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QUÁ TRÌNH VÀ
THIẾT BỊ 1
Chapter 1 Fluid dynamics (cont.)

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Pham Thi Doan Trinh

1.6 Basic equations of fluid dynamics (Các phương

trình cơ bản về chuyển động của chất lỏng
2

1. Continuity equation (PT dòng liên tục)

2. Euler’s equation of motion (PT vi phân

chuyển động của Euler)

3. The Bernoulli equation

Trường Đại học Bách Khoa

Đại học Đà Nẵng
Khoa HÓA
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If a steady, incompressible fluid flows through a

pipe with different cross-sectional areas, how do
the flow rate and velocity change?

1.6.1 Continuity equation (PT dòng liên tục)

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 Steady flow and

incompressible fluid,
 = constant
 Variable cross-
sectional areas

Conservation of Mass: G1 = G2 = G3
A1w11 = A2w22 = A3w33
Or
A1w1 = A2w2 = A3w3 (due to uniform fluid)

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Flow through
branched pipes
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 G1 = G 2 + G3
 1A1w1 = 2A2w2 + 3A3w3

Note:
+ The Continuity equation can be used for both ideal fluid
and incompressible real fluid
+ The Continuity equation is all the Conversation of Mass

Ví dụ:
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Ví dụ: Cho sơ đồ như hình. Dòng chảy ổn định. Lưu lượng

V=0,5 m3/s. Đường kính D1 = 5 dm; D2 = 15 dm. Xác định
vận tốc chất lỏng w trong các đoạn ống. Đ/S: w1 = 2,55 m/s
; w2 =0,283 m/s

Trường Đại học Bách Khoa

Đại học Đà Nẵng
Khoa HÓA
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1.6.2 Euler’s equation in motion

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- Xét cho 1 nguyên tố chất lỏng dV tách ra từ chất lỏng lý

tưởng đang chuyển động.

-Nguyên tắc cân bằng lực (ĐL 2 Newton)

Tổng lực trên 1 trục = khối lượng * gia tốc

- Xét 2 trường hợp:

Chảy ổn định
Chảy không ổn định (SV tự tìm hiểu)
Trường Đại học Bách Khoa
Đại học Đà Nẵng
Khoa HÓA
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Khi chất lỏng lý tưởng chuyển động ổn định:

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PT vi phân chuyển động

của Euler trong trường hợp
chảy ổn định:
w p
ρ wx  
x x
w p
ρ wy  
y y
w p
ρ w z    ρg
z z

Là cơ sở của PT Bernoulli

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1.6.3 The Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli equation for a steady, incompressible flow along a
streamline in inviscid regions of flow.

p w2 Or
p w2
z   const z   const
g 2g  2g

Where
 z – elevation head => represents the potential energy of the
fluid
 p/ - pressure head => represents the height of a column of the
fluid that produces the static pressure p
 w2/2g – velocity head => represent the vertical distance needed
for the fluid to reach the velocity w during frictionless free fall
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 The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation
and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net
frictional forces are negligible.
 Equation is useful in flow regions
outside of boundary layers and
wakes.

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The Bernoulli equation can also be written between any two

points on the same streamline:
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Potential energy Kinetic energy

2 2
p w p w
z1  1  1  z 2  2  2  const
 2g  2g

HTP Flow energy

The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as

Conservation of mechanical
energy principle

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Người đi xe đạp
ngang qua vùng
không khí chuyển
động ổn định với tốc
độ V0. Xác định
chênh lệch áp suất
giữa hai điểm 1 và 2
Munson et. al., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
2 2
Áp dụng PT Bernoulli, p V p V
z1  1  1  z 2  2  2
 2g  2g
- V1 = V0 ; z1 = z2
- Tại vị trí trước mũi của người đi xe: V2 = 0.
- Áp suất tại 2 lớn hơn tại 1: p2 – p1 = 1/2V12 = 1/2V02
- Nếu người đạp xe tăng tốc hoặc giảm tốc, dòng không khí chuyển động sẽ
không còn ổn định nữa, V0 # constant) thì PT Bernoulli áp dụng không
12 còn đúng nữa.

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HGL and EGL

 It is often convenient
to plot mechanical
energy graphically
using heights.
 Hydraulic Grade Line
P
HGL  z
g
 Energy Grade Line
(or total energy)
The energy line is a line that represents the
total head available to the fluid.
P V2
EGL   z
 g 2g
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In case of Real fluids:

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Viscosity
Flow properties  internal friction
Friction with pipe walls

p w2
z   # const
 2g

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The Bernoulli equation between any two points on the

same streamline of a real fluid in steady flow
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2 2
p w p w
z1  1  1  z 2  2  2   h m1 2
 2g  2g
The total energy of the fluid
decreases along the pipe length

Where:
hm1-2 – head loss: is a reduction in the total
energy of the fluid when flowing from section 1-
1 to 2-2
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Limitation on the use of Bernoulli equation:

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1. Five conditions:
 Steady flow (Dòng chảy phải ổn định): d/dt = 0
 Incompressible flow (Chất lỏng không nén được):  = const
 Mass force is gravitational force (Lực khối lượng chỉ là trọng
lực)
 Constant flow rate (Lưu lượng là 1 hằng số)
 The selected cross-sectional flow areas are flat and uniform
flow, avoid the expansion and contraction
2. The pressure is gauge pressure
3. It is recommended to select convenient points for Bernoulli
equation

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Ví dụ
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Hệ thống như hình vẽ

H = 5m; d=2cm
Xác định lưu lượng
chất lỏng chảy trong
ống. Gỉa thiết hm= 0.
ĐS: 0.0031 m3/s

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1.7 Applications of Bernoulli equation

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1.7.1 Flow from a tank

1.7.2. Velocity and flow rate measurements

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1.7.1 Flow from a tank

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a) If the water depth remains constant, (mức chất lỏng

trong bình không đổi)
- Vertical flow from a tank (Qua đáy bình)
- Horizontal flow from a tank (Qua thành bình)

b) If the water depth changes (Sự chảy qua lỗ bình khi

mức chất lỏng trong bình thay đổi)

c) Flow on a weir or dam (Sự chảy chất lỏng qua cửa tràn)

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a1) Vertical flow from a tank if the water depth remains constant
(Sự chảy qua ĐÁY BÌNH khi mức chất lỏng trong bình không đổi)
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2 2
p w p w
z1  1  1  z 2  2  2   h m12
 2g  2g

w 22
H   h m12
2g

* Chất lỏng lý tưởng : h m1 2 0

Vận tốc lý thuyết: wl.t = w2 = 2gH

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* Chất lỏng thực: w22

h m12 
2g

w 22 1
H (1  )  w  w 2  2gH  w   2gH
2g 1 
1
φ= ∶ Hệ số vận tốc
1+ξ

Lưu lượng chất lỏng chảy qua lỗ: V = Ath.w

Trong đó
Ath – tiết diện của dòng qua lỗ tại chỗ nhỏ nhất (chỗ thắt)
 = Ath/Alỗ : Hệ số thắt dòng

 V  .A loã. 2gH, m3 / s

22  = . - heäsoá löu löôïng

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a2) Horizontal flow from a tank if the water depth remains

constant (Sự chảy qua lỗ ở THÀNH BÌNH khi mức chất lỏng trong bình
không đổi)
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SV tự xem

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b) Vertical flow from a tank if the water depth changes

(Sự chảy qua LỖ ĐÁY BÌNH khi mức chất lỏng trong bình
thay đổi)
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- Mực nước ban đầu H1, sau thời gian  đạt mức H
- Đáy lỗ tiết diện A. Diện tích tiết diện bình A0.
0
 Thời gian chảy hết chất lỏng 1 A 0 dH
 
ra khỏi bình : .A. 2g H
H1

Nếu tiết diện bình A0 = const:

2A H
τ= ,s
μA 2g

 Thời gian để chất lỏng chảy từ 2A

mức H1 đến H: τ= H − H ,s
μf 2g

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c) Flow on a weir or dam (Sự chảy chất lỏng qua cửa tràn)
(SV tự xem)

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1.7.2 Velocity and flow rate measurements

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a) Pitot tube

b) The Venturi

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a) Pitot tube

-Some of the fluid flows “over”

and some “under” the object.
- There is a stagnation point on
any stationary body that is placed
into a flowing fluid.
- The velocity at the stagnation
point is zero but the pressure is
rather large

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- Fluid velocity  5m/s

- The hole in the tip of tube (2)
has diameter < tube diameter
- The fluid in tube (2) and at its
tip will be stationary
- Point 2 is a stagnation point,
w2 = 0, p2 > p1

p1 w12 p 2 1
   p2  p1  w12
 2g  2

 p1 is static pressure,
 p2 is stagnation pressure (the sum of the static and
34 dynamic pressures)

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Fluid velocity at point 1:

In practice:
p 2  p1
w1  2 g  2 gh w = φ 2gh

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-Ví dụ:

- Ống Pitot trên máy bay được nối với bộ chỉ thị
tốc độ không khí (có khả năng đọc vận tốc
theo đơn vị dặm/h.)

- Xem video V3.4

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b) Venturi flow meter

 Measure the flow rate in the pipe based on flow pressure

difference
 Use continuity equation: flow rate remains constant when
passing different section areas.
 A decrease in flow area in a pipe causes an increase in
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velocity that is accompanied by a decrease in pressure
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D 2 2g
V  w1f1 (  w 2 f 2 )  4
h   h
4 D
  1
d
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-Ví dụ:
- Xem video V3.6 (Fundamentals of Fluid
mechanics)

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-
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1.8 SIMILITUDE AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (ĐỒNG

DẠNG VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP PHÂN TÍCH THỨ NGUYÊN)
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 Understand dimensions, units, and dimensional

homogeneity

 Understand benefits of dimensional analysis

 Know how to use the method of repeating

variables

 Understand the concept of modeling and

similitude

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 Basic principles
 Dimensional Homogeneity
 In a system with several variables one can
construct a series of numbers that do not have
dimensions.

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1.8.1 Dimensions and Units

 Review
 Dimension: Measure of a physical quantity, e.g., length,
time, mass
 Units: Assignment of a number to a dimension, e.g., (m),

(sec), (kg)
 7 Primary Dimensions:

1. Mass m (kg)
2. Length L (m)
3. Time t (sec)
4. Temperature T (K)
5. Current I (A)
6. Amount of Light C (cd)
7. Amount of matter N (mol)
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Simple Example

 You are studying the pressure drop per unit length in a pipe

 Variables: Dp, D, , , V (pressure drop per unit length,

diameter, density, viscosity and velocity). If this is all we can
hypothesize
Dp = f(D, , , V )
 Dimensions: [Dp] = ML-1T-2,
[D] = L,
[] = ML3,
[] = ML-1T-1,
[V] = LT-1

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Example Continued

 Dimensions: [Dp] = ML-2T-2,

[D] = L,
[] = ML3,
[] = ML-1T-1,
[V] = LT-1
 I can combine these to form two dimensionless numbers
 (DDp)/(V2) and (VD)/()
 Therefore we can say (DDp)/(V2) = F(VD/)
 We don’t know F, but we can look for it in data…..

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Dimensional Homogeneity

 Law of dimensional homogeneity (DH): every additive term in

an equation must have the same dimensions
 Example: Bernoulli equation

 {p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time2 x 1/length2} =

{m/(t2L)}
 {1/2V2} = {mass/length3 x (length/time)2} = {m/(t2L)}
 {gz} = {mass/length3 x length/time2 x length} ={m/(t2L)}

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1.8.2 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

In many real-world flows, the equations are either

unknown or too difficult to solve.
 Experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable
information
 In most experiments, geometrically-scaled models are
used to save time and money
 Experimental conditions and results must be properly
scaled so that results are meaningful for the full-scale
prototype.
 Dimensional Analysis

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 Primary purposes of dimensional analysis

 To generate nondimensional parameters that help in
the design of experiments (physical and/or numerical)
and in reporting of results
 To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance
can be predicted from model performance.
 To predict trends in the relationship between
parameters.

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Common nondimensional Groups in Fluids

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Similarity (thuyết đồng dạng)

For complete similarity between a model and a

prototype, 3 conditions are required:
 Geometric Similarity (đồng dạng hình học) - the model
must be the same shape as the prototype. Each
dimension must be scaled by the same factor.
 Kinematic Similarity (đồng dạng động học) - velocity as
any point in the model must be proportional
 Dynamic Similarity (đồng dạng động lực học) - all forces
in the model flow scale by a constant factor to
corresponding forces in the prototype flow.

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Kinematic similarity is
achieved when, at all
locations, the speed
in the model flow is
proportional to that at
corresponding
locations in the
prototype flow, and
points in the same
direction.

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Geometric similarity
between a prototype
car of length Lp and a
model car of length Lm.

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Complete similarity is ensured if all independent  groups are the same

between model and prototype.

 What is ?
 We let uppercase Greek letter  denote a nondimensional parameter,
e.g., Reynolds number Re, Froude number Fr, Drag coefficient, CD, etc.
 In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one  that we call the
dependent , giving it the notation 1.
 The parameter 1 is in general a function of several other ’s, which we
call independent ’s.
1 =  (2, 3, 4, …, k)
If 2,m = 2,p and 3,m = 3,p … and k,m = k,p Then 1,m = 1,p

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Example:
• Consider automobile experiment
• Drag force is F = f(V, , L)
• Through dimensional analysis, we can reduce the
problem to

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Buckingham Pi () Theorem

 If an equation involving n variables is dimensionally

homogeneous, it can be reduced to a relationship
among (n-k) independent dimensionless products
where k is the minimum number of reference
dimensions required to describe the variables
 Mathematically
u1 =  (u2, u3, …, un)
Can be reduced to
 1 =  ( 2,  3, …,  n-k)

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Determination of Pi: Method of Repeating Variables

 Six steps
1. List the parameters in the problem and count their total

number n.
2. List the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters

3. Set the reduction k as the number of primary

dimensions. Calculate j, the expected number of 's, j =

n - k.
4. Choose k repeating parameters (equal to the number of

primary dimensions)
5. Construct the j 's, and manipulate as necessary.

6. Write the final functional relationship and check algebra.

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Example  Step 1: List relevant parameters. z =

f(t,w0,z0,g)  n=5

 Step 2: Primary dimensions of each

Ball Falling in a Vacuum parameter

 Step 3: As a first guess, reduction k is

set to 2 which is the number of
primary dimensions (L and t).
Number of expected 's is j = n – k
=5–2=3

 Step 4: Choose repeating variables

(2) including w0 and z0

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Guidelines for choosing Repeating parameters

1. Never pick the dependent variable. Otherwise, it may appear in all

the 's.

2. Chosen repeating parameters must not by themselves be able to

form a dimensionless group. Otherwise, it would be impossible to
generate the rest of the 's.

3. Chosen repeating parameters must represent all the primary

dimensions.

4. Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless.

5. Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions or with

dimensions that differ by only an exponent.

6. Choose dimensional constants over dimensional variables so that

only one  contains the dimensional variable.
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Example, continued
 Step 5: Combine repeating parameters into products with each of the
remaining parameters, one at a time, to create the ’s.
 1 = zw0a1z0b1
 a1 and b1 are constant exponents which must be determined.
 Use the primary dimensions identified in Step 2 and solve for a1 and
b1.

 Time equation:
 Length equation:

 This results in

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Example, continued

 Step 5: continued
 Repeat process for 2 by combining repeating parameters with t
 2 = tw0a2z0b2

 Time equation:

 Length equation:

 This results in

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Example, continued
 Step 5: continued
 Repeat process for 3 by combining repeating parameters with g
 3 = gw0a3z0b3

 Time equation:

 Length equation:

 This results in

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 Step 6:
 Double check that the 's are dimensionless.
 Write the functional relationship between 's

 Or, in terms of nondimensional variables

 Overall conclusion: Method of repeating variables properly

predicts the functional relationship between dimensionless groups.
 However, the method cannot predict the exact mathematical form of
the equation.

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Experimental Testing and Incomplete Similarity

 One of the most useful applications of dimensional analysis is

in designing physical and/or numerical experiments, and in
reporting the results.
 Setup of an experiment and correlation of data.
 Consider a problem with 5 parameters:
one dependent and 4 independent.

 Full test matrix with 5 data points for

each independent parameter would
require 54=625 experiments!!

 If we can reduce to 2 's, the number of

independent parameters is reduced
from 4 to 1, which results in 51=5
experiments vs. 625!!

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Experimental Testing and Incomplete Similarity

Wanapum Dam on Columbia River
 Flows with free surfaces present unique
challenges in achieving complete dynamic
similarity.
 For hydraulics applications, depth is very
small in comparison to horizontal
dimensions. If geometric similarity is used,
the model depth would be so small that
Physical Model at
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research other issues would arise
 Surface tension effects (Weber number)
would become important.
 Data collection becomes difficult.
 Distorted models are therefore employed,
which requires empirical
corrections/correlations to extrapolate
model data to full scale.
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Experimental Testing and Incomplete Similarity

DDG-51 Destroyer

 For ship hydrodynamics, Fr similarity

is maintained while Re is allowed to
be different.

 Why? Look at complete similarity:

1/20th scale model

 To match both Re and Fr, viscosity in

the model test is a function of scale
ratio! This is not feasible.

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Vd: Dòng chảy của lưu chất trong ống dẫn chịu tác động
của 4 đại lượng vật lý:
 kích thước ống dẫn (d) khối lượng riêng lưu chất ()
 tốc độ chảy (w) độ nhớt lưu chất ()
 chế độ chảy chịu tác động của 4 đại lượng có thứ
nguyên.
Theo DL Pi:  = w.. .d
 Dưới dạng thứ nguyên:
0 0 0 -1  -1 -1 
 [M .L .T ] = [L.T ] .[M.L .T ] .[M.L ] .[L]
-3  

0 0 0
  [M .L .T ] = [M]
(+).[L](--3+).[T](--)

     0

     3    0
     0 
  w..d 
   

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Gỉai hệ   = - ;  = - ;  =    
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Xét trong hệ SI các đại lượng vật lý có thứ nguyên và đơn vị

như sau:
- chiều dài (L), đơn vị (m) - khối lượng (M), đơn vị (kg)
- thời gian (T), đơn vị (s) - lực (F), đơn vị (N)
Nếu ta có các ký hiệu sau: v – vận tốc;  - chiều dài; W –
trọng lượng; và µ - độ nhớt. Hãy xác định thứ nguyên của
các đại lượng sau:
a) v  W/µ b)Wµ  c) vµ/ 
2
d) v  µ/W

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 Ví dụ: Lưu chất chuyển động tốc độ chậm

(chảy dòng) qua 1 ống hình trụ.
 Sự phân bố vận tốc chuyển động có dạng
v = (B/µ)(r02 – r2 )
với µ là độ nhớt lưu chất.
Đơn vị của hằng số B là gì?
ĐS: {B} = M.L-2.T-2

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