Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 9
The Cell Cycle and
Cellular Reproduction
Lecture Outline

Copyright ©2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Outline
9.1 The Cell Cycle
9.2 The Eukaryotic Chromosome
9.3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
9.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
 9.1The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is an orderly set of stages
from the first division to the time the
resulting daughter cells divide
• Just prior to the next division:
 The cell grows larger
 The number of organelles doubles
 The DNA is replicated
• The two major stages of the cell cycle:
 Interphase )includes several stages(
 Mitotic Stage )includes mitosis and cytokinesis(

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 The Cell Cycle

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Interphase
S
G1 checkpoint
(growth and DNA
Cell cycle main checkpoint. G1 replication) G2 checkpoint
If DNA is damaged, apoptosis G2
will occur. Otherwise, the cell Mitosis checkpoint.
G1 )growth and final
is committed to divide when Mitosis will occur
G0 (growth) preparations for
growth signals are present M G2 if DNA has
division( replicated properly.
and nutrients are available.
Apoptosis will
occur if the DNA is
damaged and
cannot be repaired.
M

M checkpoint
Spindle assembly
checkpoint. Mitosis
will not continue if
chromosomes are
not properly aligned.

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 The Cell Cycle
• Interphase
 Most of the cell cycle is spent in
interphase
 Cell performs its usual functions
 Time spent in interphase varies by cell
type
 Nerve and muscle cells do not
complete the cell cycle (remain in the
G0 stage)
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 The Cell Cycle
• Interphase consists of: G1, S, and G2 phases
 G1 Phase:
• Recovery from previous division
• Cell doubles its organelles
• Cell grows in size
• Cell accumulates raw materials for DNA synthesis
 S Phase:
• DNA replication
• Proteins associated with DNA are synthesized
• Chromosomes enter with 1chromatid each
• Chromosomes leave with 2 identical chromatids )sister
chromatids) each
 G2 Phase:
• Between DNA replication and onset of mitosis
• Cell synthesizes proteins necessary for division

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 The Cell Cycle
• M (Mitotic) Stage
 Includes:
• Mitosis
– Nuclear division
– Daughter chromosomes are distributed by the mitotic
spindle to two daughter nuclei
• Cytokinesis
– Division of the cytoplasm
 Results in two genetically identical daughter
cells

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9.2 Structure of the Eukaryotic Chromosome

�. Wrapping of DNA
a. Nucleosomes (“beads on a string”) around histone proteins.

�. Formation of a three-dimensional
zigzag structure via histone H1
and other DNA-binding proteins.
b. 30-nm fiber

�. Loose coiling into radial loops.

c. Radial loop domains

�. Tight compaction of radial

loops to form heterochromatin.

d. Heterochromatin

�. Metaphase chromosome forms

with the help of a protein scaffold.

e. Metaphase chromosome Jump to Structure of the Eukaryotic Chromosome Long Description

a: © Dr. Gopal Murti/Phototake; b: © Dr. Jerome Rattner, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary; c: © Ulrich Laemmli and J.R. Paulson, Dept. of Molecular Biology,
University of Geneva, Switzerland; (d to e): © Peter Engelhardt/Department of Pathology and Virology, Haartman Institute/
Centre of Excellence in Computational Complex Systems Research, Biomedical Engineering and Computational Science, Faculty of
Information and Natural Sciences, Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland
9.2 The Eukaryotic Chromosome
Contains a single DNA molecule (double helix)
•DNA is associated with histones (proteins).
•DNA and histone proteins are collectively called
chromatin.
Histones
•Play a structural role
•Have essential survival functions
•Primarily 5 types
•Responsible for DNA packing into nucleus
•DNA wound around an 8-histone core is called a
nucleosome, which appears as a bead.
 9.3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• DNA is in very long threads
 Chromosomes
 Stretched out and intertwined between divisions
 DNA is associated with histones (proteins)
 DNA and histone proteins are collectively called
chromatin
• Before mitosis begins:
 Chromatin condenses (coils) into distinctly
visible chromosomes
 Each species has a characteristic
chromosome number

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Diploid Chromosome Numbers of
Some Eukaryotes

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• The diploid 2)n) number includes two sets
of chromosomes of each type
 Humans have 23different types of
chromosomes
• Each type is represented twice in each body cell
(diploid(
• Only sperm and eggs have one of each type
·termed haploid (n(
 The haploid )n) number for humans is 23
• Two representatives of each chromosome type
• Makes a total of 2n 46 =in each nucleus
– One set of 23 from individual’s father (paternal(
– Other set of 23 from individual’s mother (maternal(
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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• At the end of S phase:
 Each chromosome internally duplicated
 Consists of two identical DNA chains
• Sister chromatids (two strands of genetically identical
chromosomes(
• Attached together at a single point )called centromere(
• During mitosis:
 Centromeres holding sister chromatids together
separate
 Sister chromatids separate
 Each becomes a daughter chromosome
 Sisters of each type are distributed to opposite
daughter nuclei
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Duplicated Chromosomes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

sister chromatids

centromere

kinetochore

one chromatid
a. b. 9,850
© Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Just outside the nucleus is the centrosome
 This is the microtubule organizing center in animal
cells
 Organizes the mitotic spindle
• Contains many fibers
• Each fiber is composed of a bundle of microtubules
 In animals, the centrosome contains two barrel-
shaped centrioles
• Oriented at right angles to each other within the centrosome
• Each has 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a cylinder
• Centrosome was also replicated in S-phase, so
there are two centrosomes before mitosis begins

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Phases of Mitosis:
 Prophase
• Chromatin has condensed
– Chromosomes are distinguishable with microscope
– Each chromosome has two sister chromatids attached at
the centromere
• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear envelope disintegrates
• Spindle begins to assemble
• The two centrosomes move away from each other
• Microtubules form star-like arrays termed asters

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Phases of Mitosis
 Prometaphase
• The centromere of each chromosome
develops two kinetochores
– Specialized protein complex
– One attached to each sister chromatid
«Physically connect sister chromatids with specialized
microtubules (kinetochores(
«These connect sister chromatids to opposite poles of
the mother cell

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Stages of Mitosis
 Metaphase
• Chromosomes are pulled around by kinetochore fibers
• Forced to align across the equatorial plane of the cell
– Metaphase plate -Represents plane through which
mother cell will be divided
 Anaphase
• Centromere dissolves, releasing sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids separate
– Now called daughter chromosomes
– Pulled to opposite poles along kinetochore fibers

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Stages of Mitosis
 Telophase
• Spindle disappears
• Now two clusters of daughter chromosomes
– Still two of each type with all types represented
– Clusters are incipient daughter nuclei

• Nuclear envelopes form around the two

incipient daughter nuclei
– Each daughter nucleus receives one chromosome of
each type

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis =division of cytoplasm
• Allocates the mother cell’s cytoplasm equally to
daughter nucleus
• Encloses each daughter cell in its own plasma
membrane
• Often begins in anaphase
• Animal cytokinesis:
 A cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei
 Formed by a contractile ring of actin filaments
 Like pulling on a drawstring
 Eventually pinches the mother cell in two

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 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis in plant cells begins with the formation of a
cell plate
 Rigid cell walls outside plasma membrane do not
permit furrowing
 Many small membrane-bounded vesicles
 Eventually fuse into one thin vesicle extending across
the mother cell
 The membranes of the cell plate become the plasma
membrane between the daughter cells
 The space between the daughter cells becomes filled
with the middle lamella
 Daughter cells later secrete primary cell walls on
opposite sides of the middle lamella

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Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

X 4,000
Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring

X 4,000

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)top): © Thomas Deerinck/Visuals Unlimited; (bottom): © SPL/Getty RF
 Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
daughter cells

cell plate formation

daughter nucleus

vesicles containing
nucleoli membrane components
fusing to form cell plate

daughter
nucleus

)left): © B.A. Palevitz and E.H. Newcomb/BPS/Tom Stack &Associates

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Phases of Mitosis in Animal and
Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell aster 20µm duplicated 20 µm spindle chromosomes at 20µm

9µm 20µm daughter chromosome cleavage furrow 16µm
at Interphase chromosome pole metaphase plate

nuclear
centromere
envelope kinetochore
fragments nucleolus
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses

nucleolus kinetochore
disappears spindle spindle fiber kinetochore
fibers forming spindle fiber
polar spindle fiber Metaphase Telophase
Early Prophase Prophase Prophase Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes Anaphase Daughter cells are forming
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and Nucleolus has disappeared, and are aligned at the metaphase plate (center Sister chromatids part and become daughter
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible. duplicated chromosomes are visible. of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle chromosomes that move toward the spindle
as nuclear envelopes and
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart, Centrosomes begin moving apart, fibers attached to the sister chromatids poles. In this way, each pole receives the same nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will
centrosome envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. and spindle is in process of forming. come from opposite spindle poles. number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell. become indistinct chromatin.
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase spindle pole lacks
25µm 6.2µm 20µm 6.2µm
cell wall chromosomes centrioles and aster spindle fibers 6.2µm cell plate 6.6µm

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): ©Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): ©Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): ©Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unli mited; Plant cell(Telophase): ©Jack M.
Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited‫؛‬

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Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20µm
aster

nuclear
envelope
fragments
Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
Chromatin is condensing into
nucleolus
disappears chromosomes, and the nuclear

Early Prophase
envelope is fragmenting.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25µm

Animal cell(Early prophase): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Early prophase): ©Ed Reschke

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20µm duplicated 20µm
aster
chromosome
nuclear
envelope
Prophase
centromere
fragments
Nucleolus has disappeared, and
duplicated chromosomes are
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
visible. Centrosomes begin moving
nucleolus
disappears
spindle
fibers forming
apart, and spindle is in process
Early Prophase
Centrosomes have duplicated.
Prophase of forming.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope is fragmenting.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25µm 6.2µm
cell wall chromosomes

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase): ©Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Early prophase): ©Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase): ©R. Cal entine/Visuals Unlimited

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase 20µm duplicated 20µm spindle 9µm
aster
chromosome pole
nuclear
envelope
kinetochore Prometaphase
centromere
fragments
The kinetochore of each
chromatid is attached to a
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
kinetochore spindle fiber. Polar
nucleolus
disappears kinetochore
spindle
fibers forming
spindle fiber spindle fibers stretch from each
polar spindle fiber
Early Prophase Prophase Prometaphase spindle pole and overlap.
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible.
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart,
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase 25µm 6.2µm 20 µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle pole lacks
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited

۲۷
 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Metaphase
Animal Cell
at Interphase aster
20µm duplicated 20µm spindle 9µm chromosomes at 20µm Centromeres of duplicated
chromosome pole metaphase plate
nuclear
envelope centromere
kinetochore
chromosomes are aligned at the
fragments
metaphase plate (center of fully
MITOSIS

chromatin formed spindle). Kinetochore

condenses
kinetochore
nucleolus
disappears
spindle
kinetochore spindle fiber spindle fibers attached to the
spindle fiber
fibers forming
polar spindle fiber sister chromatids come from
Early Prophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase
Centrosomes have duplicated. Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is
Chromatin is condensing into duplicated chromosomes are visible. attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber. opposite spindle poles.
chromosomes, and the nuclear Centrosomes begin moving apart, Polar spindle fibers stretch from each
envelope is fragmenting. and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25µm 6.2µm spindle pole lacks 20µm 6.2µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle fibers
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
20µm 20µm 9µm 20µm 20µm
Anaphase
at Interphase aster duplicated spindle chromosomes at daughter chromosome

nuclear
chromosome pole
kinetochore
metaphase plate
Sister chromatids part and become
envelope
fragments
centromere
daughter chromosomes that move
toward the spindle poles. In this
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses way, each pole receives the same
nucleolus
disappears
spindle
kinetochore
spindle fiber kinetochore
number and kinds of chromosomes
fibers forming
spindle fiber

Early Prophase Prophase

Centrosomes have duplicated.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope is fragmenting.
polar spindle fiber
Prometaphase
Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is
duplicated chromosomes are visible. attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber.
Centrosomes begin moving apart, Polar spindle fibers stretch from each
and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap.
Metaphase Anaphase
as the parent cell.
Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes
are aligned at the metaphase plate (center
of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle
fibers attached to the sister chromatids come
from opposite spindle poles.

centrosome
lacks centrioles

Plant Cell
at Interphase
25µm 6.2µm spindle pole lacks 20µm 6.2µm 6.2µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle fibers
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

centrosome
has centrioles

Animal Cell
at Interphase aster
20µm duplicated 20µm spindle 9µm chromosomes at 20µm daughter chromosome
20µm
cleavage furrow
16µm
chromosome pole metaphase plate
nuclear
envelope
kinetochore Telophase
centromere
nucleolus
fragments
Daughter cells are forming
as nuclear envelopes and
MITOSIS

chromatin
condenses
nucleolus
disappears spindle
kinetochore nucleoli reappear.
spindle fiber kinetochore
fibers forming spindle fiber

Early Prophase Prophase

Centrosomes have duplicated.
Chromatin is condensing into
chromosomes, and the nuclear
envelope is fragmenting.
centrosome
lacks centrioles
polar spindle fiber
Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Chromosomes will
Nucleolus has disappeared, and The kinetochore of each chromatid is Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes Sister chromatids part and become daughter
duplicated chromosomes are visible. attached to a kinetochore spindle fiber. are aligned at the metaphase plate (center chromosomes that move toward the spindle
Centrosomes begin moving apart, Polar spindle fibers stretch from each of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle poles. In this way, each pole receives the same
become indistinct chromatin.
and spindle is in process of forming. spindle pole and overlap. fibers attached to the sister chromatids number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell.
come from opposite spindle poles.

Plant Cell
at Interphase 25µm 6.2µm 20µm 6.2µm 6.2µm 6.6µm
cell wall chromosomes spindle pole lacks spindle fibers cell plate
centrioles and aster

Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse:(
©Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): ©R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; Plant cell(Telophase): ©Jack M. Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited‫؛‬

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal
and Plant Cells
• Functions of mitosis:
 Permits growth and repair.
 In flowering plants, meristematic tissue
retains the ability to divide throughout the
life of the plant
 In mammals, mitosis is necessary when:
• A fertilized egg becomes an embryo
• An embryo becomes a fetus
• A cut heals or a broken bone mends

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 .95 Prokaryotic Cell Division
• The prokaryotic chromosome is a ring of DNA
 Folded up in an area called the nucleoid
 1,000X the length of cell
 Replicated into two rings prior to cell division
 Replicated rings attach to the plasma membrane
• Binary fission
 Splitting in two
 Two replicate chromosomes are distributed to two
daughter cells
 Produces two daughter cells identical to original cell–
asexual reproduction

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 Binary Fission
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

chromosome
.1Attachment of chromosome to cell wall
a special plasma membrane
site indicates that this plasma
bacterium is about to divide. membrane
cytoplasm

.2The cell is preparing for binary

fission by enlarging its cell wall,
plasma membrane, and overall
volume.

.3DNA replication has produced

two identical chromosomes.
Cell wall and plasma membrane
begin to grow inward.

.4As the cell elongates, the

chromosomes are pulled apart.
Cytoplasm is being distributed
evenly.

.5New cell wall and plasma

membrane has divided the
daughter cells.

©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc./Visuals Unlimited SEM 2,345X

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Functions of Cell Division

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