3
P12 sin('G ) w'V 'G constant X
X
1 2
wQ12 2'V V2
Q12 V1  V1 V2 cos('G )  (2  cos('G )) c4 u 'V  c5
X
  w'V 'G constant X X
97 98
POWER-VOLTAGE RELATION

P & Q sensitivity to phase angle difference P & Q sensitivity to voltage magnitude difference
u k (pu.) u k (pu.)
u k (pu.) u k (pu.)
0.8 2
1.2 1.2 wP12 wQ12 wQ12
w'G w'G P12 w'V
1.0 1 1.6
0.6
P12
0.8 0.8 1.2

0.4
Q12
0.6 0.6 wP12
0.8
Q12
0.4 0.4
w'V
0.2
0.4
0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 45 90

'G G1  G 2 (degree) 'G G1  G 2 (degree) 'V V1  V2 (pu.) 'V V1  V2 (pu.)

1 1
Let V1 V2 1.0 pu G2 0o k Let V2 1.0 pu G1  G 2 30o k
X X
99 100
POWER-VOLTAGE RELATION POWER-VOLTAGE RELATION
 Power-Voltage relation Voltage control
- Real power flow can be effectively changes by varying the
phase angle difference between the end of transmission facility. Means of voltage control
(1) Sending end voltage adjustment
P12 œ 'G G1  G 2
(2) Reactive power control

- Reactive power flow can be effectively changes by varying the (3) Impedance control
voltage magnitude difference between the end of transmission (4) Tap-changing control
facility.
(5) Direct insertion of synchronous voltage sources
Q12 œ 'V V1  V2

101 102
POWER-VOLTAGE RELATION

(1) Sending end voltage adjustment Generator Capability Capability Curve

I field V1  V2 
V1 Q flow 
EXCITER G
Sending Receiving
'V end end
AVR
Vref

Method : Excitation control of generators at sending end

and/or tap control of unit transformers.
Controller: Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) controls
exciter field to regulate the voltage magnitude of generator
at a setpoint value.
Limitation: The voltage range is limited by Reactive Power
Capability and voltage rating of equipment. 103 104
VOLTAGE CONTROL VOLTAGE CONTROL
 (2) Reactive power control (3) Impedance control
V1 V2  V1 V2  V2  Q flow  V2 
Q flow  Q flow  V1 V1
Q flow 
QC XC Variable line
impedance
shunt reactive power QC X line 
controllers series reactive power series impedance
controllers controllers

Method : Injection or Absorption of reactive power by using
shunt or series reactive power controllers.
Controller: Shunt Capacitor/Reactor, Series capacitor
Synchronous Condensor (SC), Static Var Compensators (SVC)
Limitation: The voltage range is limited by voltage rating of
equipment.
Method : Compensation of line series impedance (reactance) by
using variable series impedance controllers.
Controller: Series capacitor (SC), Thyristor-Control Series
Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor-Control Series Reactor (TCSR)
Limitation: The voltage range is limited by rating of equipment
and subsynchronous resonance problem.

105 106
VOLTAGE CONTROL VOLTAGE CONTROL

Series Compensation Æ Series Capacitor (4) Tap-changing control

V1 tap  tap  V2 
VS
Q flow 
VS VR VR,C
PL PL

Tap-changing Tap-changing
VZ VC VZ,C controllers controllers
Line without Compensation Line with Series Compensation
VC VZ,C Method : Control of sending end voltage or receiving end voltage
VC
VS VS by using transformers with tap-changer.
VR,C VZ,C Controller: Off-load /Fixed Tap-Setting Transformer
VZ
VZ VR,C On-Load/Under load Tap-Changing Transformer
VR VR
Limitation: The voltage range is limited by rating of equipment.

Voltage with/without compensation Voltage with/without compensation

@ Load 0.5SIL @ Load 2SIL
107 108
VOLTAGE CONTROL VOLTAGE CONTROL
Reactive power compensation Reactive power compensators :
- Shunt Capacitor/Reactor
- Synchronous Condensor (SC)
Q12 œ 'V V1  V2 - Static Var Compensators (SVC)
- Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM)
- etc.
Reactive power injection
(supply Q => increase |V|)
Reactive power injection Reactive power absorption
Reactive power compensation
QC QL
Reactive power absorption Z th Z th
(consume Q => decrease |V|)
2 2
Vi Vi
Reactive power compensation is managed to… Vi  jX C QL Vi jX L
Ei QC XC Ei XL
(1) Give suitable voltage magnitudes at various part of the
transmission system. ref . ref .
(2) Reduce the transmission losses.
109 110
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION

Real power flow control (1) Phase angle control

V1‘G1 V2 ‘G 2 V1‘G1 Gs  V2 ‘G 2
Pflow  'G (G s  G 2 ) 

Pflow 
 Pflow Pflow Phase-shifting
V3‘G 3 Pflow  V4 ‘G 4 controllers

Method : Control of phase angle by using phase-shifting

controllers.
Means of real power flow control Controller: Phase-shifting Transformer
V1 V2 (1) Phase angle control Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
P12 sin('G ) Thyristor-Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR)
X (2) Line impedance control

111 112
REAL POWER CONTROL
 (2) Impedance control 2,000 MW 1,333 MW CASE STUDY : Real power flow control
3,000 MW
67%
XC  V2 Capacity
V1 X ( X line r X C )  from to Line Z ()
C (MW)
A
66
56
% A C j12 2,000
7 1,667 MW A B j9 1,200
M

111%
W
Pflow  B C j6 1,500
Line compensator B
1,000 MW

Method : Compensation of line series impedance (reactance) by

using variable series impedance controllers. (1) Change of generation schedule (2) Expansion of transmission system
2,500 MW 1,500 MW
3,000 MW
75%
Controller: Series capacitor (SC), Thyristor-Control Series
Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor-Control Series Reactor (TCSR) A C C
83 A
1,
00 %
0 1,500 MW
Limitation: Subsynchronous Resonance problem M
W

B B
500 MW

113 114
REAL POWER CONTROL REAL POWER CONTROL

(3) Phase angle control: TCPAR Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTs)

67%

C
A 56
66 % C
7 A
M

111%
W

B
B

(4) Impedance control : TCSC (5) Impedance control : TCSR Traditional Transmission Line Flexible AC Transmission Line
FACTs controllers enhance power transmission
system by means of...
C C (1) Phase angle & Voltage magnitude control
A A
(2) Real power control
(3) Reactive power control
B B (4) Impedance control
115 116
REAL POWER CONTROL
 FACTs controller classifications
(1) Shunt connected controllers
(1) Shunt Compensation

jX
Utility

STATCOM

(2) Series Compensation (3) Shunt and Series Compensation

E1 E3 E2
I - +

STATCOM SVC
Static Synchronous Compensator Static Var Compensator
Series
Shunt
converter
converter

117 118
FACTs FACTs

(2) Series connected controllers (3) Combined shunt and series connected
controllers

SSSC
Solid State Series Compensator

TCPST/TCPAR UPFC
Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer Unified Power Flow Controller
TCSC TCSR Thyristor-Controlled Phase Angle Regulator
Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor

119 120
FACTs FACTs
 REFERENCES
END OF PART 3 Leonard L. Grigsby (editor), Electric Power Generation,
Transmission, and Distribution, CRC press, 2007
John D. McDonald (editor), Electric Power Substations Engineering,
CRC press, 2007
John J. Grainger and Wiliam D. Stevenson, JR. Power System
Analysis, McGraw Hill, 1994
Surachai Limyingcharoen, Lecture notes on Electric Power Systems,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Khon Kaen Univerity
Warayut Kampeerawat, Lecture notes on Electric Power Systems,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Khon Kaen Univerity

121 122