QHDM 2015-Combined

Volume 1
Part 1
Introduction to QHDM and
Guidance
VOLUME 1 PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO QHDM AND GUIDANCE
Disclaimer
The State of Qatar Ministry of Transport (MOT) provides access to the Qatar Highway Design
Manual (QHDM) and Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) on the web and as hard copies as
Version (1.0) of these manuals, without any minimum liability to MOT.
Under no circumstances does MOT warrant or certify the information to be free of errors or
deficiencies of any kind.
The use of these manuals for any work does not relieve the user from exercising due diligence
and sound engineering practice, nor does it entitle the user to claim or receive any kind of
compensation for damages or loss that might be attributed to such use.
Any future changes and amendments will be made available on the MOT web site. Users of these
manuals should check that they have the most current version.
Note: New findings, technologies, and topics related to transportation planning, design,
operation, and maintenance will be used by MOT to update the manuals. Users are encouraged
to provide feedback through the MOT website within a year of publishing the manuals, which will
be reviewed, assessed, and possibly included in the next version.
Copyright © 2015. All rights reserved.
VOLUME 1
‫‪VOLUME 1 PART 1‬‬
‫‪INTRODUCTION TO QHDM AND GUIDANCE‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫قامت وزارة املواصالت ي دولة قطر بتوف ﺮ دليل تصميم الطرق لدولة قطر )‪ (Qatar Highway Design Manual ‐ QHDM‬ودليل‬
‫قطر للتحكم املروري )‪ (Qatar Traffic Control Manual ‐ QTCM‬ع ى شبكة اإلن ﺮنت وكنسخ مطبوعة باعتبارها اإلصدار رقم‬
‫)‪ (1.0‬من هذﻩ األدلة وذلك دون ادنى مسؤولية ع ى وزارة املواصالت‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬
‫يجب التأكيد ع ى إن وزارة املواصالت‪ ،‬وتحت أي ظرف من الظروف‪ ،‬ال تج أو تتعهد أو تصادق ع ى أن تكون املعلومات املتضمنة ي هذين‬
‫الدليل ن خالية من أي نوع من األخطاء أو العيوب‪.‬‬
‫إن استخدام هذﻩ األدلة ألي عمل ال يعفي املستخدم من إتباع العناية الواجبة أو الفائقة واملمارسة الهندسية السليمة‪ ،‬كما أنه ال يخول‬
‫ُ‬
‫للمستخدم املطالبة أو استالم أي نوع من التعويض عن األضرار أو الخسائر ال يمكن أن تعزى إ ى هذا االستخدام‪.‬‬
‫سوف تكون أي تغي ﺮات او تعديالت متاحة ومتوفرة ع ى موقع اإلن ﺮنت الخاص بالوزارة‪ .‬ويتوجب ع ى املستخدم ن التحقق بشكل متواصل بأن‬
‫لد م أحدث إصدار من هذﻩ األدلة‪.‬‬
‫مالحظة‪ :‬ستقوم وزارة املواصالت بمواصلة تحديث وتعديل ِكال الدليل ن مع األخذ بع ن االعتبار االكتشافات الجديدة والتكنولوجيات الحديثة‬
‫ُ‬
‫واملواضيع املستجدة ال تتعلق بتخطيط وتصميم وتشغيل وصيانة النقل والطرق واملرور‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬
‫إن الوزارة تشجع املستخدم ن ع ى تقديم املالحظات واالق ﺮاحات والتعليقات وردود األفعال‪ ،‬خالل سنة من اصدار ِكال الدليل ن‪ ،‬وذلك من‬
‫خالل موقع الوزارة حيث سوف يتم مراجعة هذﻩ املالحظات واالق ﺮاحات ومن ثم تقييمها وإدراجها ضمن اإلصدار القادم من األدلة‪.‬‬
‫‪VOLUME 1‬‬
VOLUME 1 PART 1
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................iii
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose and Intent of the Manual .............................................................................. 1
1.2 Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual ......................................................................... 2
1.3 Intended Audience ...................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Road Design and Collaboration ................................................................................... 3
1.5 Organization of this Manual ........................................................................................ 4
1.6 Integration with Other Publications ............................................................................ 5
2 Guidance ........................................................................................................................7
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions ...................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Hima: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar ....................................... 8
2.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today ....................................................................... 8
2.3.3 International Best Practice in Qatar―Key Considerations .......................... 9
2.4 Safety in Design ......................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Human Factors in Roadway Design ............................................................ 11
2.4.2 Road Safety Audits ..................................................................................... 12
2.5 Design for Maintenance ............................................................................................ 12
2.5.1 Maintenance Organizations ....................................................................... 13
2.6 Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions........................................ 13
2.6.1 Problem Definition ..................................................................................... 14
2.6.2 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context ............................................................. 14
2.6.3 Development of the Design Vision and Objectives .................................... 14
2.6.4 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach ............................................. 14
2.6.5 Working with Stakeholders ........................................................................ 15
2.6.6 Community Engagement ............................................................................ 15
2.6.7 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context .................................... 16
2.6.8 The Importance of Incorporating Landscaping into Qatar Urban Streets . 16
References .............................................................................................................................17
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Tables
Table 1.1 Qatar Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development ....................................... 3

Table 1.2 Qatar Highway Design Manual Organization ...................................................... 4
Figures
Figure 1.1 Integration with Other Publications .................................................................... 5
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
CSD/CSS context sensitive design/context sensitive solutions
GSPD General Secretariat for Development Planning
HSM Highway Safety Manual
MMUP Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual
QNV Qatar National Vision 2030
QTCM Qatar Traffic Control Manual
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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Intent of the Manual
The Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) was prepared in response to Qatar
National Vision 2030 (QNV) and in recognition of Qatar’s commitment to a long-term
plan to develop an integrated public transport network that supports the transition of
Qatar from a vehicle trip-based society to a modern, sustainable, multi-modal society
(General Secretariat for Development Planning [GSPD], 2008). This manual replaces
the version first published in 1997. The manual declares the requirements for the
design of roads in Qatar, provides general guidance, and acknowledges for the first
time the importance of sustainability in road infrastructure in Qatar. The goal is to
achieve consistently safe and cost-effective road infrastructure for Qatar.
The QHDM incorporates the principles of Context Sensitive Solutions (CSS), which
promote:
• A collaborative approach to defining the scope of road projects

• Understanding the potential effects, both positive and potentially adverse, of road
projects on affected stakeholders
• Tailoring each design to fit its unique context as defined by location, terrain,
surrounding land use, and road function
• Accommodating the needs of road users including pedestrians, cyclists, and transit
users
The QHDM provides tools and guidance for developing road designs that are
environmentally sensitive and safe for all users. The manual incorporates new
knowledge garnered from research on international road design practices, traffic
operations, and safety performance. In addition, it contains numerous technical
changes in procedures and design values. The reasons and basis for the new
recommended values, which have been customized for the unique needs and
conditions in Qatar, are explained, as appropriate.
The road system in Qatar comprises freeways, expressways, and major arterials
whose primary function is to provide consistent, safe mobility at high levels of service.
The system also includes local roads, collector streets, and boulevards that have
somewhat different functions and hence different design characteristics. For such
facilities, the manual contains information, guidance, and dimensions for street
designs that create a safe environment for users, including pedestrians and other
nonmotorized travelers.
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1.2 Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual

The requirements and guidance provided in the manual relate to the design of all
types of rural and urban roadways in Qatar. They apply to designs for construction of
new roadways and to projects to improve or upgrade existing roadways. If ambiguity
arises over the applicability of the manual for any particular project, clarity should be
sought from the Overseeing Organization.
This manual contains new and revised technical guidance for road design. Some
roadways designed using the 1997 manual may have elements with dimensions or
features that comply with the values now recommended. The fact that this manual
contains guidance that differs from that in the first edition does not imply that
facilities must be reconstructed to conform to the new guidance. The need for
reconstruction is based on objective assessments of the performance of the road—its
operation, safety, and infrastructure condition. Merely upgrading to current
standards is not sufficient reason to reconstruct a road.
1.3 Intended Audience

The QHDM is the primary guidance for the design of all roadways in the State of
Qatar. It is intended for all organizations and professionals in the planning, design,
and approval of both new roadways and existing facilities that undergo
reconstruction. The design process is undertaken by such professionals as urban
planners and designers, transportation planners, traffic engineers, civil engineers, and
landscape architects. Effective collaboration among professionals will be maintained
so that Qatar’s roadways are designed to be safe, functional, and attractive for all
users.
Roadway engineers, reviewers, and designers should be familiar with all parts of the
manual, including parts outside their primary interests or roles on projects. In
particular, all should become knowledgeable about the overall project development
process, summarized in Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, which
involves a wide range of stakeholders for its successful completion.
The term “designer” as used in the QHDM refers to all professionals involved in the
planning, design and approval of a roadway design. Every project has a unique context
and features that require the application of the design values and approaches in the
both the QHDM and the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM; Ministry of Transport
[MMUP], 2015) as well as professional judgment by the designer. The Overseeing
Organization, which is ultimately responsible for the construction, operation, and
maintenance of the roadway project, owns the final design decision‐making authority
for each project.
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1.4 Road Design and Collaboration

Good road and street designs require effective collaboration, which this manual
encourages by engaging internal and external stakeholders in the design process.
Stakeholders should work together closely from the early stages of design when
providing input into development proposals.
By involving stakeholders and road planners, designers will be able to provide

information that will enable the various parties to address all modes of transport as
appropriate for the context. Collaboration and consensus are particularly important in
cases where the needs of vulnerable users, such as pedestrians, transit users, and
cyclists, should be given higher design priority. The aim is to create complete
roadways that are safe, active, and reassuring, while maintaining efficient movement
of all modes of transport.
This manual was produced through a collaborative consultation process that included
stakeholders who have regular involvement in road projects. Table 1.1 summarizes
the key stakeholders in Qatar who work with the Overseeing Organization to plan,
design, construct, and operate the road system and who were consulted in its
development.
Table 1.1 Qatar Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development

Stakeholders
Ashghal Ooredoo
Civil Aviation Authority Qatar 2022 Supreme Committee
Doha International Airport Qatar Airways

Hamad Medical Corp Qatar Cool
Council of Information and Communication Qatar Foundation
Technology
Internal Security Forces Qatar Fuel– Woqod
Qatar Mobility Innovations Centre (formerly Qatar
Kahramaa - Electricity University Wireless Innovations Center)
Messaid Industrial City Qatar Museum Authority
Ministry of Interior Qatar National Broadband Network

Ministry of Environment Qatar Petroleum
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Qatar Ports
Ministry of Tourism Qatar Rail Company

Mowasalat Qatar Tourism Authority
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1.5 Organization of this Manual

This manual comprises three volumes. The first and second volumes contain
requirements and guidelines associated with various design aspects. The third volume
addresses the environmental process and guidance, landscaping, safety, and design
Departures. Each volume is subdivided into parts associated with specific design
aspects, as described in Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2 Qatar Highway Design Manual Organization

Part Design Aspect
Volume 1
1 Introduction to QHDM and Guidance
2 Planning
3 Roadway Design Elements
4 Intersections and Roundabouts
5 Qatar Roadway Design Criteria
6 Design for Priority Intersections
7 Design for Roundabouts
8 Design for Signalized Intersections
9 Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors
Volume 2
10 Drainage
11 Utilities
12 Pavement Design
13 Structures Interfaces
14 Earthworks
15 Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide
16 Geotechnical Risk Management
Volume 3
17 Intelligent Transportation Systems
18 Street Lighting
19 Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation
20 Context Sensitive Design and Solutions
21 Environmental
22 Landscape and Planting Design
23 Design and Operations of Road Safety
24 Road Safety Audits
25 Departures from Standards Process
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1.6 Integration with Other Publications

The QHDM needs to be understood and used in conjunction with various other
guidance. The closest relationship is with the QTCM (MOT, 2015). Figure 1.1 depicts
some of the linkages between the QHDM, the QTCM, and other documentation.
Figure 1.1 Integration with Other Publications
In addition to the documents shown in Figure 1.1, this manual references procedures
and methods in the Highway Capacity Manual for traffic operational analyses as they
relate to road design (Transportation Research Board, 2010). The Highway Capacity
Manual is an integral part of the road design process in Qatar.
Road design and operating practices in Qatar are fundamentally driven by the
National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022 (National Traffic Safety Committee, 2013).
Qatar has adopted the Safe System approach and principles, which are reflected in
this manual.
According to the National Road Safety Strategy, 2013 – 2022, “Qatar’s road safety
vision is to have a safe road transport system that protects all road users from death
and serious injury.”
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All users of the QHDM, in particular road designers, should understand their roles and
responsibilities to implement the Safe System approach, which incorporates the
following:
• Safe Roads are self-explaining, forgiving roads and roadsides that protect road
users.
• Safe Vehicles prevent crashes and protect road users supported by minimum
safety standards, inspections, and public desire for safer vehicles.
• Safe Road Users are competent and comply with traffic laws supported by
effective public education and campaigns, driver training and licensing, legislation,
and enforcement.
• Safe Speeds reflect the design of roads and vehicles, and the protection they
offer.
The QHDM is written to inform designers of the implications of their road design
decisions regarding the potential for crashes that produce fatalities or serious injuries.
Information on the effects of design features on serious crashes is included,
referencing the Highway Safety Manual (HSM; American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2010). The HSM was produced over a 10-year
period through the direction of an international task force within the national
academies in the United States. It offers the most recent, science-based information
on the safety performance of road designs and traffic operations, solutions, and
dimensions.
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2 Guidance
2.1 Introduction
This section provides guidance on the key themes required to progress through the
design process. The topics of sustainability, safety, ease of maintenance, and context
sensitivity contribute to an overall better result.
2.2 Sustainability
Sustainability is at the core of the design guidance in this manual. The practice of
sustainability is aimed at delivering designs that optimize economic, social, and
environmental performance of highways on national, regional, and local scales. The
following themes explain how sustainability applies to transportation in general and
to road design in Qatar:
• Economic Sustainability: Highway design should integrate with the wider national
infrastructure to facilitate economic development. Road design and construction
should deliver transportation services with minimal use of resources. Both regionally
and locally, a sustainably designed highway should minimize the need for design
rework and deliver optimal economic feasibility from the perspectives of capital
expenditures and operational expenditures. That is, the quality specification of the
build will last longer and require less maintenance over its lifespan.
• Social Sustainability: Nationally, economic development is envisioned to improve
the quality of life in Qatar. The QHDM has a significant focus on the health and
safety of all road users: motorists, pedestrians, and cyclists. Emphasis on safety and
safety performance is aimed at cost-effectively reducing crashes, specifically those
that result in fatalities or serious injuries; this is an outcome with clear and
significant social benefits. The importance of incorporating environmental controls
and concerns, a high social priority, also is acknowledged in road planning and
design.
• Environmental Sustainability: Demonstrating that highway design practices
reduce various “footprints” such as carbon, water, and natural resources will
enhance national performance against key performance metrics. Part 21,
Environmental, addresses the key environmental themes, aligned with those
typically included in environmental impact assessments, to be considered in
highway design. The actions and guidelines recommended in Part 21 should be
viewed as contributing to the overall sustainability of highway design. The content
reflects input from many international highway design manuals and known
relevant practices from established environmental and sustainability assessment
systems.
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2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions

The Brundtland Commission (1987) definition of “sustainable development” is
internationally recognized:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Qatar’s social and cultural heritage is both rich and highly valued. Development,
including road infrastructure, done too rapidly or without sufficient study and
forethought runs the risk of unintentionally damaging that heritage. In this context,
actions taken to meet present needs are to maintain and protect features that reflect
Qatar’s heritage while providing the economic growth needed for future Qatar
citizens. Within the context of the QHDM, the following is an appropriate definition
for a sustainable road or highway:
For Qatar, a sustainable road or highway is one designed to facilitate Qatar’s

economic development for the foreseeable future without compromising the
nation’s cultural heritage, social quality of life, or natural resources.
2.3.1 Hima: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar

The concept of environmental protection (in its contemporary context) emerged in
the late 1960s, bringing attention to issues such as water quality, damage to the
ozone layer, industrial pollution, and conservation and preservation of wildlife. The
concept of sustainability is not new to the Arabian Gulf. As researched by Salah and
Hashemi (2011), Hima, which literally means “protected area” in Arabic, can be
defined as a community-based natural resources management system that promotes
sustainable livelihood, resources conservation, and environmental protection for the
human wellbeing. The Hima system was practiced for over 15,000 years in the Arabian
Peninsula and was modified by the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) by
introducing social justice into the governance structure.
Hima principles are at risk of being overlooked in light of various modern theories and
models for sustainable development. The latter are, of course, relevant, but users of
the QHDM have a duty to understand and apply Qatar’s national design guidance
manual while recognizing the ancient Hima principles to plan, design, and construct
roads in Qatar. As a result, valuable resources will be preserved for future
generations.
2.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today

The QNV was the outcome of a consultation exercise across Qatari society (GSPD,
2008). The QNV is based on the guiding principles of Qatar’s Permanent Constitution,
thus reflecting the aspirations of the Qatari people. It defines Qatar’s long-term
sustainable development goals as being based on four pillars of development: human,
social, economic, and environmental:
The State shall preserve the environment and its natural balance in order to achieve
comprehensive and sustainable development for all generations.
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The QNV development goals are stated in Qatar’s National Development Strategy
2011–2016, which sets out to achieve “a sustainable framework that assures future
generations prosperity but with a quality of life unconstrained by shortages or
inherited ecological damage” (GSPD, 2011). Programs, projects, and policies are
identified in the National Development Strategy to help achieve the outcomes of the
QNV. This includes a commitment to improved environmental management, which
encompasses the following:
• Cleaner water and sustainable use

• Cleaner air and effective climate change responses
• Reduced waste, more recycling, and more efficient use of materials
• Nature and natural heritage conserved, protected, and sustainably managed
• More sustainable urbanization and a healthier living environment
• An increasingly environmentally aware population
• Improved governance and regional and international cooperation
Associated with the QNV is a valuable and informative reference document for all
highway designers, the Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing Sustainable
Development (GSDP, 2009). This document provides a comprehensive description of
the key topics of sustainable development, water, the marine environment, and
climate change.
Qatar’s Ministry of Environment has made a commitment to sustainable growth and

protecting the environment. It is important for road and highway designers to
consider how to improve the sustainability aspects of their projects during the design,
construction, and operational stages.
2.3.3 International Best Practice in Qatar―Key Considerations

International best practice is a term used to describe methodologies that
professionals around the world recognize as providing the best means of addressing a
particular environmental feature. The QHDM adopts such practices. Many of the best
practices were developed in non-desert environments. In assessing international best
practices, there is a focus on those practices most relevant and of value to Qatar given
its environment. In this process, caution has been applied so that only the following
relevant practices (adapted as appropriate) have been included in the QHDM.
Examples of relevant practices include:
• Water Use: Water scarcity is an acute issue in Qatar. Minimizing volumetric

demands for water is generally accepted as good design practice. With water
being a scarcer resource in Qatar than in most other countries, minimizing water
use is of critical importance. The capture and reuse of roadway stormwater runoff
is an example of sustainable applications of this issue.
• Public Consultation: Engaging a wide range of government and nonstatutory
stakeholders is a common international best practice. The practice, relatively new
to Qatar, is based on seeking input and consensus for the project and its design
features and details from whomever may be affected by the project. Public
consultation is intended to produce an improved outcome without expanding the
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scope of the project or delaying its implementation. This involves two-way

communications, with stakeholders providing input to a project’s evolution in
addition to receiving information from the Overseeing Organization about the
project.
• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: The concepts of reusing, recycling, and minimizing the
amount of materials and natural resources used are the focus of best international
practice for waste management and sustainable use of materials. This is particularly
important in Qatar, because it imports much of its materials and resources for
infrastructure. The State of Qatar is committed to developing recycling. The variety
and capacity of facilities are continually developing, and a market for reclaimed
(reused or recycled) materials is emerging. Over the next 20 years, older roads will
require reconstruction, and recycling of pavement will become increasingly
important.
• Marine Environment: Qatar’s coastal environment is unique, and its biological
resources are sensitive to disturbance. Many species are likely approaching their
natural tolerance thresholds of salinity and temperature. The area has low tidal
flushing rates and limited ability to rapidly dilute and disperse discharged wastes.
The Ministry of Environment strictly controls permits to discharge to the marine
environment. Designers are now faced with the challenge of adopting new
alternative methods for disposal, including onsite reuse or treatment.
• Sustainable Transport: International best practice for sustainable transport
typically are based on ambient climates that are less extreme than in Qatar. It
focuses on the availability of a reasonably well-developed public transport system,
so that people have a feasible alternative to traveling by car. Qatar is investing
heavily in developing its public transport infrastructure and has significant
construction works under way. With a rapidly rising population and associated
traffic volumes, including sustainable transport facilities in highway design is
increasingly important.
2.4 Safety in Design

The safety of users of the finished roads is of paramount importance, as is the safety
of the workers who construct, operate, and maintain the roads. The internationally
accepted model for road safety is the Safe System. The fundamental principles of the
Safe System are focused on humans.
As humans, drivers will make mistakes, which can be errors in judgment, inattention,
or indecision, or driving actions reflecting limitations in their abilities. Designers need
to understand that mistakes will be made regardless of how “good” their design is, so
they need to be aware of how their design can compensate for or anticipate the
consequences of a mistake.
The consequences of a driving mistake may be severe. People are vulnerable and the
human body is capable of withstanding only limited forces before serious injury or
death occurs. Much of road design practice addresses the need to compensate for or
absorb the energy and forces associated with crashes, particularly those at higher
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speeds. Therefore, safe systems include the types and placement of roadside barriers
that have been tested and designed to protect the occupants of current vehicles,
which are also engineered with safety principles.
Finally, the Safe System approach is owned by and the responsibility of everyone.
Concerning road planners and designers, many disciplines exist, such as traffic
engineers, geometric designers, environmental planners, and geotechnical engineers.
They all may influence the safety performance of the road that they plan, design,
construct, and operate.
The QHDM incorporates these principles. Road designers should understand basic
principles of design so they can make good, context-sensitive design decisions that
support the Safe System approach.
2.4.1 Human Factors in Roadway Design

As noted above, the human is at the center of road design. Many of the basic
geometric design elements and features of roads have as their basis some particular
element of human performance in the derivation of design dimensions. Basic human
performance includes the ability to see and perceive the road, other vehicles,
roadside environment, pedestrians, or signs; and the ability to steer the vehicle, to
control the speed behavior, and to react to an external stimulus. Driving tasks range
from very simple to complex.
Many design “models” of human behavior use measures of time associated with
human driving needs or actions. The QHDM includes explanations of the human
factors basis for the roadway elements because this is important for designers to
understand. The models are intended to result in the relevant dimension, value, or
road element being successfully by most human drivers. By necessity, the models will
incorporate one value for time, e.g., the perception and reaction time associated with
stopping sight distance, with this value taken from controlled research studies of
humans. However, the driving population shows a range of times to accomplish these
tasks or actions. For this reason, a designer should not necessarily be satisfied in
meeting a minimum value or dimension. In many cases, more time to perceive or
decide is better.
Drivers will make mistakes by themselves. Designers should recognize and avoid
creating situations that may increase the chances of a driver making a mistake. When
drivers are confronted with too many decisions or actions over a short time, or when
they are confronted with something unexpected, the chances of a mistake will
increase. Avoiding overloading the driver, and meeting their expectations is central to
many of the design approaches in the QHDM; where these principles are relevant, the
manual explains this to the designer. Roads should be “self-explaining,” which is
another way of describing the importance of meeting driver expectations. A self-
explaining road reinforces the appropriate driver action and behavior for the location
or situation, whether it is navigating, steering, deceleration and braking, or lane-
changing.
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Certain driving tasks are inherently more complex, with some also involving more
severe consequences if a mistake is made. Road design policies in Qatar are
established to minimize or eliminate the locations where such complex actions and
critical consequences can occur. For example, roundabouts can eliminate the error-
prone, high-speed crossing maneuver. Medians and access control to the
roundabouts also eliminate more complex left-turning maneuvers to places such as
signalized intersections, where they can more safely controlled.
2.4.2 Road Safety Audits

Road safety audits are an integral part of project development in Qatar. The QHDM
acknowledges the central role that road safety audits should play in the overall road
design process. Even designers who do not conduct road safety audits should become
familiar with Part 24, Road Safety Audits, which discusses audits and how they
influence design. Although any one designer may not conduct a Road Safety Audit,
the review and understanding of what auditors do can be helpful to designers. They
are encouraged to read and become familiar with Part 24.
2.5 Design for Maintenance

Many elements of roads and their design dimensions support maintenance activities
and functions. How a road is designed and constructed can support the road’s
maintenance, or make the road more difficult for the Overseeing Organization to
maintain. A good design example is the use of shoulders of sufficient width to allow a
maintenance vehicle to park on the shoulder without hindering through traffic.
Another example is the choice of the type of landscaping used in a median. The type
of landscaping and its maintenance requirements can significantly affect the
frequency of workers in the median and their exposure to traffic risk.
In the course of many design projects, a designer may be faced with Departure
decisions. In making such decisions, designers need to consider the safety
performance effects and seek to understand the effect the Departure might have on
the maintainability the road. An understanding is best reached early in the design
process by engaging roadway maintenance personnel as technical stakeholders.
Road design elements and their dimensions facilitate many maintenance functions
that are likely to be undertaken during the lifetime of the road. These may include:
• Inspections
• Installing and removing temporary traffic management
• Cyclic maintenance, including debris removal and cleaning
• Landscaping and plantings maintenance
• Repairing defects, such as potholes or electrical faults
• Major maintenance operations, such as resurfacing
• Demolition or removal of the road and associated structures
Routine maintenance activities are detailed in the Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual
(Ashghal, in preparation). Design for maintenance is an integral part of the design
PAGE 12 VOLUME 1
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process, and it should be considered throughout the design cycle. It should not be left
until the end of design, when changes may be expensive and time-consuming.
The following are typical maintenance issues associated with road projects:
• Providing maintenance pull-outs that enable safe access to facilities

• Providing access for inspections
• Allowing maintenance vehicles to park without blocking splays
• Installing guardrails rather than continuous concrete barriers in areas prone to
sand storms to prevent accumulation of sand on the pavement, which would
require removal or other measures
• Providing safe access to electrical apparatus, such as cabinets and signs
• Designing bridges and roadway approaches that can be accessed for inspection
without traffic diversions or road closures
• Providing safe access to and within medians
• Designing road drainage so that it is easy to clean or is self-cleaning and is not
obstructed by other roadside features, such as signs or fencing
• Providing anchorages for temporary traffic signs in concrete barriers
• Identifying where temporary traffic management devices can be installed safely
• Designing equipment, such as traffic signals, gantries, and bridges, at height so
that it can be maintained safely and easily
2.5.1 Maintenance Organizations

It is best practice for road designers to consult with the Overseeing Organization
responsible for maintenance at the start of design and then at regular intervals
throughout the design process. This will enable designers to incorporate direct
feedback from maintenance practitioners.
2.6 Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions

The context sensitive design/context sensitive solutions (CSD/CSS) process is a
collaborative, multi-disciplinary approach to transportation projects that encourages
stakeholder engagement, emphasizes the need to consider multiple possible
solutions, and commits to working with the community to select and implement the
solution that best addresses a transportation problem and respects the local context.
The intent of the CSD/CSS approach is to preserve and, if possible, to enhance scenic,
aesthetic, historical, and environmental resources while maintaining safety and
mobility.
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2.6.1 Problem Definition

Every road project undertaken in Qatar has a basic reason for the investment.
Defining the problem in meaningful terms and sharing that definition with
stakeholders is the first step in the CSD/CSS process. New roads provide access to
properties that were inaccessible, reduce travel times between two locations, and
offer alternative routes that relieve traffic demands on congested routes. Projects
involving existing roads may be based on repairing infrastructure, improving traffic
flow, or addressing an observed safety problem.
Successful projects are those for which concerns are well-defined and explained, and for
which stakeholders can offer their own insights to those problems or their own needs.
2.6.2 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context

Roads are not designed in isolation. They form part of a coordinated approach to
transportation that results in a better-planned locale. The project team should
understand relevant policies, strategies, and plans that may apply to the road, the
area through which the road passes, and the context at a scale wide enough to be
appropriate to the function of the road. Relevant plans would include, for example,
strategies for land use planning, open space, pedestrians, and cyclists.
2.6.3 Development of the Design Vision and Objectives

Developing a vision and objectives for road projects will identify how the design
responds to context; meets or exceeds the expectations of stakeholders; and adds
lasting value to the community, the environment, and the transportation system.
Designers should set out the vision and objectives and be able to develop strategies for
their delivery.
Stakeholders should assist in developing the vision and objectives. They should be
invited to contribute to that development at appropriate times over the course of the
project. The vision and objectives evolve during the design development stages in
response to various constraints, opportunities, and stakeholder input. The designer
should identify how and why changes may need to be made and revise the vision and
objectives accordingly.
2.6.4 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach

The CSD/CSS approach stresses the importance of collaboration. Road projects
involve many different technical disciplines. The Overseeing Organization
departments deal with road design, operations, and maintenance. Agencies external
to the Overseeing Organization have their own responsibilities to the citizens of
Qatar, and road projects often require their consultation, input, and in some cases
approval. Users of the project, residents, and business owners are important
stakeholders who have direct interests in the outcome of the project.
Multi-disciplinary teamwork is a key part of the CSD/CSS design approach. Project

management and team leadership are important in terms of coordinating team
members and providing an integrated team approach. This is particularly critical in
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Qatar for projects with important delivery deadlines that may be associated with
rapidly occurring developments or external event deadlines.
Projects that follow the CSD/CSS design approach require that transportation
professionals have a role beyond that of technical experts when working with
stakeholders and the community. That role requires understanding behavior, using
their role as a resource, and facilitating for community stakeholders.
2.6.5 Working with Stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement has an important role in the CSD/CSS design approach.
Ongoing, effective, and genuine engagement and communication with stakeholders
facilitate successful project delivery. The approach to stakeholder engagement should
be based on some of or all the following levels of engagement:
• Participation and Working in Partnership: The project team works with

stakeholders to develop ideas and solutions jointly, giving stakeholders a genuine
opportunity to help shape the project development process.
• Consultation: The project team puts forward options for discussion and listens to
comments.
• Information Sharing: Stakeholder engagement may be less about consultation and
more about communicating an important message to foster understanding about
the project and the constraints.
Engagement with stakeholders should begin at the earliest possible and appropriate
opportunity. Relationships developed at an early stage and maintained throughout
the project generally will be the most productive and effective.
The stakeholder engagement process should be defined clearly in a stakeholder

engagement plan. The plan should set out the proposed stakeholder engagement
process for the project.
2.6.6 Community Engagement

The effective involvement of local communities at timely points in the project process
is fundamental to delivering successful outcomes for projects that follow the CSD/CSS
design process. Road projects can benefit considerably from ongoing consultation
with community groups and local residents.
Often, community engagement proceeds concurrently with stakeholder engagement,

and, in some cases, the two may become similar or merge. Community engagement is
addressed in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, highlighting
techniques and issues suited to engaging local residents.
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2.6.7 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context

Context can be thought of as the character and setting of an area, described in terms
of the area’s physical, economic, and social characteristics. Good design solutions
come from thorough understanding of place and context. Understanding the context
is important so that projects are not developed in isolation from their surroundings. A
site’s context should be appraised so that the design fits its setting and can be
integrated into the adjacent landscape or urban context.
2.6.8 The Importance of Incorporating Landscaping into Qatar Urban Streets

In response to strong interests and preferences of stakeholders, the Overseeing
Organization recognizes the importance of incorporating landscaping into urban road
projects in Qatar. Landscaping contributes to the character of the area and can create a
unique sense of place when done properly with the road integrated into its context.
Urban roads and streets serve many users and functions beyond traffic service for
motor vehicles. Indeed, a well-landscaped and designed road enhances the
experience of being in the area or corridor for nonmotorized users by screening
pedestrians from view of the road, filtering dust, and providing shade for pedestrians
and cyclists.
Landscaping is not merely an amenity, it is part of the overall roadway. As such, the
QHDM has been developed with a strong emphasis on identifying when landscaping
should be considered and how it is to be implemented in a sustainable manner that
supports road operations and safety.
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References
AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual. 1st edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington DC. 2010.
Ashghal. Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
In preparation.
Brundtland Commission. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development:

“Our Common Future.” (A/42/427). United Nations General Assembly, 42nd Session. Available at:
http://www.un‐documents.net/ocf‐02.htm. 1987.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Vision 2030.
http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/qatar_national_vision. 2008.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing
Sustainable Development. Doha, State of Qatar. http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/
gsdp_en/qatar_national_vision/qnv_2030_document/QNV2030_English_v2.pdf. July 2009.
General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). Qatar National Development Strategy
2011–2016.http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/knowledge_center/
Tab/Qatar_NDS_reprint_complete_lowres_16May.pdf. 2011.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual. 2nd edition. Civil
Engineering Department. 1997.
Ministry of Transport (MOT). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. Doha, Qatar. 2015.
National Traffic Safety Committee. Qatar National Road Safety Strategy 2013–2022. 2013.
Salah, W. and M. Hashemi. The Governance of Hima: A Community‐based Natural Resources

Management System. June 2–23, 2011.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC,
United States. 2010.
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Volume 1
Part 2
Planning
VOLUME 1 PART 2
PLANNING
Disclaimer
The use of these manuals for any work does not relieve the user from exercising due diligence and
sound engineering practice, nor does it entitle the user to claim or receive any kind of
Note: New findings, technologies, and topics related to transportation planning, design, operation,
and maintenance will be used by MOT to update the manuals. Users are encouraged to provide
feedback through the MOT website within a year of publishing the manuals, which will be
reviewed, assessed, and possibly included in the next version.
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Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... vii
1 Highway Strategy .............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Vision, Goals, and Objectives.......................................................................................... 1
1.3 Project Types and Scope ................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Transportation Planning Process in Qatar ...................................................................... 4
1.5 Land Use Considerations ................................................................................................ 5
1.5.1 Land Acquisition .............................................................................................. 5
1.6 Appraisal ......................................................................................................................... 7
2 Projects Involving New Roads ........................................................................................... 9

2.1 Planning and Design Objectives: Provide Mobility and Accessibility .............................9
2.2 Planning Development Access for New Roads ............................................................... 9
2.3 Project Development Process......................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Development Process for New Road Projects...............................................10
2.3.2 Project Development Process: Design and Build (D&B)................................12
3 Project Development Process for Interchange Design Studies (Existing Reconstruction or

New) ............................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Step 1: Establish Data Collection Requirements and Obtain Data ...............................15
3.1.1 Develop Interchange Planning and Design Framework ................................16
3.1.2 Stakeholder Involvement .............................................................................. 16
3.1.3 Develop Project Planning and Design Criteria...............................................17
3.2 Step 2: Confirm Study Approach, Evaluation Criteria, and Decision Process ...............17
3.2.1 Determine Evaluation Criteria and Technical Approach ...............................17
3.2.2 Develop Design Year Traffic and Select Most Likely Alternatives .................18
3.3 Step 3: Conduct Interchange Type Studies ................................................................... 18
3.3.1 Concept Engineering Design.......................................................................... 18
3.3.2 Stakeholder Review and Screening ............................................................... 19
3.4 Step 4: Functional Geometric Design of Screened Alternatives ...................................19
3.5 Step 5: Select Preferred Alternative, Document and Develop Final Engineering
Plans.............................................................................................................................. 20
4 Projects Involving Existing Roads .................................................................................... 21

4.1 Unique Characteristics of Projects Involving Existing Roads ........................................22
4.2 Design of Reconstruction Projects ................................................................................ 22
4.2.1 Relationship of Safety Performance to Design Elements..............................23
4.2.2 Risk Management Guidelines ........................................................................ 25
4.2.3 Reconstruction Design Approach .................................................................. 26
4.3 Designation of Eligibility for 3R Treatment .................................................................. 27
4.4 Design of 3R Projects .................................................................................................... 28
4.4.1 Context Sensitive Safety Enhancements for 3R Projects ..............................29
4.4.2 3R Safety Enhancements for Rural Highways ...............................................29
4.4.3 3R Safety Enhancements for Urban Roads ................................................... 32
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5 Functional Classification as a Primary Design Control...................................................... 33

5.1 Qatar Road Classification ............................................................................................. 33
5.2 Definition of Urban and Rural Roads ........................................................................... 34
5.3 Functional Classification in Urban Areas ..................................................................... 34
5.3.1 Expressways .................................................................................................. 34
5.3.2 Arterials ........................................................................................................ 35
5.3.3 Collector-Distributor Roads .......................................................................... 36
5.3.4 Collector Roads ............................................................................................. 36
5.3.5 Local .............................................................................................................. 38
5.4 Functional Classification in Rural Areas ....................................................................... 38
5.5 Special Corridors .......................................................................................................... 39
5.6 Temporary Roads ......................................................................................................... 40
5.7 Application of Functional Classification in Design ....................................................... 40
5.7.1 Key Parameters............................................................................................. 40
5.7.2 Network Connections ................................................................................... 46
5.7.3 Transport Provisions for Non-car Users ....................................................... 50
6 Design Vehicles............................................................................................................... 53
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 53
6.2 Vehicle Weights and Dimensions................................................................................. 53
6.2.1 Abnormal Loads and High Load Routes ........................................................ 53
6.3 Typical Design Vehicles ................................................................................................ 54
6.3.1 Definitions and Principles ............................................................................. 54
6.3.2 Design Vehicles ............................................................................................. 54
6.3.3 Swept Path Analysis ...................................................................................... 55
7 Driver Performance and Human Factors ......................................................................... 59

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 59
7.2 Qatar Driver Characteristics......................................................................................... 59
7.3 The Task of Driving ....................................................................................................... 60
7.4 Vehicle Guidance ......................................................................................................... 61
7.4.1 Road Following ............................................................................................. 61
7.4.2 Car Following ................................................................................................ 61
7.4.3 Passing Maneuvers ....................................................................................... 61
7.4.4 Gap Acceptance, Merging, and Other Guidance Activities .......................... 61
7.5 Information System ..................................................................................................... 61
7.5.1 Traffic Control Devices ................................................................................. 61
7.5.2 Road Environment ........................................................................................ 62
7.6 Information Handling ................................................................................................... 62
7.6.1 Reaction Time ............................................................................................... 62
7.6.2 Primacy ......................................................................................................... 62
7.6.3 Expectancy .................................................................................................... 62
7.7 Driver Error .................................................................................................................. 63
7.8 Speed and Design......................................................................................................... 64
7.9 Design Assessment ...................................................................................................... 66
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8 Traffic Characteristics...................................................................................................... 67
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 67
8.2 Traffic Volume .............................................................................................................. 67
8.2.1 Annual Average Daily Traffic ......................................................................... 67
8.2.2 Design Hour Traffic ........................................................................................ 67
8.3 Highway Capacity Concepts .......................................................................................... 69
8.3.1 Capacity Definition....................................................................................... 69
8.3.2 General Characteristics and Application .......................................................70
8.3.3 Level of Service .............................................................................................. 71
8.3.4 Traffic Operations Analysis............................................................................ 72
8.3.5 Level of Service as a Design Control .............................................................. 72
8.3.6 Influence of Design Features on Capacity .....................................................73
9 Access Control and Access Management ......................................................................... 75

9.1 General Conditions ....................................................................................................... 75
9.2 Access Management ..................................................................................................... 76
9.2.1 Basic Principles of Access Management .......................................................76
9.2.2 Access Classifications .................................................................................... 77
9.2.3 Methods of Controlling Access ................................................................... 77
9.2.4 Access Management and Safety Performance .............................................78
10 Speed and Design ........................................................................................................... 79

10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 79
10.2 Operating Speed ........................................................................................................... 79
10.3 Speed Variations ........................................................................................................... 79
10.4 Design Speed ................................................................................................................ 80
10.5 Posted Speed ................................................................................................................ 80
11 Facilities for Pedestrians ................................................................................................. 81

11.1 General Considerations ................................................................................................ 81
11.2 Designing for Pedestrians ............................................................................................. 81
11.3 Pedestrian Capacity and Pedestrian Facilities .............................................................. 81
12 Facilities for Cyclists ........................................................................................................ 85
13 Parking ........................................................................................................................... 87
References ............................................................................................................................... 89
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Tables
Table 3.1 Typical Stakeholders and Their Issues for Interchange Projects ....................... 16
Table 4.1 Relative Relationship of Geometric Design Features to Crash Frequency or
Severity by Type of Road ................................................................................... 24
Table 5.1 Key Characteristics of Urban Roads ................................................................... 41
Table 5.2 Key Characteristics of Rural Roads .................................................................... 43
Table 5.3 Network Connections for Urban Roads ............................................................. 47
Table 5.4 Network Connections for Rural Roads .............................................................. 48
Table 5.5 Transport Provisions for Multimodal Users on Urban Roads ............................ 51
Table 5.6 Transport Provision for Non-car Users on Rural Roads ..................................... 52
Table 6.1 Maximum Vehicle Weights and Dimensions ..................................................... 53
Table 6.2 Typical Design Vehicles ...................................................................................... 55
Table 8.1 General Definitions of Levels of Service (Uninterrupted Flow) ......................... 71
Table 8.2 Level of Service and Volume to Capacity (v/c) .................................................. 73
Table 8.3 Average Control Delay Criteria for Signalized Intersection Levels of Service.... 73
Table 9.1 Potential Crash Effects of Reducing Access Point Density ................................ 78
Table 10.1 Relation Between Design and Posted Speeds ................................................... 80
Table 11.1 Level of Service, Pedestrian Area and Flow Rates ............................................. 82
Figures
Figure 3.1 Example Single-line Concept Plan View over Aerial .......................................... 19
Figure 4.1 Conceptual Relationship between Available Sight Distance and Safety at Crest
Vertical Curves ................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.2 Safety Edge ........................................................................................................ 29
Figure 4.3 Paved Shoulder and Rumble Strip Example ...................................................... 30
Figure 4.4 Horizontal Curve Treatments ............................................................................ 31
Figure 5.1 Urban Road Network ......................................................................................... 34
Figure 5.2 Expressway with CD Roads ................................................................................ 35
Figure 5.3 Arterial ............................................................................................................... 36
Figure 5.4 Collector Road ................................................................................................... 37
Figure 5.5 Local Road.......................................................................................................... 38
Figure 5.6 Rural Road Network .......................................................................................... 39
Figure 5.7 Illustration of a Road’s Mobility Versus Access Functions ................................ 45
Figure 5.8 Freeway to Freeway Connection ....................................................................... 49
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Figure 5.9 Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection ........................................................ 49

Figure 5.10 Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection...................................................... 50
Figure 6.1 Swept Path Parameters for Typical Tractor-Semitrailer Combination .............. 57
Figure 7.1 Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds ............................ 65
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AADT annual average daily traffic
ADT average daily traffic
D&B design and build
DHV design hour volume
HCM Highway Capacity Manual (2010)
HSM Highway Safety Manual (2010)
HV hourly volume
ITS intelligent transportation system
km kilometer
kph kilometers per hour
LARISA Land Acquisition and Roadway Improvement Strategic Approach
LOS level of service
m meter
PPD Public Parks Department
QNRSS Qatar National Road Safety Strategy
s second
3R Resurfacing, Restoration, and Rehabilitation
TMPQ Transportation Master Plan for Qatar
v/c volume to capacity
vpd vehicles per day
vph vehicles per hour
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1 Highway Strategy
1.1 Introduction
Planning for new cities or for transportation projects requires close cooperation among
town planners, transport planning specialists, and highway engineers. Transportation
infrastructure serves as the lifeline for the movement of people and goods, and is
therefore an essential component of good national and town planning practice.
Transportation infrastructure requires time and resources to construct, but if
effectively managed, it can promote economic growth and the well-being of Qatar’s
population. Before construction of any transportation infrastructure, transport
specialists and town planners should confirm that the facilities will aid the vision and
goals of Qatar’s growth while adhering to the current and future expansion policies.
Transportation infrastructure is intended for use by the public, who will have an
interest in the type of infrastructure provided, its features and characteristics, and the
timing and schedule of its implementation. The public includes road users, adjacent
property owners, businesses and local residents, all of whom will have different
interests and concerns about the project. It is important to identify and involve all such
stakeholders during the planning stage. This will allow interested parties to express
their views and concerns, and thus to benefit the users of transportation facilities.
This section states the vision and objectives of Qatar’s transport strategy, (based on the
latest Transportation Master Plan for Qatar (TMPQ), Transport Objectives for Qatar) and
provides planners and engineers with guidelines to enable the appropriate planning of
infrastructure projects. In line with the intent of the Qatar Highway Design Manual
(QHDM), it promotes the design and construction of highway infrastructure in Qatar to a
high and common standard, which is a basic component of good planning practice.
1.2 Vision, Goals, and Objectives

Qatar’s Transport Strategy vision is to “Promote safe, efficient and environmentally
sustainable transport for people and goods, responding to individuals’ needs for
mobility and supporting economic growth.”
The transportation goals for Qatar are categorized into five areas:
1. Quality of life and community

2. Economy
3. Mobility
4. Environment
5. Finance and governance
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Goals for each area are translated into objectives and described as follows.
Quality of Life and Community

• Provide an attractive and integrated multi-modal transport system to accomplish
the following:
− Serve the anticipated increase in population.
− Provide adequate mobility options for people of all social sectors.
− Increase transport network access for remote and disadvantaged zones and
communities.
• Implement a transport system with minimum adverse effects on quality of life, such
as air pollution, noise emission, or barrier effect of infrastructure.
• Integrate land use and transport planning.
• Respect cultural heritage in alignment and design of transport facilities.
• Improve safety by reducing the number and severity of crashes.
Economy
• A smart integrated transport system and an appropriate infrastructure is vital to
accomplishing the following:
− Support the existing and future massive economic and industrial growth.
− Implement an efficient movement of goods, services, and passengers.
• Provide attractive and equivalent access to education sites by all modes of
transport.
Mobility
• Identify corridors for large-scale transport of passengers and goods.
• Use an integrated transport system to respond to all travel demands.
• Employ phased development of transport networks for all modes as the long-range
forecast transport demand evolves.
• Provide an effective traffic management system to eliminate current congestion
and delays and help avoid over-saturation in the future.
• Improve safety (and security) of Qatar’s road transport system as part of the Qatar
National Road Safety Strategy (QNRSS)
• Achieve high transport awareness and education.
• Move away from only meeting demand by provision of additional infrastructure
and start with managing demand more effectively.
• Balance transport modes and minimize conflicts between them.
• Improve efficiency and reliability of traffic conditions for motorist and public
transport users by better information systems.
• Provide accessibility to all highway and transport users.
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Environment
• Consider principles of sustainability when developing Qatar’s integrated transport
system, now and in the future, particularly an integration of transport development
with land use development.
• Reduce or minimize energy consumption in transport.
• Increase awareness of decisions makers and planners about environmental impacts
of different transport modes.
• Raise awareness with general transport users about the impacts of their mobility
behavior on the natural, manmade, and social environments.
• Provide more sustainable options for mobility of Qatar’s residents, such as
improved public transport services and more attractive bike and pedestrian
facilities.
• Change transport behavior of residents and visitors to more sustainable modes,
adequate trip lengths, or other preferred options.
Finance and Governance

• Minimize the adverse economic impacts of the car; that is, minimize the costs
resulting from today’s car-dominated transport system on environment, health,
and social life.
• Achieve a reasonable cost-benefit ratio of investments in the transport system.
1.3 Project Types and Scope

There are three basic types of projects that involve highway and transportation
infrastructure:
• New roads
• Reconstruction of existing roads
• Rehabilitation, restoration, or resurfacing of existing roads (3R)
New roads may include service roads, minor arterials, or major arterials, any of which
may involve new intersections with the existing road network. Reconstruction may
include improvements to existing roads, such as addition of motor vehicle capacity,
addition or enhancement of facilities for nonmotorized users, or a combination of
these. 3R projects are those for which the basic roadway remains, but major repairs to
the pavement, bridges, or other infrastructure are necessary. Both reconstruction and
3R projects typically will include replacement or major repair of highway infrastructure
that has reached the end of its service life or has been damaged by an external event.
Reconstruction projects may include capacity or other similar improvements.
All project types require preplanning, but because they all differ in scope and purpose,
some require greater planning and scrutiny.
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Road and highway projects that require planning approvals include:
• Highway widening
• Access to new developments
• Intersection improvements
• Proposed new pedestrian and bicycle facilities
• New service roads, local roads, and arterials in a new, mixed development, for
example, retail, commercial, residential, and recreational
1.4 Transportation Planning Process in Qatar

Qatar is undergoing tremendous economic and industrial growth. That growth has
resulted in a rapid population increase and the urgent need to develop infrastructure
projects and major transport projects. The economic and industrial growth are linked
to the National Vision that aims at transforming Qatar into an advanced country by
2030, capable of sustaining its own development and providing for a high standard of
living for all of its people for generations to come.
The transport strategy developed from the transport master plan provides direction for
the planning authority for a systematic approach in the implementation of transport
infrastructure on the road network. It also calls for the development of an adequate,
modern, and innovative public transport system to accommodate the future transport
needs of Qatar.
The transportation planning process identifies parts of the transport network where
new investments in transport infrastructure or redesign of existing facilities would be
beneficial. Proposals are usually developed within the context of master plans.
The Overseeing Organization’s focus is to deliver transport infrastructure in ways that

promote sustainable travel and safeguard the efficient and safe functioning of the
transport system.
A typical planning process considered by the Overseeing Organization for a transport

infrastructure project proposed by a developer will involve the following:
• Receipt of developer’s application.

• Initial review of the project carried out to make sure that local communities are not
adversely affected by development. This could involve a preapplication meeting
with the developer to discuss the project details.
• Submitting of a formal application by the developer to the Overseeing Organization
with the supporting information.
• Meeting with the developer and agreeing upon the terms of reference and the
scope of work for the project.
• Examination of the project by the Overseeing Organization, which then will advise
the developer to undertake a transport or traffic impact study for the project.
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• Obtaining formal comments from the Overseeing Organizations regarding the

project and the transport report.
• Assessing the proposed land use and the impact of the development on its
surroundings by considering the impact on transport and the highway network. For
the planning process, consideration will be given to such, but limited to factors as
road classification, level of service (LOS), highway design, increased traffic and
congestion that may harm the economy, and increased crashes.
• Reviewing the transport report and, for the final planning approval, achieving
developer agreement with the appropriate highway infrastructure design.
• There is an appeal period and process if an application is refused on technical

grounds. Further information regarding different types of appeals should be
addressed to the Overseeing Organization. Scheduling highway planning
conditions—that is, agreeing upon a time scale in which to implement—will be the
responsibility of the Overseeing Organization for highway and traffic works.
1.5 Land Use Considerations

The designer needs to be aware of land ownership issues when developing highway
plans. The variety of land uses and landowners in Qatar can make the acquisition of
land for road infrastructure difficult, costly, or not in the interest of the public. In
particular, the acquisition of areas of special-category lands, such as burial grounds and
military facilities, will involve additional procedures and may require replacement land
to be provided.
It is thus important that, in preparing feasibility studies and concept designs, the
designer becomes familiar with the land ownership and associated issues near the
proposed program of work.
Land uses surrounding a road corridor fundamentally affect the design choices for road
projects and similarly affect the expected impact of implementation of such a project.
Consequently, traffic impact studies covering all modes of transport are required for
new developments in order to assess the following:
• The overall transport and environment implications

• The impact of additional traffic on the adjoining highway network
• The internal/external site access arrangements
• Any need for mitigation measures in support of new development
1.5.1 Land Acquisition

As a general practice, the designer should attempt to maintain the existing right-of-way
corridor when planning for road improvement and design solutions. If design solutions
cannot be arrived within the existing right-of-way corridor, then additional land may be
required. In such instance, the acquisition of adjacent properties may assist in
achieving, geometric improvement solutions for roads and the surrounding links,
interchanges and intersections, in order to provide a continuation of proposed design
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solutions. Land acquisition may also assist in meeting project goals of an improved
vehicular and pedestrian circulation network and meet future demands where poor
and acceptable conditions are identified.
A Land Acquisition and Roadway Improvement Strategic Approach (LARISA) can be

developed to indicate sides of roads where land acquisition should be concentrated
and to minimize the impact of road corridors to one side versus both sides. This
approach will efficiently lead the design process in road improvements and design
solutions.
LARISA is based on the site survey, existing land and building assessments, and
identifying project constraints and recommendations.
1. Existing Land and Building Survey

The principles of the site survey are subjective in nature and relative to surrounding
land uses, building conditions, and heights in comparison to adjacent properties,
incompatibility, heritage, or cultural landmarks. The site survey may identify the
following features, and others:
• Towers, residential and commercial

• Single and multi-family residential
• Heritage sites
• Rail and metro stations
• Vacant land
2. Existing Land and Building Assessment

The building survey shall seek opportunities for parcel acquisition of and vacant lands
and demolishing buildings that are old or in poor condition. A strategic approach was
formulated to identify the methods of land acquisition and demolition of structures
within the corridors. The demolition of adjacent properties should provide sufficient
room for widening and realigning the road. On the other hand, various constraints may
limit land acquisition and indicate structures to be avoided. The following are criteria
to be considered during the assessment:
• Likely to be avoided:
− Native single-family properties, which should have precedence over the leased
residential and commercial sites as constrained properties
− Buildings that cannot be acquired because of cultural, historical, religious, or
economic restrictions
− Multi-family residential buildings that preserve the character of the residential
area
− Buildings in good condition, developments under construction, or new
commercial buildings
− Sites or buildings that have architectural character suitable for the area
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− Shopping malls and large business areas

− Parks and recreational areas.
− Small strips or sections of land impact on rows of buildings
• Likely to be acquired:
− Substandard buildings, which are old or in poor condition, and large vacant
land, which are prime candidates for acquisition to accommodate road
improvements.
− Buildings where land use or occupation compatibilities conflict with
surrounding uses and are not applicable to the land use plan
− Land acquisition on one side of the road only to avoid or minimize impacts to
the opposite side
− Optimal use of buffer zones to avoid land takes on private properties,
especially with buildings
3. Constraints and Recommendations:

The field investigations shall yield specific recommendations for important buildings,
significant sites, and strategic existing utilities, which are categorized as constraints.
Land acquisition and removal of various stretches of roads confined to one side shall
be considered as part of value engineering approach during strategic planning stage.
Constraint plans should be developed in the early stages of the project. Restricted
buildings and sites should be avoided if possible in determining final roadway alignment
options or be used as an analysis tool for option development.
Considerable roadway improvements are needed not only to enhance vehicular and
pedestrian corridors but also to provide the minimum required space needed to make
roadway improvements.
The latest versions of the Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP)
documents, Guidelines and Procedures for Transport Studies and Land Acquisition
Process, outline procedures to be followed for assessing the transport impact of new
developments and the MMUP land acquisition process in Qatar.
1.6 Appraisal
As part of the planning process, the highway project appraisal reflects the need for
balanced improvement across the network. An appraisal is the method of assessing
whether investing financially in construction of a highway provides value to the
highway and transport users.
The planning process identifies parts of the transport network where investments in
new transport infrastructure or redesign of existing facilities would be beneficial.
Proposals are usually developed within the context of development plans. The purpose
of the appraisal is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of various transport
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infrastructure improvement proposals. Proposals are prioritized based on the costs and
benefits arising from traffic, economic, environmental, social, and safety effects on the
community, both in the short and long term.
The following are the key steps involved in carrying out an appraisal:
1. Define objectives and constraints.

2. Identify problems.
3. Identify solutions and designs. Develop policies or solutions to meet the objectives
and solve problems.
4. Perform measurement and forecasting. Forecasting the outcome for alternative
plans or scenarios over the life of the project using performance indicators.
Indicators should be operational (e.g., travel time), environmental (e.g., emissions
and social benefits), or economical (e.g., cost and benefit to the community during
the life of the project). Benefits are usually referred to as net present benefits,
which are the total project benefits minus costs of construction, maintenance, land
acquisition, and other costs.
5. Evaluate the process of applying weights to the indicators identified in step 4.
Weighting should reflect the Overseeing Organization’s policies, with input from
stakeholders.
6. Select a best-value solution. The highest total benefit that may be approved for
design completion and construction as appropriate.
The three levels of appraisal hierarchy are as follows:
1. Strategic: The focus is on developing broad options for consideration. Several

alternative strategic plans should be considered. For example, if a new town is
being built to provide residential housing, it is at this stage that the planner should
consider the orientation and the layout of the town’s road network.
2. Packages: A package is an alternative means of dealing with particular identified
problems. The package approach requires the planner to do the following:
− Consider the nature of problems and objectives for a particular area.
− Relate proposed solutions to the defined problems and objectives
− Consider the impact the solutions have on the area as a whole.
3. Alternative: Alternative designs should be conceived within the context of defined

objectives and objectively identified and described transportation problems.
Sound appraisals require sound and defensible traffic forecasts. In making these
choices, reference should be made to the latest version of MMUP’s Guidelines and
Procedures for Traffic Studies.
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2 Projects Involving New Roads
2.1 Planning and Design Objectives: Provide Mobility

and Accessibility
A new road will have one of two basic purposes: to enable new development by making
the land accessible to the transportation road network, or to enhance the ability to
travel between two areas or destinations by providing an alternative route to an
existing route.
The planning of new roads to serve new development zones should take into account
the proposed land uses of the new development. The amount of road capacity and the
types and volume of travel, including pedestrian and cyclist, will be a function of the
type and density of the development. New road planning and design entails
development of a suitable road hierarchy classification that can be assigned to roads
serving both existing and new land uses. A key objective is the designation and ultimate
acquisition of right-of-way width.
2.2 Planning Development Access for New Roads

This section provides planning and design considerations for planning access to
development by new roads and other transport infrastructure in Qatar to be approved
by Overseeing Organization for planning and eventually adopted by the Overseeing
Organization for road works. It includes guidance on the information required to satisfy
the transport and highway aspects of planning applications with particular regard to
safety, pedestrians, cyclists, public transport, service and private vehicles, and parking
standards.
2.3 Project Development Process

Road projects are undertaken to address specific transportation problems, such as
safety, capacity, physical features, or accessibility. Generally, road problems fall into
three categories:
• Safety: There is a frequency and pattern of crashes well in excess of what should
be expected for the location, with such crash experience potentially treatable by
proven effective countermeasures.
• Demand exceeds capacity: Existing facilities do not meet current or projected
traffic demand as measured by the desired level of service for the facility.
• New development: Access needs to be provided to new developments.
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These types of problems may be observed for potential road users, be they motorists,
pedestrians, and cyclists. The problems that a project is intended to address should be
clearly defined and agreed upon by all stakeholders early in the project development
process. Therefore, it is important to actively involve stakeholders and seek their input
early in the project. See also Chapter 1, of Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and
Solutions,
2.3.1 Development Process for New Road Projects

Once a project is planned and recommended for implementation, it goes through the
following major design phases with specific milestones before implementation:
scoping, concept design, preliminary design, detailed design, and tenders.
Construction, operation, and maintenance phases of projects are discussed in other
manuals. An exception to this process is design and build (D&B) project delivery, in
which detailed design and construction are combined into a single phase in the project
development process. See Section 2.3.2 regarding the D&B process.
1. Scoping Phase: The project purpose and need, goals, and objectives are defined in
the scoping phase. Stakeholders are identified, and a project manager is assigned
to assemble the project team based on the relevant disciplines involved in the
project. The project team defines project deliverables, estimated budget, and
schedule for completion of the study and design of the project. The team conducts
a field investigation of the project to identify potential problems including impacts
to sensitive sites, constructability issues, level of outreach, and method of project
delivery.
2. Conceptual Design: During the conceptual design, strategies that could address the
problem including traffic management, alternative transportation routes and
modes, physical improvements, and other measures are identified, studied,
analyzed, and evaluated. If all strategies other than physical improvement prove
insufficient to address the problem, physical improvement will be recommended.
Relevant information including forecast traffic data and topographic survey
information will be obtained. Alternative improvement concepts will be
developed, analyzed, and evaluated based on project goals and objectives, and
presented to stakeholders. The alternative that meets the project objectives will
be submitted for approval and advanced to preliminary design.
The conceptual engineering design phase will include the following:

− Gathering available information on location, size, use of the road, and
pedestrian, bike, and landscape features; visiting the project site to locate
sensitive environmental features; and conducting topographic and utility
surveys.
− Conducting traffic counts and analysis and developing design year traffic
projections.
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− Developing and analyzing alternative conceptual solutions (including

multimodal opportunities) in coordination with stakeholders; preparing
conceptual engineering drawings; evaluating concepts; and identifying the
preferred alternative.
− Establishing a workable geometric design for the preferred alternative that will
work through the final design without major revisions to the horizontal and
vertical geometry; preparing typical cross sections of structures and other
features; and identifying landscaping constraints and opportunities.
− Establishing the type, size, and length of structures, including bridges, retaining
walls, box culverts, and other major structures that may be needed.
− Performing conceptual design of drainage systems, including watershed
delineation, storm sewer system layout, culverts, waterway bridges, and
stormwater management facilities, and utility conflict and mitigation
measures.
− Performing analysis of constructability and maintenance of traffic and
conceptual design of traffic management and intelligent transportation system
(ITS) plans.
− Establishing limits of right-of-way, identifying land and parcels that need to be
acquired.
− Assessing the environmental impacts of the preferred alternative, obtaining
stakeholders’ approval, and securing the required permits and approvals.
− Conducting a value engineering review and incorporating its finding into the
design.
− Developing quantities and estimated construction cost for the project, and
documenting pros and cons of the preferred alternative.
− Conducting mandatory reviews and quality controls subject to approval from
the Overseeing Organization.
3. Preliminary Design: Once the preferred alternative is selected and approved, the
project will be advanced to preliminary design. The preliminary design phase is very
important. Sufficient engineering design details of the selected concept will be
developed and evaluated to verify that there are no unforeseen problems in the
design. Departures and required permits will be identified and the application
process will begin. A detailed cost estimate and construction schedule will be
developed based on the preliminary design plans. The project delivery method, e.g.,
design, tender, and construct or design and build, will also be decided during the
preliminary design phase. Engineering activities in this phase include the following:
− Design and further refinement of roadway geometry
− Design of drainage systems, erosion and sediment controls, and storm water
management facilities
− Design of structures and bridges, traffic control features, and ITS
− Design of landscaping features and multi-use paths and trails
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− Identification of utility conflicts and relocations options, utility designs, and

utility field inspection
− Conducting constructability analysis, and preparing maintenance of traffic and
construction staging plans
− Conducting and documenting mandatory reviews and quality controls
− Obtaining approval for right-of-way expropriations
− Revising and updating quantities, cost estimates, and schedule
− Applying for and obtaining required permits from the Overseeing Organization
4. Detailed Design: Final design comprises the following activities:

− Finalizing the design and producing final plans for roadways, drainage systems,
erosion and sedimentation control, and stormwater management systems.
− Finalizing the design for and producing final plans for structures and bridges,
traffic control devices/ITS, landscaping, and multi-use facilities, and so on.
− Finalizing right-of-way plans; preparing utility impacts analysis, and producing
utility composite plans for existing utility relocations and for proposed utilities.
− Obtaining all required permits.
− Performing constructability and maintenance of traffic analyses, and preparing
construction staging and traffic management plans.
− Authorizing right-of-way expropriation and utility relocation or installation, or
both
− Making necessary preparations for construction advertisement and tender.
5. Pre-tender Phase: The pre-tender phase includes the following activities:
− Prepare construction cost estimate, specifications, and construction schedule
for the project with sufficient details and milestones based on the final plans
and quantities.
− Secure required permits, certifications, and approvals.
− Prepare an overview of the project for the contract department including
general information, factors considered in preparing cost and schedule, and
known issues that could affect the project, along with supporting
documentation for cost and schedule.
2.3.2 Project Development Process: Design and Build (D&B)

The process for developing plans up to the end of the conceptual design stage for D&B
projects is generally the same as that for a design, tender, and construct project.
Limited investigation and engineering and design can be necessary to identify key risks
and opportunities to be included in the D&B tender. More detailed engineering and
design is not required prior to tender for a D&B project, as it limits the D&B team’s
scope for innovation. However, a value engineering study is recommended for large
projects.
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Once a decision is made to use the D&B delivery method, the project team will use the
conceptual engineering plans to develop the tender documents, including project
limits, scope of work, outline schedule, employer’s requirements, and special
provisions. A cost estimate will need to be prepared to assess tenders. Rights-of-way
need to be conservative, within reason, at the concept phase for a D&B project to
provide bidders scope for innovation.
Following the concept design, the process for D&B projects differs from the design,
tender, and construct process. Development of preliminary design and construction
plans and construction of the project will be the responsibility of the successful D&B
tenderer’s team. The D&B team will begin mobilization and construction work before
completion of the design stages.
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3 Project Development Process

for Interchange Design Studies
(Existing Reconstruction or
New)
Selecting and designing the best-value interchange combines application of the
technical background described above with site- or location-specific knowledge and
data. The importance of interchanges to the functionality of the overall highway
network demands careful study to determine the best solution. The design process
starts with an understanding of the basic goals, objectives, and need for the
interchange project.
3.1 Step 1: Establish Data Collection Requirements and

Obtain Data
At a minimum, the following data and information are necessary to conduct a study to
determine the appropriate interchange type and to advance it through final
engineering design:
• Design year average daily and design hour traffic forecast for freeway approaches,
crossroad, ramps, and all peak hours turning movements. If the new interchange is
within 4 kilometers (km) of an adjacent interchange, traffic forecast data for that
interchange should be obtained to understand the operational effects on it.
• Aerial photography and base-mapping allowing for planning studies at suitable
scales of typically 1:2500 for concept planning and eventual preliminary
engineering at 1:1000 and 1:500 scales.
• Ownership of land in all quadrants of the proposed location and along the
crossroad.
• Knowledge of important cultural, historic, environmental, mosques, schools, parks
and public safety facilities, or other lands and land uses near the interchange. Note
that awareness of these goes beyond potential right-of-way needs and
encompasses such factors as noise, visual effects, and presence of pedestrians.
• Plans and inspection reports for existing highway and bridge infrastructure at the
proposed location.
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• Plans of known utilities, both above and below ground.

• Data on soil conditions.
3.1.1 Develop Interchange Planning and Design Framework

Key early decisions and actions will affect the progress of the study. The nature of
interchange projects is that many public, governmental, and private stakeholders may
have a direct interest in one or more aspects of the study, including regulatory
permissions and approvals.
3.1.2 Stakeholder Involvement

Key stakeholders are any agency or individual with a direct interest because of the
location of the study, or because of their role in providing information and data, in
reviewing, in issuing permits, or in accepting and approving the project. Early notice to
such stakeholders facilitates their input when needed, thus reducing the time and cost
to complete the project. Early notice and engagement avoids problems associated with
unforeseen conflicts.
For major interchange projects or projects in urban areas affecting many stakeholders,
best practice is to formally engage them in early meetings and dialogue, referred to as
chartering. Table 3.1 summarizes suggested representative stakeholders and both the
issues and potential inputs they may provide to the project.
Table 3.1 Typical Stakeholders and Their Issues for Interchange Projects
Stakeholder Issue or Concern
Overseeing Organization: Project is designed in accordance with standards; adequate review and
Design approval of Departures.
Overseeing Organization: Project will operate as intended (LOS, safety performance); operation of
Traffic traffic controls.
Overseeing Organization: Project bids will be acceptable; constructability within schedule and
Construction budget.
Overseeing Organization: Need for maintenance of all project elements, safety of maintenance
Maintenance workers.
Overseeing Organization: Landscaping of public places, planting of trees, traffic island planting, and
Public Parks maintenance of landscaping and public parks.
Incorporation of bus stops or light rail/metro stations near interchange
Transit Agency on crossroad; safety of pedestrians.
Utilities Need for and timing of relocated utilities.
Potential acquisition, noise from traffic, dust and other impacts of
Adjacent Landowners construction, changes in access to their properties, visual effects, timing,
and length of construction.
Highway Users Safety of the interchange, reductions in delay or travel time after
construction, detours, or delays during construction.
Ministry of Environment Protection of proximate environmental resources, permitting, and
approvals.
Law Enforcement Ability to enforce traffic laws, safety of the interchange.
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A chartering meeting may include the following:
• Background introduction of the need for the project

• Introduction of key project staff, including contact information
• Presentation of the planned public outreach program
• Intended schedule for the study, design, and construction
• Opportunity for stakeholders to present issues or concerns at the outset
• Discussion of issues regarding property or interest that may not be known from
public records
3.1.3 Develop Project Planning and Design Criteria

The entity conducting the study, consulting with appropriate agency stakeholders
including the Overseeing Organization, should develop, distribute, and present the design
criteria for the project. These should include design speeds of all elements, design year
and basis for design year traffic, design LOS for all elements, design vehicles, drainage
design criteria, and design standards to be used, including specific entrance and exit
design details. At this stage, criteria determined to be appropriate for use that are outside
the QHDM-published criteria are understood to be subject to a Departure. Best practices
are for such criteria to be discussed fully before initiating major work, with concurrence
from or at least notice to the Overseeing Organization of the reasons for the Departure,
and agreement to proceed using the proposed criteria.
3.2 Step 2: Confirm Study Approach, Evaluation Criteria,

and Decision Process
The planning and design framework includes an affirmation of the technical approach to
the work. This should be as outlined in the scope of work for the project, but before it
begins, concurrence on methods, data, and necessary assumptions where no data exist
should be reached. Such methods may include capacity and operational analysis methods
that are both large- and small-scale, and quantitative safety analyses.
3.2.1 Determine Evaluation Criteria and Technical Approach

The key technical factors that will drive the selection of one alternative over another
should be identified, which should shape the detail and level of effort in addressing
them. Although every project is unique, the following factors generally will be of
sufficient importance:
• Estimated initial cost of construction

• Measures of traffic service, such as travel time, delays, queuing, and LOS
• Right-of-way acquisitions, including not only cost but also types of businesses,
residences, or other uses affected or displaced
• Accessibility to side roads and private properties
• Environmental issues requiring mitigation
• Assessment of safety performance
• Constructability
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To the extent possible, those charged with making the final decision on which
alternative to select should communicate the relative importance of these factors.
3.2.2 Develop Design Year Traffic and Select Most Likely Alternatives
The next step is to develop design year traffic as intended, and then, with reference to
the guidance presented in Part 9, identify the most likely reasonable alternatives for
the location. These will depend on the functional classification of each road, design year
traffic, general knowledge of the spatial and quadrant-specific requirements for each
interchange form, and understanding of the most likely or only vertical
crossroad/freeway relationship.
For service interchange projects, there may as many as six reasonable options
representing basic forms and variants thereof. For system interchange projects, at least
three and often more solutions may be worthy of study.
3.3 Step 3: Conduct Interchange Type Studies

The process for efficient and complete interchange studies is stepped and begins with
as many likely alternatives as are evident, then proceeds through increasing level of
technical detail to screen those down to a single preferred alternative.
3.3.1 Concept Engineering Design

The following is completed is for each concept identified for study:
• Size each interchange concept using design year traffic and quick capacity
techniques. Sizing refers to determining the preliminary numbers of lanes for
ramps, ramp terminal intersections, roundabouts, crossroad bridges, auxiliary lanes
on freeway.
• Develop concept level design in plan view over aerial photography. A sufficiently
skilled and knowledgeable designer can develop appropriate geometry without
having to conduct profile studies. The designer can estimate limits of bridges and
retaining walls, approximate right-of-way, and potential encroachments on
properties. Figure 3.1 is an example of such a concept.
• Using this information, an approximate, comparative construction cost estimate

can be prepared. As the interchanges should be operationally comparable, the
process of screening focuses on costs, right-of-way, and environmental or special
local issues.
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Figure 3.1 Example Single-line Concept Plan View over Aerial
3.3.2 Stakeholder Review and Screening

Depending on the project’s sensitivity and importance, conduct external stakeholder or
public meetings to present the alternatives under consideration and their attributes.
Such meetings may apprise designers of previously unknown specific issues or impacts
associated with one or more alternatives.
Consult with agency and regulatory stakeholders. As a minimum, they should

communicate fatal flaws or issues that may, if not resolved, present major schedule or
cost impacts not previously apparent. They may express views representing their
agency on the alternatives that the Overseeing Organization should consider.
Decision-makers can then screen the alternatives down to the most reasonable two, or
at most three.
For simple two-level service interchange projects, it may be possible to select the best
value solution. For multilevel system interchanges with complex geometry and
significant costs, the next step is generally required.
3.4 Step 4: Functional Geometric Design of Screened

Alternatives
An alternative proceeding to this stage should have no environmental or other
problems that would hinder its selection. Assuming more than one alternative remains
viable, designers next conduct preliminary geometric design studies at an acceptable
scale as agreed with the Overseeing Organization in three dimensions. Plan view,
profile in the detailed design stage, and intersection design studies are conducted. The
latter include details such as intersection or roundabout geometry, left- and right-turn
lengths, signal phasing, and operations. Concept level bridge studies determine most
likely type, depths, widths, and ancillary structures such as retaining walls. To facilitate
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a decision, additional concept studies of drainage, lighting, and signing may be

conducted. With three-dimensional plans, earthwork can be developed as part of the
detailed design, enabling firm estimates of right-of-way acquisition. At this stage,
differences in construction staging or maintenance of traffic along the freeway should
be understood and documented.
This phase of work may include micro-simulation studies of freeway and or crossroad
operations. These can provide more complete measures of traffic performance, which
may help differentiate between, say a partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchange and a
diamond, or between a signalized diamond and a roundabout diamond interchange.
Finally, quantitative safety analyses using the Highway Safety Manual (HSM; American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011) can be
performed to develop comparisons of the difference in predicted crash types and
severities.
At this level of design, all necessary significant Departures should be known. They
should be fully discussed to the point that, should an alternative be selected, there is
confidence that any Departures associated with it will be found acceptable.
3.5 Step 5: Select Preferred Alternative, Document and

Develop Final Engineering Plans
With all the above detail, there is sufficient technical information for the Overseeing
Organization to determine a preferred alternative. Once a decision is made, completion
of all final engineering plans can proceed.
Documentation of the recommended plan, including the following, provides the

background to explain and defend the project:
• Stakeholders consulted and their input

• Alternatives considered, including summaries of those screened out
• Design plans and supporting technical information on alternatives with completed
functional design
• Construction cost models, assumptions and estimates
• Environmental clearances and other permits required or obtained
• Departures subject to final approval
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4 Projects Involving Existing

Roads
The Overseeing Organization may undertake projects involving existing roads. There
are four main reasons for such projects, associated with modes of travel:
• An observed or expected traffic operational problem, such as bottlenecks or low

LOS
• An observed safety problem, as identified through a science-based assessment of
crash frequency and severity
• An identified need to provide access to a new adjacent development
• Pavement or other road infrastructure in a state of disrepair
Projects involving existing roads are named 3R for Resurfacing, Restoration, and
Rehabilitation. Examples of 3R projects include:
• Pavement that has reached its useful life and requires complete replacement,
including potentially the subgrade, shoulders and curbing
• Removal of a bituminous overlay to a concrete pavement and replacement with a
new overlay
• Replacement of roadside barriers such as guardrail
• Bridge redecking
• Major repairs or replacements to a bridge substructure
Other certain work efforts related to infrastructure condition are fundamentally

preventative maintenance activities. These may include minor pavement repairs such
as seal coats, full-width patching, crack sealing, and thin plant mix resurfacing for
sealing of the pavement surface, correcting minor surface irregularities, and other
similar repairs. Curb repairs or replacement, replacement of drainage inlets, and other
similar activities are also fundamentally preventative maintenance in nature. These
repair types are an important part of the Overseeing Organization’s overall mission.
Maintenance repair activities are not considered to be 3R or reconstruction projects.
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4.1 Unique Characteristics of Projects Involving

Existing Roads
Projects involving existing roads fundamentally differ from those involving new roads
for several important reasons. First, there is a proven and observable set of traffic
operational and safety performance measures for an existing road. These should be
referenced to determine the nature and extent of any problem.
Second, in most cases there is fixed right-of-way for the existing road, around which
land development typically has occurred. In urban areas development typically will
involve buildings and other private infrastructure immediately contiguous with the
right-of-way. Projects involving existing roads require designers to understand the
context and to be creative in developing solutions within the right-of-way, because any
major realignment or widening has the potential for producing substantial impacts to
many property owners and stakeholders.
A third unique aspect of projects involving existing roads is they have in place a roadway
with fixed geometric conditions. The road will have been designed to standards
employed at the time of its initial construction. Some roads may predate the 1997
QHDM. As this edition of the QHDM includes some revisions to geometric design
criteria based on research advances, it is possible that an existing road may have
geometric features that do not meet the updated, current version of QHDM design
standards.
Design standards are a means to an end. The end desired is measurable or expected
performance with respect to either safety, operations, or both. An existing geometric
feature or dimension that does not meet current design criteria does not automatically
require reconstruction to meet such criteria. Such practice is a sub-optimal use of
resources and may produce unnecessary inconvenience to road users and stakeholders
affected by construction activities. Decisions under a best-value approach shall be
based on a review and analysis of the existing roadway’s performance.
Projects of the above nature will be considered as either 3R projects or reconstruction

projects. The Overseeing Organization will make the determination for project
eligibility for 3R treatment using the criteria discussed below.
4.2 Design of Reconstruction Projects

Reconstruction projects will be those for any of the following:
• The demonstrated project need goes beyond mere infrastructure repair, to include
a known quantitative safety problem or a known operational problem.
• The project involves the redesignation or reclassification of a roadway to serve new
types of trips or travel not previously included along the route, such as bike paths
or dedicated transit only lanes; widening; conversion of intersection type such as
roundabout to signalized intersection.
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• The project is bridge replacement which specifically includes improvements to

vertical clearance.
• The project converts a temporary road to a permanent road.
• The Overseeing Organization determines that the project shall not be eligible for
3R treatment, as described above.
Reconstruction projects will involve substantial revision to the functionality and three-
dimensional character of the road. Reconstruction projects shall be designed and
reconstructed using the design criteria in the QHDM.
Challenges unique to reconstruction versus new construction projects include these:
• Right-of-way typically is limited, with adjacent development already established.

Even minor strip acquisitions may create significant damage to adjacent properties,
in some cases necessitating entire acquisition.
• In most cases, it will be necessary to maintain traffic flow along the roadway during
reconstruction. This includes through traffic, intersection movements, and access
to business, retail, and residential land uses. Existing underground utilities are in
place. These constraints will influence the suitability of design solutions, and may
limit the ability to make more than minor changes to vertical alignment.
The full design process for new roads applies to reconstruction projects, including
development of design alternatives and evaluation of potential Departures from
Standards. Departures may be significant for such projects.
4.2.1 Relationship of Safety Performance to Design Elements

The acceptance of Departures from Standards generally will be greater for reconstruction
projects. A project may be designated for reconstruction based on a review of its crash
history, but the types and locations of crashes may be such that certain design elements
or locations along the road may not require full geometric redesign. Thus, for example,
a decision may be made to flatten a horizontal curve but to retain the vertical
alignment, even though there are nominally substandard elements.
Table 4.1 summarizes the known relative importance of roadway elements in safety
performance, crash frequency, and severity of different roadway types and contexts.
Not every geometric element is of equal importance in influencing safety performance.

Moreover, the contribution to safety performance of an element varies by type of road.
Table 4.1 serves as a reference in making decisions on retaining existing road geometry
to avoid major costs and conflicts. Refer to the AASHTO HSM (2011) for more details
on the specific elements and road types.
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Table 4.1 Relative Relationship of Geometric Design Features to Crash

Frequency or Severity by Type of Road
Road Type and Intersections
Multilane Urban
Rural Multilane
Arterials and
Unsignalized
Roundabout
Rural 2-lane
intersection
intersection
Signalized
Collectors
Freeway
Roadway Design Elements
Cross Section
Lane Width 🌕🌕 🌕🌕 — 🌕🌕 — — —
Cross Slope 🌕🌕 🌕🌕 — — — — —
Shoulder Width ✓ ✓ — ✓ — — —
Shoulder Type (Paved, Unpaved) 🌕🌕 🌕🌕 — 🌕🌕 — — —
Presence of Rumble Strips ✓ ✓ — ✓ — — —
Sideslope 🌕🌕 🌕🌕 — ✓ — — —
Clear Zone ✓ ✓ — ✓ — — —
Presence of Roadside Barrier ✓ ✓ — ✓ — — —
Presence of Median NA ✓ ✓ ✓ — — —
Width of Median NA ✓ ✓ ✓ — — —
Alignment
Horizontal Curvature (Radius) ✓ ✓ — ✓ NA NA ✓
Length of Curve ✓ 🌕🌕 — 🌕🌕 NA NA NA
Presence of Spiral ✓ 🌕🌕 — 🌕🌕 NA NA NA
Superelevation 🌕🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Grade ✓ 🌕🌕 — — NA NA NA
Length of Vertical Curve 🌕🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Stopping Sight Distance 🌕🌕 — — — NA NA NA
Presence of Weaving Sections NA NA NA ✓ NA NA NA
Length of Weaving Sections NA NA NA ✓ NA NA NA
Location of Ramps (Left vs. Right) NA NA NA ✓ NA NA NA
Other
Frequency of Driveways ✓ — ✓ NA NA NA NA
Frequency of Intersections ✓ ✓ ✓ NA NA NA NA
Type of Intersections (Traffic
— — — NA NA NA NA
Control)
Intersection Elements
Intersection Sight Distance NA NA NA NA ✓ — —
Number of Legs/Approaches NA NA NA NA ✓ ✓ ✓
Skew Angle NA NA NA NA ✓ ✓ —
Presence of Left-Turn Lanes NA NA NA NA 🌕🌕 ✓ —
Presence of Right-Turn Lanes NA NA NA NA 🌕🌕 🌕🌕 —
KEY: Significant Effect 🌕🌕 Minor Effect — No Effect NA Not applicable
Based on AASHTO HSM (2010).
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4.2.2 Risk Management Guidelines

Safety performance related to roadway design elements and dimensions is a
continuum. One can estimate safety risk by quantifying the three most important
factors that relate to crash risk on all road types:
• How close the dimension or value is to the specified minimum value

• Traffic volume exposed to the element
• Length of roadway over which the element occurs
Marginal differences in a design dimension will have at most marginal differences in

the expected safety performance of the road if any. Figure 4.1 illustrates this concept.
Source: Fambro, et al. Determination of Stopping Sight Distances, NCHRP Report 400.
Figure 4.1 Conceptual Relationship between Available Sight Distance and Safety
at Crest Vertical Curves
Figure 4.1 is taken from research on SSD and is illustrative only. The concepts below
apply not only to SSD but also to all other geometric elements.
Existing values for sight distance that do not meet the standard but are short by only a
small amount will produce little if any practical increase in actual risk. Only when the
amount of the deficiency is large might a meaningful increase in crash risk be expected.
4.2.2.1 Effective vs. Selected Design Speed

Taking the minimum design value per QHDM standards as a reference point, a useful
measure of risk is the difference between the “effective” design speed of existing
geometry for a design element, such as, horizontal or vertical curvature, and the
selected design speed. This difference is referred to as delta V (Δ V). Geometry that may
not meet the minimum standard but that is very close to it, with a small value for delta
V, can be considered as presenting minimal risk.
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The following guidelines apply and may be used in making departure decisions:
• Low risk alignment has a Δ V of 10 kilometers per hour (kph) or less.

• Moderate risk alignment has a Δ V of 11 kph to 20 kph.
• High risk alignment has a Δ V of greater than 20 kph.
4.2.2.2 Traffic Volume Exposure

Substantive safety risk is also proportional to the traffic volume on the roadway. For
example, the predicted crash frequency per km for a 2-lane rural highway is 0.15 per
year for a volume of 1,000 vpd, and 2.5 per km for the same road with 15,000 vpd.
Whatever the effect of a geometric element may be, the risk is clearly different
depending on the traffic volume exposure. This same concept applies to intersections,
which are point locations in terms of crash frequency.
4.2.2.3 Length of Roadway Affected

A geometric feature that does not meet criteria for a relatively short length will
present less safety risk than one that is continuous over a longer length.
4.2.2.4 Risk Minimization

In a reconstruction setting, a designer may be able to revise the geometry to some
extent with minimal right-of-way or other impacts but perhaps not fully to the
minimum applicable standard. This may reduce the risk even though the designer is
unable to meet the full standard. Using the above guidelines, a Departure may be
appropriate if it improves the alignment from, say, a high risk category to a moderate
or low risk category. The reconstruction solution still requires a formal Departure, but
it does accomplish some level of improvement over the existing road.
4.2.3 Reconstruction Design Approach

As noted, designers who are upgrading roads have before them a facility for which they
can observe and measure its transportation performance. This general approach
applies:
• Designers should develop a thorough understanding of the context through which

the road passes, particularly in urban areas. This includes knowledge of adjacent
uses and their interface with the road, prevalence of nonmotorized users, and the
substantive safety and operational performance on the road. The concept of
context sensitivity in developing reasonable solutions is particularly applicable to
reconstruction projects.
• Defining the problem clearly and specifically, and then shaping the scope of work
and alternative solutions, is critical. The scope and limits of work should address
the known problems
• At the beginning of a project, designers should assess existing physical and
operational conditions affecting safety by using crash data and site inspections, and
noting existing traffic operations and characteristics.
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• Suitably qualified safety engineers, who will produce a Road Safety Audit (RSA)
Report independent from the design team should review the safety and design
proposals before final approval is granted.
• At the preliminary engineering phase, before developing final detailed construction
plans and specifications, designers should prepare a design report that documents
existing design and operational characteristics, crash history, applicable design
standards, and design options that were studied. The design report should include
proposed design exceptions that require applications for Departure from Standard
to enable their evaluation, processing and agreed upon project approach in a timely
manner.
4.3 Designation of Eligibility for 3R Treatment

The intent of a special designation for a project to be considered to be 3R and outside
the scope of new construction standards as stated in the QHDM is to avoid unnecessary
expenditure of road construction funds and associated disruption to road users,
adjacent landowners, and other stakeholders that full reconstruction and the potential
for right-of-way acquisition would produce.
A road programmed for reconstruction because of physical condition only, not because
of an observed crash or traffic operational problem, shall be eligible for designation as
a 3R project. A 3R designation means that the designer may retain the roadway
geometry, with the project focusing solely on repair or replacement of infrastructure.
For a project to be designated as 3R, the following shall be performed:
• Crash records should be sought and reviewed for the previous 5 years. Focus should
be on evaluating any fatal or serious injury crashes. Should records be unavailable,
the Overseeing Organization responsible for traffic law enforcement shall be
contacted, and queried regarding their knowledge of the safety performance of the
location. Law enforcement stakeholders should also provide data and information
on the operation of the road relative to traffic laws, such as records on the issuance
of speeding citations. Knowledge of the safety performance of the existing road is
a crucial input to designation of a project as 3R.
• Qualified traffic safety engineers should review the crash records and other
information and determine the extent to which the roadway design or traffic
control, or both, were contributing factors in any reported crashes. The AASHTO
HSM (2010) should be used as a resource to assess the safety performance of the
existing road.
• Studies of speeds during off-peak periods should be conducted to characterize the
speed behavior of drivers.
• A review of the road’s geometric features should outline which features no longer
meet current QHDM standards, and by how much, based on the design speed for
the road under current design policy. For example, limitations in stopping sight
distance can be expressed as the effective speed of the amount of sight distance
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provided. The difference between this speed and the design speed of the road is a
direct risk measure of the amount or severity of the design feature.
• A road safety audit (as per Part 24, Road Safety Audits) shall be undertaken, with
emphasis on looking for low-cost, readily implementable solutions that do not
require geometric revisions, but that may support retention of the geometry and
enhance the potential safety performance after project completion.
• The designer shall conduct an engineering analysis of the geometric design
revisions necessary to bring the road to current minimum design standards. This
analysis should include documentation of right-of-way, changes in access, damage
to properties including need for full acquisition, relocation of businesses and
residences. The designer shall prepare an estimate of the additional time and cost
to bring the roadway up to current design standards above that necessary to
undertake the repair or replacement of the infrastructure.
• The designer should prepare a design report documenting all the above analyses
with a recommendation for treating the project as a 3R project. This report should
summarize all the above efforts. A project for which 3R designation is
recommended should be one in which there is clearly little or no substantive safety
benefit expected from geometric updates (i.e., the risk of retaining existing
geometry is deemed to be very low), and in which the costs and impacts to upgrade
the road are substantial and unavoidable should such upgrading be required. The
design report shall include a recommendation by the Designer to the Overseeing
Organization on the eligibility of the project for 3R designation.
The Overseeing Organization shall review the designer’s 3R report and make a final
determination of the project’s eligibility for designation as 3R. Projects involving
existing roads deemed not to be appropriate for 3R designation are therefore treated
as reconstruction projects, as discussed below.
4.4 Design of 3R Projects

The sole purpose of 3R projects is to preserve and extend the service life of roads and
related infrastructure.
• Resurfacing work consists of applying a new or recycled layer or layers of pavement

material to existing pavement to provide additional structural integrity, improved
rideability, improved drainage by reinstituting a cross slope or removing rutting, or
restoring surface friction.
• Restoration work consists of restoring or generally bringing back the originally
designed capability of the entire roadway. This may include, in addition to
resurfacing, minor pavement widenings, or addition of paved hard shoulders,
culvert extensions and repairs, other drainage improvements, correction of
superelevation, upgrading infrastructure such as guardrails and roadside barriers
to current standards, and other similar improvements. Restoration work is confined
to the existing right-of-way.
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• Rehabilitation may include reconstruction of limited parts of the project’s length,

major repairs to structural elements such as bridges, retaining walls and culverts,
bridge rails, and side slopes and ditches.
3R projects generally do not require additional right-of-way, as the intent is to retain

the original roadway footprint. Construction or temporary easements may be needed
to facilitate the work while traffic is maintained on the road.
4.4.1 Context Sensitive Safety Enhancements for 3R Projects

While designing a 3R project, designers should incorporate low-cost safety
enhancements that do not involve changes to the footprint or the fundamental scope
of the project. As noted, the engineering process for 3R eligibility includes a road safety
audit focused on identifying such improvements.
International research has demonstrated the safety effectiveness of a number of low-

cost and readily implementable solutions that may be incorporated into 3R projects.
The following sections summarize these.
4.4.2 3R Safety Enhancements for Rural Highways
4.4.2.1 Safety Edge

Rural highways with unpaved shoulders present a risk associated with shoulder drop-
off, whereby a driver inadvertently leaving the lane may have the right wheels drop on
to the unpaved surface. The difference in elevation between the resurfaced pavement
and shoulder may be as great as 15 to 20 cm. In correcting steering, the tire wall may
scrub against the pavement, inhibiting recovery to the lane. Driver response is often to
jerk the steering wheel, overcorrect, and encroach into the oncoming traffic lane. The
safety edge, shown in Figure 4.2, is a simple 45-degree beveled treatment that
eliminates the drop-off and facilitates controlled recovery.
Figure 4.2 Safety Edge
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4.4.2.2 Paved Shoulders and Rumble Strips

Paving an unpaved shoulder produces measurable benefits. Shoulder paving and
placement of shoulder rumble strips can reduce the risk of run-off-road crashes by
more than 20 percent. This treatment in the context of a 3R project may be particularly
useful, if there is interest in promoting cycling on the road. Shoulder paving can be
combined with run-off-road mitigation treatments, such as rumble strips. See Figure
4.3.
Figure 4.3 Paved Shoulder and Rumble Strip Example
4.4.2.3 Horizontal Curve Treatments

Horizontal curves are overrepresented compared to tangent alignments on two-lane
highways. The following are treatments with measurable predicted effectiveness in
reducing crashes on curves that are to remain in place (see Figure 4.4):
• Additional edge-line width delineation

• Providing chevrons through the curve
• Paving more of the shoulder through the curve with focus on the outside shoulder
• Providing rumble strips on the approaches and through the curve
• Increasing superelevation on the curve, which may require warping of the shoulder
• Providing advance warning or speed advisory signing in advance of the curve
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Figure 4.4 Horizontal Curve Treatments
4.4.2.4 Rumble Stripes

Centerline rumble stripes are an alternative to rumble strips. They perform the same
function but instead of being placed on the edge of shoulder, they are placed in the
roadway centerline. These may apply for roads with unpaved shoulders to remain.
Rumble stripes can be applied in a manner that enhances the visibility of reflectorized
paint applied over them.
4.4.2.5 Intersection Treatments

Minor road approaches to priority intersections or approaches to roundabouts on both
minor and major highways may experience the risk of unfamiliar or inattentive drivers
insufficiently reducing their speeds. Longitudinal rumble strips on the approaches with
accompanying warning signs provide both visual and audible stimulus to warn drivers
of the upcoming intersection or roundabout.
4.4.2.6 Dynamic Warning Signs

The use of dynamic warning signs for two different applications is now common
international practice. In one concept, the presence of a vehicle on a minor approach
triggers a dynamic warning sign or flashing lights on the major approach to alert the
priority drivers of the potential for a turning or crossing conflict. In another application,
drivers at a stop or yield line on the minor approach are provided a dynamic warning of
a vehicle on the conflicting major priority road approaching in either direction. The
warning devices in these signs can be solar powered.
4.4.2.7 Intersection Lighting

Lighting an unlit intersection may also be considered if there are concerns over night
conflicts or potential crashes.
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4.4.3 3R Safety Enhancements for Urban Roads

The following are urban 3R enhancements:
• Traffic signal heads may be increased in size or converted to light emitting diode
(LED) for greater visibility. Backplates for signal heads with retro-reflective borders
also improve signal visibility.
• Introduction of pedestrian-only signal phases at urban signalized intersections of
Boulevards and other locations with high levels of pedestrian activity.
• Pedestrian hybrid beacons.
• Signalized, pedestrian-actuated crossings mid-block in locations where nearby
signalized intersections are too far to divert pedestrian crossing demands.
• Conversion of right-turn into yield movements at priority intersections to signalized
control to recognize and address potential conflicts with pedestrians crossing the
intersection.
• Implementation of road diets tailored for use in Qatar on two-lane local and
collector roads. A road diet consists of a dedicated center lane reserved for left-
turning traffic into commercial and other driveways. It may be suitable for Qatar
where speeds are low and commercial driveway movements are substantial. The
use of mountable curbs with hatching can enhance the message of the median as
being reserved only for left turns. One of the most common applications of a road
diet is to improve safety or provide space for other modes of travel. For example,
a two –way four lane road might be reduced to one travel lane in each direction.
The freed-up space can be used to provide or enhance sidewalks and add cycle
lanes on one or both sides of the road.
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5 Functional Classification as a
Primary Design Control
5.1 Qatar Road Classification
This section describes the functional classification of Qatar’s roads and provides
designers with a description of the various road classes approved by Overseeing
Organization. The classification of roads into various categories is an important
consideration in planning and engineering. Roads in Qatar are classified as follows:
• Functional: classifying roads according to the type of service they provide

• Geometric: classifying roads according to their physical attributes
• Administrative: classifying roads according to the government agency that has
responsibility and control over them
• Performance: classifying roads according to the LOS they offer
Of these, functional classification is the predominant method of categorizing roads for

planning and engineering. Functional classification refers to the actual or intended use
of a road within the network as a whole and the degree of access or mobility that is to
be provided to adjacent properties.
Several advantages of classifying roads according to their function are as follows:
• Encourages appropriate traffic speeds and operational conditions across the road
network
• Improves traffic safety by separating traffic flows with different characteristics by
separating local traffic from through traffic
• Allows specific design parameters to be developed and applied to roads that are
within the same functional class
• Results in easier organization and management of the traffic infrastructure
• Can be designed to minimize the impact on sensitive development areas
The first step for the designer to consider is the function that the road will serve within
the surrounding context. Following this, the designer shall consider the LOS needed to
fulfill this function for the forecast traffic volumes.
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5.2 Definition of Urban and Rural Roads

Urban and rural areas have vastly different characteristics in terms of the density of
their road networks, the extent of their built-up areas, and the nature of their travel
patterns. The two types of roads are defined as follows:
• Urban roads lie adjacent to areas that contain, or are zoned to contain, built land
use development.
• Rural roads lie adjacent to areas that are predominantly natural, with little or no
adjacent built land use development.
5.3 Functional Classification in Urban Areas

Roads in the urban areas of Qatar are arranged into five main functional classifications,
with further sub-classifications as described below. Figure 5.1 illustrates how urban
roads relate to one another and serve built-up areas. Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.5 depict
each of the four main road categories.
Figure 5.1 Urban Road Network
5.3.1 Expressways
Expressways carry most of the trips entering and leaving an urban area. Traffic along
expressways moves at high speeds and over long distances. Within Qatar’s road
network, long distance is typically more than 5 km within urban areas and more than
10 km within rural areas. Freight traffic and intercity bus routes can travel along
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expressways. The through movement along an expressway is typically grade separated

from cross street movements.
Figure 5.2 Expressway with CD Roads
5.3.2 Arterials
Major arterials serve the major centers of activity in urban areas and, like expressways,
accommodate through traffic. Although they have high operating speeds, major
arterials typically intersect at grade with cross streets. Figure 5.3 provides an example
of a major arterial.
Minor arterials offer less mobility than major arterials and place more emphasis on
land access. Intersections along minor arterials are always at grade. Minor arterial
roads are also important for pedestrians and cyclists. Vehicle speeds and volumes are
higher on these roads than on local and collector roads and, therefore, special facilities
such as separate bike and pedestrian provisions should be provided to the extent
possible to improve the environment for nonmotorized road users.
Boulevards can also be classed as arterials but have a number of special features. They
are located in areas with a high level of retail or recreational frontage. They have wide
sidewalks to accommodate high levels of pedestrian activity. Traffic volumes along
boulevards may be similar to those along arterials, but travel speeds will be slower.
Boulevards have more frequent pedestrian crossings. Refer to a cross section of an
urban boulevard in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and additional information is
provided in Part 20, Context Sensitive Design and Solutions.
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Figure 5.3 Arterial
5.3.3 Collector-Distributor Roads

Collector-distributor roads are part of a controlled access facility such as an urban
expressway. They are designed to operate as freeway facilities. On-street parking and
direct access to adjacent land uses is therefore prohibited on collector-distributor
roads. They are provided between adjacent intersections or interchanges to reduce the
need for weaving traffic on the main through route.
5.3.4 Collector Roads

Major collectors distribute trips from arterials into nearby land uses, and also collect
traffic from local roads and feed them to the arterials. Equal emphasis is placed on
mobility and accessibility.
Minor collectors have slower travel speeds and less mobility than major collectors.
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Collector roads may also distribute traffic to and from public transport nodes such as
metro stations and bus stops. Figure 5.4 provides an example of a collector road.
Figure 5.4 Collector Road
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5.3.5 Local
Service roads provide direct access to adjacent land uses while also distributing traffic
on to higher-grade roads. They differ from local roads in that they run parallel to
collector-distributors or arterials. On-street parking on service roads is common.
Local roads provide access to adjacent land uses while also feeding collector roads.
Local roads have no formal access control. Through traffic is actively discouraged from
using local roads by traffic-calming measures.
Figure 5.5 Local Road
5.4 Functional Classification in Rural Areas

Roads in rural areas are classified into four functional categories. A description of each
is provided as follows.
• Rural freeways connect inter-urban centers. They have high speeds with grade-
separated interchanges and connect major land uses within a large region.
• Rural arterials connect major land uses within a smaller region. They have medium
to high traffic volumes.
• Rural collectors distribute traffic from arterials into local roads. Direct access from
collectors to adjacent land uses is possible.
• Local roads feed traffic from adjacent land uses and distribute it to collectors. For
example, many local rural roads in Qatar lead to farms and accommodation for farm
owners and workers.
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Figure 5.6 illustrates how rural roads relate to one another and serve rural areas.
Figure 5.6 Rural Road Network
5.5 Special Corridors

Other types of roadway that do not strictly fit into the categories described previously
are considered special corridors and have their own unique characteristics. Examples
of special corridors are described as follows.
• Pedestrian streets are closed to motorized traffic but require periodic access by
service and maintenance vehicles.
• Bike corridors could be either of the following:
− Bike paths are part of the road corridor’s right-of-way but are segregated from
the roadway by level or curbing.
− Bike paths are not associated with a road, but may be several meters (or
farther) from the nearest road carrying motorized traffic.
• Dedicated public transport corridors accommodate public transport modes only.

They are segregated from the roadway. Examples are bus rapid transit lanes and
rail lines.
• Other types of roads include roads providing access to critical infrastructure, Emiri
roads, roads within military sites, Sekkas, corridors, and roads for emergency
services.
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5.6 Temporary Roads

Temporary roads are normally requested by farmers and developers in rural areas to
provide access from their lands to the nearby road network. As their name suggests,
they are not intended to be permanent. It is common, however, for such roads to
remain in place and operate as originally constructed for many years.
The Overseeing Organization does not classify temporary roads in Qatar. Therefore,
The Overseeing Organization requires no formal planning process for developers to
introduce temporary roads. However, developers are encouraged to design and
construct such roads to an appropriate minimum standard associated with the
apparent or applicable functional classification of the road.
At some point, the temporary road may need to become part of the formal road
network as a permanent road. In that case, it is expected that the road will need to be
designed to QHDM standards. As noted, temporary road conversion projects shall be
treated as reconstruction projects, with the QHDM standards applying to the road at
the time.
The road works Overseeing Organization makes the initial consideration for road works
where the suitability of a temporary road application must be assessed. Regarding the
temporary road application, the planning Overseeing Organization will provide an
approval in principle to the developer to construct the temporary road, valid normally
for 10 years.
5.7 Application of Functional Classification in Design

5.7.1 Key Parameters
The functional class of a road will have a fundamental influence on its design. This
section provides guidance on the key parameters for each road class. Given the various
competing factors in any project, the designer may wish to seek approval from the
Overseeing Organization to modify some of the parameters or classifications.
Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 summarize the key functions, characteristics, and design
parameters of each road class. The designer should first refer to these tables to make
a preliminary identification of the functional class of the road. An explanation of the
column titles follows the two tables.
The data in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 should be viewed in the context of the design
standards and requirements identified in the relevant design parts of this QHDM. The
tables highlight the need for different parameters in different locations to meet specific
demands. The values provided are not absolute, they are for guidance only, and key
parameters such as traffic flows, posted speed, cross section, appropriate intersection
provision, and access control shall be in line with the relevant parts of this QHDM.
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Table 5.1 Key Characteristics of Urban Roads

Intersecting Posted Minimum
Permitted Roads Speed Right-of- LOS at
Through Land Use Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Range Way Width Parking Design
Route Frontage Function AADT Flowa Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m)b (kph)c (m)d Provision Year
Mainly free-flow traffic
connecting major land 8- to 10- Primary function
Not residential Grade-separated
Expressway uses across wide urban 50,000–80,000 lane divided is mobility. No 1,500 80/100 64–264 Prohibited C
or recreational interchange
area. Medium to high highway access.
traffic volumes.
Signalized or
priority right-in/
Commercial Connect urban districts. 4- to 8-lane Primary function
Major right-out
industrial Medium to high traffic 30,000–60,000 divided is mobility. 600e 50/80 50–64 Prohibited C
Arterial (exceptionally
preferred volumes. highway Limited access.
grade-separated
interchange)
Primary function
Commercial Connect urban districts. 4- to 8-lane Signalized or
Minor is mobility. Access
industrial Medium to low traffic 20,000-50,000 divided priority right-in/ 150 50/80 40–50 Restricted C
Arterial is secondary
preferred volumes. highway right-out
function.
Primary function Signalized,
Retail or 4- to 8-lane
Specialf arterial. Medium is access. Mobility roundabout, or
Boulevard commercial or 30,000–60,000 divided 300 50/80 64 Restricted D
to high traffic volumes. is secondary priority right-in/
recreational highway
function. right-out
Distribute traffic Primary function
Grade separated
Collector Not residential between expressway One is mobility. Access Not
5,000–50,000 and priority right- NA 50/80 Prohibited D
Distributor or recreational interchanges. Medium directional is secondary applicableg
in/ right-out
to low traffic. function.
Signalized,
Some
Industrial 20,000–50,000 roundabout, or 100 50 D
Collect traffic from restrictions
Mobility and priority
service roads and local 4- to 6-lane
Major Commercial 20,000–50,000 divided access given Signalized, 100 50 D
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roads and distribute to 32–40 Restricted
Collector equal roundabout,
Residential arterials. Medium to low 20,000–30,000 highway 100 50 Restricted D
importance. priority, or
traffic volumes.
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pedestrian
PAGE 41
Recreational 10,000–20,000 50 50 Restricted D

crossing
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Intersecting Posted Minimum
Permitted Roads Speed Right-of- LOS at
Through Land Use Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Range Way Width Parking Design
Route Frontage Function AADT Flowa Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m)b (kph)c (m)d Provision Year
Signalized,
Some
Industrial 5,000–20,000 4-lane roundabout, or 50 50 D
Collect traffic from Primary function priority restrictions
divided
service roads and local is access.
Minor highway or Signalized, 50 D
Commercial roads and distribute to 5,000–20,000 Mobility is 50 20–32 Restricted
Collector 2-lane roundabout,
arterials. Low traffic secondary
Residential 5,000–20,000 undivided priority, or 50 50 Restricted D
volumes. function.
highway pedestrian
Recreational 5,000–10,000 50 50 Restricted D
crossing
Primary function
Provide access to
2-lane is access. Signalized, Permitted
adjacent land. Distribute Not
Service Road Any <5,000 undivided Mobility is roundabout, or 50 50 with D
traffic to collectors and applicableg
highway secondary priority conditions
boulevards.
function.
2-lane Primary function Permitted
Industrial undivided is access. Minor As required 50 with D
highway mobility conditions
function.
2-lane Through traffic is Signalized,
Commercial undivided As required 30/50h D
discouraged with roundabout,
Provide access to highway traffic-calming. priority, or
Local Road <5,000 24
adjacent land. 2-lane pedestrian
Residential undivided crossing As required 30/50h D
highway
2-lane Minimal mobility
Recreational undivided and access As required 30/50h Restricted D
highway functions.
Notes:
a
Indicative values, neither minimums nor maximums.
b
Taken from intersecting road centerlines.
c
Expected posted speed values quoted, other posted speeds may be appropriate and should be agreed upon with the Overseeing Organization before use.
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d
New roads minimum 24 meters.
e
One access to development between intersecting roads permitted at mid-point.
f
Adjacent to high-quality development where lower vehicle speeds and greater integration of nonmotorized users is required or demanded.
g
Collector-distributor and service roads are included within the right-of-way of other road types.
h
An exception would be 30 kph with traffic calming, signage, and markings where categorized as “urban streets.” For example, in the vicinity of schools.
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Table 5.2 Key Characteristics of Rural Roads

Intersecting Right-of-
Permitted Roads, Posted Way Minimum
AADT Roadway Mobility vs. Intersection Minimum Speed Range Width Parking LOS for
Through Route Function Flow Type Accessibility Types Spacing (m) (kph) (m) Provision Design Year
Connect regions and major > 8,000 6-lane Maximum Grade-separated 3,000 100/120 64–264 Prohibited B
cities on national and divided mobility. No interchange
international scale. Free- highway, or accessa.
Rural Freeway
flowing traffic. Capable of more
accommodating high traffic
volumes.
Connect major land uses 2,000– 4-or 6-lane Mobility is Grade-separated 1,000 80/100 64 Prohibited C
within a smaller region. 8,000 divided primary function. interchange,
Rural Arterial Medium to high traffic highway Limited access roundabout, or
volumes. possible. priority right-
in/right-out
Collect and distribute traffic 1,000– 4-lane Equal mobility Roundabout, 500 50/80 24–40 Permissible D
to adjacent rural land uses. 2,000 divided and access priority right in/ with
Rural Collector Medium traffic volumes. highway functions. right out, or conditions
pedestrian
crossing
Provide access to adjacent < 1,000 2-lane Primary function Roundabout, As required 50 20 or less Permissible D
rural property and land. undivided is access. priority, or with
Rural Local Road highway Mobility is pedestrian conditions
secondary crossing
function.
Notes:
a
Conditional access to petrol stations and rest areas permitted.
AADT = annual average daily traffic
LOS = level of service
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5.7.1.1 Land Use Frontage (Urban Roads Only)

The level of access and on-street parking required from a road depends on the land
uses adjacent to the road. This parameter refers to the four land use categories
appropriately adjacent to each road class:
• Industrial: Includes activities associated with manufacturing, storage

(warehouses), logistics, and military facilities.
• Commercial: Includes offices, shopping malls, retail outlets, strip malls, restaurants,
banks, hotels, and business districts such as West Bay.
• Residential: Includes villas, townhouses, and apartments. Buildings that comprise
apartments but have significant retail facilities on the ground floor should be
regarded as commercial.
• Recreational: Includes sports facilities (for example, leisure centers, gymnasiums,
and stadiums), open spaces, and public parks.
Many buildings do not fit exclusively into a single category. For example, some
residential buildings have commercial facilities on the ground floor. In such cases, the
designer should exercise careful judgment as to the requirements for access, parking,
and mobility on the adjacent road.
5.7.1.2 Function
This column provides a general description of the function of each road class.
5.7.1.3 Annual Average Daily Traffic Flow

This refers to the annual average daily traffic (AADT) flow that each road is designed to
accommodate by the design year. All roads shall consider traffic for a 20-year design
period.
5.7.1.4 Mobility Versus Accessibility

This designation refers to the extent of mobility or access that a road class provides.
Fundamentally, roads have two main purposes:
• To provide mobility for through traffic, which concerns traffic that has no direct
business in or relationship with the land uses it is passing through.
• To enable access to land uses adjacent to the roads, which concerns traffic with
direct business in or having a direct relationship with the area it passes through.
These two purposes tend to conflict and need to be balanced against one another for
any particular road during the design process, especially when undertaking
rehabilitation and improvements. A road that places emphasis on mobility will have
limited accessibility. Thus, access on to freeways, expressways, and arterials shall be
controlled so as not to impede their primary purpose of serving through traffic.
Conversely, the primary purpose of local streets is to provide access, and this limits
their ability to offer mobility. Collectors offer an approximately balanced mobility and
accessibility function. Figure 5.7 depicts the balance between mobility and access.
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Source: TMPQ Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar, 2009.

Figure 5.7 Illustration of a Road’s Mobility Versus Access Functions
5.7.1.5 Permitted Intersection Types

This refers to the types of intersections that are permitted along each road class. The
most appropriate type and layout will be dependent on the site and the nature of
intersecting flows.
5.7.1.6 Minimum Intersection Spacing

Intersections enhance accessibility, but they also interrupt the flow of traffic. This
criterion refers to the minimum distance that should exist between intersections on
each road class, measured between the respective intersecting centerlines.
5.7.1.7 Posted Speed

This is the posted speed limit for each category of road. While posted speeds may vary
for vehicle types, the speeds identified in the tables relate to light vehicles and,
therefore, the highest posted speed on that road classification. Depending on local
conditions, the designer may propose a speed limit within the range that is lower than
the preferred speed; for example, in areas of frontage or high pedestrian activity. Refer
to Section 9 for more information on posted speed.
5.7.1.8 Right-of-Way Width

This is the width in meters of the area of land in which the route is accommodated. It
is based on typical design dimensions, conditions and terrain. Right-of-way for public
roads is government owned. Further details on cross-sectional elements are provided
in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements.
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5.7.1.9 Parking Provisions

The extent to which parking and loading provision is permissible on each of the road
classes is presented in this column. Three cases are considered:
• Prohibited: No parking or loading provision is allowed directly adjacent to the road.

It is applicable to freeways, expressways, and major arterials.
• Restricted: Parking is restricted to areas where it is safe and practicable. Parking
areas shall be clearly defined and strictly enforced.
• Permitted with Conditions: Parking is permitted alongside the road, although time-
of-day or location-specific restrictions may be implemented to eliminate potential
operational problems.
Refer to Tables 5.1 and 5.2 for parking provision.
5.7.1.10 Minimum Level of Service for Design Year

This is the minimum LOS at which the road should operate. The LOS describes the travel
experience in terms of operating speed, delays, the ability to safely overtake vehicles,
traffic congestion, overall safety, and driver and passenger comfort.
5.7.2 Network Connections

Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 show which road classes interconnect with one another within
the urban and rural contexts, respectively. On each table, the horizontal rows, labeled
“Through Route,” are the main route that vehicles take to access or egress an area. The
vertical columns, labeled as the connecting route, indicate the type of roads that can
connect to the through route. The through route is higher in the hierarchy than the
roads that connect with it.
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Table 5.3 Network Connections for Urban Roads

Connecting Route
Major Minor Collector Service
Expressway Arterial Arterial Boulevard Distributor Major Collector Minor Collector Road Local Roads
Commercial/
Commercial/
Commercial/
Recreational
Recreational
Recreational
Recreational
Recreational
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Residential
Residential
Residential
Residential
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Preferred
Preferred
Retail/
Any
Any
Not
or
Through
Route Land Use Frontage
Not Residential or
Expressway
Recreational   o o  X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Major Commercial/Industrial         o o o o o  X X X X
Arterial Preferred
Minor Commercial/Industrial o    o          X X X X
Arterial Preferred
Boulevard
Commercial/ o    o             
Recreational
Collector
Distributor
Any   o o  o o o o o o o o X X X X X
            
PAGE 47
Industrial X o o
Major Commercial X    o     o     X 
Collector Recreational X    o     o     X 
Residential X  o  o o    o     X 
Industrial X   o o  o o o       
Minor Commercial X   o o          X 
Collector Recreational X  o  o          X o 
Residential X  o o          X o o 
Service Road Any X    X          o o o o
Industrial X X X X  X X X  X X X o 
Commercial X X X X       o o o 
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Local Roads
Recreational X X X X        o o 
Residential X X X X         o 
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KEY:  Recommended o Permitted, but not recommended X Not recommended
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Table 5.4 Network Connections for Rural Roads
Connecting Route
Through Route Rural Freeway Rural Arterial Rural Collector Rural Local Road
Rural Freeway   X X
Rural Arterial X   o
Rural Collector X X  
Rural Local Road X X X 
KEY:  Recommended o Permitted, but not recommended X Not recommended
The network connection, the LOS, and the functional classification are some of the
available planning tools to assist the Overseeing Organization when planning to control
connections from and to new developments and new roads that are recommended for
construction on the road network system.
The designer should identify the through route as the road that has the higher
functional class. Once the through route is identified, the designer should move
horizontally across the table to ascertain the road classes that are allowed to connect
to it.
For example, if the through route is a major arterial, the designer can check what other
road classes are recommended to connect to it by selecting the major arterial row from
the through routes and traversing along this row. The recommended connecting route
classifications are identified with checkmarks () in this case, other major arterials and
some road classes lower than it in the hierarchy are recommended to connect to it. The
converse is also the case. In considering routes for which a particular classification is
recommended, the designer can select a route from the connecting route columns and
read down the column to identify the recommended connecting routes.
Providing a connection between two roads with incompatible functions can lead to
conflict and congestion. The following are two examples of inappropriate practice:
• Several residential compounds alongside a major arterial seek their own direct
access on to the arterial. In this case, the traffic from the residential compounds
should be combined on to a service road that then connects to the major arterial
at a single point.
• In the case of access to a car park directly from a relatively high-speed arterial road,
an intermediate collector road is recommended to serve as a transition between
the arterial and the car park.
Figure 5.8 through Figure 5.10 provide further information on the appropriate grade-
separated interchange types through which the different road classes can connect.
Refer to Interchanges for the cloverleaf intersection designs for further information in
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway Corridors.
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5.7.2.1 Urban Expressway to Urban Expressway Connection

All movements, both through and turning between two expressways, should be free
flowing, unstopped.
5.7.2.2 Rural Freeway to Rural Freeway Connection

Through movements and all turning movements, such as a cloverleaf intersection, are
free flow (Figure 5.8).
Source: Salwa Road, Google Earth Pro, 2014.

Figure 5.8 Freeway to Freeway Connection
5.7.2.3 Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection

The through movement on the expressway is free flow. Both the through and turning
movements on the arterial are signalized, as shown in (Figure 5.9).
Source: D-Ring Road and Haloul Street Intersection, Google Earth Pro, 2014.
Figure 5.9 Expressway to Urban Arterial Connection
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5.7.2.4 Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection

The through movement on the freeway is free flow, but the movement to the freeway
to the arterial is by a signalized intersection or a roundabout (Figure 5.10).
Source: Dukhan Umm Bab Highway, Google Earth Pro, 2014.

Figure 5.10 Rural Freeway to Rural Arterial Connection
5.7.3 Transport Provisions for Non-car Users

Table 5.5 and Table 5.6 show the provisions or prohibitions for non-car and multimodal
users.
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Table 5.5 Transport Provisions for Multimodal Users on Urban Roads

Through Road-Based Public Light Rail-Based Public
Land Use Frontage Pedestrians Cyclists (bike lane and path) Heavy Trucks
Route Transport Services Transport
Not residential or Segregated sidewalks Segregated bike paths Express services only Light rail (segregated from No restrictions
Expressway recreational road)
Major Commercial/ Segregated sidewalks Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (segregated from Some restrictions
Arterial industrial preferred lane where required) road)
Minor Commercial/ Segregated sidewalks Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Restricted
Arterial industrial preferred lane where required) lane where required)
Commercial/ Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Restricted
Boulevard
recreational of road and sitting areas lane where required) lane where required)
Collector Any Segregated sidewalks Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority None Some restrictions
Distributor lane where required)
Industrial Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority No restrictions
of road lane where required) lane where required)
Commercial Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Some restrictions
Major of road lane where required) lane where required)
Collector Residential Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
Recreational Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Prohibited
(segregated from road) lane where required) lane where required)
Industrial Sidewalks on both sides Segregated bike paths or shared road use Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Some restrictions
Commercial Sidewalks on both sides Partial integration within roadway Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
Minor of road lane where required) lane where required)
Collector Residential Sidewalks on both sides Partial integration within roadway Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Local access only
Recreational Sidewalks on both sides Partial integration within roadway Local services (with priority Light rail (shared with priority Prohibited
(segregated from road) (separate bike path or shared road use) lane where required) lane where required)
Service Any Segregated sidewalks Segregated bike paths Local services None Some restrictions
Road
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Industrial Sidewalks on both sides Cyclists may use roadway Local services Not recommended Some restrictions
of road
Commercial Local access only
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Local Roads
Residential Local access only
Recreational Prohibited
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Table 5.6 Transport Provision for Non-car Users on Rural Roads
Transport Provision
Road-Based Public Transport Light Rail-Based Public
Through Route Pedestrians Cyclists Services Transport Heavy Trucks
Segregated sidewalks where Segregated bike paths where Express services only. Light rail (segregated from No restrictions.
Rural Freeway
required. required. road).
Segregated sidewalks where Segregated bike paths. Local services (with priority lane Light rail (shared with priority Some restrictions.
Rural Arterial
required. where required). lane where required).
Sidewalks where required. Segregated bike paths. Local services (with priority lane Not recommended. Local access only.
Rural Collector
where required).
Rural Local Road Sidewalks where required. Cyclists may use roadway. Generally not provided. Not recommended. Access only.
Note: Details of at-grade pedestrian crossing, bike paths, and bus stop facilities are provided in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation.
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6 Design Vehicles
6.1 Introduction
The primary function of a roadway is to allow the safe and efficient passage of motor
vehicles for the transportation of goods and people. Highway designers therefore need
to understand the types and physical characteristics of vehicles currently in use, or
likely to be used in the future, as well as the vehicles legally permitted to be driven on
the public highway system under normal circumstances.
6.2 Vehicle Weights and Dimensions

State of Qatar “Law No. (19) of 2007 Regarding the Traffic Law,” Article 86, places limits
on the size and weight of vehicles that can be legally driven on the public highway in
Qatar. Table 6.1 summarizes the main restrictions.
Table 6.1 Maximum Vehicle Weights and Dimensions

Parameter Maximum Value
Maximum length of a motor vehicle Not defined
Maximum height of a motor vehicle 4.2 m a
Maximum width of a motor vehicle 2.6 m a
Maximum authorized weight on a single axle 13,000 kg b
Maximum gross vehicle weight (GVW) 45,000 kg c
Source: Traffic Law No (19), Ministry of Interior, Government of Qatar (2007).
Notes:
a Includes the load or any items protruding from the vehicle.
b In addition, the gross weight on a single axle shall not exceed the weight limit set by manufacturer.
c In addition, the gross vehicle weight shall not exceed the weight limit set by the manufacturer.
When the values in Table 6.1 need to be exceeded, such as when transporting abnormal
indivisible loads, special authorization in writing is required from the Overseeing
Organization for licensing before such a vehicle is driven on the public highway.
6.2.1 Abnormal Loads and High Load Routes

When transporting abnormal loads that exceed the maximum height requirements in
Table 6.2, truck operators will be required by the Overseeing Organization to use the
designated high load routes. On these routes, the highway designer should comply with
the vertical clearance requirements for high load routes as discussed in Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements.
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6.3 Typical Design Vehicles

6.3.1 Definitions and Principles
Design vehicles are the vehicles used in highway design to determine if the resulting
facility will be fit for its intended purpose. They enable the designer to allow for
sufficient space within the highway cross section, both horizontally and vertically. They
are also used to determine that the various structural elements of highways can
adequately support the predicted vehicle loading likely to occur throughout the
intended or specified design life for the part being considered. Design vehicles are used
in assessing the crash performance criteria of highway safety products such as
guardrails, safety barriers, and bridge rails.
Design vehicles are defined by their vehicle specification parameters. Manufacturers’

vehicle specifications can be used to guide the definition of a design vehicle.
6.3.2 Design Vehicles

Table 6.2 lists the design vehicles for use in the State of Qatar and includes vehicles
currently in use or likely to be used in the near future. These vehicles can be
summarized as follows:
• Passenger Cars (P): The design vehicle is an AASHTO passenger car.

• Buses and Coaches: The main design vehicle for buses is the AASHTO 12.19 m long
city transit bus (city bus). This vehicle should be used as the design vehicle on all
existing and planned future bus routes. In terms of length, the longest bus is the
AASHTO 18.29 m articulated bus (A-Bus).
• Rigid Trucks: The typical design vehicles for rigid trucks are the AASHTO 9.14 m
long, 2-axle, single unit truck (SU-9) and the AASHTO 12.04 m long, 3-axle, single
unit truck (SU-12).
• Tractor-Semitrailer Combinations: The typical design vehicles in this category are
the AASHTO WB-12 and WB-15 intermediate semitrailers, which are both
representative of the articulated trucks used in Qatar. Also included in this category
is the AASHTO WB-20 interstate semitrailer as a vehicle that may be used in the
future.
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Table 6.2 Typical Design Vehicles

Vehicle Min. Turning
Description Length Width Height Radius
(AASHTO) Schematic (m) (m) (m) (m)
Passenger 7.26
5.79 2.13 1.30
Car (P)
City Transit
Bus (City 12.19 2.59 3.20 12.80
Bus)
Articulated 12.00
18.29 2.59 3.35
Bus (A-Bus)
3.35
Single Unit 12.73
9.14 2.44 to
Truck (SU-9) 4.11
Single Unit 3.35

Truck 12.04 2.44 to 15.60
(SU-12) 4.11
Intermediate
Semitrailer 13.87 2.44 4.11 12.16
(WB-12)
Intermediate
Semitrailer 16.77 2.60 4.11 12.16
(WB-15)
Interstate
Semitrailer 22.40 2.59 4.11 13.66
(WB-20)
Source: AASHTO (2011)
6.3.3 Swept Path Analysis

Design vehicles are often used to carry out swept path analysis on highway layouts,
particularly at ramps and turning roadways, where lanes may need to be widened to
adequately accommodate a vehicle negotiating the curve. At intersections, swept path
analysis can be carried out to verify that adequate clearance is provided at pinch points,
such as between channelizing islands.
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Swept path analysis of intersections can determine if adequate clearance is provided

between vehicles bodies and adjacent road signs, lighting column and other street
furniture. The main vehicle parameters used in the swept path analysis are as follows:
• Articulation Angle: The maximum angle between a vehicle and a connected trailer
when the vehicle is making a U-turn on maximum steering lock. Refer to Figure 6.1
for more details.
• Centerline Turning Radius (CTR): The turning arc formed by the turning radius of
the front outside tire of a vehicle.
• Curb-to-curb Turning Radius: The circular arc formed by the turning path radius of
the front outside tire of a vehicle.
• Offtracking: The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle
when performing a turning maneuver. Offtracking can be minimized by vehicles
that incorporate steerable wheels on multiple axles.
• Steering Angle: The angle between the centerline turning radius and the
longitudinal centerline of a vehicle when the vehicle steering is set to maximum
lock position.
• Swept Path Width: The minimum width of roadway space required by a vehicle
when making a U-turn on maximum steering lock.
Figure 6.1 shows the swept path parameters for a typical tractor semitractor
combination. Swept path analysis is normally carried out using commercially available
software. Minimum roadway radii are often determined by the larger rigid vehicles,
whereas minimum roadway widths and lane widths are often established by the larger
articulated vehicles.
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Figure 6.1 Swept Path Parameters for Typical Tractor-Semitrailer Combination
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7 Driver Performance and

Human Factors
7.1 Introduction
According to A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011):
An appreciation of driver performance is essential to proper highway design and

operation. The suitability of a design rests as much on how safely and efficiently
drivers are able to use the highway as on any other criterion. When drivers use a
highway designed to be compatible with their capabilities and limitations, their
performance is aided. When a design is incompatible with the capabilities of
drivers, the chance for driver errors increases and crashes or inefficient operation
may result.
Humans as drivers respond to the road and environment as it is presented to them.

Their response in terms of speed, acceleration, and reaction to other drivers and events
in large part determines the overall safety of their trip. Driver characteristics are
fundamental inputs to road design criteria and best practices. This chapter provides an
overview of such characteristics.
In addition, under Section 7.7 Driver Error, reference is made to the QNRSS, which has
adopted the Safe System approach.
7.2 Qatar Driver Characteristics

Driving licenses and privileges are restricted in Qatar to only certain individuals.
Individuals need to pass an eye test and a driving test to obtain a license. The driving
population is relatively young compared with that of many other nations. A special
problem faced by other nations is the shift in demographics, resulting in a growing
number of older drivers who do not possess mental and physical acuity of younger
drivers. Unique aspects of the driving population that influence road design include the
following:
• A large proportion of drivers in Qatar come from other countries, and thus have
different attitudes and views about good or safe driving practices. In addition, they
are unfamiliar with driving in Qatar.
• A large number of drivers are transient, as opposed to permanent citizens or
residents. Thus, at any given time the road system will have a large number of
drivers who are unfamiliar with the road system.
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• The driving population is multi-lingual. This requires traffic sign messages to be in

both Arabic and English. The location, design and messaging of traffic signs is
heavily influenced by the roadway’s design. Multilingual signing presents the same
challenges that drivers encounter in many other countries.
• Policies regarding access control, prohibition of crossing and left turns at

unsignalized locations, and preference for T-intersections versus crossroads all
reflect a sensitivity to restricting or eliminating high-risk driver behaviors.
7.3 The Task of Driving

A necessary and fundamental assumption in road design is that drivers have sufficient
human capabilities and knowledge of laws and regulations to be able to operate on the
public road system without endangering themselves or others. Qatar, like other
countries, licenses drivers who must demonstrate their visual and car-handling abilities
in order to obtain a license.
Road design, i.e., the basic models and assumptions used to determine design
dimensions, is based on the assumption that the licensed operator is capable and
qualified, alert, attentive, and not impaired by drugs or other substances.
The driving task, in order of increasing complexity, involves control, guidance, and
navigation. A fundamental objective of road design and operation is to recognize the
complexity of the driving task and to avoid overloading the driver with information.
Speed control and steering represent the basic control functions. Drivers respond both
visually and by feel to the roadway environment, which includes alignment in three
dimensions and intersections. Drivers also respond to traffic around them, which,
combined with their response to the roadway, represents the guidance task. The most
complex task is navigation.
Driving tasks take time. Because they occur while the vehicle is in motion, time
translates to distance. Basic design principles and design values are derived based on
the times required at the design speed for most drivers to perform such tasks.
The driving task becomes more complex in difficult environmental conditions, such as,
at night, or in situations unfamiliar to the driver. In other situations, such as a long and
straight stretch of a rural road, the driving task may be so undemanding that drivers
can become inattentive.
Drivers will make errors. They may misjudge speed or a gap for merging, become
inattentive or distracted, oversteer or understeer an alignment, or make a wrong turn.
Much of road design attempts to mitigate the potential adverse effects of driver error.
For example, the concept of designing a forgiving roadside is based on the expectation
that drivers will run off the road, erring in the basic driving task. Other practices related
to spacing of ramps and intersections, and arrangement and messages of signs, all serve
to reduce the potential for information overload, which can lead to driver error.
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7.4 Vehicle Guidance

Highway design and traffic operations have a significant effect on the task of vehicle
guidance. Vehicle guidance includes road following, car following, merging, gap
acceptance, and passing.
7.4.1 Road Following

Road following involves positioning the vehicle in the lane and following the alignment of
the road. Drivers perform this task using visual cues and by feel. The three-dimensional
alignment design controls are influenced by the need or desire to provide a clear view of
the upcoming alignment for the driver at the assumed eye location used for design. As
drivers traverse horizontal curves, they feel the lateral acceleration created by tracking
the curve at a speed. The fundamentals of curve design are based on delivering a level of
comfort with respect to lateral acceleration for the design speed of the road. The widths
of roads and lanes are based in part on providing a sufficient width for drivers to
comfortably drive adjacent to other vehicles while maintaining speed.
7.4.2 Car Following

Driving requires the following of other vehicles, and therefore, reacting to the behavior
of the vehicle ahead. Drivers react to the vehicle in front of them, adjusting their speed
to maintain a comfortable distance. The capacity of a roadway is a function of the
density of traffic that travels at a constant speed. Alignment and cross section both
contribute to the feel and response of each driver, with the aggregate responses
representing the capacity of the road.
7.4.3 Passing Maneuvers

The driver’s decision to initiate and complete a passing or overtaking maneuver has
greater complexity than the decisions involved in road or car following. Overtaking
maneuvers include adaptations in road following and car following activities, and
judgments of speed, acceleration, and gap availability.
7.4.4 Gap Acceptance, Merging, and Other Guidance Activities

Merging and diverging, gap acceptance, lane changing, avoidance of pedestrians, and
response to traffic control devices are other guidance activities that involve complex
decisions and judgments by drivers.
7.5 Information System

The entire roadway environment presents an information system to the driver. This
system is a combination of control devices, such as signals, traffic signs, and road
markings, and other roadside features that form the road environment, such as tree
lines, curbing, and pedestrian facilities.
7.5.1 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices provide guidance and navigation information. They include
regulatory, warning, and directional signs, and other route guidance information.
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Other traffic control devices, such as markings and delineation, display information that
augments particular roadway or environmental features. These devices help drivers
perceive information that might otherwise be overlooked or difficult to recognize.
Information on the appropriate use of traffic control devices is presented in the Qatar
Traffic Control Manual.
7.5.2 Road Environment

Drivers need to see the road directly in front of their vehicles and far enough in advance
to perceive the alignment, profile, and other related aspects of the road. The view of
the road includes the environment immediately adjacent to the roadway. The presence
or absence of shoulders and placement of roadside elements and features can
influence driving behavior. Such elements include sign supports, bridge piers,
abutments, guardrail, and median barriers.
7.6 Information Handling

During the driving task, drivers perform several functions simultaneously. Different
sources of information, such as billboards, commercial properties with signs, and the
landscape, compete for drivers’ attention. Information a driver needs should be in the
driver’s field of view, when needed, available in a usable form, and capable of capturing
the driver’s attention.
7.6.1 Reaction Time

The time for a driver to react to a situation is influenced by the complexity of the event
creating the need to react and whether the event or situation was expected. Human
factors research has documented average reaction times of 0.6 second for events that
are expected, with some small proportion of drivers requiring as much as 2 seconds to
react. With unexpected events, reaction times increase by 35 percent. Thus, for a
simple, unexpected decision and action, some drivers may take as long as 2.7 seconds
to react. Longer reaction and response times are typical of older drivers and drivers
operating in difficult environmental conditions.
Complex situations will occur at key locations such as intersections. In the urban
environment, design standards developed in consideration of these complexities
include lower design speeds and enhanced visibility requirements near intersections.
7.6.2 Primacy
The term primacy refers to the prioritization of the competing information presented
to the driver. Driver control and guidance are very important and have primacy over
information relating to navigation. The consequences of driver error associated with
control and guidance are more severe than of an error in navigation. A road’s design
and traffic control should focus the driver’s attention on the high-priority information
sources that provide control and guidance information.
7.6.3 Expectancy
Expectancy refers to what drivers anticipate or expect to see or encounter as they drive.
Driver expectancy is formed by experience and reinforced by common approaches to
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design and traffic control. Situations that generally occur in the same way, and
successful responses to those situations, become part of each driver’s store of
knowledge.
Many design practices serve to meet or reinforce driver expectancy and to eliminate
unexpected situations. Drivers traveling along a steep rural highway with no
intersections or driveways expect more of the same when the road comes back into
view after cresting a vertical curve. There is the potential for a driving error if driver
expectancy is violated by the appearance, just over the crest curve, of an intersection,
the beginning of sharp curve, or some other unusual feature requiring a guidance or
navigational response. The concept of decision sight distance, discussed in Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, specifically deals with situations that may be unexpected.
Research demonstrates that design practices that violate expectancy, such as left-hand
exits from freeways, result in greater crash frequencies than those that meet driver
expectancy. Experienced professionals, e.g., designers, traffic engineers and safety
auditors, are able to identify conditions that violate expectancy. When a constraint
prohibits this, measures such as enhanced warning signs or devices may be necessary
to partially compensate for the unexpected condition. The following conditions
typically violate driver expectancy:
• Left-hand freeway exits versus right-hand freeway exits

• Lane drops or “traps” at exits, versus the exit providing the choice to exit or to
proceed as a through vehicle
• A through lane becoming a right-turn only lane at an intersection approach
• At a diverge or major fork such as occurs at a Y-type interchange, having the road
that splits to the right actually go the left, and the road to the left go to the right
• A ramp exit to a crossroad located beyond the crossroad
• A half interchange that does not allow drivers to reenter a freeway at the location
at which they exited
• An intersection or driveway hidden by a horizontal or vertical sight restriction
As noted, Qatar has a greater than typical proportion of drivers who may be relatively
unfamiliar with the road network. Their expectancies are formed by driving in their
home countries. Qatar’s road design and traffic control practices are thus created to be
consistent with international best road design and traffic control practices that are
recognizable to most drivers.
7.7 Driver Error

Driver error can result from deficiencies in the ability of the driver. These may stem
from lack of experience; younger drivers tend to be over-represented in crashes for this
reason. Complex maneuvers such as merging and weaving on a high volume freeway,
passing, or driving through a sharp curve may be prone to misjudgments and errors.
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Ability to react to situations may also be affected by a driver’s psychological state, such
as fatigue or distraction, or the influence of drugs or other substances. Tired drivers on
long-distance trips are also over-represented in crashes.
The tendency for driver error can be addressed in part through the licensing process
and driver training, through public education efforts on distracted driving and other
high-risk behaviors and on use of seat belts, and through traffic laws and their
enforcement. Nevertheless, driver error always will occur, so a primary design concern
is to design the road in a manner that an error does not necessarily translate into a
crash. In some cases designers need to contain crashes to reduce severity; for example
installing crash barriers. The importance of influencing safe driving behavior is central
to the principles of safety system planning.
How the road is designed and operated can influence the propensity for driver effort.
Drivers often make errors when confronted with difficult, stressful, or complex
situations. Situation errors may arise from overloading the driver with information,
leading to stressful and complex driving conditions. These are most likely to occur in
high volume traffic conditions such as on urban arterials or expressways.
Conversely, the opposite situation can lead to errors. In low-trafficked areas, drivers
may lose their concentration and vigilance, and be less capable of reacting to an
unexpected event. Long sections of flat, straight roadway should be avoided by using
flat, curving alignment that follows the natural contours of the terrain whenever
practical. Rest areas spaced at reasonable intervals are also beneficial.
The QNRSS has adopted the Safe System approach. In a Safe System, the road transport
system is designed to anticipate and accommodate human error, protect the
vulnerable human body, and make the forces to which the body is exposed in a crash
survivable. All factors relating to the safe system elements are described in Part 23,
Design and Operations for Road Safety.
7.8 Speed and Design

Road design, context, and environment communicate appropriate speed behavior to
drivers. Most drivers will seek to travel as fast as they will feel comfortable. Road design
practices can encourage high-speed behavior or communicate the need for lower
speeds. Research on driver behavior and speed demonstrates the following:
• Horizontal curvature influences speed response through transmission of lateral

acceleration to the driver.
• Drivers generally do not reduce speeds based on vertical geometry except in the
extreme (very steep grades and very short vertical curves). Terrain that creates
extreme vertical alignment does not exist in Qatar.
• Drivers respond to lane or road width, but the amount of speed reduction
associated with lanes narrower than 3.65 m is marginal, on the order of 5 to 10 kph
at most.
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• Drivers respond only minimally to landscaping, trees, or other roadside features in

changing their speed behavior. Drivers respond mainly to the activities and
movement on the road and at intersections.
• Speed behavior on urban arterials and streets is primarily controlled by the
operation of traffic signal controls along the street, particularly in environments
such as Qatar that have few alignment controls
• Speeds of 130 kph represent the maximum at which most drivers feel comfortable
traveling, regardless of the alignment or traffic or the type of car they drive.
• Enforcement can influence speed behavior, but only if it is continual and visible to
the driving public. Law enforcement campaigns to combat speeding can initially
work to lower speeds, but unless the enforcement continues over time, speeds
return to their pre-enforcement levels.
Although most road design practices and design criteria support higher speeds, there
are clearly situations in which lower speeds are desirable for public safety. For local
roads serving access, boulevards, and other facilities in which pedestrian and bicycle
traffic is substantial, the primary design concern is minimizing the risk of motor
vehicle/pedestrian and bicycle crashes, and minimizing the severity of conflicts with
such vulnerable road users. Figure 7.1 shows that the severity of such crashes increases
substantially with speed.
Source: Wramborg, 2005
Figure 7.1 Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds
Road design in areas with pedestrians should promote lower speeds. The application
of traffic calming features (see Chapter 4 in Part 23,Design and Operation of Road
Safety), stop control rather than yield at priority intersections, minimum radius curb
returns to promote low speed turning, and sufficient pedestrian crossing times
allocated to signalized intersections are all potential tools to promote lower speeds.
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Boulevard corridors with frequent signalized intersections can have the timing of the
signals set for lower traffic speeds, such as 40 to 50 kph.
Management of speed on a road network is a core activity to create a safe road

environment.
The setting and signing of posted speeds and the location and signing of speed radars
are just two elements that ordinarily would be included in a comprehensive speed
management strategy.
Posted speeds need to be understandable, safe, and enforceable for all users. To
determine an appropriate posted speed for any new or existing road, each
characteristic of the road must be compared against an idealized set of characteristics
for that road type.
To review and assess appropriate posted speeds, the Safe System approach is adopted.
This is an approach adopted by some countries that are leading the way in road safety
performance. Within the Safe System, the forces experienced by road users in the event
of a crash are managed so that crashes become survivable. Part 23, Design and
Operation for Road Safety, contains information on the Safe System approach,
including crash types and indicative fatality risk speeds.
7.9 Design Assessment

The view of the road is very important, especially to the unfamiliar driver. In completing
an alignment, the designer should consider how the road will fit into the landscape,
how it should be signed, and the extent to which the information system will
complement and augment the proposed design.
Locations with potential for information overload should be identified and corrected.
The adequacy of the sight lines and sight distances should be assessed, and determined
whether unusual vehicle maneuvers are needed and whether likely driver expectancies
may be violated.
Properly designed roads that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a high
level of efficiency and with relatively few crashes; therefore, designers should seek to
incorporate these principles in highway design.
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8 Traffic Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
The volume of traffic and its characteristics are major determinants in highway design.
It is important for the designer to have reliable estimates or forecasts of future traffic
volumes 15 to 20 years after the opening year of a transportation project. This section
discusses the issues associated with the volume and characteristics of traffic.
8.2 Traffic Volume

8.2.1 Annual Average Daily Traffic
The most basic measure of the traffic demand for a highway is the Annual Average Daily
Traffic volume (AADT). The AADT is defined as the total volume of traffic during one
year divided by 365 days. The AADT is a basic measure of the road’s traffic demand.
The actual traffic volume that may occur on any given day can vary significantly from
the AADT. Volume varies by day of the week, typically in response to home-to-work
trip-making that may occur in 5 or 6 days of the week. Traffic may also vary by season
or month depending on major holidays, vacation periods, or other common events.
Even during a typical work week the traffic volume on a road may vary from, say,
Sunday through Thursday.
Traffic planners develop estimates of AADT volume by conducting traffic counts.

Historic records of daily, weekly and monthly variations are used to adjust a count
performed in any given time period. Procedures for conducting traffic counts and
making the necessary adjustments are contained in Chapter 5 of the Guidelines and
Procedures for Traffic Studies (MMUP, 2011).
A road’s current AADT or its forecast AADT is an important factor in assessing the need
to increase a highway facility’s capacity or design its cross-sectional elements. However,
traffic typically will vary considerably when measured for an entire 24-hour day. A road’s
AADT is thus typically not sufficient to determine its design characteristics.
8.2.2 Design Hour Traffic

The flow of traffic through a road segment or intersection during a 1-hour period is the
basis for characterizing its quality of flow, and for designing the basic features of the
road. Roadway facilities are sized with reference to design hour volume (DHV).
8.2.2.1 Determining Design Hour Volume

As noted, the traffic pattern as measured by hourly volume on any highway varies
considerably throughout the year. For example, the single highest hourly volume
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throughout an entire year for a given road segment may be as much as three or even
four times the average hourly volume over a year. Designing for this very highest hour
of the year is impractical and wasteful. Selection of some critical value for the design
basis is typically done.
The pattern of variations in hourly volume differs by road type and location. In rural
areas a common design basis is either the 30th or 50th highest hourly volume of the year,
referred to as 30 HV or 50 HV. This is a two-way traffic volume typically expressed as a
percentage of the AADT.
In urban areas, traffic volume throughout the year is typically less variable. The design
basis for urban facilities typically is a “peak hour,” which is predominantly
representative of home-to-work and return trip-making (commuting traffic). These
traffic volumes are typically between the 100th and 200th highest hours of the year.
In special circumstances, a different hourly volume may be the basis for design. For
example, roadway infrastructure adjacent to and serving a major stadium or other
recreational facility may be based on the arrival or departure traffic flow for a typical
time when the facility is used to its capacity.
The DHV as a percentage of AADT is referred to as “k.” This is typically between 10 and
15 percent of the AADT on rural roads, and between 8 and 12 percent for urban roads.
Directionality of traffic is also reflected in design. Directionality is the proportion of total

two-way traffic for a road segment that occurs in the peak direction of flow. In a typical
road network, peak hour traffic is higher on the approaches to employment centers in
the morning (AM) peak hour, with the reverse being the case for the evening (PM) peak
hour. Directional distribution (D) is the traffic factor that expresses the expected
percentage of two-way traffic forecast for the peak direction of flow. By definition it is
at least 51 percent, but it can be as high as 70 percent or more. Values for D are
calculated as the 1-hour volume in the peak direction of the design hour, divided by the
total DHV.
With the above established, one can calculate the one-way peak hour design volume,
which is used to size a roadway or roadway element as follows:
one-way DHV (vph) = [forecast AADT] × k × D
Example: Forecast ADT for a roadway is 28,000 vpd
If k is chosen as 12 percent and D as 55 percent, the one-way design hour volume is:
28,000 × 0.12 × 0.55 = 1,848, say 1,850 vph
For design of intersections and roundabouts further detail is needed. Forecasts should
include DHV for each turning movement. For a typical balanced road network, turning
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movements will be reciprocal; that is, a right-turn volume in one peak will become the
return left-turn volume in the other peak.
For the example above, if 1,850 vph is the approach volume to an intersection one would
need to generate three values representing the possible departure movements from the
intersection approach:
1,850 total approach volume

=> 250 left turns, 1,200 through, 400 right turns
Turning volumes for all approaches are the basis for determining the number of lanes
for each movement, signal phasing, lengths of storage or queuing, and ultimately the
LOS provided.
8.2.2.2 Use of Travel Demand Forecasts for Design Hour Volume

Design values for DHV are obtained from forecast average daily traffic volumes based
on travel demand forecasts. The transport model for Qatar covers the entire country
and produces model outputs up to the horizon year of 2030. These reflect the official,
approved Master Plan for land use and roadway infrastructure. They reflect the type,
location, and density of land developments and the expected or committed roadway
network. MMUP’s Transportation and Infrastructure Planning Department updates
their forecasts regularly as developments occur, new ones are proposed, and they
update their Master Plan. For new road and reconstruction projects, traffic planners
and designers shall use the AADT forecast provided by the Overseeing Organization.
For details on modeling guidelines and procedures refer to Chapter 6 of the latest
Guidelines and Procedure for Transport Studies (MMUP, 2011).
8.3 Highway Capacity Concepts

8.3.1 Capacity Definition
The capacity of a road is its ability to accommodate traffic. Capacity expresses the
maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can be expected to traverse a uniform section
of a lane or a roadway. The Transportation Research Board’s 2010 Highway Capacity
Manual (HCM) is the internationally recognized source of information and methods for
determining the capacity of any road or road element.
Roads in Qatar should typically be designed to operate at traffic flows for design year
conditions well beneath the capacity of the road. The volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) is
a measure of the relationship between demand volume and capacity. With a v/c over
0.85, normally unstable flow conditions occur with regular flow breakdown. A v/c of
1.00 means the roadway or road element is just able to process the arriving traffic.
Should more traffic arrive than can be processed, the v/c becomes greater than 1.0.
Under these conditions, queues develop, speeds drop, and delays occur.
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8.3.2 General Characteristics and Application

Each type of road has different operating conditions that produce different approaches
to measuring their capacity. Through research, methods for measuring and estimating
capacity and determining the influence of road design on capacity have resulted in the
following different basic capacity concepts:
• Uninterrupted flow: the operating condition of two-lane rural highways, freeway

segments, and multi-lane rural highways. The capacity of a road under
uninterrupted flow conditions is based on number of lanes, lane and shoulder
widths, and three-dimensional alignment characteristics.
• Signalized intersections: point locations that interrupt the stream of traffic flow.
Their capacity is based on the number of approaches requiring dedicated signal
phases, numbers of lanes and free flow capacity at the stop-lines for each approach
and movement, the widths of lanes, and signal timing necessary for pedestrians and
for clearance between conflicting phases.
• Roundabout capacity: based on the traffic volume on the roundabout, the number
of approaches entering the roundabout, the number of lanes in the roundabout,
the geometry of the entry approaches, and the radius of the roundabout.
• Weaving sections: road segments with entry ramps and nearby downstream exit
ramps. The crossing of traffic flows is referred to as weaving. The capacity of a
weaving section is based on the spacing between the entry and exit roads, the
arrangement or location of these roadways relative to the mainline, and the
number of lanes in the weaving section.
• Entrance and exit ramps: roadways that allow traffic to enter or leave a highway.
Their capacity is based on the number of lanes, the length of acceleration or
deceleration provided on the ramp, the arrangement of lanes on the highway and
at the ramp entry or exit, and the volume of traffic on the highway upstream of the
entry or exit.
• Unsignalized intersections: those for which one roadway may have priority and be
unstopped, with the roadway with lower functional class under stop or yield
control. The term capacity for these intersections refers solely to the minor road
traffic that is under traffic control. The capacity of these approaches is based on the
number and arrangement of lanes on the approach, the speed of the priority road,
and the traffic volume on the priority road that creates or inhibits the ability of
stopped traffic to enter the major road. Unsignalized intersections may be under
all-way stop control, in which case the capacity refers to all approaches and is based
on the number of legs and number and designation of lanes on each leg.
• Urban arterials: consist of a combination of road segments with uninterrupted flow
and signalized intersections. Their capacity is determined by this combination of
elements. The frequency and spacing of signalized intersections heavily influences
the capacity of urban arterials.
There are also methods for describing the capacity of pedestrian and bike facilities.
These are based on the same general principles of freedom of movement and research
and field studies on walking and riding behaviors.
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8.3.3 Level of Service

The term level of service describes the quality of traffic flow through any road segment
or intersection as described above. In general the term LOS is intended to describe the
overall freedom of movement for a driver, which includes the ability to operate at the
desired speed and thus minimize delay.
Levels of service range from A through F, with E representing the capacity of the road
or road element. Under low volume traffic conditions drivers can choose their desired
speed and are not subject to more than minimal delays in passing through
intersections. Such conditions are typified by LOS A and B. As volume increases, drivers
become more constrained in their speed choice and path, and they endure longer
delays at intersections and roundabouts. LOS C and D represent these conditions. As
traffic volume increases to a level at which it approaches the capacity of the road or
segment, traffic flow significantly affects the driver. LOS E represents these conditions.
Although LOS is a term used uniformly for all road types and elements as discussed
above, the specific LOS criteria established in the HCM vary by type of road element:
• Uninterrupted flow LOS: the density of traffic as measured by passenger cars per
kilometer per lane. As density increases, drivers feel more constrained, speeds
lower, and passing opportunities on two-lane roads become less frequent.
Table 8.1 shows the LOS definitions for uninterrupted flow.
• Signalized intersection LOS: the delay experienced by all drivers passing through
and subject to the signal control. This is expressed as sec/veh.
• Roundabout LOS: the delays experienced by the approaching fast traffic that must
stop or yield to the circulating traffic in the roundabout.
• Weaving LOS: the density of traffic in the weaving section and is expressed as
passenger cars per kilometer per lane.
• Exit and Entrance LOS: the density of traffic in the two right-hand lanes upstream
of the exit and downstream of the entrance.
• Unsignalized intersection LOS: the delays experienced by minor road traffic that
must stop or yield to major road traffic with priority.
• Urban arterial LOS: the combination of uninterrupted flow on the arterial segments
and the signalized intersection operations along the corridor.
Table 8.1 General Definitions of Levels of Service (Uninterrupted Flow)

Level of Service General Operating Conditions
A Free flow
B Reasonably free flow
C Stable flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Forced or breakdown flow
Source: HCM (Transportation Research Board, 2010)
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8.3.4 Traffic Operations Analysis

Traffic operations analysis using HCM methods serves several planning and design
purposes:
• Transportation Planning Studies: Highway capacity analysis is used in these studies

to assess the ability of existing highway networks to accommodate future forecast
traffic volumes. Analysis may demonstrate the need for such infrastructure
improvements as lane additions, intersection improvements, interchanges, or even
addition of new roads.
• Congestion Mitigation Studies: Bottlenecks and delays can be observed, but their
resolution requires study of the effectiveness of design or operational alternative
solutions. Traffic operational analyses can inform decision-makers on the
effectiveness of adding turn lanes, re-timing signals, relocating ramps, or other
solutions to known operational problems.
• Highway Design: Highway capacity analysis is used to size a roadway and its
elements as part of the initial planning efforts. Sizing refers to the numbers and
arrangements of lanes, ramps, intersections, and roundabouts. This exercise uses
design year traffic volumes.
8.3.5 Level of Service as a Design Control

By policy, the target LOS for design year conditions is set as noted in Tables 5.1 and
5.2. Traffic planners and designers use DHV and methods for evaluating LOS to
establish the basic characteristics of the roadway: number of lanes (including auxiliary
lanes, turning lanes at intersections), and operations such as traffic signal timing.
Every project should have an established design level of service to design all roadway
elements. Selection of a design LOS different from that shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2
should be with the concurrence of the Overseeing Organization.
8.3.5.1 Design for Road Segments with Uninterrupted Flow

The LOS of a highway facility is a measure that describes operational conditions within
a traffic stream, based on service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom to
maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience. The LOS ranges from LOS A
(least congested) to LOS F (most congested). Designers select the appropriate LOS
based on the guidance in Tables 5.1 and 5.2, with reference to the context. Table 8.1
shows the general operating conditions represented by LOS. The specific definitions of
LOS differ by facility type.
Table 8.2 describes the relationship of uninterrupted flow level of service expressed as a
ratio of the demand volume to capacity (v/c). As traffic volumes increase such that v/c
approaches 1.00, the close spacing of vehicles in all lanes results in lowering of speeds and
unstable flow as indicated in Table 8.1. The v/c ratio is a readily determined measure of
LOS for both existing and future forecast traffic. From a design perspective, design LOS
should be as far from v/c of 1.00 and unstable flow (LOS D) as is practical.
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Table 8.2 Level of Service and Volume to Capacity (v/c)

Level of Service v/c Ratio
A 0–0.6
B ˃0.6–0.7
C ˃0.7–0.8
D ˃0.8–0.9
E ˃0.9–1.0
F >1
Source: HCM, 2010
8.3.5.2 Design for Signalized Intersections

The LOS at signalized intersections is based on the average delay imposed by the traffic
control for the design hour traffic entering the intersection. Table 8.3 lists the average
time delay at a signalized intersection and the corresponding LOS categories. In designing
signalized intersections, the v/c ratio of all movements and the intersection itself is also
important. The v/c ratio does not necessarily correspond directly with LOS average
control delay.
Table 8.3 Average Control Delay Criteria for Signalized Intersection Levels of
Service
Level of Service Average Control Delay (seconds per vehicle)
A 0–10
B ˃10–20
C ˃20–35
D ˃35–55
E ˃55–80
F >80
Source: HCM, 2010
8.3.5.3 Design for Roundabouts and Unsignalized (Priority) Intersections

The LOS of other intersection types is based on similar concepts to signalized
intersections (delay), but the unique operating conditions of roundabouts and
unsignalized intersections require different methods and approaches.
8.3.6 Influence of Design Features on Capacity

The manner in which designers select alignment and cross section values and develop
a road design can heavily influence the capacity of the road. Designers are encouraged
to become familiar with the factors that influence capacity and hence LOS. These vary
by road type. The HCM addresses fully each road type and the design elements that
influence capacity and operations.
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9 Access Control and Access

Management
9.1 General Conditions
Access control is the regulation of access from private property to the roadway. It is
achieved by regulating public access rights to and from properties adjoining highway
facilities. Regulation is enforced through design guidance, policies, and a permitting
process administered by the Overseeing Organization. Regulations generally are
categorized as full control of access, partial control of access, access management, and
driveway or entrance regulations. The principal advantages of controlling access are
the preservation or improvement of service and the reduction of crash frequency and
severity.
The functional advantage of providing access control on a street or highway is the

management of interference with through traffic. Interference is created by vehicles or
pedestrians entering, leaving, and crossing the highway. Where access to a highway is
managed, entrances and exits are located at points best suited to fit traffic and land
use needs. They are designed to enable vehicles to enter and leave the highway with
minimum interference from through traffic. Vehicles are prevented from entering or
leaving somewhere else so that, regardless of the type and intensity of development of
the roadside areas, a high degree of service is preserved, and crash potential is
lessened. Conversely, on streets or highways where there is no access management
and roadside businesses are allowed to develop haphazardly, interference from the
roadside can become a major factor in reducing capacity, increasing crash potential,
and eroding the mobility function of the facility.
Full control of access means that access connections are strictly limited to ramps with
only selected public roads and by prohibiting at-grade crossings and direct private
driveway connections.
With partial control of access, some preference should be given to through traffic.
Access connections, which may be at-grade or grade-separated, are provided with
selected public roads and private driveways. Full or partial access control generally is
accomplished by legally obtaining access rights from abutting property owners, usually
at the time of purchase of the right-of-way, or by the use of frontage roads.
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9.2 Access Management

Access management involves providing (or managing) access to land development
while simultaneously preserving the flow of traffic on the surrounding road system in
terms of capacity, speed, and low crash frequency and severity. Property owners have
a right to some access to the public road network. Without such access, their property
is unusable and may considered taken by the government. Each abutting property is
permitted access to a street or highway, but the location, number, and geometric
design of the access points are governed by the regulations.
Access management is the enabling of and provision for all property owners to have
access, in a way that reinforces the road system’s basic functions. Access management
applies to all types of roads and streets. It calls for setting access policies for various
types of roadways, keying designs to these policies, having the access policies
incorporated into legislation, and having the legislation upheld in the courts.
Good access management treats the highway and environs as part of a single system.
Individual parts of the system include the activity center and its circulation systems,
access to and from the center, the availability of public transportation, and the roads
serving the center. The goal is to coordinate the planning and design of each activity
center to preserve the capacity of the overall system and to allow efficient access to
and from the activities.
Access management extends traffic engineering principles to the location, design, and
operation of access roads that serve activities along streets and highways. It includes
evaluating the suitability of a site for different types of development from an access
standpoint and is, in a sense, a new element of roadway design.
Access management addresses the basic questions of when, where, and how access
should be provided or denied, and the legal or institutional changes are needed to
enforce decisions. In a broad context, access management is resource management,
since it is a way to anticipate and prevent congestion and to improve traffic flow.
Elements of access management include defining the allowable number of access

points and their spacing, providing a mechanism for granting variances when
reasonable access cannot otherwise be provided, and establishing means of enforcing
policies and decisions.
9.2.1 Basic Principles of Access Management

The following principles define access management techniques:
• Classify the road system by the primary function of each roadway. Freeways
emphasize movement and provide complete control of access. Local streets
emphasize property access rather than traffic movement. Arterial and collector
roads serve both property access and traffic movement.
• Limit direct access to roads with higher functional classifications. Direct property
access is limited along higher class roadways whenever reasonable access can be
provided to a lower-class roadway.
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• Locate traffic signals to emphasize through-traffic movements. Signalized access

points should fit into the overall signal coordination plan for traffic progression.
• Locate driveways and major entrances to minimize interference with traffic
operations. Driveways and entrances should be located away from other
intersections to minimize crashes, to reduce traffic interference, and to provide for
adequate storage lengths for vehicles turning into entrances.
• Use curbed medians, and limit median openings to manage access movements and
minimize conflicts.
Access management actions involve both the planning and design of new roads and the
retrofitting of existing roads and driveways.
9.2.2 Access Classifications

Access classification is the foundation of a comprehensive access management
program. It defines when, where, and how access can be provided between public
highways and private driveways or entrances. Access classification relates the
allowable access to each type of highway in conjunction with its purpose, importance,
and functional characteristics.
An access classification system defines the type and spacing of allowable access for
each class of road. Direct access may be denied, limited to right turns in and out, or
allowed for all or most movements depending upon the specific class and type of road.
Spacing of signals in terms of distance between signals or through progression speed is
also specified.
9.2.3 Methods of Controlling Access

Access may be controlled by means of statutes, land use ordinances, geometric design
policies, and driveway regulations.
• Access may be controlled by statute to protect public safety, health, and welfare.
The extent to which specific policies can be applied for driveways, entrances, traffic
signal locations, land use controls, and denial of direct access is specifically
addressed by legislation. Refer to the latest version of TMPQ document for Guide
to Planning Roads in Qatar.
• Local zoning ordinances and subdivision requirements can specify site design,
setback distances, types of access, parking restrictions, and other elements that
influence the type, volume, and location of generated traffic. Approval of a
development may in fact hinge on the ability to provide appropriate and reasonable
access.
• Geometric design features, such as raised-curb medians, the spacing of median
openings, frontage roads, closure of median openings, and raised-curb
channelization at intersections, all assist in controlling access.
Driveway and entrance policies may be introduced by guidelines, regulations, or
ordinances, provided specific statutory authority exists. Guidelines usually need no
specific authority but are weak legally. Regulations can deny direct access to a road
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if reasonable, alternative access is provided, but they cannot legally take away
access rights (AASHTO, 2011).
9.2.4 Access Management and Safety Performance

Strong access management policies and design are proven effective. International
studies uniformly document the reduction in injury crashes associated with driveway
removal and consolidation, as shown in Table 9.1
Table 9.1 Potential Crash Effects of Reducing Access Point Density

Setting Traffic Crash Type Std.
Treatment (Road Type) Volume (Severity) CMF Error
Reduce driveways from 76.8 to 0.71 0.04
41.6–76.8 per kilometer
Urban and
Reduce driveways from 41.6–76.8 All types 0.02
suburban Unspecified 0.69
to 16–38.4 per kilometer (injury)
(arterial)
Reduce driveways from 16–38.4 0.03
0.75
to less than 16 per kilometer
Base Condition: Initial driveway density per mile based on values in this table (76.8, 41.6–76.8, and 16–
38.4 per kilometer)
CMF = Crash Modification Factor
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10 Speed and Design

10.1 Introduction
Speed is an important aspect considered by travelers in assessing travel options. Drivers
value time and seek to minimize travel times. Most drivers value roads that may be
comfortably driven at higher speeds. The speed of vehicles on a road or highway
depends, in addition to capabilities of the drivers and their vehicles, upon five general
conditions:
• Design characteristics of the highway

• Amount of roadside interference
• Weather
• Presence of other vehicles
• Speed limitations established either by law or by traffic control devices
Any of these conditions may govern travel speed, but actual travel speed on a facility
usually reflects a combination of them.
Any engineered facility used by the public should be designed to satisfy demand for
service in an economical manner with efficient traffic operations and with low crash
frequency and severity. The facility should accommodate nearly all demands with
reasonable adequacy.
Accommodating the speeds drivers desire should also be balanced against the safety of
all users, including nonmotorized road users. The presence of pedestrians on or along
roads may limit or restrict vehicle speeds. Designers should recognize where this is a
factor and make design decisions accordingly.
10.2 Operating Speed

Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles
under free-flow conditions. It is a measure of how drivers respond to the road
environment absent influences of other traffic. Speeds are affected by traffic flows and
increase as traffic volume decreases. One result of conducting speed surveys over a 24-
hour period shows that the speeds increase at night.
10.3 Speed Variations

Speeds vary throughout the day, largely based on the volume and composition of traffic
on the road. On freeways and other similar facilities high speeds are maintained even
as traffic density increases until the traffic flow approaches the capacity (v/c > 0.85) at
which point traffic flow becomes unstable, and average speeds drop.
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On other road types with intersections and driveways, the effect of turning traffic and
traffic control will be the dominant influencers on average speeds.
10.4 Design Speed

As is stated in Part 3, design speed is the speed selected to determine the geometric
parameters of the road design. By policy in Qatar, the posted speed is directly related
to the design speed. Table 10.1 summarizes the relation between the design speed and
the posted speed. Refer to Roadway Design in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements for
further details.
Table 10.1 Relation Between Design and Posted Speeds

Design Speed (kph) Posted Speed (kph)
140 120
120 100
100 80
80 60
70 60
60 50
60 50
30 30
10.5 Posted Speed

The posted speed is the maximum speed limit applied to the road. Driving above the
posted speed constitutes a traffic offense. For the various classifications of road in
Qatar, and the relationship between design speed versus posted speed, refer to Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements.
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11 Facilities for Pedestrians

11.1 General Considerations
The interaction of pedestrians and traffic is a key consideration in road planning and
design. It is particularly important in urban areas, where pedestrians are most
numerous. Transportation and land development policies in Qatar are promoting the
concept of ‘walkability’ which refers to providing an attractive, comfortable and readily
accessible network of pathways and sidewalks for pedestrians.
Successful commercial and recreational areas provide a comfortable walking

environment. Pedestrian facilities may include sidewalks, crossings, traffic control
features, dropped curbs and ramps, and islands to facilitate crossing. Access to facilities
such as public transport stops, shops, schools, and mosques should be given particular
consideration.
The most important design consideration regarding pedestrians is the control or

elimination of vehicle conflicts, including particularly conflicts with vehicles operating
at higher speeds. Traffic calming, reduced speed limits, and all-stop control at local
crossroads where pedestrians are prevalent are all potentially effective solutions.
Elimination of vehicular traffic may also be applied.
Further information is provided throughout this manual, particularly in Part 19,

Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transport Facilities, and Part 20, Context Sensitive Design
and Solutions.
11.2 Designing for Pedestrians

The Overseeing Organization requires developers to include comprehensive pedestrian
facility proposals as part of their applications for new developments. Pedestrian
facilities include sidewalks, subways, footbridges, stairways, ramps, escalators, and
moving walkways.
11.3 Pedestrian Capacity and Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian service standards are based on the freedom to select normal traffic speed,
the ability to bypass slow-moving pedestrians, and the relative ease of cross- and
reverse-flow movements at various pedestrian traffic concentrations. Six levels of
service (LOS) have been defined. These are based on service volumes and qualitative
evaluation of user convenience. They are described below.
LOS A provides sufficient space for free-flow conditions that allows a bypass for slower
pedestrians and avoids conflicts at crossings, with others.
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LOS B provides space that allows normal walking speeds and the passing of other
pedestrians in primarily one-directional flows. In the case of bi-directional flows or
cross flows, minor conflict will occur, resulting in slightly lower mean pedestrian speeds
and potential volumes.
LOS C is a condition where the freedom to select individual walking speeds and to freely
pass other pedestrians is restricted. With flows that reverse and cross, frequent
adjustment of speed and direction would be required.
LOS D represents conditions where most pedestrians have restricted or reduced normal
walking speeds because of difficulty in avoiding conflicts experienced when passing
other pedestrians. Reverse and crossing flows would be severely restricted because of
frequent conflicts with others.
LOS E approaches the maximum attainable flow volume (capacity) of the walkway.
Because of insufficient area available to pass others, frequent stoppages and
interruptions to pedestrian flow would be experienced by virtually all pedestrians.
LOS F conditions cause frequent unavoidable contact with other pedestrians. Reverse
and crossing movements would be virtually impossible. Walking speeds are extremely
restricted with forward progress reduced to a shuffle.
One measure of LOS is a variable of pedestrian module size that relates to an

individual’s buffer zone (space). The pedestrian area module is M (m2/ped), an
expression of flow rate is derived similar to the form of the traffic equation:
P=S/M
where
P = flow rate in pedestrians per meter width per minute (ped/m/min)
S = mean horizontal space speed (m/min)
The HCM provides guidance for determining the capacity and quality of service for
pedestrian facilities. Table 11.1 shows the space for pedestrians and flow rates.
Table 11.1 Level of Service, Pedestrian Area and Flow Rates

Average Pedestrian Area
Level of Service (square meters per person) Flow Rate (ped/m/min)
A >5.6 < 16
B 3.7–5.6 16–23
C 2.2–3.7 23–33
D 1.4–2.2 33–49
E 0.75–1.4 49-75
F <0.75 Var
Source: HCM, 2010
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Level of service standards provide a means of determining the environmental quality

of a pedestrian space, but they are no substitute for engineering design assessment
and judgment. All elements of pedestrian way design should be examined, including
traffic characteristics, platooning caused by traffic signal cycles or public transport
arrivals, and the economic consequences of use of space. When designing for extreme
peak demands of short duration, a lower level of service may apply to obtain a more
economical design.
The potential pedestrian capacity of urban sidewalks is significantly reduced by the

presence of street furniture. Refuse bins, traffic signs, utility poles, ornamental trees,
planters, and other items all reduce sidewalk facility capacity.
A sidewalk width of at least 1.5 m generally is adequate for most road situations,
(according to TMPQ Pedestrian Design Guidelines) except in commercial or shopping
areas or other areas of high pedestrian flow. In such locations, widths of 3 m or more
may be needed to provide the desired walking environment and LOS. Ideal width of
sidewalk can be higher for new pedestrian generators, such as shops, malls, schools,
and mosques, subject to the availability of land and approval by the Overseeing
Organization for planning.
A sidewalk wider than the minimum may be necessary at locations where pedestrians
gather, such as at the entrances to schools and associated crossings, and at recreation
facilities and important bus stops. In these cases, widths up to 5 or 6 m may be
appropriate.
Where possible, sufficient sidewalk width should be provided to allow two wheelchairs
to pass. In such cases, 1.8 m should be considered the minimum. Refer to TMPQ
Pedestrian Design Guidelines for further details.
Narrower widths can be tolerated for short distances; for example, where items of
street furniture restrict the width available. The minimum width at such restrictions,
which will still permit wheelchairs to pass, is 0.9 m.
Adequate lateral clearance should be provided to trees, street furniture, signposts,

rubbish bins, benches, balconies, telephone kiosks, benches, and traffic signs.
Refer to Part 19 Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, for more information on
pedestrian facilities.
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12 Facilities for Cyclists

Bikes are a healthy and sustainable travel option, and facilities should be provided to
encourage their use, particularly for short- to medium-length journeys in the urban
environment.
The following improvements, which generally are of low to moderate cost, can reduce
the frequency of crashes on a street or highway and provide for bike traffic:
• On high speed and higher classification routes, bike facilities should be physically
separated from the roadway to minimize conflict with motor vehicles. Shared
roadway usage by cyclists should be encouraged only on low speed roads with low
traffic flows, such as local roads and collectors.
• Care should be taken in providing bike lanes on roads with on-street parking,
particularly where parking turnover is high. Drivers opening doors of parked cars
into cyclists is among the most prevalent cycling crash types on urban streets.
• Dimensions for cycling facilities depend on bike dimensions, operating
characteristics, and needs. The most important design element is lane width. In
many instances, design features of separate bike facilities are controlled by the
adjoining roadway and by the design of the highway itself.
Further information is provided throughout the QHDM, and particularly in Part 3,

Roadway Design Elements, and Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation.
To provide continuity of bike and pedestrian networks in urban areas, pedestrian and
bike facilities and infrastructure should be provided regardless of whether there are
adjacent developments.
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13 Parking
Both commercial and residential developments require provisions for parking private
vehicles. An important land planning decision and policy is to establish the amount of
off-street parking to be provided as part of a land development plan. Some amount of
on-street parking should be expected and accommodated based on the type of
development and its location.
Parking needs in Qatar are determined through consultation with MMUP. A core
reference used in such consultation is the parking design guidelines in the TMPQ
(MMUP, 2010), which provides comprehensive coverage of parking design
requirements for Qatar.
Certain road types and locations are designed and intended to be free of parking.
Adequate parking should be provided adjacent to existing and new developments to
preclude the need for vehicles parking along roads in areas not designated for parking.
The following design elements are referred to in the parking design guidelines in the
TMPQ (MMUP, 2010):
• Design vehicle characteristics and dimensions

• On-street parking
• Off-street parking
• Design of parking modules, circulation roadways, ramps, and access facilities to off-
street parking areas
• Design requirements for car parking structures
• Bus and truck parking requirements, including truck service areas and maneuver
clearances, access driveways and circulation roadways for commercial vehicles
• Facilities for pedestrians in parking areas
• Signage, marking, and lighting
• Designing for safety
• Park-and-ride facilities for public transportation interchanges
The following summarizes key guidance from the Parking Design Guidelines concerning
roadside or on-street parking with respect to road planning and design.
Wherever possible, parking should be provided away from the roadway, in convenient
off-street parking lots. Access to parking lots should be gained only from local roads,
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collectors, and minor arterials. In urban locations, parking may be provided contiguous
with the road in designated on-street parking lanes. On-street parking is most
appropriate on local roads and service roads. The AASHTO HSM (2011) reports that
four-lane divided urban roads with parallel parking may experience increased crash
frequencies between 10 and 70 percent depending on the type of land use served by
the parking and the length of curb lane over which the parking is permitted. For these
reasons, parking lanes should be provided only on roads with posted speed limits of 50
kph or less, and design hour traffic volumes should be less than 1,000 vehicles per hour
on roads with on-street parking.
On-street parking shall not be provided on urban expressways including collector-

distributor roads, and arterials. On-street parking on multi-lane boulevards and collectors
should be limited. Where used, parking areas should be clearly defined and illegal parking
strictly enforced. Where possible, off-street facilities or parking on adjacent lower
classification roads should be provided.
The regulation and use of on-street parking should be prioritized to support road users
with needs for high levels of access such as public transport, taxi operators, loading and
service vehicles, people with disabilities and emergency services.
Both parallel and angle on-street parking are used in Qatar. Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, and Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, contain guidance on
design for each type, including parking bays and lanes.
The Qatar Traffic Control Manual contains parking regulatory signs available for
enforcing and legalizing approved parking plans for proposed developments. Parking
and waiting may be regulated as follows:
• No waiting at any time

• No loading at any time
• No loading: day and time restriction
• No waiting on edge of sidewalk
• No waiting by trucks and buses
The following are other factors to consider when designing parking facilities:
• Parking in dense urban areas

• Ability for parking enforcement activity to occur
• Provision for taxi parking zones in the city center to improve passenger accessibility
• Provision for special parking spaces for disabled persons
• Sufficient signing to off-street parking facilities
• Provision of bus and truck parking by designating space in built up and residential areas
Refer to the latest version of parking design guidelines in the TMPQ for more details.
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References
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. 6th edition (the Green Book).
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United
States. 2011.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual
for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 2, Part 6. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
January 1995.
Department of Transport. Guidance on the use of Tactile Paving Surfaces. Department of the
Environment, Transport and the Regions: London, England. 1998. Reprinted April 2000.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes.”
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. UK Highways Agency: London,
England. 2005.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland. Road Planning and Design Manual,
2nd edition. Volumes 1 to 6. Queensland, Australia. July 2013.
Dubai Municipality. Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual. Prepared by CHRI for Dubai
Municipality. Government of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. 2003.Ministry of Municipality and
Urban Planning (MMUP). Transport Master Plan for Qatar—Pedestrian Facility Guidelines. Doha,
Qatar. 2007.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transport Master Plan for Qatar—Existing
Public Transport System. Doha, Qatar. 2007.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Recommended Practice Guide for
Designing Parking Facilities. Transportation Master Plan for Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—
Guide to Planning Roads. Doha, Qatar. 2009.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Guidelines for Designing Parking Facilities
Transportation Master Plan for Qatar. 2010.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Guidelines and Procedures for Transport
Studies. Doha, State of Qatar: Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning, Government of Qatar.
2011.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Land Acquisition Process. Land Acquisition
and Roadway Improvement Strategy. 2012.
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Mowasalat. Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit Planning. Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), 5th edition. Washington DC,
2010.
Traffic Law No. 19 of 2007. Ministry of Interior, Al Meezan Legal Portal, Government of Qatar
2007.
Wramborg, Per. A New Approach to a Safe and Sustainable Road Structure and Street Design for
Urban Areas. Paper presented at Road Safety on Four Continents (RS4C) Conference, Warsaw,
Poland. October 5–7, 2005.
PAGE 90 VOLUME 1
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Part 3
Roadway Design Elements
VOLUME 1 PART 3
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS
ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
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VOLUME 1 PART 3
ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xi
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Design Speed ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Posted Speed ................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters .............................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed ....................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads ...................................... 4
1.2.3 Departures from Standards.......................................................................... 4
1.2.4 Special Considerations ................................................................................. 7
1.3 Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 7
2 Sight Distance ...............................................................................................................11

2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance..................................................................................... 11
2.2 Stopping Sight Distance ............................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters........................................................................ 12
2.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Values ...................................................... 12
2.2.3 Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance.................................... 14
2.2.4 Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance ........................................ 16
2.3 Passing Sight Distance ............................................................................................... 17
2.4 Decision Sight Distance.............................................................................................. 19
2.5 Intersection Sight Distance ........................................................................................ 21
2.5.1 Case A: Intersections with No Control ....................................................... 22
2.5.2 Case B: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road ............................ 24
2.5.3 Case C: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road ........................... 28
2.5.4 Case D: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control ....................................... 31
2.5.5 Case E: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control ....................................... 32
2.5.6 Case F: Left Turns from Major Road........................................................... 32
2.6 Special Considerations ............................................................................................... 33
2.7 Departures ................................................................................................................. 34
3 Horizontal Alignment ....................................................................................................35

3.1 Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals .......................................................................... 35
3.2 Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents ..................................... 37
3.3 General Design Considerations ................................................................................. 40
3.3.1 Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve.................... 40
3.3.2 Minimum Curve Lengths ............................................................................ 41
3.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................................................ 41
3.5 Superelevation Transition and Spirals ....................................................................... 43
3.5.1 Axis of Rotation .......................................................................................... 44
3.5.2 Rate of Rotation ......................................................................................... 44
3.5.3 Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths ..................................... 47
3.5.4 Spirals ......................................................................................................... 49
3.5.5 Positioning of Superelevation Transition ................................................... 50
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3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves ........................................................ 52

3.5.7 Superelevation on Reverse Curves ............................................................. 53
3.5.8 Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways ........................................... 54
3.6 Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves .......................................................... 58
3.7 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset ...................................................................... 61
3.8 Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections ......................................................... 62
4 Vertical Alignment ........................................................................................................ 65

4.1 Terrain ........................................................................................................................ 66
4.2 Longitudinal Grades ................................................................................................... 66
4.2.1 Maximum Longitudinal Grades .................................................................. 66
4.2.2 Minimum Grades ........................................................................................ 66
4.2.3 Minor Road Grades at Intersections .......................................................... 66
4.3 Vertical Curves ........................................................................................................... 67
4.3.1 Crest Vertical Curves .................................................................................. 67
4.3.2 Sag Vertical Curves ..................................................................................... 67
4.3.3 Crest Vertical Curve Design ........................................................................ 69
4.3.4 Sag Vertical Curve Design ........................................................................... 71
4.3.5 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves ........................................................... 74
4.3.6 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve .................................... 74
4.4 Vertical Clearances .................................................................................................... 76
5 General Considerations ................................................................................................ 79

5.1 General....................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment ..................................................................... 79
5.3 Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment.......................................................................... 81
5.4 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments ......................................................... 82
5.5 Alignment Coordination in Design ............................................................................. 83
6 Cross Section Elements ................................................................................................. 89

6.1 General Considerations ............................................................................................. 89
6.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 89
6.1.2 Design Principles......................................................................................... 90
6.1.3 Road Network Objectives ........................................................................... 91
6.1.4 Departures .................................................................................................. 93
6.2 Design Requirements ................................................................................................. 93
6.2.1 Travel Lanes ................................................................................................ 94
6.2.2 Shoulders .................................................................................................... 95
6.2.3 Hard Strips .................................................................................................. 97
6.2.4 Auxiliary Lanes ............................................................................................ 97
6.2.5 Medians ...................................................................................................... 98
6.2.6 Service Roads............................................................................................ 102
6.2.7 Frontage Roads ......................................................................................... 102
6.2.8 Parking Bays and Lanes ............................................................................ 105
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6.2.9 Parallel Roadside Parking ......................................................................... 106

6.2.10 Angled Roadside Parking .......................................................................... 106
6.2.11 Off Street Parking ..................................................................................... 107
6.2.12 Off Street Disabled Parking ...................................................................... 110
6.2.13 Curbs ........................................................................................................ 110
6.2.14 Road Restraint System ............................................................................. 114
6.2.15 Side Slopes ............................................................................................... 114
6.2.16 Clearances ................................................................................................ 115
6.2.17 Fencing ..................................................................................................... 116
6.2.18 Roadside Elements and Verges ................................................................ 116
6.2.19 Pedestrian Facilities.................................................................................. 118
6.2.20 Bike Facilities ............................................................................................ 118
6.2.21 Utilities ..................................................................................................... 118
6.2.22 Right-of-Way ............................................................................................ 118
6.2.23 Typical Cross Sections .............................................................................. 119
7 Integrated Road and Landscape Design ....................................................................... 159

7.1 Integrated Road Design Principles ........................................................................... 160
7.2 Road Siting and Alignment ...................................................................................... 160
7.2.1 Earthworks ............................................................................................... 160
7.2.2 Retaining Walls ......................................................................................... 161
7.2.3 Rock Cut ................................................................................................... 161
7.2.4 Interchanges and Roundabouts ............................................................... 162
7.2.5 Gateways .................................................................................................. 162
7.2.6 Special Areas ............................................................................................ 163
7.3 Structures ................................................................................................................ 163
7.3.1 Bridges ...................................................................................................... 163
7.3.2 Pedestrian Bridges ................................................................................... 164
7.3.3 Tunnels ..................................................................................................... 165
7.3.4 Pedestrian Underpasses ........................................................................... 165
7.4 Fences and Walls ..................................................................................................... 166
7.5 Water Management/ and Conservation ................................................................. 166
7.5.1 Detention Systems ................................................................................... 167
7.5.2 Infiltration Systems .................................................................................. 167
7.6 Landscape and Utilities ............................................................................................ 168
7.7 Sustainable Landscape Design ................................................................................. 168
7.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 168
7.7.2 Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning .......................... 169
7.7.3 Soils .......................................................................................................... 169
7.7.4 Water Conservation ................................................................................. 170
7.7.5 Plant Species ............................................................................................ 170
7.7.6 Materials .................................................................................................. 170
7.7.7 Landscape Maintenance and Management ............................................. 171
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8 Other Elements Affecting Design ................................................................................ 173

8.1 Erosion Control ........................................................................................................ 173
8.2 Rest Areas ................................................................................................................ 173
8.2.1 Spacing of Rest Areas ............................................................................... 173
8.2.2 Site Selection ............................................................................................ 173
8.2.3 Rest Area Design....................................................................................... 174
8.3 Traffic Control Devices ............................................................................................. 180
8.3.1 Signing and Marking ................................................................................. 180
8.3.2 Traffic Signals ............................................................................................ 181
8.4 Noise Barriers........................................................................................................... 181
8.4.1 Placement ................................................................................................. 181
8.5 Fencing ..................................................................................................................... 182
8.6 Sand Abatement in Dune Areas ............................................................................... 182
References ........................................................................................................................... 185
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Tables
Table 1.1 Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications ............................... 2
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters ...................................................................... 3
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less
than 3 Percent ................................................................................................... 13
Table 2.2 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways ............................................... 18
Table 2.3 Decision Sight Distance ..................................................................................... 21
Table 2.4 Length of the Sight Triangle Legs, for Intersections with No Control ............... 23
Table 2.5 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance Based on
Approach Grade ................................................................................................ 24
Table 2.6 Time Gap—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop.......................................................... 25
Table 2.7 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop .............................. 26
Table 2.8 Time Gap—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3, Crossing Maneuver .. 27
Table 2.9 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3,
Crossing Maneuver ............................................................................................ 27
Table 2.10 Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor
Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point ................................................... 29
Table 2.11 Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case C1, Crossing
Maneuver from Yield Controlled Intersections ................................................. 30
Table 2.12 Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from
Yield-Controlled Intersections ........................................................................... 31
Table 2.13 Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case C2, Left or
Right Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections ..................................................... 31
Table 2.14 Time Gap for Case F Left Turn from the Major Road ........................................ 33
Table 2.15 Intersection Sight Distance—Case F, Left Turn from the Major Road .............. 33
Table 3.1 Minimum Radius without Superelevation ........................................................ 42
Table 3.2 Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent) ...................................... 43
Table 3.3 Maximum Relative Gradients ............................................................................ 45
Table 3.4 Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated ........................................... 48
Table 3.5 Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves ..................................... 58
Table 3.6 Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve
Radius less 100 m or Less .................................................................................. 59
Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways ........................................ 63
Table 4.1 Maximum Grades .............................................................................................. 66
Table 4.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping Sight
Distance ............................................................................................................. 71
Table 4.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves.............................................................. 74
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Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve ........................................... 75

Table 4.5 Vertical Clearance at Structures ........................................................................ 76
Table 4.6 Sag Radius Compensation ................................................................................. 77
Table 6.1 Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane .................................... 95
Table 6.2 Typical Roadway Cross Sections ........................................................................ 96
Table 6.3 Minimum Median Width ................................................................................... 99
Table 6.4 Roadside Angled Parking Dimensions for One-Way Operation ...................... 107
Table 6.5 Parking Bay Dimensions .................................................................................. 109
Table 6.6 Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads ............................................................. 120
Table 6.7 Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads ............................................................... 121
Table 8.1 Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision ................................................ 179
Table 8.2 Minimum Parking Provision ............................................................................ 179
Figures
Figure 2.1 Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................... 15

Figure 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve ............................................ 16
Figure 2.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve ................................................... 17
Figure 2.4 Passing Maneuver.............................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.5 Sight Triangles (Uncontrolled and Yield Controlled) ......................................... 23
Figure 2.6 Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled) ....................................................................... 25
Figure 2.7 Left Turns from Major Roads ............................................................................. 32
Figure 3.1 Simple Curve Elements ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.2 Simple Curve with Spirals .................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.3 Compound Curve ............................................................................................... 38
Figure 3.4 Broken Back Curve ............................................................................................. 39
Figure 3.5 Reverse Curve .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.6 Development of Superelevation........................................................................ 46
Figure 3.7 Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways ......................................... 48
Figure 3.8 Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways .......................................... 51
Figure 3.9 Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC
and PCC is less than or equal to 90 m) .............................................................. 52
and PCC is greater than 90 m) ........................................................................... 53
Figure 3.11 Superelevation between Reverse Curves .......................................................... 54
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Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways ......................... 55

Figure 3.13 Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with
Narrow Medians ................................................................................................ 56
Figure 3.14 Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways
(Shoulder Break Option) .................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.15 Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves ..................................................... 60
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset .............................................................. 61
Figure 3.17 Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections ....................................... 63
Figure 4.1 Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections .............................. 67
Figure 4.2 Vertical Curve Elements ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve ........................................... 70
Figure 4.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve .................................................... 72
Figure 4.5 Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves......................... 77
Figure 5.1 Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius ................................. 80
Figure 5.2 Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4 ....................................... 84
Figure 6.1 Cross Section Design Flow Chart ....................................................................... 92
Figure 6.2 Typical Median Layouts ................................................................................... 101
Figure 6.3 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2 ................................................ 103
Figure 6.4 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2 ................................................ 104
Figure 6.5 Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection ................................. 105
Figure 6.6 Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions...................................................... 106
Figure 6.7 Roadside Parking in Angled Bay Layout .......................................................... 107
Figure 6.8 Parking Bay Dimensions .................................................................................. 108
Figure 6.9 Standard Curb Types ....................................................................................... 111
Figure 6.10 Typical Urban Local Access, One-way System - 10 m Right-of-Way
(Residential)..................................................................................................... 122
Figure 6.11 Typical Urban Local Access - 12 m Right-of-Way (Residential) ....................... 123
Figure 6.14 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)...................... 126
Figure 6.15 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial) .......................... 127
Figure 6.16 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Residential) .................. 128
Figure 6.17 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ................ 129
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Figure 6.18 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)..................... 130

Figure 6.20 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ................ 132
Figure 6.21 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)..................... 133
Figure 6.23 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
with Service Road ............................................................................................ 135
Figure 6.24 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
Figure 6.25 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)
Figure 6.26 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)
Figure 6.27 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)
Figure 6.28 Typical Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial - 40 m Right-of-Way
(Industrial) ....................................................................................................... 140
Figure 6.29 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) .................................................................................. 141
Figure 6.30 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road ..................................................... 142
Figure 6.31 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.32 Typical Urban Minor/Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.33 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 64 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) .................................................................................. 145
Figure 6.34 Typical Urban Boulevard - 64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational) ........................ 146
Figure 6.35 Typical Urban Boulevard—64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational) ........................ 147
Figure 6.36 Typical Urban Boulevard— 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ........................ 148
Figure 6.37 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way
(6-Lane Divided Highway) ................................................................................ 149
(8-Lane Divided Highway) ................................................................................ 150
(8-Lane Divided Highway-with Frontage Road) ............................................... 151
Figure 6.40 Typical Rural Access Road – 16 m to 20 m Right-of-Way ................................ 152
Figure 6.41 Typical Rural Collector – 24 m to 40 m Right-of-Way ..................................... 153
Figure 6.42 Typical Rural Arterial – 64 m Right-of-Way ..................................................... 154
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Figure 6.43 Typical Rural Freeway – 264 m Right-of-Way (with Frontage Road) .............. 155
Figure 6.44 Typical Embankment Cross Sections ............................................................... 156
Figure 6.45 Typical Cut Cross Sections ............................................................................... 157
Figure 6.46 Requirement for Barriers on Embankments ................................................... 158
Figure 8.1 Typical Rest Area Plan ..................................................................................... 174
Figure 8.2 Disabled Parking at Rest Areas ........................................................................ 176
Figure 8.3 Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas .................................................................... 177
Figure 8.4 Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas ................................................................. 178
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ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Departure Departure from Standards
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
DSD decision sight distance
HSSD horizontal stopping sight distance
HOV high-occupancy vehicle
ISD intersection sight distance
m meter(s)
MASH Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
NMU nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians, cyclists, and equestrians
OHPS over-height protection system
PC point of curvature
PCC point of compound curvature
PSD passing sight distance
sec seconds
VSSD vertical stopping sight distance
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
1 Introduction
This part outlines the following design controls and elements to be applied in the design
of the roadway geometry:
• Design speed
• Roadway cross sections
• Sight distances
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Grades and cross slope
• Vertical clearances
The roadway design process begins with the establishment of basic design controls and
design criteria, the most important of these being design speed. The design process
proceeds sequentially, with establishment of the basic typical cross section, followed
by the setting of the horizontal alignment and then the vertical alignment.
Roadway design is not performed on a blank sheet of paper, nor is it an automatic or

rote exercise. The context, i.e., the terrain, adjacent land use, and location-specific
features or constraints, influences the design. Good design is necessarily iterative.
There is always more than one reasonable solution to a design problem. The role of the
designer as an engineering professional should be to seek the highest value solution;
with “value” being dependent on the site-specific conditions and stakeholder input.
The unique engineering challenges designers face involve the often conflicting
transportation values of mobility and safety. Traditionally, design focus has been on
meeting the desires of road users to minimize their travel time. This is accomplished by
designing the road for the highest speed that is reasonable given the context. Designing
for high speeds, however, presents challenges because human driving capabilities are
limited at high speeds, and the consequences of human error are heightened because
the severity of crashes is significantly greater at higher speeds.
1.1 Design Speed

The design speed for a road or highway is a selected speed that is used to determine the
dimensions, values, and characteristics of the roadway. A fundamental principle of
design speed is that it applies over relatively long sections of roadway. The professional
designer selects a speed that is logical and reasonable using the guidance provided by
the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM). The selected speed should reflect the
anticipated and desired operating speed, the topography, the adjacent land use, and
the intended primary function of the highway as determined by its functional
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classification. The selection of a design speed should be made with an awareness of the
need to achieve safety, mobility, and efficiency within the constraints of environmental
quality, economics, aesthetics, and social and political impacts. In selecting a design
speed, the designer is setting the basis by which all of the basic elements—cross section
and alignment—will be established.
Meeting the expectations of drivers should influence the selection of a design speed.
Where the reasons for lower speed are obvious, such as the land use or terrain, drivers
are apt to expect and accept lower speed. Drivers do not adjust their speeds to the
importance of the highway, but rather in response to their perception of the physical
limitations of the highway and its traffic.
A related control in highway design is the setting of legal operation of vehicles through
the posting of speed limits. By policy in Qatar, the posted speed limits that apply are
related to the design speeds, as shown in Table 1.1. The design speeds and
corresponding posted speeds vary by functional classification and land use frontage.
1.1.1 Posted Speed

Posted speed is the mandatory speed limit applied to a road. The speed limit is
displayed on the roadside and is enforceable. Table 1.1 lists the posted speed limits to
be implemented in relation to design speed.
Table 1.1 Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications
Design Posted Traffic
Road Classification Land Use Frontage Speeds (kph) Speeds (kph)
Urban Expressway Commercial, industrial, recreational, park 100 /120/ 140 80/100/120
Commercial or industrial land use 50/60/80
Urban Arterial—Major 50/80/ 100
preferred
Commercial or industrial land use
Urban Arterial—Minor 50/80/100 50/60/80
preferred
Arterial—Boulevard Retail or commercial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Urban Collector— Industrial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Major Commercial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Industrial or commercial 50 50
Urban Collector— 50
Residential 50
Minor
Recreational 50 50
Industrial 50 50
Urban Local Road
Commercial, residential, or recreational 30/40/50 30/40/50
Rural Freeway Not applicable 100/120/140 80/100/120
Rural Arterial Not applicable 80/100/120 60/80/100
Rural Collector Not applicable 50/80/100 50/60/80
Rural Local Not applicable 50/80 50/60
Posted speeds are generally lower than design speeds for roadways with design speeds
greater than 50 kilometers per hour (kph). Posted speed for roadways with design speeds
of 80 kph or greater is 20 kph lower; for roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph
and greater than 50 kph posted speed is 10 kph lower. Design and posted speeds are the
PAGE 2 VOLUME 1
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same for roadways with design speeds of 50 kph or lower. The road classifications are
defined in Part 2, Planning.
Selection of a design speed is one of the very first project decisions. Selection of a
design speed outside the values shown in Table 1.1 shall constitute a Departure from
Standards (Departure). Should a Departure be considered, the process of evaluation
and approval should occur before proceeding with any engineering design. The
selection of design speed shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. Refer to
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, for more information.
Refer to Section 1.2.4 for design speeds for roads that require special consideration.
They should be agreed to with the Overseeing Organization.
1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

The design of most elements of the roadway are influenced by the selected design
speed. Table 1.2 details the main design speed related parameters dealt with in greater
depth in their respective clauses in this part.
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

Parameter Reference
Stopping sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.2
Passing sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.3
Decision sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.4
Intersection sight distance Chapter 2, Section 2.5
Horizontal curvature Chapter 3, Section 3.1
Vertical curvature Chapter 4, Section 4.3
Lane widths Chapter 6: Section 6.2
1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed

Transitions between roads (or sections of a road) with different design speeds shall be
implemented so as not to present the driver with an abrupt change in the roadway’s
characteristics or appearance. A change in the design speed should not exceed 20 kph.
For example, in transitioning to a lower design speed from 100 kph the new, lower
design speed should not be less than 80 kph.
At the interface between sections of roadway designed to different design speeds,

designers check that the curvature and sight distance is adequate for the approach
design speed. See Chapter 3 regarding transition curves where the road passes through
an area where the curve radius must be reduced beyond the limiting radius to
accommodate design speed.
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Designers should avoid interfaces between different design speeds near horizontal or
vertical curvature less than the requirements for the higher design speed, and at or
near steep vertical grades. Sufficient warning signs should be provided in advance of
reaching the section of the road with lower speed. For details of signing the speed
control refer to Part 2, Planning.
1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads

Care shall be taken in the design of road to be reconstructed, with such reconstruction
resulting in a significant change in the roadway geometry. At the project limits, the
design characteristics transition from the newly reconstructed road to the existing road
to remain in place.
The setting of appropriate project limits is one measure of care. Logical limits may
include an intersection, or a tangent highway section at which the vertical alignment
provides stopping sight distance that is greater than the minimum. Careful
consideration should be given for roads passing between rural and urban areas, posted
speed step down and also two lane to single lane roadways, although this latter case
should be limited to intersection locations only.
Clear signing is needed at all locations where there is a speed reduction.
1.2.3 Departures from Standards

The standards herein represent the various criteria and maximum/minimum levels of
provision whose incorporation in the road design would achieve an acceptable level of
transportation performance. In most cases, designs can be achieved that do not require
the use of the lowest levels of given design parameters. At some locations on new roads
or reconstruction of existing roads it may not be possible to provide even the lowest
levels of design parameters in economic or environmental terms because of unique
context features including existing landmarks, high-rises; religious, cultural, and historic
sites; natural preserves; and community resources. Prevailing circumstances may
identify sufficient advantages that may justify a Departure from Standards. The
parameters are not to be regarded as fixed in all circumstances. Departures should be
considered and assessed in terms of their effects on the economic worth of the project,
the environment, and the safety of road users. Designers should always have regard to
the cost-effectiveness of the design provision. The implications, particularly in relation
to safety risk, should be quantified to the extent possible. Engineering judgment is
necessary in many cases. In exercising judgment, professional designers considering a
Departure should have knowledge of the operational and safety effects of roadway
design features. Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, provides technical
guidance including research references that designers can review to enable appropriate
judgments. The QHDM covers a wide range of geometric elements and design
dimensions. Based on a review of international, peer-reviewed research and practices
of major national highway agencies, the following 16 criteria have been identified as
being of sufficient importance that the inability, for whatever reason, to meet the
minimum design value shall require a formal Departure from Standards:
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1. Design speed
2. Lane width
3. Shoulder width
4. Bridge width
5. Horizontal alignment
6. Superelevation
7. Vertical alignment
8. Longitudinal grade
9. Sight distance
10. Cross slope
11. Vertical clearance
12. Lateral offset to obstruction
13. Structural capacity (not a geometric element)
14. Acceleration and deceleration lane lengths on fully access controlled highways
15. Weaving section operations on fully access controlled highways
16. Bike path or shared use path
The Overseeing Organization requires a formal written Departure Application for each
design exception if the specified maximum or minimum criteria related to the
16 controlling criteria above are not met. The process for submitting a written
Departure Application is given in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Other design parameters, values, and policies in QHDM are guidelines to promote
consistency in design and achieve overall quality control in the project development
process. The Overseeing Organization provides oversight on all design and specification
aspects of all projects. Designers should strive to fully apply all published criteria,
regardless of whether they are subject to the Departure process.
This section introduces the concept of a hierarchy of permitted values for geometric
layout parameters such as sight distance, horizontal and vertical curves. That hierarchy
is based upon minimum standards based on design speed. Values equal to or greater
than the minimum results in safer alignments and minimizes journey times. The
hierarchy of values enables a flexible approach to be applied where the strict
application of minimum requirements would lead to disproportionately high
construction costs or severe environmental impact upon people, properties, and
landscapes. Successive levels in the hierarchy invoke more stringent consideration in
line with the need to carefully consider safety.
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Over the years, there have been many advances in road layout design and associated
improvements for the assessment of safety and operational aspects. Research has
strengthened the understanding of driver behavior, and safety audits and other
initiatives in the mechanics of assessing and checking scheme layouts have made the
design process more rigorous and reliable.
Experience in the application of the hierarchy of values indicates that the

environmental and financial benefits gained from this increased flexibility can be
considerable. The designer must carefully consider the benefits and any potential
disadvantages of Departures. Additional guidance in Part 25, Departures from
Standards Process, describes the approach to be taken to assessing Departures. Any
such Departures must be agreed to in writing with the Overseeing Organization. Part 25
gives a procedure for the preparation and submission requirements for Departures.
Principles to follow when preparing options that include Departures are listed below. It
is likewise a list of factors to be taken into account when considering the merits of
options. Designers should consider whether and to what degree the site is:
• Isolated from other Departures

• Isolated from intersections
• One where drivers are provided minimum stopping sight distance
• Subject to momentary visibility impairment only
• One that would affect only a small proportion of the traffic
• On straightforward geometry readily understandable to drivers
• On a road with no frontage access
• One where traffic speeds would be reduced locally by adjacent speed limits or road
geometry, such as uphill sections, approaching roundabouts, major/minor
intersections where traffic has to yield or stop, and so on
Designers should consider whether the following should be introduced in conjunction

with any Departure:
• Crash prevention measures; for safety fencing, increased skidding resistance

• Warning signs and road markings to alert the driver to the layout ahead
Designers should have regard for the traffic flows carried by the link. High flows may
carry a greater risk of queues and standing traffic approaching intersections in the peak
period. Conversely, lower flows might encourage higher speeds.
The road classifications for Qatar are described in Part 2, Planning. The selection of a
design speed is difficult for some roads in the older areas of the city. Those areas are
not so easily classified into land use, and factors such as access and parking must be
assessed in determining the design speed. Other considerations are the number and
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spacing of intersections on a particular section of road. Departures provide a means of

accommodating these areas.
Departures from minimum or maximum values specified for the 16 controlling criteria
may be considered when context, cost, or environmental savings are considered to be
significant, except in the following circumstances:
• Immediately following an overtaking section on undivided roads

• On the immediate approach to an intersection, other than a roundabout, where
frequent turning traffic will occur.
1.2.4 Special Considerations

The posted speed for local roads in residential, commercial, and recreational areas is
50 kph but may be reduced to 30 kph in areas of high pedestrian activity, or where the
local roads are provided for access only. Part 2, Planning, identifies circumstances on
lower category urban roads where the 30 kph posted speed should be applied.
The lower design speeds of 50 kph and 30 kph applied in urban areas do not require
transitions or superelevation on bends. Refer to Section 3.3 and Section 3.4.
One-way roads may be used on local roads for access, usually in the form of discrete
loops. One-way roads should be designed so as not to encourage speeding. This may
be achieved by the use of narrower roadway lanes, avoiding long tangent sections of
road, and implementing traffic calming measures. Refer to Part 23, Design and
Operations for Road Safety.
Care shall be taken to ensure that traffic calming measures being introduced do not
impede emergency service vehicles.
1.3 Sustainability
The key sustainability principles for highway design in Qatar are summarized in Part 1,
Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, and Part 21, Environmental. Early consideration
of potential impacts and how the design can help to avoid or minimize them is a key
principle to be followed. Sustainable design should minimize the need for design
rework and achieve optimal economic feasibility considering costs over the whole asset
life, including costs that may be incurred from changes to traffic volumes, urbanization,
user types, and environmental conditions. The design should consider, from the earliest
stages, opportunities to design out adverse environmental and social impacts and how
enhancements can be incorporated. Regarding the design of roadways, roadway
elements, and intersections, designers should consider the following issues. See also
Part 21, Environmental.
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• Water use: Designers should consider the requirements for water use during
construction and how designs can be optimized to avoid or minimize the need for
water.
• Soil erosion and contamination: The design should minimize soil erosion,
windblown sand, and contamination during construction and operation. Where
possible, the road should avoid areas likely to lead to erosion and contamination
impacts, such as sabkha, sand dunes, and contaminated land. Natural vegetation
should be used as a natural barrier to sand movement where possible.
• Material use and resource efficiency: Designs should minimize the quantity of raw
materials required and when specifying materials or setting technical specifications.
Designers should give due consideration to incorporating sustainable materials into
their designs, such as locally sourced, reused, or recycled materials, or low
embodied energy/ carbon materials. The design should be optimized to minimize
waste during construction and maintenance.
• Climate change adaptation: Designers should ensure that consideration is given to
the potential impacts of climate change on roadways and that resilience is built into
their design for issues such as increased temperatures, rainfall intensity, sea level
rise, and erosion control.
• Provision for sustainable transport: Designers should consider the needs of and
make suitable provisions for both nonmotorized and public transport users in terms
of accessing the road network crossing the roadway, in order to avoid severance
impacts. Where roadways are unsuitable for nonmotorized users, the design should
consider incorporating segregated pathways for bicycle users. Intersections should
be made safe and usable to nonmotorized users to avoid severance.
• Air quality: Designers should take measures to ensure that operational air quality
impacts are minimized through design. Road alignment, traffic management to
control speed and to encourage specific traffic behavior, landscaping, gradients,
cross-slope roads, and corner angles affecting speeds and flows should all be
considered. Roadways should be integrated with the public transport network, and
pedestrian and bike access should be provided.
• Noise: Designers should consider routing alignments to maximize the distance
between receptors and the roadway. Where sensitive receptors are affected by a
roadway, the design should incorporate adequate mitigation measures to reduce
traffic noise through the specification of low-noise surfacing materials or of
environmental barriers.
• Visual impact and landscape design: Landscape design should minimize the visual
impact of the road and seek to enhance the visual amenity value of the area where
possible.
• Ecology and biodiversity: Roadway design should minimize ecological and
biodiversity effects within the roadway corridor and optimize opportunities for
enhancement through landscaping or planting strategies for example. Severance of
wildlife corridors and fragmentation should be mitigated through design
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• Operational energy use: Energy-consuming equipment required to fulfil a function

of the roadway should be specified to maximize energy efficiency in use. Designers
should incorporate opportunities for micro-renewable energy generation co-
located with equipment requiring an energy demand.
• Safety: It is important to ensure that design characteristics, such as stopping sight
distance, curve radius, lane width, and superelevation, are commensurate with the
speed limit of the road. The characteristics of the road determine the safety of the
speed limit and the degree to which road users will accept the speed limit. See
Part 23, Design and Operation of Road Safety.
• Archaeology and cultural heritage: Roadway design should optimize the
protection, preservation, and enhancement of sites of archaeological or cultural
value by routing so as to avoid them where possible and to optimize horizontal and
vertical alignments in order to avoid or minimize severance and visual and noise
intrusion impacts.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
2 Sight Distance
A fundamental principle of road design is that the driver should be able to see the
roadway and its environment sufficiently in advance of the vehicle such that the driver
can maneuver and/or change speeds while maintaining full control of the vehicle. The
term sight distance expresses this fundamental principle. Sight distance is the
continuous length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Drivers should be
able to see far enough ahead to safely and efficiently perform any carry out any legal
maneuvers. They should have sufficient view of the road to safely avoid conflicts that
may occur.
2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance

The four important maneuvers drivers undertake form the basis for the design for sight
distance in Qatar:
1. Stopping Sight Distance: applicable on all roadways

2. Passing Sight Distance: applicable on two lane undivided roadways
3. Decision Sight Distance: applicable on urban and rural roads where road users
have to make complex decisions, for example exiting at interchanges
4. Intersection Sight Distance: applicable at all intersections
Simple operational models are used to compute design values for each type of sight
distance. Each model employs assumptions for the basic parameters describing the
assumed location of a driver’s eye, and the assumed type and location of an object or
feature that characterizes or controls the design maneuver.
The criteria and models applied to roads in Qatar are based on the latest research
(National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP] Report 383, 1996 and
NCHRP Report 400, Fambro et al., 1997) and its application to design criteria in other
national design manuals and policies, such as the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DMRB; Department for Transport, 2002).
Two critical features to be considered while evaluating sight distances are object height
and eye height. Eye height is 1.08 m for all sight distances. Object height is 0.6 m for
stopping and decision sight distance and 1.08 m for intersection and passing sight
distance. These heights are in reference to the passenger cars. For large trucks eye
height varies from 1.8 m to 2.4 m with a recommended value of 2.3 m.
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2.2 Stopping Sight Distance

Roads should be designed such that a driver operating a passenger car proceeding at
design speed should be able to perceive an object of sufficient size to represent a risk
if struck, and brake to a full stop in a reasonable manner thus avoiding collision with
the object. This statement expresses what is referred to as stopping sight distance
(SSD).
2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters

The SSD model is based on human factors research and the capabilities of vehicles. The
following parameters are used (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011a):
• Height of driver’s eye – 1.08 m

• Height of object in road – 0.6 m
• Driver perception and reaction time – 2.5 seconds (sec)
• Driver brake response – deceleration at 3.4 m/s2
The driver eye height is exceeded by the majority of vehicles in the common fleet. The
height of the object is based on the taillights of a vehicle. The background on this model
is described in (NCHRP 400, 1997).
SSD design values are calculated as the sum of the two distances representing driver
brake reaction distance and vehicle braking distance. Brake perception and reaction
distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle from the instant the driver detects the
object on the roadway and then applies the brake. Braking distance is the distance
traveled by the vehicle from the instant the brake is applied to where the vehicle comes
to complete stop under the assumed deceleration rate. The following equation is used
to calculate SSD.
SSD = Brake Reaction Distance + Braking Distance
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
SSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝒂
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m,
V = design speed, kph,
t = brake perception and reaction time, 2.5 seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s2
2.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Values

Table 2.1 lists the recommended computed stopping sight distance design values.
These apply on grades of less than 3 percent. The values shown are minimum values.
Table 2.1 provides SSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in
even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design
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speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less than
3 Percent
Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Brake Reaction Braking Distance
Design Speed (kph) Distance (m) (m) Calculated (m) Design (m)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
140 97.3 224.8 322.1 325
Note:
Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process.
Source: AASHTO, 2011a.
In general, terrain in Qatar is flat and the SSD design values in Table 2.1 meet the
requirements for level roads with grades less than 3 percent. For grades steeper than
3 percent, the SSD design values could be calculated using the formula shown below
(AASHTO, 2011a).
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
SSD = 0.278 Vt + 0.039� 𝒂𝒂 �
� �±𝑮𝑮
𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m
V = design speed, kph
t = brake reaction time, 2.5 seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s
G = grade, m/m
Roadway geometry that limits the available sight distance includes both vertical
alignment and combinations of horizontal alignment and roadside obstructions. Design
parameters for SSD are thus required for all three dimensions. On a tangent roadway,
driver’s line of sight may be limited by the vertical alignment of the roadway surface,
specifically at crest vertical curves. On horizontal curves, the line of sight may be limited
by obstructions outside the traveled way, such as bridge piers, retaining walls, bridge
approach fill slopes, concrete barriers, guardrails, buildings, back slopes in cut areas,
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etc. Providing SSD thus requires analysis and design in both horizontal and vertical
planes.
2.2.3 Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance

Horizontal sight lines are based on an assumed location of the driver’s eye within the
roadway or lane. The sight line on a horizontal curve is defined by a chord, which
assumes the eye location is centered on the travel lane, and the object is a point
centered in the road along the curve. The SSD is measured along the centerline of the
lane, as shown in Figure 2.1.
To provide for the SSD as measured along the center of the lane, the sight line chord
must not be obstructed by a feature outside the traveled way. The design process
involved the calculation of what is referred to as the horizontal offset (HO), which is the
radial dimension from the center of the lane to the limiting sight obstructing feature.
Design for the horizontal offset to the obstruction is calculated using the following
formula.
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝑺𝑺
HO = R�𝟏𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 � ��
𝑹𝑹
Or the SSD can be calculated for a given horizontal offset using the formula
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹 − 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯
S= �𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 −𝟏𝟏 � ��
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑹𝑹
where
S = stopping sight distance, m
HO = horizontal offset measured from the centerline of inside lane, m
R = radius to centerline of inside lane
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28.65𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝑅𝑅 �1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � �� 𝑆𝑆 = �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 � ��
𝑅𝑅 28.65 𝑅𝑅
Where:
HO = Offset to the sight
obstruction measured from
centerline of inside lane, m
S = Stopping sight
distance along the curve, m
R = Radius of the
centerline of inside lane, m

Figure 2.1 Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance
HSSD should be provided for the entire length of the curve and both directions of travel.
The most critical case for a two-lane road will involve the travel lane on the inside of
the curve.
The formula to calculate HO produces exact results when the length of the curve is
greater than the required SSD, in which case both the driver eye location and the point
obstruction are within the limits of the horizontal curve. If the required SSD is greater
than the length of the curve, either the vehicle or the obstruction will be outside the
limits of the horizontal curve. In these cases, the values for HO produced by the formula
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are approximate and may be slightly greater than required and in many cases, it may
not be significant. In these instances and when horizontal alignment consists of
combination of spirals, curves and tangents, HO can determined graphically.
An obstruction to SSD may be a point location (as shown in Figure 2.1) or a continuous
obstruction such as a retaining wall concentric with the curve.
2.2.4 Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance

Vertical restrictions to SSD on crest and sag vertical curves. The most common
restriction is a crest vertical curve as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The SSD design
parameters for eye height and object height noted above define the sight line which
the crest curve should provide.
Chapter 4 provides details on design lengths for vertical curvature to provide the
necessary sight lines for SSD.
Figure 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
Vertical restriction, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, on sag vertical curves depends on the
ability of the driver to see the roadway surface from the beams of headlights at
nighttime with the following assumptions:
• Height of the head light: 0.6 m

• Height of the object: 0 m
• 1 degree upward divergence of headlight beam
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Figure 2.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve
2.3 Passing Sight Distance

Two-lane rural highways may be designed to enable the ability of drivers to pass slower
vehicles using the opposing traffic lane. The concept of Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
expresses the length of sight line required for a driver to affect a passing maneuver
without coming into conflict with oncoming traffic. It applies only to two-lane undivided
roadways where the fast moving vehicles overtake slow moving vehicles. PSD is the
distance required for a driver to observe the oncoming vehicle traveling in the opposing
direction and to complete the passing maneuver safely without conflict with the
opposing vehicle.
Derivation of design values for PSD is based on a three-step model shown in Figure 2.4.
The model assumes the passing vehicle (passenger car) accelerates to design speed, and
the speed of the vehicle being passed (passenger car) is traveling at the design speed,
while the approaching vehicle (passenger car) traveling in the opposing direction at design
speed.
Figure 2.4 Passing Maneuver
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D1 shows the distance required to complete the passing maneuver by vehicle A. D2 shows
the distance traveled by vehicle B in the opposing lane as vehicle A overtakes vehicle C.
D3 shows the distance required between the opposing vehicles at the end of the
passing maneuver. PSD is sum of the distances D1, D2, and D3. Distances are calculated
using the formulas below. Source: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (2002).
D1 = 0.85 × t × V
D2 = t × V and
D3 = D2/5
PSD = D1+D2+D3 = 2.05 × t × V
where
PSD = passing sight distance, m
t = time to complete the passing maneuver, 10 sec
V = design speed, m/sec
Table 2.2 lists the passing sight distance design values. Minimum values are shown.
Where practical consider using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.2 provides
PSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph
increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional
classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design speed
other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure
process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.2 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways

Design Speed (kph) Passing Sight Distance (m)
20 120
30 180
40 250
50 290
60 345
70 410
80 460
90 520
100 580
110 630
120 690
130 *
140 *
Note:
* Not recommended for facilities with design speeds greater than 120 kph
Source: Department of Transport, 2002
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The provision for PSD is not a design requirement; rather, its presence influences the
capacity of the road. The Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual
(2010) describes methods for determining the capacity of two-lane rural highways. One
of the parameters is the percentage of highway in which passing can occur. This would
be the length of a road’s alignment in which PSD is available divided by its total length.
PSD is measured using both an eye height and object height of 1.08 m. For design of
crest and sag vertical curves using PSD, refer to Chapter 4. PSD should be checked in
both horizontal and vertical plane. Procedures provided in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1
and 2.2.2 can be used to check the available sight distance by substituting PSD for SSD
and using object height of 1.08 m.
2.4 Decision Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance design requirement is provision for SSD. The SSD model is
simple and expresses one specific driver action, which is braking in response to an
object in the road.
The operating environment presents many other challenges to human drivers that are
more complex, require more time, and involve different maneuvers or actions. Such
maneuvers involve decision-making by the driver. The concept of decision sight
distance (DSD) expresses the sight line to be provided a driver in advance of roadway
conditions that require decision-making and then other maneuvers. Lengths of DSD are
much longer than SSD given 1) decision-making takes longer time and 2) driver
resultant maneuvers are different.
The decision sight distance (DSD) provides the additional length needed by the drivers
to reduce the likelihood for error in perceiving the necessary information, making a
decision, and executing the maneuver. Providing DSD is not a requirement, but
consideration should be given in providing DSD at certain critical locations along the
roadway. The following are examples of conditions for which designers should consider
providing DSD in advance of the condition:
• Exit and entrance ramps at the interchanges

• Left-hand exits on freeways or expressways
• High-speed roadway diverge and merge areas
• Change in cross section of the roadway, as in lane drops
• At-grade railroad crossings
• Signalized intersection on the downstream end of a crest vertical curves
The derivation of DSD includes two basic types of maneuvers: stop and speed, path, or
direction change. The derivation also considers the context of the road (rural, suburban,
and urban) which reflects driver expectations. The calculation of DSD depends on the
design speed, type of roadway urban or rural and the type of avoidance maneuver needed
to negotiate. QHDM adopts AASHTO’s definitions for the five avoidance maneuvers:
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• Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road

• Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road
• Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed, path, or direction change on rural road
• Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed, path, or direction change on suburban road
• Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed, path, or direction change on urban road
Table 2.3 provides DSD values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the
basis of design. Table 2.3 provides DSD values for a full range of potential selected
design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific
values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
functional classification through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures
The DSD values in Table 2.3 are determined using the following equations. For
avoidance maneuvers A and B the equation is:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
DSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂
For avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E the equation is
DSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

where
DSD = decision stopping sight distance, m
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s2
t = pre-maneuver time, seconds and varies with the avoidance maneuver
t = 3 seconds for avoidance maneuver A
t = 9.1 seconds for avoidance maneuver B
t = varies between 10.2 and 11.2 seconds for avoidance maneuver C
t = varies between 12.1 and 12.9 seconds for avoidance maneuver D
t = varies between 14.1 and 14.5 seconds for avoidance maneuver E
The longer distances associated with urban conditions reflects the more complex,
visually cluttered urban environment.
The application of DSD is encouraged. As it is not a specific requirement, choosing not

to provide DSD does not require a Departure.
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Table 2.3 Decision Sight Distance

Decision Sight Distance (m) for Avoidance Maneuver
Design Speed (kph) A B C D E
50 70 155 145 170 195
60 95 195 170 205 235
70 115 235 200 235 275
80 140 280 230 270 315
90 170 325 270 315 360
100 200 370 315 355 400
110 235 420 330 380 430
120 265 470 360 415 470
130 305 525 390 450 510
140 345 580 420 490 550
Note:
2.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Drivers approaching and proceeding through intersections require sufficient sight lines
to appropriately complete their maneuvers. Intersection sight distance (ISD) is a critical
design element of intersection design. ISD is the distance required for a driver
approaching an intersection to see the traffic on the intersecting roadway in order to
safely cross or make a left or right turn on to the intersecting roadway. When two
roadways intersect, numerous traffic movements occur that can create more vehicular
conflicts. Providing adequate ISD at the intersection reduces the likelihood of such
conflicts.
The driver approaching the intersection should have a clear view of the entire
intersection and along the intersecting roadway to make the intended maneuver safely.
ISD is determined by using the same principles as SSD, but it incorporates an additional
element; driver behavior at the intersection.
Sight lines for ISD involve varying driver positions along one road, and the object being
avoided – another vehicle on the crossing road. These lines define what are referred to
as sight triangles.
Sight triangles are employed in establishing the ISD. In general, for a typical intersection
with four approaches, there are four quadrants. The sight line establishes a triangular
wedge in each quadrant between the intersection roadways, called sight triangles. The
sight triangles should be clear of obstructions that may block a driver’s view of conflicting
vehicles on the intersecting roadway. The triangle legs shown in Figure 2.5 should be long
enough that drivers approaching the intersection from the two intersecting roadways can
see each other to avoid collision and make the intended maneuver safely.
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In Qatar most intersections are priority intersections (three-intersections) with yield

control on the minor approach. Four-legged intersections are rare and designed
infrequently. For ISD sight triangle illustration purposes and to capture all possible
maneuvers, through, left and right from the minor street, a four-legged intersection is
chosen as an example.
The sight line defining ISD in both horizontal and vertical plane is based on an eye height
and object height of 1.08 m.
The dimensions of the sight triangles depend on the design speed of the major
roadway, type of intersection control (uncontrolled, yield control, stop control or signal
control). QHDM adopts the AASHTO procedures to determine ISD for the following
types of traffic control:
• Case A: Intersections with no control

• Case B: Intersections with stop control on the minor road
− B1: Left turn from the minor road
− B2: Right turn from the minor road
− B3: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
• Case C: Intersection with yield control on the minor road
− C1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
− C2: Left or right turn from the minor road
• Case D: Intersections with traffic signal control
• Case E: Intersection with all-way stop
• Case F: Left turns from the major road
2.5.1 Case A: Intersections with No Control

Case A may be applicable for low volume and low speed intersecting roadways that are
not controlled by yield signs, stop signs, or traffic signals. Figure 2.5 illustrates the sight
triangles on the major road and the minor road. Distances “a1” and “a2” are from the
major road to the decision point, location of driver’s eye, along the minor road. The
decision point is the point where the driver on the minor road has a clear view of the
intersection and the vehicles approaching the intersection from the major road. The
decision point is represented by the vertex of the sight triangle as shown on Figure 2.5
on the minor road. At the decision point the driver approaching the intersection from
the minor road makes the decision whether to slow down and stop or make the
intended maneuver, left, right or through without stopping. Distance “b” is the required
sight distance along the major road. Distance a2 is equal to a1 plus the additional width
as required. Case A should be used only if authorized by the Overseeing Organization.
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Table 2.4 shows values for “a1” and “b” along the minor and major approaches. The
values shown are minimum values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the
basis of design. Table 2.4 provides ISD values for a range of potential selected design
speeds in even 10 kph increments, from 20 kph to 80 kph. By policy design, speeds are
limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1,
Chapter 1. Designers may, however, select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.5 provides the factors for the approach grade adjustments.
Figure 2.5 Sight Triangles (Uncontrolled and Yield Controlled)
Table 2.4 Length of the Sight Triangle Legs, for Intersections with No Control
Design Speed (kph) Length of Legs “a1” and “b” (m)
20 20
30 25
40 35
50 45
60 55
70 65
80 75
Notes:
1. For approach grades greater than 3 percent, multiply the sight distance values in this table by the
appropriate adjustment factor from Table 2.5.
2. Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Part 25,
Departures from Standards Process.
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Table 2.5 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance Based on Approach
Grade
Design Speed (kph)
Approach
Grade (%) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
-6 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-5 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
-3 to +3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
+4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Source: AASHTO, 2011a
For an intersection to be considered compliant with the ISD values, the area within the
sight triangle should be clear of obstructions. This enables each driver approaching the
intersection to see the other, adjust speeds accordingly, and negotiate the intended
maneuver without a conflict.
2.5.2 Case B: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road

For intersection with stop control on minor roads, sight triangles should be checked for
the following scenarios:
• Case B1: Left turn from minor road

• Case B2: Right turn from minor road
• Case B3: Crossing the major road from minor road
2.5.2.1 Case B1: Left Turn from Minor Road
Figure 2.6 shows the sight triangles at stop controlled intersections. The decision point
represents the position of the driver’s eye on the minor road where the vehicle is
stopped before carrying out the intended maneuver. The distance to the decision point
from the edge of the major road traveled way should be at least 4.4 m; 5.4 m is
desirable. Distances “a1” and “a2” are from the major road centerline of the lanes to
the decision point (location of driver’s eye) along the minor road as shown in Figure 2.6.
Distance b is the required sight distance along the major road. Distance “a2” is equal to
“a1” plus the additional width as required. Minimum length “a1” is equal to 4.4 m plus
the width of pavement from the edge of the major road traveled way to the centerline
of the lane as shown in Figure 2.6 and desirable is equal to 5.4 m plus the width of
pavement from the edge of the major road traveled way to the centerline of the lane
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Figure 2.6 Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled)
ISD required on the major road is calculated using the following equation (AASHTO,
2011a):
b = ISD = 0.278x Vmajor × tg
where
ISD = intersection sight distance
Vmajor = design speed on the major road, kph
tg = time gap for minor road vehicle to enter the major road, seconds; tg depends
on the design vehicle and also number of lanes on the major roadway and the
values in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Time Gap—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop

Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road (seconds)
Passenger car 7.5
Single unit truck 9.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 11.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn left on to a two-lane highway with no median and with grades of
3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follows:
– For multilane highways—For left turns on to two-way highways with more than two lanes, add
0.5 second for passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane, from the left, in excess
of one, to be crossed by the turning vehicle.
– For minor road approach grades—if the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add 0.2
second for each percent grade for left turns.
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Table 2.7 lists ISD values. The values shown are minimum values; where practical,
consider using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.7 provides ISD values for a
full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown
in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.7 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger Cars (m)
20 20 45
30 35 65
40 50 85
50 65 105
60 85 130
70 105 150
80 130 170
90 160 190
100 185 210
110 220 230
120 250 255
130 285 275
140 325 295
Note:
2.5.2.2 Case B2: Right Turn from Minor Road
ISD is required on the major road for the case in which a vehicle is turning right from a
stop condition from the minor road. The ISD is calculated using the same equation as
that used for Case B1, with tg values as given in Table 2.8. Table 2.9 shows the ISD
values. The values shown are minimum values. Where practical, consider using higher
values as the basis of design. Table 2.9 provides ISD values for a full range of potential
selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited
to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
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Table 2.8 Time Gap—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3,
Crossing Maneuver
Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road
Design Vehicle (seconds)
Passenger car 6.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 10.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn right on to or to cross a two-lane highway with no median and
with grades of 3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follow:
– For multilane highways—For crossing a major road with more than two lanes, add 0.5 second for
passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed and for narrow
medians that cannot store the design vehicle.
– For minor road approach grades—If the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add
0.1 second for each percent grade for left turns.
Table 2.9 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and
Case B3, Crossing Maneuver
Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger Cars
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) (m) ‘b’
20 20 40
30 35 55
40 50 75
50 65 95
60 85 110
70 105 130
80 130 145
90 160 165
100 185 185
110 220 200
120 250 220
130 285 235
140 325 255
Note:
2.5.2.3 Case B3: Crossing Maneuver from Minor Road
In most instances, the ISD provided for right turns from the minor street is adequate to
cross the major street. However, in the following cases consider checking the ISD:
• Where the crossing maneuver is the only maneuver allowed from the approach
• Crossing six or more lanes of major street
• When truck percentages are high, and the minor road is on a steep upgrade
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Table 2.9 shows the ISD values. Designers should adjust values as needed based on the
minor approach grade and the number of lanes on the major road.
2.5.3 Case C: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road

The most prevalent condition in Qatar is a priority intersection with yield control for
the minor road. For intersections with yield control on minor roads, sight triangles
should be checked for two scenarios:
• C1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road

• C2: Left or right turn from the minor road
Most intersections in Qatar are priority intersections (T-intersections) with yield control
and the drivers approaching the intersection can make the intended maneuver (either
left or right) without stopping if there are no conflicting traffic on the major road. There
is no crossing maneuver on priority intersections, but guidance is provided in
determining the ISD for a crossing maneuver (crossing major road) at four legged
intersections. See Figure 2.5 for the sight triangles and approaches.
2.5.3.1 Case C1: Crossing maneuver from minor road
ISD provided for the vehicle on the major road should allow the minor road vehicle to
travel from the decision point to the intersection, cross, and clear the intersection
safely. ISD on the major road is calculated using the following equation:
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along major road, m
Vmajor = design speed on major road, kph
tg = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach and clear the major road; tg
is calculated using the following equation:
𝒘𝒘+𝑳𝑳𝒂𝒂
tg = ta+
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
where
ta = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach the major road from the
decision point without stopping, sec
w = width of the intersection to be crossed, m
La = length of design vehicle, m
– Passenger car (P) = 5.79 m
– Single unit truck (SU-9) = 9.14 m
– City bus = 12.19 m
– Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12) = 13.87 m
Vminor = design speed on the minor road, kph
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The length of the minor road approach leg, the time to travel from the decision point to
the intersection, and the time gap, tg are shown in Table 2.10. Table 2.11 lists the length
of the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds. Table 2.10
and Table 2.11 provide values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in
even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
Table 2.10 Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches,

Length of Minor Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point
Minor Road Approach
Travel Time, tgc
Design Speed (kph) Length of Lega (m) Travel Time, taa,b (seconds) (seconds)
20 20 3.2 7.1
30 30 3.6 6.5
40 40 4.0 6.5
50 55 4.4 6.5
60 65 4.8 6.5
70 80 5.1 6.5
80 100 5.5 6.5
90 115 5.9 6.8
100 135 6.3 7.1
110 155 6.7 7.4
120 180 7.0 7.7
130 205 7.4 8.0
140 230 7.7 8.5
Note:
aFor minor road approach grades that exceed 3 percent, multiply the distance to the time in this table by
the appropriate factor from Table 2.5.

bTravel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.
cValues shown are for a passenger car crossing a two-lane highway with no median and with grades ≤3%.
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Table 2.11 Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case C1, Crossing
Maneuver from Yield Controlled Intersections
Major Road Design Values Minor Road Design Speed (m)
Design SSD
Speed (kph) (m) 20 30–80 90 100 110 120 130 140
20 20 40 40 40 40 45 45 45 50
30 35 60 55 60 60 65 65 70 75
40 50 80 75 80 80 85 90 90 95
50 65 100 95 95 100 105 110 115 120
60 85 120 110 115 120 125 130 135 145
70 105 140 130 135 140 145 150 160 165
80 130 160 145 155 160 165 175 180 190
90 160 180 165 175 180 190 195 205 215
100 185 200 185 190 200 210 215 225 240
110 220 220 200 210 220 230 240 245 260
120 250 240 220 230 240 250 260 270 285
130 285 260 235 250 260 270 280 290 310
140 325 280 255 265 280 290 300 315 335
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25,
2. Values in the table are for passenger cars and for grades 3 percent or less.
2.5.3.2 Case C2: Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers
Refer to Figure 2.5 for sight triangles. The ISD provided for the vehicle on the major
road should allow the minor road vehicle to travel from the decision point to the
intersection and make the intended maneuvers, left or right safely.
The length of the sight triangle leg on the minor approach is 25 m for both right and left
turns. The distance is established on the assumption that the left and right turns will
slow down to 16 kph without stopping to make the appropriate turn.
The length of the sight triangle on the major approach is calculated using the following
equation and the critical gap time listed in the Table 2.12.
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along the major road, m
Vmajor = Design Speed on the major road, kph
tg = travel time for the vehicle on the minor road to reach and turn right or left;
for tg values refer to Table 2.12
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Table 2.12 Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from
Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)
Passenger car 8.0
Combination truck 12.0
Note:
Time values shown are for a vehicle to turn left or right on to a two-lane highway with no median. The
values should be adjusted for multilane highways as follows:
– For right turns no adjustment is required.
– For left turns add 0.5 seconds for Passenger car or 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane.
Length of the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds are
shown in Table 2.13. Table 2.13 provides values for a full range of potential selected
design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy design speeds are limited to specific
values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. Designers
may, however, select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
Table 2.13 Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case C2, Left or Right
Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) Length of Leg, b (m)
20 20 45
30 35 70
40 50 90
50 65 115
60 85 135
70 105 160
80 130 180
90 160 205
100 185 225
110 220 245
120 250 270
130 285 290
140 325 315
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25,
2. ISD shown for passenger cars making right or left without stopping on to a two-lane highway.
2.5.4 Case D: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control

No sight triangle analysis is needed for intersections with traffic signal control. ISD at the
intersections with traffic signal control is straight-forward; the first vehicle stopped at one
approach should be able to see the other vehicles stopped on the other approaches.
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2.5.5 Case E: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control

ISD at the intersections with all-way stop control is similar to the Intersections with
traffic signal control. The first vehicle stopped at one approach should be able to see
the other vehicles stopped on the other approaches.
2.5.6 Case F: Left Turns from Major Road

Adequate ISD should be provided for the left turning vehicles from the major road,
when permitted, regardless of the type of traffic control. The ISD provided should be
based on a stopped vehicle selecting the appropriate gap in the opposing traffic and
completing the maneuver, as demonstrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Left Turns from Major Roads
Table 2.14 shows the time gap for the left turns from the major road and Table 2.15 show
the ISD values required for the vehicles to turn left from major road. The values shown in
the Table 2.15 are for passenger cars turning left from two-lane undivided major road.
Adjust the time and the ISD accordingly if an above average percentage of longer vehicle
are anticipated. Table 2.15 provides values for a full range of potential selected design
speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values
for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select
a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
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Table 2.14 Time Gap for Case F Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)
Passenger Car 5.5

Single-Unit Truck 6.5
Combination Truck 7.5
Note:
For left-turning vehicles that cross more than one opposing lane, add 0.5 second for passenger cars and
0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed.
Table 2.15 Intersection Sight Distance—Case F, Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) ISD (m)
20 20 35
30 35 50
40 50 65
50 65 80
60 85 95
70 105 110
80 130 125
90 160 140
100 185 155
110 220 170
120 250 185
130 285 200
140 325 215
Note:
2.6 Special Considerations

ISD should be provided at all intersections. If ISD cannot be provided because of
environmental or right-of-way constraints, SSD should be provided at least on the major
road along with additional safety measures, such as advance warning signs or reduced
speed limit zones at the intersection area. The ISD criteria should also be applied to all
private accesses and driveways along the highways.
The ISD criteria should also be applied to all private accesses and driveways along the
highways.
Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, provides the sight distance criterion for roundabouts.
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2.7 Departures
SSD is a controlling criterion subject to a Departure if not provided, If the required SSD
cannot be provided for the given design speed, a Departure shall be required, per the
process noted in Part 25, Departures and Standards Process.
PSD, DSD, and ISD are not subject to the Departure process.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
3 Horizontal Alignment
This chapter provides guidance for the design of horizontal alignments and their
components, such as horizontal curvature, superelevation, traveled way widening on
horizontal curves and horizontal clearance for SSD.
Horizontal alignment consists of combination of straight lines called “tangents” and

arcs called “curves.” Horizontal curves are circular. They are introduced between the
tangents to eliminate the abrupt deflection and to provide smooth transition between
them.
In order to attain a consistent smooth flowing and aesthetically pleasing horizontal

alignment, consideration should be given to the following practices:
• Alignment design should be consistent with topography and be as directional as

possible while preserving community values.
• Use of minimum design criteria should be avoided wherever practical.
• Use of compound curves on high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher,
should be avoided and if possible replace it with a simple curve.
• Length of the curves should be long enough to avoid the appearance of a kink.
• On high and long embankments, avoid using sharper curves.
• On high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher, where reverse curves
are used sufficient length of tangent between the reverse curves should be
provided to accommodate the change in superelevation.
• Should be consistent with the design of the vertical alignment.
3.1 Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals

Simple Curve: The simple horizontal curve is an arc of a circle, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Three geometric elements define the circular curve – the radius, central angle, and
length of curve. Establishing any two these elements defines the third.
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Source: Illinois Department of Transportation, 2014

Figure 3.1 Simple Curve Elements
Spiral: The spiral is a transition curve mathematically defined as a curve with radius
decreasing or increasing at a constant rate, as shown in Figure 3.2. The purpose of the
spiral is to facilitate the transitioning of drivers and vehicles in moving between
tangents and circular curve.
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Figure 3.2 Simple Curve with Spirals
3.2 Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents

Designers establish a horizontal alignment using combinations of simple curves and
tangents as shown in Figure 3.3 through Figure 3.5.
A compound curve is two simple curves with different radii “back to back”. When
compound curves are used in open alignment, the larger radius should desirably be no
more than 1.5 times the smaller radius. The use of compound curves for intersection
design for larger vehicles minimizes the pavement area to enable off tracking.
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Figure 3.3 Compound Curve
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Figure 3.4 shows what is referred to as a broken-back curve in which two curves with
bearings in the same direction are separated by a relatively short tangent. Their use
should be determined case by case.
Figure 3.4 Broken Back Curve
Figure 3.5 shows reverse curves, in which the alignment of the second curve is in the
opposite direction of the first curve. Reverse curves without a tangent between them
(top part of Figure 3.5) should be avoided by designing the road with a tangent between
the curves as shown in the bottom half of the figure. Drivers operating at design speed
cannot instantaneously change the direction and magnitude of their steering response,
which is the action required in a reverse curve.
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Figure 3.5 Reverse Curve
3.3 General Design Considerations
3.3.1 Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve

Horizontal curves are introduced between tangents to eliminate the abrupt deflections
and provide smooth transition between the two tangents. For small deflection angles
between the tangents, it may be appropriate to design the alignment without a
horizontal curve. As a guide, the designer may use maximum deflection of 1 degree
without a horizontal curve on lower speed roads in urban areas and 0.5 degree on
higher speed roads in rural areas
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3.3.2 Minimum Curve Lengths

If horizontal curves are used for small deflection angles, curves should be long enough
to avoid the appearance of a “kink.” Minimum curve length for an aesthetically pleasing
curve should be at least three times the design speed (Lmin = 3V). Desirable curve length
on freeways and expressways is six times the design speed (Ldes = 6V).
Lmin = 3V
and
Ldes = 6V
where
Lmin = Minimum length of the curve, m
Ldes = Desirable length of the curve, m
V = Design speed, kph
On roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph, if the minimum curve length
(Lmin = 3V) cannot be attained because of right-of-way or topographic constraints,
designers may apply a minimum length of 150 m for a deflection angle of 5 degrees,
with the minimum length increased by 30 m for each 1 degree decrease in deflection
or the greatest attainable length should be used.
3.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation

Cross slope is defined as the transverse slope across the pavement from the centerline
of an undivided roadway or the edge of the median of an divided roadway to the edge
of the traveled way or the face of the curb. Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent.
Horizontal curve design employs the use of superelevation, which is the banking of the
roadway to counterbalance the centripetal forces on the driver and vehicle as they
traverse the curve. When a vehicle traverses a curve, it is subjected to centripetal
acceleration that acts toward the center of curvature. The centripetal acceleration is
balanced by the component of the vehicle’s weight by banking the roadway. This has
the effect of providing a level of comfort to the driver in traversing the curve, thereby
enabling maintaining speed through the curve.
Horizontal curve design is thus based on providing comfort. Design values reflect
studies of driver behavior in which the vast majority of drivers tracked curves at 0.22 g
or less (where g is the acceleration due to gravity). The combination of curve radius,
superelevation, and lateral acceleration establishes the basis for design.
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QHDM adopts the methodology, from the DMRB (Department for Transport, 2002), for
design of curves and superelevation. The methodology involves the calculating of
superelevation using the following equation:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
S = 𝟐𝟐.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑹𝑹
where
S = superelevation, %
R = radius of curve, m
The maximum superelevation used for roads in Qatar is set by policy to be 5 percent
for most conditions. Superelevation rates on rural and urban roadways shall not exceed
5 percent, except at interchange ramps where 6 percent to 8 percent may be used for
lower ramp design speeds. Provision of superelevation is encouraged on all roadways.
In urban areas where design speeds are less than 50 kph, it may not be practical or
feasible to provide superelevation, so superelevation may be optional.
A curve may be designed with full superelevation, or merely the removal of the adverse
normal slope. Table 3.1 lists the minimum radii for various superelevation rates and
design speeds. It also lists the minimum radius for which superelevation is not required
or adverse crown removal.
Table 3.1 Minimum Radius without Superelevation
Minimum Radius (m)

Design
Without Superelevation Superelevation (%)
Speed
(kph) or Adverse Slope 2 3.5 5 7 8
30 180 160 90 65 45 40
40 360 320 185 130 90 80
50 510 450 255 180 127 115
60 720 640 365 255 180 160
70 1,020 900 510 360 255 not applicable
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 325 not applicable
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 410 not applicable
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 510 not applicable
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 610 not applicable
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 720 not applicable
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 860 not applicable
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 990 not applicable

Note:
Source: DMRB, Department for Transport, 2002.
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Table 3.2 lists values of the superelevation expressed as a percentage of the difference
in elevation between the rotated edges of pavement over the width of pavement. It is
based on the selected design speed and radius of the curve. The values were derived
based on the superelevation equation shown above. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 provide values
for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through the departure process specified
in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 3.2 Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent)
Radius Design Speed (kph)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
2,600 2.3 2.7
2,400 2.1 2.5 2.9
2,200 2.3 2.7 3.2
2,000 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5
1,800 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.9
1,600 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3
1,400 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,200 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,000 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3
800 2.3 2.8 3.6 4.5
600 2.1 3.0 3.8 4.8
400 2.3 3.2 4.5
200 3.2 4.5
100 6.4
80 8.0
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Part 25, Departures
The use of design values for radius of curve and superelevation outside those shown in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 shall require a Departure from standards.
3.5 Superelevation Transition and Spirals

Superelevation transition is the length needed to change the slope of the pavement
from a normal cross slope section to a fully superelevated section. Most simple curves
begin directly at the end of a tangent alignment. The length of the superelevation
transition has two parts:
• Tangent run-out length (TR)

• Superelevation runoff length (LR)
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To achieve full superelevation it is necessary to begin rotating the pavement on the

tangent approach. The tangent run-out is the length required to remove the adverse
pavement cross slope by rotating the outside edge of the traveled way. This cannot be
too abrupt so the driver can adjust to the rotation of the pavement.
Superelevation runoff length is the length required to change the pavement cross slope
from zero percent to the required superelevation rate by rotating the outside edge of
traveled way.
Before calculating the tangent run-out length and the superelevation runoff length, it
is important to establish the axis of rotation and the rate at which the pavement is
rotated to achieve the change in cross slope.
3.5.1 Axis of Rotation

There are four methods available to establish the axis of rotation and to attain the
superelevation transition, as illustrated on Figure 3.6.
• Method 1: Rotating the traveled way about the centerline of the roadway
• Method 2: Rotating the traveled way about the inside edge of the traveled way
• Method 3: Rotating the traveled way about the outside edge of the traveled way
• Method 4: Rotating straight cross slope about the outside edge of the traveled way
Method 1 is the method most commonly used for undivided two-lane roadways. It
could be used for divided roadways where the divided segments are not crowned, for
divided roadways the inside median edge will act as the axis of rotation. Methods 2 and
3 are used on divided highways with a crown in the pavement. Method 4 is the method
most commonly used for divided highways with straight cross slope and for interchange
ramps where there is no crown. All four methods are acceptable.
3.5.2 Rate of Rotation

Rate of rotation is the maximum allowable grade difference between the longitudinal
grades at the axis of rotation and the outside edge of the pavement. The grade
difference is called the maximum relative gradient, which varies based on the design
speeds. QHDM adopts the relative gradient values from AASHTO (2011a). Table 3.3 lists
the relative gradient values.
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Table 3.3 Maximum Relative Gradients
Maximum Relative Gradient Equivalent Maximum Relative

Design Speed (kph) (%) Δ Slope (G Value)
30 0.75 1:125
40 0.70 1:133
50 0.65 1:143
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.5 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
100 0.44 1:227
110 0.41 1:224
120 0.38 1:263
130 0.35 1:286
140 0.32 1:313

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Figure 3.6 Development of Superelevation
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3.5.3 Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths

The superelevation runoff and the tangent run-out are calculated using the equations
in the following sections taken from AASHTO (2011a).
3.5.3.1 Superelevation Runoff Length
Superelevation runoff length is calculated using the following equation:
LR = (ed) × (W) × (G) × (n) × (bw)

where
LR = superelevation runoff length, m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
W = width of one traffic lane, m
G = equivalent maximum relative slope (from Table 3.3)
n = number of traffic lanes rotated
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors for number of lanes rotated are calculated using the following
equation and the calculated values are listed in Table 3.4 from AASHTO (2011a);
examples are shown in Figure 3.7:
[𝟏𝟏+𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓(𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟏)]
bw = 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏
where
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
n1 = number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors listed in Table 3.4 generally apply to undivided roadways with
axis of rotation at the centerline of the roadway. For divided roadways, rotated about
the median edge, and for interchange ramps, the adjustment factor should be 1
regardless how many lanes are rotated.
Providing longer transition lengths may be desirable. However, designers should

establish transition design with consideration of the longitudinal vertical alignment.
The combination of roadway geometry (both horizontal and vertical) and rotation of
the pavement may result in sections of road that are essentially flat and hence will not
drain properly. In these cases, the designer may opt to use the adjustment factors on
the divided roadways to reduce the length of the transition to avoid the flat areas and
still comply with the design criteria.
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Table 3.4 Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated
Number of Lanes Rotated, n1 Adjustment Factor, bw n1 × bw

1 1.00 1.00
1.5 0.83 1.25
2 0.75 1.50
2.5 0.70 1.75
3.0 0.67 2.00
3.5 0.64 2.25
4.0 0.63 2.50
4.5 0.61 2.75
5.0 0.60 3.00
Figure 3.7 Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways
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3.5.3.2 Tangent Run-Out Length
Tangent run-out length is calculated using the following equation.
𝑺𝑺
TR = 𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒏 (𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓 )
𝒅𝒅
where
TR = tangent run-out length, m
Sn = normal cross slope, m/m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
3.5.3.3 Superelevation Transition Length
Superelevation transition length is calculated by adding the superelevation runoff

length and the tangent run-out length.
L = LR + TR
The transition length should have a constant equivalent maximum relative slope
(G value) for the entire length. Superelevation transition creates break points at the
beginning and end of the transition, as shown in Figure 3.8. The break points should be
rounded to obtain smooth edge profiles.
QHDM adopts guidance provided in AASHTO (2011a) in determining the minimum

vertical curve lengths to round the break points. The minimum vertical curve length
should be 20 percent of the design speed of the roadway (in kph).
The designer shall plot the edge of pavement profiles to an exaggerated scale at all
superelevation transition areas to determine any drainage issues and low points and
the profiles should be submitted with the conceptual plans.
3.5.4 Spirals
Spirals are transition curves with radius varying from infinity at the tangent end to the
value of the radius at the curve end. The purpose of the spiral is to provide the
superelevation transition from the tangent to a simple curve, or between simple curves
in a compound curve. In addition, spirals are perceived to promote uniform speeds by
providing the natural turning path of a vehicle and minimizing the encroachment on to
the adjacent lanes.
Spirals are encouraged to be used on all high-speed roadways, design speeds 80 kph
and higher, to facilitate the development of superelevation. The Highway Safety
Manual (AASHTO, 2010) shows that the use of spirals on two-lane rural highways has a
small but significant effect on reducing run-off-road crashes.
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The length of the spiral is calculated using the following equations, and higher value of
the two lengths should be used (Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997).
𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑
Ls = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
or
Ls = LR + TR
where
Ls = Length of the Spiral, m
q = rate of increase of centripetal acceleration,𝑚𝑚� 3 , where q = 0.3 𝑚𝑚� 3
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
R = radius, m
TR = tangent run-out length, m
3.5.5 Positioning of Superelevation Transition

Once the superelevation transition length or the spiral length is calculated, the next
step is how to position the length with respect to the curve beginning and ending. The
following methodology should be applied:
3.5.5.1 Curves without Spirals
For curves without spirals the preferred method is to place two-thirds of superelevation
runoff (LR) on the tangent and one-third on the curve and the tangent run-out length
(TR) be placed ahead of the two-thirds of the superelevation runoff length, as shown in
Figure 3.8.
The ratio of the superelevation runoff length on the tangent and on the curve could be
changed, depending on site conditions and geometrics, such as presence of a bridge
approach or presence of the low point on a sag vertical curve within the limits of the
transition. The maximum superelevation runoff distribution ratio allowed shall be
50 percent on the tangent and 50 percent on the curve with justification.
3.5.5.2 Curves with Spirals
The entire superelevation runoff length shall be placed over the length of the spiral
(between TS and SC) and the tangent run-out is placed on the tangent. See Figure 3.8
for the distribution.
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Figure 3.8 Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways
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3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves

Superelevation transition on compound curves depends on the distance between the
point of curvature (PC) of the first curve and the point of compound curvature (PCC) of
the second curve. Guidance is provided for two-lane roadways for two cases. The same
guidance should be applied for multilane roadways (Illinois Department of
Transportation, 2014 and California Department of Transportation, 2014).
• Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or less

• Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC is greater than 90 m
3.5.6.1 Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or Less
Figure 3.9 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition

length. For Case I provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at the
PC and provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at the PCC. The equivalent
maximum relative slope shall be constant for the entire transition length.

and PCC is less than or equal to 90 m)
3.5.6.2 Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC Greater than 90 m
Figure 3.10 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition

length. For Case 2, provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at
the PC, provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at PCC, and maintain the full
superelevation of curve 1 between the PC and PCC for some distance, before
transitioning to curve 2 design superelevation rate, as shown in the Figure 3.10.
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and PCC is greater than 90 m)
3.5.7 Superelevation on Reverse Curves

Figure 3.11 illustrate the method for development and positioning of superelevation
transition length between reversing curves. The reverse curves should be separated by
adequate tangent length to enable development of superelevation.
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
The preferred tangent length should be equal to 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
At minimum tangent length should be equal to 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
where
Lr1 = superelevation runoff length for curve 1
Lr2 = superelevation runoff length for curve 2
If there is no tangent present the superelevation, runoff shall be positioned such that
zero percent cross-slope is at the point of reverse curvature.
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Figure 3.11 Superelevation between Reverse Curves
3.5.8 Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways

Normal paved shoulder slopes are 2 percent. For two lane roadways, the shoulder
slopes away from the travel lanes. For the divided roadways with open median or raised
median, the left shoulder slopes towards the travel lanes and the right shoulder slopes
away from the travel lanes, see Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13. While developing
superelevation the shoulder slopes are rotated in the same plane as the travel lanes as
shown in the Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13.
A general guidance is also included in Figure 3.14 showing how to treat the shoulders
on divided roadways if the left shoulder is sloping towards the median. In this case, two
critical areas should be evaluated with respect to the shoulders. The areas are high side
of the shoulder and low side of the shoulder.
On the high side of the shoulder, a break occurs between the shoulder and the travel
lane slope since they slope away from each other. For normal cross slope section, the
algebraic difference in slope is 4 percent between the shoulder and the travel lane
(2 percent cross-slope on shoulder and 2 percent cross-slope on travel lanes, sloping
away from each other). Maximum allowed algebraic difference shall not exceed
7 percent. For example if the super elevation is 5 percent, the shoulder slope should be
2 percent sloping away from the travel lanes to maintain the 7 percent break. On the
low side of the shoulder, the slopes of the travel lane and shoulder are the same,
2 percent, and they should be rotated concurrently to achieve the design
superelevation.
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Figure 3.12 shows the application of shoulder sloped for rural freeways and
expressways with wide medians, and Figure 3.13 shows the application of shoulder
slope on arterials and collectors with a raised median.
Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways
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Figure 3.13 Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with Narrow
Medians
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Figure 3.14 Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways (Shoulder

Break Option)
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3.6 Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves

Depending on the design speed, horizontal curvature, width of the traveled way and
the design vehicle used, additional widening may be necessary on horizontal curves to
facilitate the operating conditions of larger vehicles on the curves. On the tangent or
straight sections of the roadway the rear wheels follow or track the front wheels,
however on the curves the rear wheels do not follow or track the front wheels exactly
and hence the vehicle occupies greater width and may need additional widening as
compared to the tangent or straight sections. The width of the additional widening
depends on the following:
• Characteristics of the design vehicle, such as, length, width and turning radius
• Radius of the curvature of the roadway
• Width of the lane on the tangent or straight section
The additional width provided will allow the driver to comfortably maneuver through
the curve without encroaching on the opposing lane or shoulder. The additional widths
for a given design vehicle depend on the design speed and the radius of the curvature.
Widening is expensive and small amounts of widening, less than 0.3 m per lane, are not
cost effective and may be disregarded. Table 3.5 shows the widening criteria.
Table 3.5 Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves

Additional width
Lane width Description per lane(m)
Standard Inside Curve Radius less than or equal to 100 m See Table 3.6
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m
0.3 m
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard Centerline Radius greater than 150 m
None
(3.65 m per lane)
Less than standard (less Inside Curve Radius less or equal to than 100 m
See Table 3.6
than 3.65 m per lane)
Less than standard (less Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m subject
than 3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.9 m for 2 lanes, 0.6
11.9 m for 3 lanes, and 15.8 m for 4 lanes.
Less than standard (less Centerline Radius between 150 m and 300 m subject
than 3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.3 m for 2 lanes, 0.5
Less than standard Centerline Radius between 300 m and 400 m subject
(3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.3 m for 2 lanes, 0.3
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Table 3.6 Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve
Radius less 100 m or Less
Two Lane Width for one way or

Two Way Traffic (excluding
Inside Single Lane Single Lane Width with provision
shoulder width) (m)
Curve Width (excluding for passing a stationary vehicle
Radius Shoulders) (includes shoulder width) Inside Outside
(m) (m) (m) Lane Lane Total
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6

Curves radii less than 100 m can be used on mainline with a departure from standard
and the additional travel lane widening values required are shown in Table 3.6.
Traveled way widening transition on curves should be applied in gradual manner, on

both the approach end and departing end of the curve. The transition should produce
a smooth edge of traveled way alignments and should fit the natural path of the vehicle.
On simple curves without spirals the widening should be placed on the inside edge of
the traveled way. On curves with spirals the widening may be placed either on the
inside edge of the traveled way or split equally on both sides of the centerline.
The distribution of the widening with respect to the, beginning and end of the curve
should be consistent with the application of superelevation transition methodology
specified in Chapter 3.5. For simple curves without spirals the widening should be
developed over the length of superelevation transition. For curves with spirals, the
widening should be developed over the length of the spiral. The centerline marking
after the application of the widening shall be equidistant to the edge of the traveled
ways. Figure 3.15 shows the widening application on two lane roadways.
Widening values obtained from Table 3.5 and Table 3.6 can be checked and adjusted
accordingly using commercially available truck turning template software.
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Figure 3.15 Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves
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3.7 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset

For uncurbed roadways horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as the minimum
distance from the edge of traveled way to the face of the vertical obstruction, see
Figure 3.16. For curbed roadways the horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as
the minimum distance from the face of the curb to the face of a vertical obstruction, see
Figure 3.16. The lateral offset generally applies to urban areas where right-of-way is
limited.
Provision for a sufficient horizontal clearance or lateral offset is intended to negate

conflicts between the opening of car doors, side mirrors of larger trucks and other similar
actions. The design objective is to place roadside elements, such as barriers, bridge piers,
sign and traffic signal supports, trees, landscaping items, and power poles away from the
edge of traveled way.
Minimum lateral offset for uncurbed roadways shall be 1.2 m from the edge of the
traveled way and for curbed roadways; a minimum lateral offset shall be 0.6 m from
the face of the curb. At the curbed intersections and curbed driveway openings, a
minimum lateral offset from the face of the curb to the obstruction shall be 0.9 m.
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset
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3.8 Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections

The width of turning roadways at intersections and interchanges is a function of the
design vehicle, design speed, and the radius of the curvature. Selection of the design
vehicle is based on the type, size, and frequency of vehicles expected to use the
roadway. The width of the turning roadway is determined from the track width of the
design vehicle in combination with the radius of the curvature and the design speeds
that typically range between 20 kph to 30 kph. The roadway width includes the width
of the lane, width of the shoulders or clearances to the face of curb. See table 6.2 in
Part 2, Planning, for details of typical design vehicles.
Width of turning roadways also depends on the operational purposes of the roadway
and design traffic conditions. Operational purposes of the turning roadways include the
following three cases and are illustrated in Figure 3.17;
• Case I: One way operation without provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case II: One way operation with provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case III: Two way operation.
Design traffic conditions are described as follows:
• Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars with few single unit trucks (SU-9
and SU-12).
• Traffic Condition B: Includes sufficient number of single unit trucks (SU-9 and
SU-12) that govern the design and consideration is also given to intermediate
semitrailers (WB-12 and WB-15).
• Traffic Condition C: Includes sufficient number of intermediate semitrailers (WB-12
and WB-15) and interstate semitrailer (WB-20) that govern the design.
The radius of curvature of the inner edge of pavement depends on the design speed
and the expected design vehicles using the roadway. Table 3.7 shows pavement width
values for various design traffic conditions, operational purposes and curvature of the
inside edge of pavement. The values are adopted form AASHTO, 2011a.
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Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways
Pavement Width, m
Radius on
Case I, One-Lane, One-Way Case II, One-Lane, One- Case III, Two-Lane, One-
Inner Edge
Operation – no provision Way Operation – provision Way or Two-Way
of
for passing a stalled vehicle for passing a stalled vehicle Operation
Pavement,
Design Traffic Condition
R, m
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9
Note: Only use the turning roadway widths in this table as a guide and check with a turning template or
computer simulated turning template program.
Sourece: AASHTO, 2011a

Figure 3.17 Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections
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Residential roads serve or give access to private properties. They should be designed
to serve the needs of the residents while discouraging through traffic from using the
roads as a short cut.
Generally, the design of roads in residential areas should consider the following:
• Minimizing pedestrian–vehicular conflict.

• Minimize through traffic movements.
• Road patterns that minimize excessive vehicle travel.
• Schools, mosques, or shopping facilities should be considered in the overall design.
• Uniform intersection spacing to reduce speeds.
• Parking requirements should be provided without reducing sight distance
requirements.
• Design that discourages excessive speeds.
• Location of street lighting and roadside furniture.
• Specifications for trees and planting.
• Location of public art.
• Relation to topography from the standpoint of drainage, economics, and amenities.
• Routing and details of public utilities.
• Arrangements for maintenance and servicing.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
4 Vertical Alignment
This chapter provides guidance in designing vertical alignment. The components of
vertical alignment include longitudinal grades, vertical curves, and vertical clearances.
Another commonly used term for vertical alignment is the profile of the road.
Design of vertical alignment is typically based on minimizing the total earthwork

required for the roadway, providing drainage, and facilitating the operation of heavier
vehicles.
Vertical alignment consists of a series of tangent longitudinal grades connected by

vertical curves. Vertical curves are parabolic, with length symmetrical about the vertical
point of intersection of the two tangents.
The design of the vertical curves depends on the design speed, and other factors like
drainage, grades, and existing topography. To attain a consistent smooth flowing and
aesthetically pleasing vertical alignment, consideration should be given to the following
practices:
• Vertical alignment developed should be consistent and fit in to the topography.

• A “roller coaster” or “hidden dip” type of profile should be avoided.
• Broken-back vertical curves – two crest or two sag curves separated by a short
tangent, less than 100 m, should be avoided.
• In flat terrain, the elevation of the profile is often is controlled by drainage. The
profile should be developed such that adequate drainage can be provided. In areas
where the surface water can be above the ground level or the groundwater table is
immediately below the surface, the profile of the low edge of the finished shoulder
should be at least 1.0 m above the water level. Requirements should be checked
and confirmed following detailed ground investigation and analysis.
• In areas of rock cut, if practical, the profile should be developed so that the low edge
of the finished shoulder is at least 0.3 m above the rock level to avoid excess rock
excavation.
• Avoid sag or crest vertical curves at the superelevation transition areas of the
horizontal curve.
• Avoid sag vertical curves in cut areas unless adequate drainage could be provided.
Also, avoid sag vertical curve low points on bridges.
The following sections describe the components and design requirements of the
vertical curves.
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4.1 Terrain
Variations in topography of the site affects both the horizontal and vertical alignments,
but the impact of the topography on vertical alignments is more pronounced than on
horizontal alignments. The variations in topography are classified into three terrain
conditions: level, rolling and mountainous.
Level terrain is generally flat and has minimal effect in developing vertical alignments.
Vertical alignments can be designed with greater degree of flexibility (either long or
short) without much impact on the construction cost. The terrain in Qatar is level and
the guidance provided in this section is based on the level terrain.
4.2 Longitudinal Grades

Roadway longitudinal grades impact the vehicle operations, especially trucks, and
therefore longitudinal grades designed should be consistent to provide uniform
operations.
4.2.1 Maximum Longitudinal Grades

Maximum longitudinal grades depend on the functional classification and design speed
of the roadway and Table 4.1 list the maximum grades. Wherever practical use flatter
grades and avoid using maximum grades.
Table 4.1 Maximum Grades
Functional Classification Maximum Grade (percent)
Freeways and Expressways 3
Arterials (Major & Minor) 4
Collectors (Major & Minor) 6
Local & Service Roads 8
4.2.2 Minimum Grades

For uncurbed roadways, minimum longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and for
curbed roadways, the preferred longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and minimum
shall be 0.3 percent to provide adequate longitudinal drainage. For drainage
requirements, refer to Part 10, Drainage.
4.2.3 Minor Road Grades at Intersections

At intersecting roadways carry the major road cross slope onto the minor road and
develop the minor road profile meeting the established design criteria for the vertical
design. The distance that the major road cross slope is carried onto the minor road
depends on the grades of the minor road and the vertical design. Figure 4.1 shows
graphical representation of the profile on the minor road and provided for guidance
only.
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Figure 4.1 Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections
Grade is one of the controlling geometric criteria requiring a Departure should the
specified criteria not be met. This includes values in Table 4.1 and Section 4.2.2.
4.3 Vertical Curves

In highway design, two types of vertical curves are used -- crest and sag. Regardless of
the type of curve, crest, or sag, the vertical curves are defined by three points.
• VPC – Vertical Point of Curvature: point where the tangent grade ends and vertical
curve begins.
• VPT – Vertical Point of Tangency: point where the curve ends and tangent grade
begins.
• VPI – Vertical Point of Intersection: points where the two tangent grades intersect.
4.3.1 Crest Vertical Curves

Crest vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are
negative. Crest vertical curves have a convex shape. There are two forms of crest vertical
curves:
• Type I: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to negative.

• Type II: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to
negative.
4.3.2 Sag Vertical Curves

Sag vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are positive.
Sag vertical curves have a concave shape. There are two forms of sag vertical curves:
• Type III: Longitudinal grade changes from negative to positive.
• Type IV: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to
negative to negative.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the type and forms of the vertical curves.
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Figure 4.2 Vertical Curve Elements
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The rate of change of longitudinal grades is defined as the algebraic difference between
the intersecting grades divided by the length of the curve. The rate of vertical curvature,
a measure of vertical curvature, is defined as the distance required for a 1 percent change
in longitudinal grade. The rate of vertical curvature is called the K-value. The rate of slope
change and the rate of vertical curvature (K) are expressed using the following equations.
𝑨𝑨 (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)
Rate of change of slope =
𝑳𝑳
= 𝑳𝑳
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳
K= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
= (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)� = (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)
𝑳𝑳
𝑳𝑳
K= 𝑨𝑨
where
K = rate of vertical curvature
L = length of vertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference in longitudinal grades, percent
G1, G2 = longitudinal grades, percent
K values are used in conjunction with the longitudinal grades to calculate the curve
lengths for various design speeds.
4.3.3 Crest Vertical Curve Design

Design of the crest vertical curve lengths depends on the sight distance requirements for
a given design speed, primarily Stopping sight distance (SSD); as well as passing sight
distance (PSD) as detailed in Chapter 2. Design controls used in calculating the crest
vertical curve lengths are:
1. Eye Height of 1.08 m for both SSD and PSD

2. Object height of 0.6 m for SSD and 1.08 m for PSD
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There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the crest
vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO,
2011a):
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve (see Figure 4.3)
𝑨𝑨𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏(�𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 +�𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 )
or
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐(�𝒉𝒉𝟏𝟏 +�𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 }𝟐𝟐

L = 2S –
𝑨𝑨
where
L = length of the curve, m
h1 = height of eye above roadway surface, 1.08 m
h2 = height of object above roadway surface, 0.6 m
Figure 4.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
Condition 1 is most common; however, condition 2 can occur when the algebraic
difference in longitudinal grades is small. The values from condition 1 can also be used
with condition 2 without significant errors. Table 4.2 lists the K-values calculated using
the equation for condition 1 for different design speeds.
Table 4.2 also lists the K-values using the equation for condition 1 for passing sight
distance controls with eye height and object height of 1.08 m.
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Table 4.2 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even
10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design
Table 4.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping
Sight Distance
K-values for K-values for

Design Speed Stopping Sight Passing Sight Stopping Sight Passing Sight
(kph) Distance (m) Distance (m) Distance Distance
20 20 120 1 20
30 35 180 2 40
40 50 250 4 75
50 65 290 7 100
60 85 345 11 140
70 105 410 17 195
80 130 460 26 245
90 160 520 39 315
100 185 580 52 390
110 220 630 74 460
120 250 690 95 555
130 285 * 124 *
140 325 * 161 *

Note:
4.3.4 Sag Vertical Curve Design

Design of the sag vertical curve lengths depends on the sight distance requirements for a
given design speed. Stopping sight distance (SSD) requirements detailed in Chapter 2.
QHDM adopts AASHTO (2011a) criteria for designing sag vertical curves. Sag curves are
designed using the following criteria:
• Headlight sight distance criteria for roadways that are not lighted.
• Comfort criteria for roadways that are lighted.
4.3.4.1 Headlight Sight Distance Criteria
Headlight sight distance criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the
roadways that do not have roadway lighting. Headlight sight distance criteria uses
headlight height of 0.6 m and a 1 degree upward divergence of the headlight beam from
the horizontal axis of the vehicle to calculate the length of sag vertical curves. The
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distance between the vehicle and where the 1 degree beam of light intersects the
roadway surface is called the light beam distance and is the available sight distance. The
length of the curves designed should be long enough so that the light beam distance is
equal to the sight distance. Figure 4.4 illustrates the criteria.
There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the sag
vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO,
2011a):
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve
𝑨𝑨𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[𝒉𝒉+𝑺𝑺(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 )
or
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[𝒉𝒉+𝑺𝑺�𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 �]
L = 2S –
𝑨𝑨
where
L = length of the curve, m
h = height of headlight, m, 0.6 m
Figure 4.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve
Condition 1 is most common however the values from condition 1 can also be used with
condition 2 without significant errors. Table 4.3 lists the K-values calculated using the
equation for condition 1 for different design speeds.
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4.3.4.2 Comfort Criteria for Roadways with Lighting
Comfort criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the roadways that
have roadway lighting. The length of the sag vertical curve can be calculated using the
following equation (AASHTO, 2011a).
𝑨𝑨𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
where
L = length of the sag vertical curve, m
The K-values derived from the above equation for sag vertical curves are listed in
Table 4.3.
The sag vertical lengths calculated by using comfort criteria are almost 50 percent lower
than the values calculated by the headlight sight distance criteria. Based on the sight
conditions of the project, such as urban, rural, roadway lighted or unlighted, residential
or commercial etc., the design should coordinate with the Overseeing Organization in
establishing the appropriate design criteria for designing the sag vertical curves for a
given project.
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Table 4.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Design Speed Stopping Sight K-Values Lighted K-Value

(kph) Distance (m) Roadways Unlighted Roadways
20 20 1 3
30 35 2.5 6
40 50 4.5 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 10 18
70 105 13 23
80 130 17 30
90 160 21 38
100 185 26 45
110 220 31 55
120 250 37 63
130 285 43 73
140 325 50 84
Note:
Lengths of vertical curves are included in the design criteria subject to a Departure if
not met. Designers shall apply the design criteria in Tables 4.2 and 4.3.
4.3.5 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves

Calculated lengths for both crest vertical and sag vertical curves using Sections 4.4.2
and 4.4.3 should be checked against the minimum curve lengths established in this
section and use the higher of the two values.
Minimum curve lengths should be 0.6 times the design speed in kph (AASHTO, 2011a).
Lmin = 0.6 x V
where
Lmin = minimum length of vertical curve, m
4.3.6 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve

Vertical curves are not required when the change in grade is small. The change in
longitudinal grade has an impact on the drivers comfort. The impact is more on sag
curves compared to the crest curves due to the centripetal and gravitational forces act
in the same direction rather than opposing directions
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Table 4.4 lists the permitted maximum grade change without a vertical curve for various
design speeds. Maximum grade change is calculated based on the comfort control criteria
presented in Section 4.4.3 and it varies with the design speed (Ohio Department of
Transportation, 2014).
𝑨𝑨𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
L= 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝑳𝑳 𝒙𝒙 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
A= 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
where
L = length of the vertical, assume 7.6 m vertical curve
A = change in grade, percent
Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve

Design Speed (kph) Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve (%)
50 1.20
60 0.83
70 0.61
80 0.47
90 0.37
100 0.30
110 0.25
120 0.21
130 0.18
140 0.15
Note:
Limit the minimum distance between consecutive grade breaks to 100 m.
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4.4 Vertical Clearances

The minimum vertical clearance between two roads that are grade separated are
specified to prevent vehicles or their loads from coming into contact with any
structures, such as bridges, lighting, ventilation shafts, sign gantries, overhead cables,
or suspended lighting and other vertical roadside furniture. Table 4.5 lists the minimum
vertical clearances.
The clearance shall be provided across all traffic lanes, including shoulders. Clearance
should also allow for 200 mm of future pavement resurfacing, which may be applied
during road maintenance. The design should always allow for alternative routes for
over-height vehicles so that they can bypass the structure if needed.
Table 4.5 Vertical Clearance at Structures

Category of Road/Structure Type Clearance Required (m)
High load routes 6.5
Gantries/lightweight structures 6.5
Pedestrian over bridge 6.5
Freeway and expressway bridges 6.5
Camel underpass crossings 6.0
All other road structures 6.0
Pedestrian and bicycle underpasses 3.5
Roads over heavy Rails/all other Rails 7.7a/7.0a
Tunnels 6.5b
aUnless otherwise agreed with the Railway Authority
bTunnels greater than 150 m long – additional clearance of 250 mm shall be provided for lighting and
ventilation plant equipment in accordance to the guidance in DMRB, BD 78/99, Department for Transport,
2002
Where a public utility specifies a minimum vertical clearance to its plant, the designer
should check that clearance requirement against Table 4.5 and provide the greater of
the two clearances. Protective measures may be required at overhead cable crossings
such as guard wires. Guidance may be sought from the Overseeing Organization
regarding the vertical clearances when planning work near electricity and water
installations.
Road designers must work with designers of the bridges or overcrossing structures to
provide the necessary vertical clearances at all points along the width of the roadway
including shoulders. This design process will often be iterative, with the bridge engineer
determining optimal bridge types, configurations and depths of structure; and the
roadway designer adjusting the profiles of the roadways accordingly to establish the
required clearances.
Special attention is needed when a roadway with a sag vertical curve underpasses a
structure. The clearance established in Table 4.5 shall be increased by the values shown
in the Table 4.6. The values in the Table 4.6 are established based on a sag radius
measured along the sag vertical curve over a 25 m chord, see Figure 4.5. The 25 m chord
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is established based on the average length of the semitrailer and the radius of the sag
vertical curve is approximated using the following formula:
R = 100K
where
R = radius of sag curve, m
K = rate of vertical curvature
Figure 4.5 Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves
Table 4.6 Sag Radius Compensation

Sag Radius (m) Additional Clearance (mm)
1000 80
1,200 70
1,500 55
2,000 45
3,000 25
6,000 15
>6,000 nil
Source Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997
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Minimum clearances shall be per Table 4.5. Minimum vertical clearance is one of the
controlling criteria for departures and if required clearance per Table 4.5 cannot be
provided, a departure shall be obtained, per the process noted in Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process. The designer shall prepare the Departure. If the vertical
clearance is less than 5.7 m, the designer shall prepare the Departure along with design
considerations in designing over height protection system. The overhead protection
system shall be designed per guidance provided in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (in preparation).

One of the main issues confronting the highway engineer in Qatar is the flatness of the
topography in large areas and the associated issues in providing adequate measures to
accommodate surface water drainage see Part 10, Drainage for additional details.
During the vertical alignment design, consideration should be given to the following
practices specific to conditions in Qatar.
• Residential and Commercial

− Preferred maximum slope across housing plots is 1 in 30.
− Sag curves should be designed such that low points are not in the middle of the
driveway.
− Road alignment should preferably be kept below adjacent property level.
− Existing utilities should be considered during the design of the vertical
alignments.
− Sidewalk maximum longitudinal gradient should be 1 in 20 and refer to Part 19,
Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation for additional details.
− Maximum driveway gradients to properties should be 1 in 15 (6.67 percent).
• Industrial
− Maximum roadway gradients should be limited to 1 in 20 (5.00 percent) due to
use of heavy vehicles.
− After long or steep down gradients, heavy vehicles may require additional level
areas for braking distance or emergency run-off lanes.
− Change in transverse or longitudinal grade should not be significant enough to
cause loss of load.
It is important that the designer understand the significance of proper geometric design
and its influence on road safety and the harmonization of horizontal and vertical
alignments to provide safe, functional, and aesthetic roadways.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
5 General Considerations
5.1 General
Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements that warrant
thorough study. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct alignment deficiencies
after a highway is constructed. On freeways and expressways, there are numerous
controls such as multi-level structures and costly right-of-way. On most urban roads,
heavy development takes place along the property lines, making it impractical to
change the alignment in the future. Thus, compromises in the design of alignment
should be weighed carefully, because any initial savings may be more than offset by the
economic loss to the public in the form of crashes and delays.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They

complement each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil the good points
and exacerbate the deficiencies of each. Horizontal alignment and profile are among
the more important he permanent design elements of the highway. Excellence in the
design of each and their combination increases usefulness and safety, encourages
uniform speed, and improves appearance, nearly always without additional cost.
It is difficult to discuss combinations of horizontal alignment and profile without

reference to the broader issue of highway location. These subjects are interrelated, and
what is said about one generally is applicable to the other. It is assumed that the general
location of a facility has been fixed and that the task remaining is to develop a specific
design to harmonize the vertical and horizontal lines, such that the finished highway,
road, or street will be an economical, pleasant, and safe facility on which to travel. The
physical constraints or influences that act singly or in combination to determine the
alignment are the character of roadway based on the traffic, topography, and
subsurface conditions, the existing cultural development, likely future developments,
and the location of the roadway’s terminals. Design speed is considered in determining
the general roadway location, but as design proceeds to the development of more
detailed alignment and profile it assumes greater importance. The selected design
speed serves to keep all elements of design in balance including curvature, sight
distance, width, clearance, and maximum gradient.
5.2 Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment

The choice and arrangement of linear elements are crucial factors in whether the road
will look right in its surroundings and pleasing to the driver of the vehicle. The design
should provide a safe road, with the necessary stopping sight distances.
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The aim of flowing alignment is to combine the various components in a manner that
results in the road being experienced by the road user as a free-flowing, harmonious
form without visual discontinuities. Such a design results in better integration of the
road into the landscape and helps to make the road a construction that is visually
pleasing from the viewpoint both of its users and those outside the road reservation.
The principles of flowing alignment are closely linked with the way in which the driver
sees the road line and in particular with the shape of the road edges.
It is advisable to avoid small changes in direction in a flowing alignment, because these

likely will appear unsatisfactory from the vehicle. Furthermore, small transverse
displacements can present a confusing prospect for the driver.
When two straight road segments are connected, the use of a short horizontal curve is
likely to cause the appearance of a kink, as shown in Figure 5.1, which can be improved
by employing a larger radius. The perception of an improvement is realized only when
the views being compared are taken from the same distance from the vertex of the
curve. If the viewpoint is at the same distance from the start of the curve, then
improvement is not achieved; in fact, the kink will appear to be more pronounced.
Figure 5.1 Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius
Even with a large radius curve, it is not possible to avoid the illusion of a sharp change
in direction if the approach tangents are sufficiently long. The best results are likely to
be achieved with a flowing alignment, where tangents can be dispensed with. This is
not always possible or even desirable. For example, the sight lines on an undivided
roadway where passing is permitted must be based on passing sight distances, not on
stopping sight distances.
Smooth-flowing alignments are required for sustaining posted speeds. The following
are the principles to be followed in securing a satisfactory alignment.
• Care should be taken to ensure that embankments and cuttings do not make severe
breaks in the natural skyline. This can be achieved by designing the road on a curve
whenever possible to preserve an unbroken background.
• Short curves and tangents should not be used. Adjacent curves should be similar in
length. See Figure 5.3, Sketch L.
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• Small changes of direction should not be made, as they give the perspective of the
road ahead a disjointed appearance. See Figure 5.1.
• Curves of the same or opposite sense which are visible from one another should not
be connected by a short tangents. It is better to introduce a flat curve between
curves of the same sense, or to extend the transition curves to a common point
between curves of the opposite sense. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Changes in horizontal and vertical alignment should be phased to coincide
whenever possible. See Figure 5.3, Sketches I and J.
• Flowing alignment can most readily be achieved by using large radius curves rather
than tangents. See Figure 5.3, Sketch G.
• The profile of the road over bridges should form part of the easy flowing alignment.
See Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• At the start of horizontal curves, superelevation should not create large flat areas
on which water would stand. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Horizontal and vertical curves should be made as generous as possible at
interchanges to enhance sight distance. Refer to Chapter 3 of this part on Sight
Distance.
• Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a
pronounced crest. This is hazardous especially at night, because the driver cannot
see the change in horizontal alignment. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• The view of the road ahead should not appear distorted by sharp horizontal
curvature introduced near the low point of a sag curve. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Section 5.4.
5.3 Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment

Vertical curvature plays an equally important part in achieving a harmonious alignment
as horizontal geometry. The designer should aim for a well-balanced alignment and
make use of vertical curvature in preference to tangent gradients where feasible.
Inappropriate combinations of vertical curves and gradients can lead to a disjointed
appearance and should be avoided. The following undesirable combinations of vertical
elements should be avoided:
• Either a short crest curve between two grades or a short sag curve between two
grades. See Figure 5.5, Sketch R.
• Either a short grade between crest curves or short tangents between sag curves.
See Figure 5.5, Sketch P.
• Reverse vertical curves causing small changes in height on level or near level
sections of road. See Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• A consistent gradient containing either a shallow sag curve or a shallow crest curve.
See Figure 5.5, Sketch Q.
• Terracing on which two crest curves can be seen at one time. See Figure 5.5,
Sketch S.
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As is the case with horizontal curves and tangents, vertical curve radii must be large
enough to avoid the appearance of a kink and visual discontinuities. Even large radii will
sometimes give the appearance of an abrupt change in direction if the viewpoint is
sufficiently far from the curve. Driver perception is such that it is not considered visually
disturbing until the driver is within about 500 m from the start.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Section 5.4.
5.4 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

Coordination of the horizontal and vertical alignments should be carefully considered
at the earliest stages of design development when adjustments to either can be made.
To obtain a satisfactory alignment, it is important to consider the road as a three-
dimensional unit to properly integrate the vertical and horizontal aspects of the line.
The elements of horizontal and vertical alignment should be in phase wherever
possible. In other words, the corresponding elements in the horizontal and vertical
planes should start and end at approximately the same points.
If the out-of-phase lengths are small, this is not likely to be significant; in fact, it is
probably advantageous to have an overlap. This may be seen to contribute to the
integration of the two aspects of the road alignment. When an overlap is used, it should
be small in comparison with the length of the element. If prevailing conditions prevent
using longer, coincident curves, it is possible to achieve significant improvement if
longer overlapping curves are implemented.
Ideally, the coordinated use of large radius horizontal and vertical curvature will
provide the best appearance and more readily accommodate solutions to drainage
issues arising from the creation of large flat areas. The following combinations of
horizontal and vertical alignment provide some additional examples of those likely to
result in an awkward appearance and should be avoided if possible.
• A short sag curve within a horizontal curve. This is similar to the case of a short sag
curve occurring along a tangent grade but with a more pronounced impression of a
discontinuity. See Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• A short vertical curve connecting gradients in a long horizontal curve. This
arrangement is liable to result in the illusion of a pronounced kink in the alignment.
Small changes in direction between tangents are as undesirable in the vertical plane
as they are in the horizontal plane. See Figure 5.5, Sketch T.
• A horizontal curve following a tangent on a sag curve that follows a grade. This
combination tends to give the horizontal curve the appearance of a sharp bend. See
Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• Sag curves joined by a level length or gradient and occurring along a tangent
followed by a horizontal curve. Sag curves joined by short tangent gradients are
undesirable by themselves but when combined with a horizontal curve in this way
the disjointed appearance is exaggerated. See Figure 5.5, Sketch P.
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• A crest curve followed by a sag curve occurring along a tangent followed by a

horizontal curve. A disjointed effect is liable to result when the beginning of the
vertical curve is hidden from the driver by an intervening summit while the
continuation of the curve is visible in the distance beyond. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
A short horizontal curve in combination with a short crest curve. This can be dangerous
since the driver is unable to see the continuation of the curved horizontal alignment.
More unsatisfactory would be the horizontal curve starting immediately beyond the
summit of the crest curve. See Figure 5.5, Sketch U.
• A reverse horizontal curve with the change in curvature situated at the top of a
sharp crest curve. This can be dangerous as the driver is not able to anticipate the
change in direction of the road ahead. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
Examples of these points are shown in the sketches in Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.4
Visualization software should be used to examine the appearance of the proposed
alignment throughout the development of the design.
5.5 Alignment Coordination in Design

Coordination of horizontal alignment and profile should not be left to chance but
should begin with preliminary design when adjustments can be readily made. All
aspects of terrain, traffic operation, and appearance should be considered. Horizontal
and vertical lines should be adjusted and coordinated during the feasibility study stage
and before the development of the detailed design and the preparation of construction
plans.
The procedures described above should be modified for the design of typical local roads
or streets, as compared to higher type highways. The alignment of any local road or street
is governed by existing or likely future development, whether for a new roadway or for
reconstruction of an existing roadway. The crossroad or street intersections and the
location of driveways are dominant controls. Even for street design, it is desirable to work
out long, flowing alignment and profile sections rather than a connected series of block-
by-block sections.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011b.

Figure 5.2 Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4
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6 Cross Section Elements

6.1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the principles to be followed when designing highway cross
sections for new roads and improvements to the existing road network.
The cross section is made up from a combination of distinct components that vary
depending upon the type of highway and the facilities provided for the various users of
the road. Some decisions relating to the cross section are made during project
development, such as the capacity and number of lanes. Other decisions, such as the
road function and its place in the road hierarchy, are made earlier in the process.
This standard defines and describes the components and presents guidance on details
of their design. The basic components are listed below and identified separately in the
following sections of this section to simplify definition and interpretation as an aid to
design consistency and application.
The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements:
• Traveled way and cross slopes

• Lane widths
• Shoulders and hard strips
• Medians
• Curbs and traffic barriers
• Sidewalks and bike or shared use paths
• Utility and landscape areas
• Drainage channels and sideslopes
• Clear zones and lateral offset
• Frontage or service roads
Different arrangements of the components are to be used depending on the functional

classification of the highway. The designer’s role is to decide which of the components
to include and the selection of the appropriate dimensions. Considered together, all
these cross section elements define the highway right-of-way.
This standard provides details of the cross sections and horizontal clearance requirements
to be used for all rural and urban roads, both at and away from structures. The information
covers freeways, expressways, arterials, collectors, and local roads, both single and
divided roadway, together with associated ramps and service roads.
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This standard does not give mandatory requirements for headroom near airports or at
power lines. The designer should contact the relevant authorities to agree on
requirements as part of the design process.
Where existing or proposed land use requirements necessitate amendments to the

standard roadway cross sections, approval from the Overseeing Organization must be
sought. In such instances, amendments to the utilities layout may be required to suit the
specific road cross section proposed. Any proposed revisions to the standardized utility
locations must have the approval of the appropriate utility authorities.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes,
may require specific requirements and in these situations, consultation should be
sought with the Overseeing Organization to agree on appropriate solutions.
6.1.2 Design Principles

Highway components are based on numerous interrelated design decisions. Integrating
these components to satisfy competing demands for highway space and functionality
requires effective decision making from the outset. Designers must balance elements
within the available space to meet safety needs, address environmental impacts, and
satisfy cost, constructability, and operation and maintenance requirements.
Appropriate basic design will allow both new roads and improvements to existing
highways to fit harmoniously into their surroundings. Challenges can be avoided by
ensuring that approximate sizes and locations of detailed design features are identified
early so that space requirements can be determined. During final design, designers
must sometimes accommodate additional detailed design features, such as potential
future widening near structures, into the available highway.
In general, the different road reservations are intended to provide drivers with
adequate sight distances and allow the public utilities sufficient space for existing and
proposed plant. Where space for utilities is limited, “way leaves” outside the road
reservation may be obtained by contacting the relevant planning authority.
Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 show typical cross sections depicting the essential elements
for two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural roads. The final layout of
the reservation should be agreed on with the Overseeing Organization.
The recommended reservation details for rural roads are similar to those for urban
roads but reflect the reduced access and drainage requirements of the rural situation.
Generally, for rural roads the right side of the roadway would not be curbed, although
flush curbing may be considered at certain locations. Raised curbing to the median of
rural divided roadways should be provided only at specific locations: near bridges and
at-grade intersections. In all cases, an edge strip shall be provided between the curb
and lane edge. Verges shall be designed to fall away from the road in rural settings and
thus water will drain to surrounding ground.
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It is recommended that usable traveled way and shoulder be provided for all rural roadways
based on traffic volume. Minimum traveled way is 3.65 m, and shoulder widths are
1.2 meter for average daily traffic volumes of 400 or less; 1.8 meters for average daily traffic
volumes up to 2,000; and 2.4 meters for average daily traffic volumes over 2,000.
Furthermore, it is recommended that shoulders be paved for high volume roads.
A standard lane width of 3.65 m has been used on typical cross sections and should be
provided for all roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater. Exceptions are
permitted where it is necessary to maintain continuity with an existing road, and for
roads providing access to residential and some commercial and industrial areas. Clause
6.2.1 describes permitted variations.
A standard cross slope of 2 percent has been applied for roads and medians to achieve
adequate drainage.
Figure 6.1 presents is a flow chart depicting the process of cross section design.
6.1.3 Road Network Objectives

The aim is to deliver an economic, accessible, integrated, safe, reliable, efficient, and
environmentally acceptable road network for all users. This includes adapting and
improving some highways for the benefit of nonmotorized users. The designer must
consider maintenance needs, such as ensuring that proposed cross section and lane
widths are adequate for maintenance to be undertaken safely.
In urban areas, numerous items of street furniture and underground utilities are likely
to be found within the highway cross section, offering less scope for coordinating
features than in rural areas. However, coordination with utility owners could be
extensive to map, analyze potential conflicts, and design around or relocate utilities to
avoid or minimize service disruption. The designer must achieve a careful balance
among the many competing demands wherever economically and environmentally
practical to do so.
Rural areas may have fewer underground utilities, but those that exist are likely to be
high-capacity services that could affect the economical and effective delivery of
subsequent maintenance and operation of the network.
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Figure 6.1 Cross Section Design Flow Chart
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6.1.4 Departures
Occasionally roadway design engineers may face situations where they believes they
cannot develop a road project that would be in accordance with the standards defined
for it, then it may propose a Departure from Standards. They must follow the standard
process for documenting the reasons and providing mitigations for the Departure from
Standards process. Careful consideration must be given to layout options incorporating
departures, having weighed potential advantages and disadvantages. Particular
attention must be given to the safety aspects, including operation, maintenance,
construction, and demolition, and to the environmental and economic advantages and
disadvantages that would result from the use of Departures. The consideration process
must be recorded. The preferred option must be compared against options that would
meet full standards.
In these situations, the Overseeing Organization may be prepared to agree to a Departure

from Standard where the Standard is not realistically achievable. Designers facing such
situations and wishing to consider pursuing this course must discuss the option at an early
stage in design with the Overseeing Organization. Proposals to adopt Departures from
Standard must be submitted by the designer to the Overseeing Organization and formal
approval received before incorporation into a design layout.
6.2 Design Requirements

This section identifies components of the cross section and presents guidance on details
of their design. It applies to all cross sections other than those through or across
structures. Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 show sections with detailed dimensions to indicate
how the various components should be brought together to form the cross section of
different types of roads. Numerous changes in highway cross section are not desirable,
and a consistent width along a road is preferred.
In selecting cross section elements and dimensions, designers need to consider the
following factors:
• Safety of users
• Volume and composition of the vehicular traffic expected to use the facility, e.g.,
the percent of trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles
• The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the road
• Climatic conditions
• The presence of natural or manmade obstructions adjacent to the roadway, such as
rock outcrops, large trees, wetlands, buildings, and power lines
• The presence of underground utilities
• Type and intensity of development along the highway section under design
The most appropriate design for a highway improvement is the one that balances the
accessibility and mobility needs of the motorists, pedestrians, or bicyclists using the
facility with the physical constraints of the corridor in which the facility is located. The
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likelihood of pedestrian and bike traffic is one factor, while the functionality of the
facility to provide access and/or mobility to vehicular traffic is another factor, to
consider when designing the cross section of a facility.
Access is needed for every area served by a highway while mobility is provided to users
at varying levels of service. The primary function of local roads and streets is to provide
access to properties, and the primary function of arterials is to provide mobility to
users. Highway and street cross sections should be designed to serve the primary
purpose of the facility and balance the accessibility and mobility needs of the users
accordingly.
6.2.1 Travel Lanes

The travel lane is the part of a roadway designated for the movement of vehicles in a
single line, exclusive of shoulders and bike lanes. It controls and guides drivers to avoid
or minimize conflicts with other vehicles on adjacent lanes or objects near the roadway.
Roadways can have more than one lane in each direction. Some typical roadway
sections, including number and width of lanes, medians, shoulders and other roadside
features are shown in Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43. Standard width of a travel lane is
3.65 m, except under the following conditions:
• Where existing roads are being reconstructed, lane width may be reduced to 3.30 m
for roads with a design speed of 80 kph or less, provided the percentage of heavy
truck traffic is less than 5 percent. Prior approval of the Overseeing Organization is
needed.
• Lane widths can be reduced to 3.30 m in urban commercial and retail areas where
speeds are 50 kph and below.
• Lane widths can be reduced to 3.00 m for local roads in urban areas where traffic
volumes are low, speeds are 50 kph and below, and the percentage of heavy truck
traffic is low.
• Single lane one-way roads in urban areas with a minimum width of 5.0 m between
curbs to allow motorists to pass a stalled vehicle.
• Wider lanes on curves with shorter radii to allow for the swept path of long vehicles
or to provide sufficient sight distance.
Lane widths outside this guidance may be provided under a departure process with full
justification provided by the designer to the Overseeing Organization.
Notwithstanding the advice given elsewhere in this manual, variations in cross section
may be encountered over the length of a road. Table 6.1 shows the required mainline
rate of change in width based on a standard 3.65 m lane. This may also be used where a
lane is introduced or terminated far from an intersection; that is, not as part of an
auxiliary lane. The rate of change for introducing a lane is somewhat less than the values
in this table. In all cases where Table 6.1 is used, the transition taper should correspond
with the higher design speed of the two adjoining links under consideration.
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Table 6.1 Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane
Transition Taper Rate

Design Speed (kph) Lane Drop Adding Additional Lanes
40 1:20 1:8
50 1:25 1:10
60 1:30 1:12
70 1:35 1:14
80 1:40 1:16
90 1:45 1:18
100 1:50 1:20
110 1:55 1:22
120 1:60 1:24
130 1:65 1:26
140 1:70 1:28
Lines marking the edge of roadways are outside the traveled way and are provided
within the shoulder or hard strip. Lane widths within the traveled way include the lane
lines.
Public transport strategy for Qatar identifies high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) routes as
part of the road network, but the identification of the need to provide HOV lanes does
not require a change to standard lane widths. Any changes to the standard cross
sections to add additional lanes to accommodate HOV routes shall be addressed in the
project-specific documentation.
6.2.2 Shoulders
The shoulder is a contiguous part of roadway used in case of emergency, law
enforcement, and to accommodate stopped vehicles. Shoulders provide structural
support for the pavement edges and side clearance between moving vehicles and
stationary objects. Shoulders of sufficient width provide additional space for access by
emergency service vehicles. They can also be used as temporary lanes to facilitate
traffic movement during road maintenance operations. For these reasons, shoulders
should be constructed to the same structural strength as the adjacent roadway.
Width of stabilized roadway shoulder (graded shoulder) refers to the roadway width
between the edge of traveled way and the intersection of the shoulder slope and the
embankment slope (foreslope) plane. The usable width of the shoulder is where a
motorist can make emergency or parking stop. Graded shoulder and usable shoulder
widths are the same where foreslopes are 1V:5H or flatter. The normal rounding of
1.5 m will not reduce the useful width of the usable shoulder. Where the foreslope is
steeper than 1V:5H, shoulder width should be increased to accommodate the barrier
and the rounding behind it. Depending on the width of the barrier, the increased width
of the shoulder could be up to 2.5 m.
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Normal width of paved shoulder along higher speed and higher volume roads is 3.00 m.
A width of 3.60 m paved shoulder is preferred on roads carrying 250 or more trucks per
hour. On low volume rural roadways, roadway shoulders may be 1.5 m paved and 1.5 m
graded. Alternatively, the full width can be paved but to a lower strength; or the entire
width of the shoulder graded (stabilized) beyond the roadway pavement.
Where shoulders are provided as shown in the standard roadway cross sections, they
should be constructed with a standard cross slope of 2 percent or as extension of
roadway superelevation. Shoulders shall be of the widths listed in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Typical Roadway Cross Sections

Min. Shoulder Width
Design Lanes in Lane Median Parking
Roadway Type and Speed Each Width Width Left Right Width
Design Year AADT (kph) Direction (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Urban expressway 120 3 3.65 3.20 1.20 3.00 —
50,000 to 80,000 120 4 or more 3.65 6.80 3.00 3.00 —
3.20
Major urban arterial
100 3 3.65 1.20 3.0 —
30,000 to 60,000
Minor arterial
80 3 3.65 12.20 0.350 0.350 —
20,000 to 50,000
Boulevard 60 3 3.65 12.00 0.35 0.35 —

30,000 to 60,000 80 3 3.65 12.2 0.35 0.35 —
Major urban 50 3 3.30 6.35 0.35 0.35 —
collector
10,000 to 50,000 100 3 3.65 1.80 0.50 0.50 —
Minor urban 50 1 3.00 5.7 0.35 0.35 2.50

collector 50 1 3.30 — — — 2.50
5,000 to 20,000 50 1 3.65 — — — 3.00
1 (one -
50 3.9 - - 2.5
way)
Urban local and 50 1 3 - - - 2.4
service road less 50 1 3.00 — — — 2.50
than 5,000
50 1 3.30 — — — 2.50
50 1 3.65 — — — 3.00
Rural freeway 140 2 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
Greater than 8,000 140 3 or more 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
Rural arterial
120 2 or 3 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
2,000 to 8,000
Rural collector
100 1 3.65 — - 3.00 —
1,000 to 2,000
— 3.00
Rural local road
50 1 3.65 — (1.50 —
Less than 1,000 paved)
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Where a curb is provided, a lateral offset from the edge of traveled way should be
applied. The lateral offset width varies with the design speed.
6.2.3 Hard Strips

Hard strip is an extra width of the road along the outside edges of the traveled way
built contiguous to and with the same strength and from the same material as the
traveled way. Hard strips provide a safer roadway, facilitate the removal of surface
water, and provide additional roadway width to maneuver around stopped vehicles in
case of an emergency. Hard strips keep roadside debris away from the running width
of an outside lane and maintain pavement integrity and stability.
The hard strip width is included within the standard median width. Hard strips should
be provided adjacent to the outer traveled lanes on all uncurbed roads unless replaced
by a paved shoulder.
Curbs with narrow hard strips or lateral offsets apply to roads with posted speeds less
than 80 kph. For roads with posted speeds 80 kph or greater that require a curb for
drainage, the width of the hard strip should be increased or replaced with a wider
shoulder, with the curb located at the outside edge of the widened hard strip or
shoulder. On curbed divided roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater, a hard
strip of 0.35 m shall be added to the outside edge as a gutter.
Table 6.2 includes outside edge and median edge standard widths for shoulders and
hard strips for various road types and speeds.
Lane widths and shoulder widths listed in Table 6.2 are among the controlling design
criteria requiring a Departure should the specified values not be met.
6.2.4 Auxiliary Lanes

An auxiliary lane is an additional lane over a short distance that is provided to enable
speed changing, turning, weaving, merging, and diverging, and separation of slower
heavy vehicles from higher speed traffic on steep upgrades. Auxiliary lanes may be used
to maintain the desired speeds, densities, and levels of service on the highway and at
intersections.
Auxiliary lanes should have a width equal to that of the through lane or 3.65 m.
A speed change auxiliary lane provides for the acceleration or deceleration of vehicles
entering or leaving through traffic lanes. A speed change lane should be sufficient in length
to enable a driver to comfortably make the necessary speed change. Design criteria for
speed change lanes are shown in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors.
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6.2.5 Medians
A roadway median is a designated space separating traffic moving in opposite
directions. Medians can be open, include traffic barriers, raised with curb, or flush. The
width of a median is that dimension between the left edges of traveled way of the
opposing roadways. Medians serve any of the following traffic functions:
• Separate high-speed traffic in opposing directions, thereby reducing or eliminating

severe head-on crashes
• Control by limiting or eliminating access to adjacent land uses or intersections by
left-turning vehicles
• Provide space for shoulders on the left sides of the roadways
• Provide space for the placement of traffic barriers that may be implemented to
prevent head-on crashes
• Provide space for development of left-turning lanes at signalized intersections
• Provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the roadway
The median space may be used for placement of utilities. Medians may also be designed
with sufficient width to enable the addition of future roadway capacity. Medians also
offer the opportunity to provide landscaping between the roadways.
The appropriate width of a median depends on the functions served and available right-
of-way. A median may vary in composition from 1.2 m wide with a pedestrian barrier
to 20 m wide with street lighting, drainage, and landscaped areas. Consultation with
the relevant planning authority often is required regarding the width and function of
the median. See Table 6.3 for median widths.
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Table 6.3 Minimum Median Width
Road Functional Urban Rural Remarks

Classification
Local Road - -
Service Road - -
Minor Residential 4 - Urban-Flush Median
Collector Commercial - -
Industrial - -
Major Residential 4.0 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Collector Commercial 6.0 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Industrial 6.35 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Arterial 10 Rural- Median with guard rail and provision
for windblown sand
Minor Arterial 12.2 Urban-Raised median with provision for two
LTL
Major Arterial 3.2 Median with double face barrier
12.2 Raised median-with provision for two LTL
12 Raised median-with provision for two LTL
Boulevard 12.2 - Raised median-with provision for two LTL
Expressway 6 Lane Divide 3.2 - Median Barrier

8 Lane 6.8 - Median Barrier
Divided
Freeway 8 Lane Divide 10
6.2.5.1 Rural Highway Medians
Medians on high-speed rural highways should be of sufficient width to prevent run-off-

road, high-speed, head-on crashes. Curbs should not be used in rural medians because
they contribute to loss of control when struck at high speeds. Median widths of 20 m
are generally sufficient to minimize the risk of head-on crashes. Lesser median widths
should incorporate traffic barriers as discussed in Part 23, Design and Operations for
Road Safety. A median of 8 m with a barrier is sufficient to accommodate left shoulders.
Medians beyond the shoulders should be graded at 1:5 with ditches for drainage and
stormwater retention.
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6.2.5.2 Medians on Urban Expressways
Medians on urban expressways shall be designed with sufficient width to accommodate

the shoulders in both directions of the travel; the horizontal stopping sight distance
through the mainline curvature; and provide width for traffic barriers in accordance
with the requirements in Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety. Median
barriers should be of sufficient width that left shoulders can be maintained at their full
width at locations that include bridge piers and columns, overhead sign supports and
gantries, and overhead lighting poles.
6.2.5.3 Medians on Urban Arterials and Collectors
Medians on urban arterials and collectors provide access control, width for
development of left-turn and U-turn lanes at signalized intersections, and pedestrian
refuge. The selected median width should reflect both the functional needs and
available space. Widths of travel lanes and the roadside (for pedestrians, utilities, and
landscaping) should be maintained with the median width adjusted to reflect the
available right-of-way. The following guidance should be used in designing medians for
their functional requirements:
• A minimum dimension of 1.2 m is sufficient to provide a raised curb and positive

separation between opposing traffic flows.
• A minimum dimension of 2.0 m is needed by pedestrians to feel comfortable when
using the median as refuge between opposing traffic on both sides of them. A
greater dimension is always desirable; 3 m being a reasonable goal.
• A minimum dimension of 5.0 m is sufficient to enable development of a left turn
lane with minimum raised curb positive protection. A dimension of 4.8 m can be
used with slight narrowing of the left turn lane, which would not reduce its
effectiveness or functionality.
• A width of 5.3 m is the desirable minimum for one-left turn lane (3.3 m) and a
residual median of 2.0 m.
• A width of 10.4 m is the desirable minimum for two 3.3 m left-turn lanes, a residual
median of 2.0 m, and another median between the through lanes and the left turn
lanes. This dimension also enables U-turn movements by passenger cars and smaller
trucks.
In the design of an arterial, the median may vary to fit the available right-of-way and
minimize land-use impacts and right-of-way acquisition. Narrower widths can suffice
between signalized intersections where left-turn lanes are not being provided.
Widening can occur on approaches to such intersections to provide the dimensions
cited above.
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Where landscaping is desired, the median width should be sufficient to support the
type of landscaping desired. It is common practice to landscape medians, to provide an
aesthetic environment and to help reduce driver stress. Careful consideration should
be given to the choice of planting to prevent the potential for foliage to block the
necessary sight lines. See Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, for more details.
If the median is curbed, its surface should be designed to drain toward the center of the
median if unpaved or toward the roadway if paved. Paved medians may require positive
stormwater drainage systems incorporating manholes and pipes. Unpaved medians may
be self-draining, but consideration should be given to providing additional storage capacity
or outlets for storm conditions. Drainage inlets in the median should be designed with the
top flush with the ground, and culvert ends should have safety grates to minimize the risk
to errant vehicles.
Two abutting sections of highway with different roadway widths should transition
together smoothly. The transition should be as long as possible for aesthetic reasons
and preferably occur within a horizontal curve. For typical median widths and layouts,
refer to Table 6.2, Figure 6.2, and Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43.
Figure 6.2 Typical Median Layouts
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6.2.6 Service Roads

Service roads are roads that run roughly parallel with, and are connected to, the main
through highway. Their function is to provide access to adjacent property and land
where only minor volumes of traffic are envisaged. They are not intended to be used
for through traffic. They are generally of low design speed and typically one-way.
The provision of service roads reduces the number of access points on to the main
highway and segregates the higher speed through traffic from the lower speed local
traffic. This reduces interruption of traffic flow, makes the best use of road capacity,
and improves the safety performance of the major road.
Service roads may also provide an alternative route if maintenance is required on the
through road or in case of an emergency.
The width of the service road depends on the classification of traffic expected to use it,
such as light vehicles, delivery vehicles, or heavy trucks. It should comply with the lane
widths described in Section 6.2.2. Further consideration should be given to the turning
and passing requirements of such vehicles, type and number of access points, and type
of street parking, if required.
6.2.7 Frontage Roads

Frontage roads generally run parallel to and on one or both sides of arterials. They serve
many different functions depending on the type of arterial they serve. Most prominent
function of frontage roads is control of access to the arterials. Frontage roads provide
access to and circulation of neighborhood traffic on each side of the arterial.
Continuous frontage roads provide an alternative route to arterials. Typical
arrangement of frontage roads are shown in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4.
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Figure 6.3 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2
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Figure 6.4 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2
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6.2.8 Parking Bays and Lanes

The need for on- and off-street parking is determined by the existing and future
development of the immediate surrounding area.
Wherever possible parking should be provided away, off-street from the roadway. In
urban locations, parking may be provided contiguous with the road in designated
parking lanes. Parallel parking lanes should be provided only on roads with posted
speeds of 50 kph or less. On-street parking is most appropriate on local roads and
service roads.
On-street parking along one-way service roads is generally preferred along the right
side of the road for the convenience of those using the spaces. Where driveways and
access points are so frequent as to greatly limit the availability of parking on the right,
it may be located on the left side of the service road. The separation between the
service road and parking should be increased in these cases to enable drivers to open
the driver’s side car doors.
The lay-out of on-street parking should support the functionality of the road. Parking
should be prohibited:
• Within sight triangles at intersections, in order to maintain visibility.

• Within 20 m of an intersection, measured between the center line of the side road
and the end of the parking lane taper on the principal road (see Figure 6.5).
• Opposite vehicle or pedestrian access points to properties
• At and ahead of pedestrian crossing points.
• Within 5 m of fire hydrants.
Figure 6.5 Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection
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Two types of on-street parking are used parallel and angle parking. Guidance on design
for each is provided in the following sections. The dimensions are the minimum
requirements and consideration should be given to increasing these depending on the
size and class of vehicle anticipated.
6.2.9 Parallel Roadside Parking

Parallel parking may be provided adjacent to the right lane of the roadway. Parallel
parking should be provided on roads with posted speed of 50 kph or less. The bay
dimensions for parallel parking bays should be a minimum of 2.5 m wide by 6.0 m long.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions
6.2.10 Angled Roadside Parking

Angle parking on public streets must be pre-approved by the Overseeing Organization.
On-street angle parking should only be provided by backing in into the parking space.
In other words, vehicles should enter angle parking spaces only by reversing. The
decision whether to use angle parking on street should be based on safety and
consideration of:
• Width of road
• Traffic volume
• Type of traffic
• Traffic speed characteristics
• Vehicle dimensions
• Expected turnover
• Land use served
• Functional road classification.
A buffer lane between the edge of the traveled way and the nearest part of the parking
bay of 1.0 m should be provided.
Figure 6.7 and Table 6.4 shows the angled parking width perpendicular to the road,
buffer lane width requirements, the minimum width of the through lane (in addition to
the buffer lane width), for one-way operation.
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Figure 6.7 Roadside Parking in Angled Bay Layout
Table 6.4 Roadside Angled Parking Dimensions for One-Way Operation

Minimum through
Angle of parking θ Width Occupied (A) Buffer lane (B) lane (C)
45 5.1 1.0 3.8
60 5.4 1.0 4.5
75 5.3 1.0 6.5
90 4.8 1.0 7.0
6.2.11 Off Street Parking

Off street parking areas are located outside the roadway right-of-way in parking lots or
garages. Generally off street parking lots are designed for angled parking. Occasionally
some parking lots may have parallel parking option as well.
Angled parking will require a wider facility. The overall width of facility provided will
vary depending on the angle of parking bays. A larger angle between the direction of
flow and the direction of parking will require a wider lane. Angle of parking will be
affected by the level of parking required and the space available within the right-of-
way. There is a need for adequate space to maneuver into an angled bay, and this
usually requires the adjacent through lane to be widened from the standard widths.
For typical parking bay layouts, refer to Figure 6.8 and Table 6.5.
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Figure 6.8 Parking Bay Dimensions
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Table 6.5 Parking Bay Dimensions

A B C D E F G
2.4 2.4 3.7 7.0 8.5 -
2.6 2.6 3.7 7.0 8.8 -
0 2.7 2.7 3.7 7.0 9.1 -
2.9 2.9 3.7 7.0 9.4 -
3.0 3.0 3.7 7.0 9.8 -
2.4 4.3 3.4 7.1 11.9 9.6
2.6 4.4 3.4 7.6 12.2 9.8
20 2.7 4.6 3.4 8.0 12.5 9.9
2.9 4.7 3.4 8.5 12.8 10.1
3.0 4.8 3.4 8.9 12.8 10.2
2.4 5.0 3.4 4.9 13.4 11.3
2.6 5.2 3.4 5.2 13.7 11.4
30 2.7 5.3 3.4 5.5 13.9 11.5
2.9 5.4 3.4 5.8 14.2 11.7
3.0 5.5 3.4 6.1 14.4 11.8
2.4 5.8 4.3 3.4 15.9 14.2
2.6 5.9 4.1 3.7 15.9 14.2
45 2.7 6.0 4.0 3.9 16.0 14.2
2.9 6.1 4.0 4.1 16.2 14.2
3.0 6.2 4.0 4.3 16.5 14.3
2.4 6.2 5.8 2.8 18.2 17.0
2.6 6.3 5.6 3.0 18.3 16.9
60.0 2.7 6.4 5.5 3.2 18.3 16.9
2.9 6.5 5.5 3.4 18.4 16.9
3.0 6.6 5.5 3.5 18.6 17.1
2.4 6.3 6.1 2.6 18.7 17.8
2.6 6.3 5.9 2.7 18.6 17.7
70.0 2.7 6.4 5.8 2.9 18.6 17.6
2.9 6.5 5.6 3.1 18.6 17.6
3.0 6.5 5.5 3.2 18.4 17.4
2.4 6.1 7.6 2.5 19.9 19.4
2.6 6.2 7.3 2.6 19.6 19.2
80.0 2.7 6.2 7.3 2.8 19.6 19.1
2.9 6.2 7.3 2.9 19.6 19.1
3.0 6.2 7.3 3.1 19.8 19.3
2.4 5.8 7.9 2.4 19.5 -
2.6 5.8 7.6 2.6 19.2 -
90.0 2.7 5.8 7.3 2.7 18.9 -
2.9 5.8 7.3 2.9 18.9 -
3.0 5.8 7.3 3.0 18.9 -
Source: MMUP, Traffic Division
Notes:
All measurements in meters E = curb length per car
A = parking angle F = overall width of double row with aisle
B = stall width between
C = stall depth to curb G = center to center width of double row with
D = aisle width aisle between
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6.2.12 Off Street Disabled Parking

Disabled parking spaces must be designed so that a disabled person does not travel
within the maneuvering lane for vehicle traffic to reach the safe travel path to a building
or other site location. Disabled parking spaces should be 90 degrees, minimum of 3.5 m
wide and 6 m long with a minimum of 1.6 m wide space between the two 3.5 m spaces.
The 1.6 m space must have diagonal striping on a 45-degree angle, using 0.3 m wide
stripe at 0.6 m spacing. Concrete curb stops should be provided for each parking space.
A minimum 1.6 m area must be provided in front of each parking space leading to
handicap ramp. There must be an additional 1.6 m diagonal striped area between a
regular parking space and an adjacent handicap space.
There are no special handicap parallel parking spaces provided on public streets.
However, when angle parking spaces are provided on public streets, it is recommended
that the end spaces adjacent to the corner crosswalks be made available to the
handicap access vehicles. Handicap ramps are not permitted at the curb of the street,
unless they are located on both sides of the street and they must be located within a
striped crosswalk. When a visually impaired or blind person feels a handicap ramp
adjacent to the curb of the street, it indicates to him that he can cross the street within
a crosswalk and vehicles will yield to them.
6.2.13 Curbs
A curb is a raised stone or concrete edging at the edge of pavement that separates the
roadway from another feature, such as a roadside, island, or median. Curbs can be
constructed of the same material as the pavement or from a different material. Curbs
may have various design features and dimensions based on the needs and functions
and the type and characteristics of the road.
Curbs provide structural side-support for pavement layers, delineate the edges of a
road, collect and channelize storm runoff at the curb face, and confine vehicles to the
roadway area. They can also serve to delineate and protect pedestrian paths and
provide erosion protection from storm runoff. Several variations of curb exist, each
designed for specific uses, as described in the following paragraphs.
Curbs are used on all low-speed urban roads (50 kph or less) and, except where needed
for drainage purposes, at special locations on rural roads, such as priority intersections
where there is a need to give a clear delineation of the road edge. Curbs are also used
where right-of-way is restricted or there is a need for access control. Sloping curbs with
a height of 100 mm could be used on high speed facilities.
The provision of street lighting shall be considered where curbing is provided,

particularly in rural areas where obstructions adjacent to the traveled way must be
clearly identified.
Curb configurations include both vertical face and sloping or mountable types.
Figure 6.9 presents various types of curb used for the purposes summarized below:
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Figure 6.9 Standard Curb Types
6.2.13.1 Upstand Curbs
There are two types of upstand curbs (see top of Figure 6.9) – non-mountable and
mountable. A nonmountable upstand curb is used to confine vehicles to the road
pavement. It is available in a range of sizes and shapes. The vertical face resists vehicle
wheel mounting at low speeds and can form an efficient hydraulic edge for drainage
channel flow.
Non-mountable curbs struck at high speed will not confine vehicles to the roadway, and
can result in the vehicle vaulting (becoming airborne) and the driver losing control.
Road restraint barriers should not be used in conjunction with nonmountable curbs.
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A mountable upstand curb is used where it is less important to contain vehicles,

allowing vehicles to mount the curb if it is struck or in case of emergency. It retains all
other functionality of the nonmountable curb, but with less capacity at the curb face
for channel flow, which is restricted to the height of the curb above the finished level.
Mountable curbs with heights of up to 100 mm may be used on high speed facilities
when necessary due to right-of-way restrictions, drainage considerations or access
control. Road restraint barriers may be used in conjunction with mountable curbs if the
face of the barrier is flush with the curb.
6.2.13.2 Drop Curbs
A drop curb has a low, flat profile. It is used to demarcate edges of slightly raised areas
but can allow easy wheel passage at low and high speeds with minimum effect on
vehicle direction. It has very little hydraulic value given the limited curb height.
6.2.13.3 Flush Curb
A flush curb is usually used to separate two types of pavement surfacing, such as
asphalt and concrete blocks. It provides a visual break to delineate the joint between
the surfaces and serves to structurally contain the materials on either side. It has no
hydraulic or drainage value.
6.2.13.4 Edge Curb
An edge curb is used specifically for edging at sidewalks and other similar amenity
areas. It remains flush with the adjacent ground level, provides structural containment
of the pedestrian path construction, and provides a hard, neat edge to the surfaces at
either side of the sidewalk.
For details and use of containment curbs, refer to Part 10, Drainage.
6.2.13.5 Guidelines for Curb Type Application
The following guidelines demonstrate the typical application of the various curb types
to highway design situations.
Nonmountable Curbs apply:
• All urban roads generally with speed limits below 80 kph

• All roads with adjacent pedestrian paths
• Roads that have adjacent pedestrian activity
• All urban intersections, including all channelization and central island roundabout
edges
− Rural intersections that have footways for adjacent pedestrian activity
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Mountable Curbs apply:

• Urban roads with posted speed limits at or greater than 80 kph with no pedestrian
activity
• Where guardrail is to be provided
• Rural intersection roadway edges that do not have adjacent pedestrian activity
• Rural minor road splitter islands
− Central island roundabout edges at rural intersections
Drop curbs apply:

• Rural priority intersections with approach speed limits of 80 kph or higher for use
on central median physical islands
• At edges of dropped curbs on pedestrian paths and crossings
• At road edges where private access drives are provided
− At roundabout situations to delineate where limited long vehicle overrun is
allowed around the central island
Flush curbs apply:

• Delineation of change in surfaces, such as asphalt roadways and block paving for
bus stop areas and parking areas and bays
− Edge of roadway extra support in flat areas where drainage can only be
provided by allowing roadway runoff over the edge of the pavement
Edge curbs
• Mainly provides edge structural support and delineation of pedestrian paths and
other amenity areas.
Where there is a need to install a road restraint system alongside a curbed section of
road, the road restraint system, curb, and drainage design should be designed as a unit.
The road restraint system will influence the selection of curb type. The combined
drainage/curb facility should not affect the intended operation of the road restraint
system when struck by an errant vehicle.
Dropped curbs enable pedestrians with mobility problems and wheelchair users to
navigate more easily crossing points on roads and at intersections. They should always
be located to direct the user to the crossing point designated by the designer. Breaks
in pedestrian path grades should be consistent with the maximum change in grade not
to exceed 10 percent, as this is may affect wheelchair clearances. Where a difference
of 10 percent is unavoidable, a short length (0.6 m) of flat transition should be used to
create two breaks of gradient, both below 10 percent.
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6.2.14 Road Restraint System

A road restraint system infrastructure comprises longitudinal barriers to protect
motorists and pedestrians from natural or manmade risks in the road reserve. With
respect to motorists, these risks include opposing traffic or objects in the roadside. For
pedestrians on paths adjacent to the roadway, restraint systems serve to protect them
from out-of-control vehicular traffic.
Roadside barriers are designed to prevent an errant vehicle from leaving the roadway
and striking a fixed object or feature located along the roadside, by containing and
redirecting the errant vehicle.
The Clear Zone is the total width of traversable land free of objects to the right or
outside the roadway within the right-of-way. The Clear Zone is measured from the right
edge of traveled way. It includes the shoulder or hard strip.
The concept of Clear Zone applies to roads in rural environments and those without
vertical face curbs. The Clear Zone dimension is selected for design of the roadside.
Refer to Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, for detailed guidance on road
restraint systems and their provision in association with Clear Zones.
6.2.15 Side Slopes

The most prevalent type of crash on two-lane rural roads is a single-vehicle run-off-road
crash. The severity of the crash, i.e., the outcome as measured by injury or fatality to
the occupants, is influenced by the design of the roadside, which includes the sideslope.
Side slopes should be designed to provide a reasonable opportunity for drivers who run
off the road to recover or come to a stop without overturning. Earth cut-and-fill slopes
should be flattened and liberally rounded as fitting with the topography and consistent
with the overall type of highway. Sideslope is expressed as a ratio of elevation change
to lateral dimension from the beginning of the slope (V:H). See Figures 6.44 and
Figure 6.46.
Vehicle performance during roadside encroachments is better the flatter the slope.
Research that forms the basis for international design standards shows that roadside
slopes flatter than 1:4 can be successfully traversed by vehicles, and in most cases, the
driver can maintain control and fully recover. Roads designed with such slopes may
experience multiple roadside encroachments that are never recorded as crashes,
because the driver is able to recover. Sideslopes as steep as 1:3 are generally
traversable, but not recoverable.
Where possible, the embankment side slopes should be 1:5 or flatter if conditions
permit. Roadside barriers are considered when sideslopes are between 1:5 and 1:3 and
the height of the embankment is greater than 6.0 m. For embankment slopes between
1:2 and 1:3, a roadside barrier is required when the embankment height is greater than
2.0 m. Where embankment slopes are steeper than 1:2, roadside barriers are required
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at all locations for embankments of 0.5 m or more. Part 23, Design and Operations for
Road Safety, provides details on the applications and type of roadside barriers.
Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the

subgrade are depend largely upon proper shaping of the side slopes. The rounding and
flattening of slopes minimizes drifting and washout of loose material such as sand,
thereby reducing maintenance costs. Detailed analysis of soil data determines the
stability of the slopes and the erosion potential. The design should reflect not only
initial construction cost but also the cost of maintenance, which is dependent on slope
stability. Guidance and standards relating to side slopes is contained in Part 14,
Earthworks.
Slopes in earth cuts should not be steeper than 1:2 and preferably should be 1:3 to
allow the use of mechanical maintenance equipment on the slope. If insufficient width
requires slopes steeper than 1:2, then partial or full retaining walls or some method of
slope stabilization should be used. Retaining walls should be set back from the roadway.
Steep-sided cuts greater than 1:2 must be protected by a roadside barrier.
An adequate geotechnical investigation along the route of the proposed new road
works must be carried out prior to specifying slopes. The investigation will determine
the slopes for long-term stability for cut and fill and the criteria for benching or erosion
protection if required.
Where benching is required, the desirable maximum height is 6.0 m with a horizontal
width, ideally of 4.0 m, and laid to falls of roughly 1:20 to avoid ponding of water and
consequential slip failure.
In rock cuts, ditches and a debris verge can provide a landing and catchment for
possible rock fall and removal of surface water runoff outside the roadway. This
additional width provides a useful area for rock face maintenance. Where rock
outcroppings are left in place for reasons of economy or aesthetics, the conditions
described above with respect to steep-sided cuts apply, and a roadside barrier must be
provided if the rock face outcrop occurs within the Clear Zone. A minimum of 1.0 m
space should be provided between the rock face and the rear of the safety barrier to
permit access for the removal of rock debris. Refer to Part 14, Earthworks, regarding
sand slopes, wind-blown sand, and dune control.
6.2.16 Clearances
The Clear Zone is the total width of a traversable land free of objects for the recovery
of errant vehicles measured from the edge of the traveled way. It includes shoulders,
bike lanes, and auxiliary lanes, unless the auxiliary lane functions as a through lane. The
width of the Clear Zone is a function of the speed, traffic volume, and embankment
slope. The Clear Zone should be clear of any unyielding fixed object including trees,
utility poles, sign supports, and structures. The positioning of signs and other street
furniture should be in accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM; 2014).
If it is not possible to position an object or structure outside the Clear Zone, providing
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a road restraint system or safety cushions should be considered. Refer to Part 23,
Design and Operation of Road Safety.
In urban areas where right-of way is limited, it is not practical to provide the required
Clear Zone. Urban areas are characterized by curbs and sidewalks, lower operating
speeds, frequent traffic stops, and turning movements. It is recommended that fixed
objects must have a minimum clearance (lateral offset) from the face of the curb. Fixed
objects include but are not limited to structures, traffic signs, sign supports, light poles,
utility poles, fire hydrants, and roadside furniture. Structures and fixed objects should
not be placed within 1.2 m of the edge of hard shoulder or 0.6 m from the face of the
curb. For further discussion on clearances and lateral offsets, refer to Section 3.7.
6.2.17 Fencing
Many different types of fences can be used within the road right-of-way, each for
particular applications:
• Right-of-way fencing delineates and separates private property from the road right-
of-way.
• Road restraint systems should be erected where considered necessary.
• Animal fencing prevents animals from entering the highway reservation. The size
and type of fencing should be effective to control the type of animal intended to
control; for example, a camel versus a goat.
• Acoustic fencing or sound walls may be required in sensitive designated locations,
such as residential areas, to lower the traffic noise level. The wall forms a barrier,
and the sound is reflected away from the sensitive area.
• Headlight barriers or glare screen may be implemented at locations where it is
desirable to minimize the glare of headlights from oncoming vehicles, such as unlit
bends on rural roads.
• Pedestrian access fencing may be required where pedestrians are numerous, such
as on commercial streets and outside schools or large sports complexes where
crowds may gather. The fencing controls the movement of pedestrian traffic and
lowers the risk of a pedestrian accidentally walking into the roadway.
6.2.18 Roadside Elements and Verges

The verge or roadside is a width of the right-of-way that facilitates functions essential
for operation of the road. Verges accommodate placement of highway signs,
structures, utility services, drainage, traffic signals, street lighting, and associated
ducting. Where a verge is adjacent to a development, a setback may be required. Verge
widths may vary from a desirable minimum of 3.0 m up to the limits of the reservation,
which could be greater than 15.0 m. Paved verges should be designed such that they
drain to the roadway and not the adjacent property.
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In placing structures, signs, and landscaping the required sight lines shall be
maintained. Additional care should be taken at traffic signals and intersections where
extra signage is often used.
Verges may be paved, landscaped, or graded depending on the intended use. The
proposed width of verges shall be considered if soakaways are to be provided in the
verge as part of the drainage design solution. Detailed investigations for the provision
of services and utilities in verges must be undertaken during the design stage for both
new roads and improvements to existing roads, such that all can be accommodated
within the verge provision.
Although a traversable and unobstructed roadside is desirable, some items will

inevitably be placed near the traveled way in the urban environment. Manmade fixed
objects that frequently occupy highway rights-of-way include highway signs, roadway
lighting, traffic signals, railway warning devices, intelligent transportation systems, and
utility poles. Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, contains information on
Clear Zone requirements and roadside safety.
The designer shall consider all fixed objects likely to be present along the roadside. The
design decision process is outlined below in order of desirability:
• Remove the obstacle

• Redesign the obstacle so it can be traversed
• Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely to be struck
• Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate breakaway device
• Shield the obstacle with a longitudinal traffic barrier designed for vehicle redirection
or impact attenuation
• Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not appropriate. This solution is
practicable only where the design speed of the road is ≤ 50 kph.
The first two options are generally preferred but not always practical, especially for
highway signing and lighting, which should remain near the roadway to serve their
intended functions. The use of breakaway or collapsible posts is a preferred solution
over shielding with roadside barrier.
Trees are potential obstructions by virtue of their size and location in relation to
vehicular traffic. Generally, a tree with an expected mature size greater than 100 mm
at about 1.0 m above ground level is considered a fixed object. When trees or shrubs
with multiple trunks or groups of small trees are close together, they may be considered
as having the effect of a single tree with their combined cross sectional area. Large trees
should be removed from within the selected Clear Zone for new construction and for
reconstruction.
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6.2.19 Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian facilities generally are found within the verge and at road-crossing points.
The provision of paved pedestrian areas is related to the function of the roadside
development. To obtain reliable estimates of pedestrian volumes and movements,
studies should be conducted at the concept and preliminary design stage. Urban roads
and intersections shall allow space for pedestrian paths unless the area strictly forbids
walking. Further detailed information on the provision and design of pedestrian paths
can be found in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public Transportation.
6.2.20 Bike Facilities

The bicycle is an important element for consideration in the highway design process.
To provide safe and effective routes, segregated bike paths are required for higher
capacity and higher speed roads.
To provide adequately for cyclists, the designer should be familiar with bike
dimensions, operating characteristics, and needs. These factors determine acceptable
turning radii, grades, and sight distance. Further detailed information on the provision
and design of cycling facilities can be found in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public
Transportation.
6.2.21 Utilities
Figure 6.30 to Figure 6.43 depict various road corridors. These are intended to provide
adequate space for cross section requirements, while giving public utilities sufficient
space for existing and proposed utilities. Where space for utilities is limited, way leaves
outside the road reservation may be required. Full details for the provision of utilities
is given in Part 11, Utilities, and also in the National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal,
2014).
6.2.22 Right-of-Way
The width of right-of-way for the development of roads and streets is influenced by
traffic demands, topography, land use, cost, intersection design, and the extent of
ultimate expansion. The width of right-of-way should be the summation of the various
cross sectional elements as described above and, where appropriate, frontage roads,
roadside Clear Zones, side slopes, drainage facilities, utilities, and retaining walls. The
width of right-of-way in developed areas should be based on the practical extent of the
preferable dimensions of each element.
The designer is confronted with the problem of providing an overall cross section that
will give maximum service within a limited width of right-of-way. Right-of-way widths
in urban areas are governed primarily by economic considerations, physical
obstructions, or environmental concerns. Along any road, conditions of development
and terrain vary, and accordingly, the availability of right-of way varies. For this reason,
the right-of-way on a given facility should not be a fixed width predetermined based on
the most critical point along the facility. Instead, designers should strive to provide a
desirable right-of-way width along most of, if not all, the facility.
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Where space for utilities is limited, “way leaves” outside the road reservation may be
obtained by contacting MMUP and other relevant planning authorities.
6.2.23 Typical Cross Sections

Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 are cross sections depicting the essential elements in typical
sections for one-way and two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural
roads within predefined right-of-way widths and adjacent land uses. The cross sections
shown are typical. Final dimensions including right-of-way for any project should be
agreed to with the Overseeing Organization. A summary of the cross section figures
provided is in Table 6.6 and Table 6.7. Some of the typical sections can be used for one
or two highway functional classifications depending on the right-of-way width, design
speed, and traffic volume.
The centerline of the main roadway is usually centered within the right-of-way. In
reconstruction projects, it may be appropriate for right-of-way acquisition to occur on
only one side, or in unequal widths based on the uses acquired and costs. In the case
of road centerlines being offset from the reservation, the utilities plan should be revised
to suit the specific road cross section proposed.
Determination of the typical section is among the very first design decisions made. For
projects in which the recommended widths of either right-of-way or basic cross section
dimensions cannot be achieved, discussion and agreement on the project-specific
dimensions should occur between the designer and the Overseeing Organization.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes,
may require individual reservations to satisfy their unique performance criteria. In such
cases, the Overseeing Organization should be consulted.
For public realm dimensions including width, extent, and location of landscaping
strips, sidewalks, bike paths, shared use paths, utility corridors and so on, refer to the
National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014).
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Table 6.6 Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads
Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers
Functional > 64 m to 264

Classification Adjacent Land Use 10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 50 m 64 m m
Residential 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13
Local Access Road Commercial 6.14
Industrial 6.15
Residential 6.16 6.19 6.22
Minor Collector Commercial 6.17 6.20
Industrial 6.18 6.21
6.23
Residential
6.24
6.25
Major Collector Commercial
6.26
6.27
Industrial
6.28
Commercial 6.29/6.30/6.32
Minor Arterial
Industrial 6.28 6.29/6.30/6.32
6.31
Commercial 6.33
6.32
Major Arterial
6.31
Industrial 6.33
6.32
6.34
Recreational
Boulevard 6.35
Commercial 6.36
6.37
Expressway - 6.39
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Table 6.7 Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads

Functional Classification Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers
10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 50 m 64 m > 64 m to 264 m
Local Road 6.40 6.40
Collector 6.41 6.41 6.41
Arterial 6.42
Freeway 6.43

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Figure 6.10 Typical Urban Local Access, One-way System - 10 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
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Figure 6.11 Typical Urban Local Access - 12 m Right-of-Way (Residential)

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Figure 6.14 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.15 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.16 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Residential)

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Figure 6.17 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.18 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.20 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.21 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.23 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential) with Service Road
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Figure 6.24 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential) with Service Road
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Figure 6.25 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.26 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.27 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.28 Typical Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.29 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial)

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Figure 6.30 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.31 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.32 Typical Urban Minor/Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.33 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial)

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Figure 6.34 Typical Urban Boulevard - 64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational)

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Figure 6.35 Typical Urban Boulevard—64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational)

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Figure 6.36 Typical Urban Boulevard— 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.37 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way (6-Lane Divided Highway)

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Figure 6.38 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way (8-Lane Divided Highway)

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Figure 6.39 Typical Urban Expressway – 264 m Right-of-Way (8-Lane Divided Highway-with Frontage Road)
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Figure 6.40 Typical Rural Access Road – 16 m to 20 m Right-of-Way

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Figure 6.41 Typical Rural Collector – 24 m to 40 m Right-of-Way

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Typical Rural Arterial – 64 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.42
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Figure 6.43 Typical Rural Freeway – 264 m Right-of-Way (with Frontage Road)
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Figure 6.44 Typical Embankment Cross Sections
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Figure 6.45 Typical Cut Cross Sections
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Figure 6.46 Requirement for Barriers on Embankments
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7 Integrated Road and

Landscape Design
Integrating a road into its landscape and urban context is essential for delivering a road
that is environmentally sensitive, culturally responsive, and economical. An integrated
approach will lead to a better and more acceptable road design that achieves its vision
and objectives.
This is particularly important for roads that pass through urban areas, valued open
landscapes, and natural areas. These locations pose many complex issues that need to
be considered and resolved successfully. For details, refer to Part 20, Context Sensitive
Design and Solutions, and Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design.
Designs for major and large-scale road corridor elements are opportunities to create a
sense of place and to provide interest for the user. Small-scale elements such as signs
and lighting need to be considered early, so that they can be incorporated into the
design and not added at a later stage.
An integrated road design approach requires a collaborative approach across the whole
design team, as well as stakeholders of the project to understand the plans and vision
for the study area and consider them early in the design process. All the design
elements need to be considered by the design team together. It is an approach that can
lead to a road network that fits into its setting, and preserves and enhances accessibility
for all landscape, aesthetic, industrial, cultural, and environmental resources.
Typical features of an integrated design approach could include the following:

• A commitment from senior officials
• A multi-disciplinary team established early, based on the needs to the project
• Consultation of stakeholders early and throughout the lifetime of the project
• A clear vision statement and established project objectives
• A road design process developed to meet the needs of the project
• Effective use of design tools and technology
• An understanding of the landscape, environment, and community resources and
needs before engineering design is started
• A public involvement process that meet the needs of the project
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7.1 Integrated Road Design Principles

The following general design principles should be part of an integrated approach:
• Understand the landscape and urban context and respond accordingly.

• Have a thorough understanding of the functions of the adjacent land use.
• Challenge road design guidance and standards to achieve more creative solutions.
• Respond to existing landform and match earthworks to surrounding slopes.
• Balance earthwork volumes to achieve a more sustainable solution.
• Identify appropriate planting solutions respond to context and are sustainable in
the long term.
• Maintain and improve community access across a range of transport modes.
• Use local materials and styles that can add to and create character.
7.2 Road Siting and Alignment

The successful integration of a road into its landscape or urban context can be achieved
if the siting and alignment of the road is designed to fit into the existing landscape. The
selection of the most appropriate route should include a consideration of landform and
minimizing the effects on earthworks.
7.2.1 Earthworks
The following should be considered in the design of earthworks:
• Select a route that is the least damaging to the landscape and offers the best
opportunities for mitigation.
• Follow the contours to reduce earthworks and to minimize effects on adjacent land
uses.
• Use earthwork and slopes to integrate structures into the landscape and reflect the
surrounding topography.
• Respond to topographical patterns to emphasize existing features that create visual
interest for motorists with vistas and views to landmarks.
• Use graded out slopes to integrate and blend earthworks into the adjacent
landform.
• Use a variety of slope angles to create visual diversity and a more natural and softer
appearance.
• Consider removing minor landforms adjacent to the roadway beyond the right-of-
way that may result in a better overall fit with the existing landform.
• Consider using surplus materials on-site or close to the site to reduce transport of
waste material off-site.
• Adjust earthwork slopes to retain existing vegetation.
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• Use false cuttings or mounding earthworks to create a visual screen in sensitive and
special areas.
• Use shallow slopes to minimize surface erosion.
• Use appropriate slopes to allow planting to establish.
• Consider splitting the roadway with a wide median to reduce the need for
earthworks and to retain existing features such as trees.
• Take special care with earthworks within grade separated interchanges in
considering the slopes between roadways and the interfaces with structures.
7.2.2 Retaining Walls

In some instances, retaining walls may be required where it is not possible to use
steeper slopes to achieve the required changes in level within the right-of-way or to
protect features next to the roadway. The following should be considered in the design
of retaining walls.
• Select structures or slope stabilization techniques that blend into the adjacent
landscape or urban context.
• Provide space for planting at the base or top of the wall to soften the appearance
of the wall.
• Adequate space for planting between terraces.
• Use climbers and trailing plants.
• Stagger or offset alignments of retaining walls to create visual interest.
• Integrate retaining walls into adjacent structures, such as bridge abutments, using
common materials, finishes, and alignments.
• Use bold and decorative patterns and finishing textures on high-speed roads so they
are visible for motorists moving at speed.
7.2.3 Rock Cut

Rock cuttings and outcrops can provide interesting features along the roadway and
form features that are characteristics of the local landscape. The following should be
considered in the design of rock cut slopes:
• Understand the geology, site requirements, and landscape context to achieve a

slope natural in form, texture, and color and which matches existing rock features.
• Design terracing, if required, to work with the natural bedding planes of the rock,
be irregular to create variety.
• Avoid planting which looks unnatural and artificial.
• Reduce the need for rock fall protection.
• Blend with natural bedding planes to create a natural appearance.
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• Provided sufficient land within the right-of-way to design, build, and maintain the
rock face.
• Incorporate soil pockets or benches for planting.
• Integrate structures into rock cuttings by using stone walling and cladding to match
existing rock types and patterns.
7.2.4 Interchanges and Roundabouts

Interchanges and roundabouts can form significant features on a highway both in a
wider landscape and within the urban context. Their landscape and urban design could
be considered as a specific project. Within all interchanges and roundabouts, visibility
lines and sight distances are critical to safety. The following should be considered in the
design:
• Develop an overall landscape theme for the interchange as a whole.

• Employ a coordinated aesthetic approach to the whole interchange, covering
structures, walls, bridges, lighting, and landscape considering color and texture to
create unity.
• Use distinctive planting to differential the interchange visually.
• Use strong patterns in the layout of planting, either formal or informal.
• Plant trees and palms in larger numbers.
• Use colored gravel mulches, pebbles, and rocks to provide different textures within
the planting providing their use is consistent with the landscape concept.
• Use frangible planting only within Clear Zones and at a low height to maintain
visibility.
• Provide adequate space for interchange facilities, such as pumping stations, storm
water features, utility chambers and utility buildings, and provide access to these
facilities.
• Design attractive features, but limit access to them (except for maintenance) by
motorists and pedestrians for safety purposes.
• Minimize features that require regular or extensive maintenance, such as water
features.
• Provide safe access for landscape maintenance.
7.2.5 Gateways
Gateways are used to create a sense of arrival to a place. Gateways can take many
forms and use structures within the road corridor such as bridges, interchanges,
lighting, landscape, and public art features. The following should be considered in the
design of gateway features:
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• Reflect the importance of the place in the gateway.

• Respond to scale of the landscape surroundings and urban context.
• Respond to the requirement of different users of the highway public realm, for
example, both motorists and pedestrians.
• Asses views on the approach to the gateway to determine the most appropriate
location and form of the feature.
• Reduce visual clutter near the gateways.
• Use trees and other plantings as an integral part of the gateway design to frame
views and increase visibility.
• Use feature lighting to highlight the gateway feature or focal point.
7.2.6 Special Areas

Special areas are those deemed to have particular importance for cultural, historical,
or environmental reasons. The area should have been identified as a special area during
the landscape or urban context appraisal stage. The highway landscape and urban
design should therefore enhance the design of the special area and mitigate any
adverse effects identified during the environmental appraisal. The designer should
consider the following:
• Adjust the right-of-way to reduce or eliminate the land take to mitigate effects on
special areas that cannot be replaced once lost.
• Provide land for mitigation or enhancement if the right-of-way must be increased.
• Design a vertical alignment that reduces or eliminates physical damage to
underground features.
• Undertake a detailed appraisal of the special area, and work with stakeholders to
define the objectives and design requirements.
• Identify special landform, ecology, landscape, or public realm requirements.
• Minimize noise and visual intrusion into the setting of heritage buildings or features.
• Open up views towards heritage buildings and features.
7.3 Structures
Structures can be significant features on the highway and can take many forms. Their
impact on the landscapes can be significant and a multi-disciplinary approach is
required to integrate them into the landscape and make a positive contribution to the
landscape.
7.3.1 Bridges
Bridges can be dominant features and can be dramatic and sculptural elements in the
landscape and urban context. They can serve as gateways or landmarks at the local or
national levels. Successful and attractive bridge designs will need a multi-disciplinary
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approach with the bridge engineer working with a bridge architect and a landscape
architect considering all the elements of the bridge together with the surrounding
landscape. The following should be considered:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design, and determine if the bridge is to
become a landmark structure or one where a simple low-key design solution is more
appropriate.
• Provide shade and balustrades or barriers in conjunction with proposed paths
where pedestrian and cyclist provision is required.
• Consider visually lightweight and slender structures rather than bulky structures so
they are unobtrusive.
• Integrate the bridge into the adjacent landform visually, with approach abutments
integrated into the adjacent landform.
• Integrate pattern and texture into surfaces to reduce visual scale and dominance.
• Consider all the bridge elements together in a coherent design.
• Integrate planting into the overall design to enhance the structure.
• Allow views out from the roadway.
• Consider the detailed design of bridge piers, as they are highly visible part of the
structure.
• Select and place planting materials to complement the design of the structure and
the landscape.
• Consider the detail and how the various bridge components work together and
complement each other.
7.3.2 Pedestrian Bridges

Pedestrian bridges are increasingly prominent feature in the landscape and, in
particular, the urban context where they are seen as a way of getting pedestrians and
cyclists across wide roads in a safe manner. The principles of a multi-disciplinary design
team considering the whole of the structure apply equally to the design of pedestrian
bridges. The following should be considered:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design and whether the bridge is to
become a landmark structure or one where a simple low-key design solution is more
appropriate.
• Consider using a curved alignment or dynamic form to add visual interest and act as
a gateway or landmark.
• Make the bridge accessible to all pedestrian users with appropriate path widths,
slope of ramps, landings, and handrails.
• Provide lighting to allow use after dark.
• Feature lighting to emphasize the bridge as a gateway or landmark.
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• Provide touch-down places with sufficient pedestrian space for orientation with
seats, shade lighting, and clear directional signage.
• Place planting to enable clear visibility.
• Use skid-resistant materials on ramps and slopes.
7.3.3 Tunnels
Tunnels or underpasses can be dominant features for the motorist and can create
dramatic features on the highway. As with bridges, successful designs will rely on a
multi-disciplinary team including landscape architects. The design of the structure
should consider the following:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design to determine if the tunnel is to be
a landmark feature or a simple design solution.
• Integrate the structure into the surrounding landscape.
• Integrate approach walls, medians, and portals with the design of the tunnel itself.
• Avoid monotonous schemes by using decorative treatments with color, texture, and
pattern.
• Integrate artistic features with the potential for cultural, heritage, or iconic
landscapes and other elements.
• Incorporate planting, taking care with irrigation and drainage to reduce or minimize
potentially damaging the structure
• Consider the detail of the structure and how the elements work together to form a
cohesive design.
• Consider how the detail of the structure integrates with adjacent details and
features.
7.3.4 Pedestrian Underpasses

Pedestrian underpasses are another way of getting pedestrians across wide roads. They
require particular attention to ensure that they are safe and are well used. Crucial to
their success is the creation of open, visible, and welcoming entrances. Other design
considerations include:
• Promote a sense of security and minimize the sense of enclosure.

• Identify direct and efficient routes.
• Make the entrance visible and obvious from the surrounding landscape and public
realm.
• Create high quality plazas or open spaces as gateways at entrances to underpasses
that integrate with the design of the underpass, as with paving materials.
• Use straight alignments to allow pedestrians to see along the whole length to the
exit.
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• Provide good lighting, including natural light wells where space in the median
allows.
• Provide for natural ventilation.
• Make the underpass accessible to all users with appropriate path widths, slopes of
ramps, landings, and handrails.
• Use light colors and materials.
• Provide for decorative treatments for the walls and roof and for the incorporation
of public art.
7.4 Fences and Walls

Roadside fences and walls can have a significant effect on the appearance of the road.
Their design should form an integral part of the road design, respond to their context
and appropriate types, styles, and alignments should be used. The following should be
considered in their design:
• Employ alignments that respond to other road features and property boundaries to
achieve the best fit.
• Pay particular attention to fence at bridge abutments and the interface with
parapets in order to create a unified appearance.
• Integrate fences and walls to planting layouts.
• Select materials to match the materials and color of other elements of the road
design and that are of durable and tamper-proof construction.
• Avoid obstructing pedestrian or bicycle bike crossings.
7.5 Water Management/ and Conservation

The increased surface water run-off from a road can be successfully managed through
a sustainable drainage system that is integrated into the adjacent landscape. Typical
water management systems include detention ponds and infiltration systems through
swales and ditches. The landscape designer should work with the engineer to achieve
an integrated system that is functional, sustainable, and attractive. The system should
be capable of managing pollution, reducing the impact on the surrounding landscape,
filtering silt, and providing water for planting.
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7.5.1 Detention Systems

Detention systems store surface water and release it over time through control
structures. The following should be considered in the design of detention systems:
• Use natural shapes to integrate ponds into the landscape, acquiring additional land
to achieve this if necessary.
• Design the detention facility, where possible and appropriate, as a multi-use facility
by including recreational facilities for walkers or cyclists.
• Understand the proximity to groundwater, and therefore the potential to create
wet ponds with increased habitat and biodiversity value.
• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
• Use planting to screen drainage structures and to create an attractive landscape
feature.
• Provide shallow slopes at the edges to allow planting to establish.
• Plantings should not interfere with the drainage function.
• Blend maintenance access into the layout and context of the landscape to be
unobtrusive.
• Integrate fencing into the landform and planting.
• Use rock rip-rap to stabilize water flow, and color slopes to blend into the
surrounding landscape.
• Select plant species that are able to withstand variable water levels.
7.5.2 Infiltration Systems

Infiltration systems collect storm water and allow it to filter through the permeable
soils at the base of an excavated basin, swale, or ditch. They are usually level and
shallow with the following other characteristics:
• Place the base of the feature sufficiently below the highway level so that water does
not damage the road structure.
• Provide a very shallow or near flat base to prevent erosion and allow filtration to
take effect.
• Use shallow slopes to reduce the potential for erosion.
• Vegetate the slopes of basins, swales, and ditches to prevent erosion.
• Use gravel or rock for side slopes and the base, providing that it is stable.
• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
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7.6 Landscape and Utilities

Planting requires space both above and below ground, for it to establish successfully
and for it to create the desired design effect in the long term.
The need for space can create conflicts, with underground utilities in particular.
Conflicts need to be resolved through a collaborative approach based on a common
understanding of the vision and design objectives for the highway, urban road, and
landscape. The vision and design objectives should allow clear priorities for the various
highway design elements to be determined. For example, if the vision for the highway
is to create a tree-lined road, then the positioning of utilities should be of a lower
priority and their design driven by the need to locate the trees in the most effective
position to create the tree-lined effect. This would not be possible if the tree positions
are determined by the space left over between the utilities.
Tree planting pits should consider the size of the root ball at the time of planting, and
the long-term needs of the tree by providing space that will allow the tree to mature to
its natural size. Adequate soil volume is required so that the root ball can expand to
support the tree with nutrients, water, and sufficient roots to maintain the tree in a
stable and secure position.
Easements and access for future maintenance of the utilities should be considered and
where practicable, the planting design should respond to these. It may be appropriate
that ground cover planting can be located over services in the knowledge that if
required, the planting can be lifted and replaced.
The landscape architect and engineer should explore innovative technical solutions that
would allow trees and utilities to be positioned closer together if space is constrained.
Tree soils and root barriers could be used to help reduce conflicts for example.
7.7 Sustainable Landscape Design
7.7.1 Introduction
The design of urban roads and landscape offers significant opportunities to integrate
sustainability into the design of roads. The designer should establish sustainability
objectives for the project and develop a plan, which sets out how these objectives are
to be achieved. A sustainable urban road and road landscape should adopt a holistic
and wide ranging approach which addresses environmental, economic and social
criteria and consider minimizing use of energy, conserving water, incorporating native
plants, is cost effective to implement and maintain in the long term while creating high
quality, attractive landscapes.
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7.7.2 Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning

The success of sustainable roads starts from an understanding of the existing site, its
context and identifying its constraints and opportunities.
• Cultural landscapes: Identify historical or cultural landscapes and places,

understand their cultural value, and look for ways to protect, conserve, and
enhance their value.
• Eco-systems: Understand natural systems and habitats, and design the landscape
to protect and enhance them.
• Protected species: Avoid areas that are habitats for protected species, and design
the landscape in a way that minimizes disturbance and supports their ongoing
protection.
• Minimize use of energy: Reduce the amount of earthworks, and minimize areas to
be disturbed.
• Neighborhood linkages: Connect to existing footways and bike paths, and link open
spaces and community facilities to support walking and cycling and sustainable local
communities.
• Use of space: Use the right-of-way space effectively and creatively to enhance open
space and to create safe and attractive places for outdoor social interaction.
7.7.3 Soils
Soils should be seen as an important living material which serves a number of functions
in addition to providing a growing medium for plants.
• Storage and filtration of water: The soil structure has a crucial role in retaining
water within the soil for plants and water management.
• Topsoil preservation: Preserve topsoil by stripping for later replication and storing
correctly to prevent damage.
• Damage during construction: Handle soils to minimize damage, prevent
compaction by heavy equipment, and prevent pollution, and store them correctly
through careful construction planning and methods.
• Soil improvements: Enhance soils by relieving compaction, and use amendments
through the incorporation of balanced nutrients.
• Soil replacement: Handle soils carefully in placing them in the landscape for plant
success and long-term survival. This should include consideration of the treatment
of subsoils.
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7.7.4 Water Conservation

Water conservation achieved through carefully designed irrigation and drainage offers
significant opportunities for sustainability in the design of roads.
• Drainage: On-site sustainable drainage systems are a cost-effective way to allow

storm water to percolate the soil and reduce the risk to drainage systems.
• Landscape features: Ponds, swales and other storm water drainage features can be
designed to create attractive landscape features and to provide water to support
plants.
• Drought tolerant plants: Water-efficient plants reduce the demand and use of
water for planting.
• Efficient irrigation systems: Well-designed systems will manage water demand and
minimize waste.
7.7.5 Plant Species

Plant species that are native or adapted to the regional climate require fewer resources.
Appropriate species can enhance habitats and biodiversity, and to create distinctive
landscapes.
• Existing trees and vegetation: Identify and seek to protect or incorporate mature
trees into the design of the road landscape.
• Use appropriate species: Use plants appropriate to the climate and conditions, as
they will use fewer resources and reduce maintenance requirements.
• Micro-climate: Use trees to provide shade to pedestrian areas, reduce dust, and
reduce wind speed.
• Mature plants: Provide space to allow trees and plants to achieve their nature size
where their benefits will be greatest.
7.7.6 Materials
Selecting sustainable materials includes sourcing materials, using them efficiently and
considering waste as a potential material.
• Reuse materials on-site where possible; for example site-won rock for gravel
mulches.
• Use energy in production to identify potential materials with a low embedded
carbon value to demonstrate efficient use of energy in their production, including
transport.
• Minimize waste by using materials efficiently, so as not to create waste.
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7.7.7 Landscape Maintenance and Management

The designer should consider the ongoing maintenance and management as an
important aspect of sustainable design:
• Provide efficient irrigation systems, ensuring irrigation systems continue to work as

designed to reduce water wastage, flooding of the road, and damage to the
highway.
• Employ management plans that implement plans that share the sustainability
objective to help achieve those objectives.
• Employ maintenance activities that reduce the amount of maintenance without
comprising safety to the desired landscape design; for example annual pruning of
shrubs.
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8 Other Elements Affecting

Design
8.1 Erosion Control
Erosion Control is the practice of preventing or controlling erosion due to water or
wind. Depending on the topography of the site, erosion control could be a major factor
during construction and maintenance. Based on the topography and site conditions
erosion control techniques to prevent the erosion should be considered during the
early part of planning as well as during the design process.
For further details on erosion control, refer to the following:
• Part 10, Drainage, for pollution control requirements and sustainable drainage
systems
• Part 14, Earthworks, for dune stabilization
• Part 21, Environmental, for erosion control and contaminated land
8.2 Rest Areas

Rest areas are areas where the travelers can stop and rest for short periods, giving them
a chance to relax, use washroom, freshen up, reconfirm the trip plan, obtain traveler
information, change drivers, make phone calls, and use other services such as food and
refueling. Rest areas are provided on rural freeways in Qatar.
8.2.1 Spacing of Rest Areas

Recommended spacing interval between rest areas is 100 km, which equates to about
one hour between the stops. However, the exact spacing and location of these
facilities shall be agreed in advance with the Overseeing Organization.
8.2.2 Site Selection

The goal of site selection should be to provide rest area locations to be sites in attractive
surroundings with adequate parking for both cars and trucks.
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The following criteria should be considered in selecting a site suitable for a rest area
and developing the plan for the rest area:
• Available utilities or ability to obtain utilities, such as water, electricity, telephone,

gas, wastewater, and disposal.
• Scenic qualities of the site, cultural or historical features within the site or adjacent
to the site and potential for tourism.
• Soil suitability for construction
• Soil types adequate for wastewater disposal.
• Topography and available right-of-way adequate and suitable for all rest area
functions, including allowance for potential future expansion of the rest area should
traffic volumes increase on the freeway.
• Spacing to the nearest rest area and interchanges.
• Land use adjacent to the site.
• Projected annual average daily traffic 15 years after year of opening of the rest area.
• Projected percent heavy vehicles.
• Potential environmental impacts on human environment such as air, noise, visual,
and land issues.
• Potential environmental impacts on natural resources such as endangered species,
wetlands, or archaeological sites.
8.2.3 Rest Area Design

Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps
designed. Figure 8.1 shows a design of a typical rest area. The rest area should be
screened from the main roadway, preferably using shaped and landscaped berms with
a height of at least 2 m.
Figure 8.1 Typical Rest Area Plan
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Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps
designed in accordance with Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors.
The internal roadway cross section should be in accordance with Chapter 6. With
respect to roadway width, provision should be made to allow traffic to pass a broken
down vehicle on one-way single roadways.
A minimum sidewalk provision of 2 m should be provided on pedestrian desire lines.

Where desire lines cross over the internal roads within the rest area, a pedestrian
crossing facility should be provided with dropped curbs.
Depending on the proposed location, a traffic enforcement area, as highlighted in

Figure 8.1 may require to be incorporated into the design of the rest area. The provision
and layout details of the traffic enforcement area shall be agreed with the Overseeing
Organization.
On certain sites, a grassed picnic area may be designated to the rear of the site away
from the main roadway. A recommended area of at least 150 square meters should be
provided.
The boundary of the rest area should be enclosed by a 2 m high secure fence to prevent
animals straying into the rest area facility and preventing access to the rest area from
the adjacent properties outside the freeway. Public access to the rest area shall only be
allowed from the exit and entrance terminal from the freeway. Access for emergency
or maintenance vehicles may be allowed from a local street with the agreement of the
Overseeing Organization. In such cases, security should be provided to prevent
unauthorized entry.
8.2.3.1 Facilities for Users
The following minimum facilities should be provided at rest areas:
• Prayer rooms and ablution areas, men’s and women’s.

• Toilet blocks, including disabled facilities, at least 2 men’s cubicles, 2 women’s
cubicles, 1 cubicle for the disabled
• Refuse points
• Petrol stations for refueling
• Picnic areas
• Information point
• Lighting
To inform visitors of local services and tourist attractions, and to provide essential
travel information, each rest area should also include an information center, with an
information board provided as a minimum.
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8.2.3.2 Parking Layout
Adequate parking should be provided within the rest area facilities.
Provision for car, bus, truck, staff and maintenance parking should be considered at the
early stages of the design process to maintain a balanced distribution of spaces.
The general layouts of the car parking should be in accordance to the details provided
in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. Bus parking and truck parking bay layouts should
be similar to the details provided in Figures 8.3 and 8.4 (AASHTO, 2001). The dimensions
shown in the figures are minimum dimensions; the designer should check these
dimensions using the appropriate design vehicles specified in Part 2, Planning and
adjust the dimensions accordingly. Bus parking, where required, should be segregated
from truck parking. The designer should also refer to Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit
Planning (Mowasalat, 2014) for additional details on parking dimensions.
Disabled parking bays should be provided at the rate of 5 percent (Irish National Road
Authority, 2013) of the total car parking, the layout should be similar to the detail
provided Figure 8.2 (AASHTO, 2001). Also refer to Section 6.2.12, Off-Street Disabled
Parking for additional details.
Figure 8.2 Disabled Parking at Rest Areas
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Figure 8.3 Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas
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Figure 8.4 Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas
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8.2.3.3 Capacity
The number of parking spaces needed for the rest area is based on the traffic volumes
on the mainline. Demand will be affected by factors such as traffic flow, rest area
spacing, and proximity to other interchanges.
Provision should be made during the site development for future expansion of parking if
the demand arises. The actual provision should be determined by demand assessment.
This should be taken as a percentage of projected one-way annual average daily traffic,
15 years after opening of the rest area, in accordance with Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision

Vehicle Type Percent of Mainline One Way Annual Average Daily Traffic
Car 0.40
Trucks 0.80
Buses 0.02
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
Regardless of the demand assessment for parking provision, the minimum number of
parking bays should be provided in accordance with Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Minimum Parking Provision

Vehicle Type Minimum Number of Parking Bays to be Provided
Car 40
Trucks 10
Buses 3
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
8.2.3.4 Signing and Markings
With rest areas at regular intervals, drivers have a choice whether to stop at specific
areas. Good advance signing assists in these decisions. Advance signage indicating
parking and the other available facilities at the rest area should be provided based on
consultation with the Overseeing Organization.
Signing and pavement markings at the exit and entrance ramp terminals to the rest
area should be in accordance with the QTCM (2014).
8.2.3.5 Lighting
The rest area, including car, heavy vehicles and bus parking areas and internal
roadways, should be adequately lit to should provide visual security and physical safety
to rest area patrons. Guidance on the level of lighting required should be determined
from Part 18, Street Lighting, and through consultation with the Overseeing
Organization.
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Lighting installations should be designed to provide a high standard of illumination

using high efficiency light sources with low maintenance costs. Care should be taken to
prevent inconvenience to properties adjacent to the rest area.
8.2.3.6 Landscaping
The design of the rest area should complement the surrounding area, implementing
local design features and materials that blend in with the local environment and thus
reducing visual impact.
The landscaping needs require careful consideration as to type and location of

vegetation, number of picnic tables and waste bins, and any barriers that may be
required to protect pedestrians from natural or manmade objects.
For design guidelines and details on landscaping, refer to Part 22, Landscape and
Planting Design.
8.3 Traffic Control Devices
8.3.1 Signing and Marking

Signing and marking are directly related to the design of the roadway. They are features
of traffic control and operation that the designer should consider in the geometric layout
of such a facility. The signing and marking should be designed concurrently with the road
geometry. Signs and pavement markings specified by the designer depend on the traffic
volume, type of facility, and extent of traffic control appropriate for efficient operation.
Although safety and efficiency of operation depend to a considerable degree on the

geometric design of the facility, the physical layout should be supplemented by
effective signing as a means of informing, warning, and controlling drivers. Signing plans
coordinated with horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance obstructions,
operational speeds and maneuvers, and other applicable items should be coordinated
before completion of design. For details regarding design, locations, and application of
signs, refer to the QTCM (2014).
Markings and markers; such as signs, control traffic to encourage safe and efficient
operation. They either supplement regulatory or warning signs or serve independently
to indicate certain regulations or warn of certain conditions present on the highway.
Pavement markings include centerlines, lane lines, and edge markings. These may be
supplemented by other pavement markings, such as approach to obstructions, stop and
yield lines, and various word and symbol markings. For design details, methods and
pavement marking criteria refer to QTCM (2014).
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8.3.2 Traffic Signals

Traffic-signals are one of the critical elements of traffic control, which need to be
considered during the geometric design of roadways and intersections. The planned
signal operation at the intersections should be integrated with the roadway design to
maximize operational efficiency. The design and layout of the roadway and the
intersection should provide good signal visibility to the drivers to maintain effective
operations. For design details refer Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections and refer
to QTCM (2014) for signal warrants, signal phasing and timing details.
8.4 Noise Barriers

Traffic noise is among the significant environmental problems to be addressed in a
design. Noise barriers are used to shield sensitive land uses such as residences, schools,
hospitals, and parks from traffic noise. Coordinate with the Overseeing Organization
early during the project development process to determine the need for noise studies
and potential inclusion of noise barriers in the project. Noise barriers may be
constructed along both new and existing highways.
8.4.1 Placement
Careful consideration should be exercised to ensure that the construction of noise
barriers will not compromise the safety of the highway. Designers should strive to
locate noise barriers to not conflict with sign placement and to provide the horizontal
clearances to obstructions outside the edge of traveled way. For noise barriers to be
effective they must be continuous (i.e., not have breaks) and be of sufficient height to
deflect noise from the receptor. Noise wall design involves the measuring of
background noise at key receptors, modeling of noise for design year traffic, and then
modeling of noise from the designed roadway with and without the barrier.
Sight distance is another important design consideration. Noise barriers designed along
the inside of horizontal curves should be placed outside the horizontal offset that is
necessary for stopping sight distance as given in Chapter 2.
Some designs incorporate a concrete “safety shape” either as an integral part of the noise
barrier or as a separate barrier between the edge of roadway and the noise barrier. Care
should be exercised in the location of noise barriers near intersections. Barriers at such
locations should begin or terminate, as the case may be, at least 60 m from the back of
the nose.
In many locations, noise walls will not be effective because of the need for frequent
breaks for intersections. Certain pavement types, referred to as “quiet pavements”, that
mitigate tire noise, have been proven effective. See Part 12, Pavement Design, for quiet
pavement discussion.
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8.5 Fencing
Fencing delineates the acquired control of access for a highway. Fencing primarily
serves to discourage or prevent pedestrians, vehicles, and animals from entering the
right-of-way at other than legally designated and designed locations. When the fencing
is placed to prevent the animals from entering the highway, the type and size of the
fence shall be dependent on the type of animal the fencing is intended to control, such
as camel or goat.
Any part of a highway with full control of access may be fenced except in areas of
precipitous slopes, or natural barriers, or where it can be established that fencing is not
needed to preserve access control. Fencing is usually located at or just inside the right-
of-way line or, where frontage roads are used, in the area between the through
highway and the frontage road (outer separation).
Fencing for access control is usually owned by and the responsibility of the Overseeing
Organization.
8.6 Sand Abatement in Dune Areas

Drifting and blowing sand is quite common in Qatar. Low-level sand dunes are
predominant in southwest and western Qatar and Barchan sand dunes are
predominant in southeast Qatar. Barchan sand dunes are crescent shaped dunes
formed under winds that blow in one direction and are also known as transverse dunes.
Sand deposits due to the drifting and blowing sand have safety implications on the
roadway users, especially in rural areas.
Strategies or mitigation measures to control and minimize sand deposits on the

roadway should be considered at the early stages of the design process and roadway
design criteria developed accordingly. The wind patterns may be different at different
locations and mitigation measures may be different depending on the location. It is
imperative that each project should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, with regard
to the prevailing wind direction, wind speeds and topography and geology of the area
and mitigation measures introduced and implemented accordingly.
During the planning studies, avoid planning roadways through the sand dune areas. If
it is not possible, consider the following in establishing the roadway alignment:
• Run the alignment towards the windward side of the dunes.

• Run the alignment parallel to the prevailing wind direction to minimize the sand
accumulation.
• Avoid roadway excavation as much as possible try to raise the profile and build
roadway on an embankment.
• Run the alignment such the prevailing winds can pass through the bridge openings.
Where there is likelihood of sand deposits, consider the following during establishing
the roadway design criteria:
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• Raise the roadway profile 1.5 m to 2.0 m above the surrounding terrain. The wind
across the paved surface clears the sand on the pavement and minimizes the sand
deposits.
• Cut slopes of 1V:10H or flatter.
• Fill slopes of 1V:6H or flatter.
• Limit superelevation to 4 percent maximum.
• Wide shallow medians to eliminate the need of guardrail or concrete median
barriers.
• Single span bridges are preferable and the bridge railings should be open tubular
type instead of concrete parapet.
• Avoid using concrete barrier in lieu use guardrail or cable barriers.
For additional design details and construction of roadways in dune areas, refer to
Chapter 6 in Part 14, Earthworks.
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References
AASHTO. Guide for Development of Rest Areas on Major Arterials and Freeways. 3rd edition.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC. 2001.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets. 6th edition (the Green Book). Washington, DC, United States. 2011a.
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide. 4th edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. 2011b.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street, Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. Qatar Public
Works Authority. 2014.
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards and Specifications. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. In preparation.
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). Highway Design Manual. “Chapter 200—

Geometric Design and Structure Design.” 2014.
Department for Transport. “Highway Link Design.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 6, Section 1, Part 1, TD 9/93. UK Highways Agency: London, England. February 2002.
Fambro. D. B., K. Fitzpatrick, and R. J. Koppa. National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Report 400: Determination of Stopping Sight Distances. Transportation Research Board.
Washington, DC. 1997.
Illinois Department of Transportation. “Chapter 32—Horizontal Alignment.” Bureau of Design &

Environment Manual (BDEM). 2014.
Irish National Road Authority. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6, Section 3, Part 3,
NRA TA 70/13, the Location and Layout of On‐Line Service Areas. 2013.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Intersection Sight Distance. Report
383. By Q. W. Harwood, J. M. Mason, R. E. Brydia, M. T. Pietrucha and G. L. Gittings.
Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC. 1996.
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Ohio Department of Transportation. Location and Design Manual, Volume 1, Section 200.
Figure 203-2. 2014.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC,
2010.
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Volume 1
Part 4
Intersections and Roundabouts
VOLUME 1 PART 4
INTERSECTIONS AND ROUNDABOUTS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪INTERSECTIONS AND ROUNDABOUTS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 1 PART 4
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... iii
1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Intersection Type Selection Criteria................................................................................ 1
1.3 Intersection Objectives ................................................................................................... 2
2 Intersection Types and Their Applicability ........................................................................ 3

2.1 Types Related to Functional Classification ..................................................................... 3
2.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity ................................................................................................ 4
3 Intersection Selection ....................................................................................................... 7

3.1 Operational Quality ........................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Safety Performance ........................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Spatial Efficiency and Lifecycle Cost ............................................................................... 8
3.4 Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection ............................................................. 8
3.4.1 Rural Intersections .......................................................................................... 9
3.4.2 Urban Major Road Intersections ..................................................................... 9
3.4.3 Urban Local Road Intersections .................................................................... 10
3.5 Route Designation......................................................................................................... 10
3.6 Traffic Flows and Capacity ............................................................................................ 10
3.7 Local Conditions ............................................................................................................ 10
3.8 Overview of Operational and Design Trade-offs .......................................................... 10
3.9 Designation of Priority Intersections ............................................................................ 11
3.9.1 Needs for Traffic Signal Controlled Intersections .........................................12
3.10 Data and Analysis for Intersections .............................................................................. 13
4 Roundabout Type Selection ............................................................................................ 15

4.1 Route Designation......................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Traffic Flows and Capacity ............................................................................................ 15
4.3 Data and Analysis for Roundabouts.............................................................................. 16
5 High-volume At-grade Intersection Types ....................................................................... 19

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 19
5.2 Indirect Left-turn Intersections ..................................................................................... 19
5.3 “Superstreet” Intersections .......................................................................................... 21
5.4 Continuous-flow Intersections...................................................................................... 21
5.5 Arterial-to-arterial Grade Separations .......................................................................... 24
References ............................................................................................................................... 25
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Tables
Table 2.1 Basic Forms of Intersection Types ....................................................................... 3

Table 2.2 Permitted Intersection Types on Urban and Rural Roads ................................... 4
Table 3.1 Summary of Basic Trade-offs Among Intersection Types .................................. 11
Figures
Figure 3.1 Progression of Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection.......................... 9

Figure 5.1 Indirect Left-turn Intersection with Median U-turn Crossover ......................... 20
Figure 5.2 “Superstreet” Intersection ................................................................................ 21
Figure 5.3 Continuous-flow Intersection ............................................................................ 23
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FHWA Federal Highway Administration
m meter
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1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
This part describes the initial process to select the appropriate form or concept for an
intersection of two highways or roadways. When two highways intersect, the
movement of traffic between and crossing them can be handled by at-grade
solutions. These solutions include intersections, signalized and unsignalized, and
roundabouts. Another type of solution, grade-separated interchange, is discussed in
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors.
The selection of an appropriate intersection form is based on the following:
• Functional classification of the intersecting roads

• The volume and pattern of traffic
• The terrain and topography
• Existing and planned land use,
• The needs of nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians and cyclists
A brief methodology follows describing the fundamental steps to be undertaken when

assessing intersection type and configuration options prior to the commencement of
the detailed design.
1.2 Intersection Type Selection Criteria

Intersections are a critical element of the highway transport system. They generally
are the primary bottlenecks, producing delay to travelers. In urban areas in particular,
most crashes are associated with intersections. Intersections are also central to the
overall distribution of traffic through the highway network. Therefore, it is vital that
appropriate intersection strategy and selection be considered early in road and
corridor planning.
An intersection’s key purpose is to enable the safe and efficient transfer of traffic
streams through the intersection from one road to another as well as across each
road. The selection of the most appropriate type of intersection requires
consideration of a number of factors, the most significant including road classification,
traffic flows and capacities and safety. Decisions will represent trade-offs in
operations, design costs and impacts.
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The following are key considerations in the selection of intersections:
• Intersections are by their nature points of conflict. Conflicts can translate into
crashes. Design and operating strategies focus on reducing or eliminating conflicts,
or reducing the severity of crashes.
• The capacity of the road network largely depends on the capacity of the
intersections, particularly in urban areas. The overall traffic-carrying capability of
an arterial highway with multiple lanes is defined not only by the number of lanes
in the roadway segments, but also by the frequency, spacing, type and
configuration of the intersections along the highway.
• In urban areas, intersections also represent points of conflict between pedestrians
and motor vehicles.
Intersections may be between roads of similar functional classification, or roads of

varying functional classification. Intersections involving roads of differing functional
classification should be given particular consideration to provide an appropriate
solution. Further guidance on applicable intersection types for each functional
classification is provided in Section 2.1.
1.3 Intersection Objectives

The following are typical objectives for intersections:
• Providing safe passage for all transportation modes and associated movements
• Minimizing congestion and delay
• Minimizing fuel consumption, air pollution and noise
Safety objectives should focus on minimizing the risk of severe crashes—crashes

resulting in one or more fatalities or injuries. These objectives apply to all road and
intersection users.
With regard to intersections, the term capacity, refers to the ability of the intersection
to accommodate traffic demand from all approaches. Unlike a roadway segment in
which traffic moves in one direction, an intersection provides for multiple, conflicting
through and turning movements. Each movement will have both a design demand
and a design and operational capacity. Designers need to be concerned not only with
the overall capacity of the intersection but also with that of each individual
component.
Most importantly, achieving all design objectives requires that trade-offs be made.
Basic configurations and design features will produce conflicting outcomes. A solution
that focuses solely on reducing crashes at the intersection will generally provide less
capacity and operational quality than another solution with a different focus.
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2 Intersection Types and

Their Applicability
2.1 Types Related to Functional Classification
Various intersection types are available for use on the highway network. Table 2.1
details the basic forms to be considered.
Table 2.1 Basic Forms of Intersection Types

Intersection
Type Description
Priority At-grade intersection where the minor road terminates at the major road. Traffic
Intersection control may be controlled by yield or stop signs and markings. Priority intersections
may take various forms, depending on the number of links and their configuration.
These are discussed in Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections. On divided highways,
left-turn maneuvers are normally precluded by design and the intersection operates
in a right-in, right-out mode.
Roundabout At-grade intersection incorporating a circulatory roadway around a central island.

Intersection approaches operate in a “yield to entry” mode in which vehicles within
the circulatory roadway have the right-of-way over those waiting on the
approaches. Roundabouts treat all legs equally, versus favoring of one road over the
other in a priority intersection. As such, they provide more capacity for minor road
traffic, but in doing so impose delay and lower speeds on the major road.
Roundabouts are discussed further in Part 7, Design for Roundabouts.
Signalized An at-grade intersection where conflicting movements are separated over time by a
Intersection signal control that allocates right-of-way in an alternating and regular pattern. In
these intersections, it is the combination of roadway geometry and operation of the
signal that establishes the capacity of the intersection and volume of traffic flow
through it. Signalized intersections are further discussed in Part 8, Design for
Signalized Intersections.
Grade- Grade-separated interchanges have the greatest capacity of all intersection types.
separated Conflicts are removed by physical separation of traffic, with one or more
Interchange movements passing over or under the others. There are many configurations of
interchanges, as discussed in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors.
In addition to the standard intersection types defined for intersecting roads, other
facilities may be provided, including pedestrian crossings and median openings for
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U-turns. Information on pedestrian crossings including mid-block crossings are

discussed in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation.
The initial step in the intersection type selection process should involve reference to
Table 2.2, which describes permitted intersection types for urban and rural roads
according to functional classification of the major route. This table is based on
guidance from the Transport Master Plan Qatar (Ministry of Municipality and Urban
Planning [MMUP], 2007).
Table 2.2 Permitted Intersection Types on Urban and Rural Roads

Grade-
Priority Signalized Separated
Functional Classification of the Intersection Roundabout Intersection Interchange
Major Road (Part 6) (Part 7) (Parts 8) (Part 9)
Expressway X X X 
Major Arterial a X  b
Minor Arterial a X  X
Boulevard  a   X
URBAN
Collector Distributor a X X 
Major Collector    X
Minor Collector    X
Service Road    X
Local Road    X
Freeway X X X 
Arterial X 
RURAL
a 
Collector   X X
Local Road   X X
Notes:
a. Right-in/ Right-out priority intersection only
b. Grade separation provided only in exceptional circumstances
For many road types, there are multiple possible forms of intersection. For example,
for a boulevard or collector (major or minor), a priority intersection, roundabout, or
signal controlled intersection may be used. Conversely, for certain types of roads, by
policy these are restricted to only specific forms. Urban expressways and rural
freeways, as fully access-controlled facilities, are restricted to only grade-separated
interchanges.
2.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity

A critical factor in intersection type selection is the traffic flow and the predicted
future traffic demand. Traffic flow for intersections includes all movements, both
through and turning.
Before detailed evaluation can be made, it is important to obtain the best estimate of
all the relevant traffic flows and turning movements for the intersection under design-
year conditions. A preliminary analysis should be undertaken to establish the likely
form of intersection considering the permitted types in Table 2.2.
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The composition and turning movements of traffic will influence the geometric layout
adopted. Predicted future traffic flows are required for the following reasons:
• To enable the design to be tailored to provide sufficient capacity to meet the

future traffic flow demands
• To size the intersection
• To enable a decision to be made to constrain the traffic flows at the given location
for a particular reason
• To identify the need to allow for current or future intersections
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3 Intersection Selection
The selection of an appropriate intersection type involves application of the policies
regarding functional classification and the specific attributes of the location being
studied. These include the context as broadly defined and the design-year traffic
demand for all users.
The general approach in selecting an intersection type reflects basic considerations of

operational quality, access and accessibility, safety performance, spatial efficiency
(right-of-way), and lifecycle cost effectiveness.
3.1 Operational Quality

Minimizing delay and providing as high and uniform level of service is central to
intersection type selection and its design. In selecting intersections the functional
classification of the intersecting roadways is the initial consideration. Priority
intersections are the backbone of the highway network. These are intended to
provide necessary access and traffic distribution within the network while providing
primacy of mobility to the higher-class roadway. For the highest roadway class,
expressways and freeways, the requirement that intersecting movements occur
through grade-separated interchanges enables the highest quality of flow possible for
through traffic.
The inherent capacity of each intersection type differs. As traffic volumes and
patterns increase, the appropriate intersection type changes.
• Priority intersections enable major road through traffic to proceed through the
intersection with no delay. Delays to turning traffic increase with volume. Priority
intersections on multilane roads maintain high quality of service by prohibiting
conflicting left-turn movements.
• Roundabouts provide full turning and access capability. They result in speed
reductions and a reduction of delays to through vehicles as well as turning
vehicles. They have limited traffic-carrying capability; when their capacity is
exceeded, higher-capacity solutions are required.
• Signalized intersections are the highest-capacity, at-grade solutions available.
Their capacity is a function of the number of through and turning lanes provided
and signal phasing and timing strategies employed.
• Grade-separated interchanges are used as discussed above for freeways and
expressways. They may also apply in locations where the traffic demands exceed
the capacity of a signalized intersection.
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Another important factor regarding operational quality involves the accessibility and
mobility of pedestrians and bicyclists. Where these are significant demands, the
intersection type should reflect community needs, and the design details and
operation of the intersection should accommodate these users.
3.2 Safety Performance

Each type of intersection—priority (yield and stop-controlled), roundabout, signalized
and interchange—has inherently different risk profiles, as defined by the frequency,
severity, and types of crashes that should be expected over time. In selecting an
appropriate intersection type, the expected safety performance should be a
consideration. Knowledge on the safety performance of each type is included
throughout the Parts describing the intersections, and guidance is offered using this
information.
3.3 Spatial Efficiency and Lifecycle Cost

Each type of intersection requires a certain footprint, right-of-way, and lifecycle cost.
Selection of the appropriate intersection type is thus fundamentally a design decision
in which the above factors are weighed against the spatial needs and costs associated
with its construction. For these reasons, designers may find that a different type of
intersection is the best solution other than that normally used for the traffic
conditions.
3.4 Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection

Figure 3.1 shows the progression of thinking and decision making in intersection
planning for both rural and urban conditions. As presented in the Qatar Highway
Design Manual (QHDM), the hierarchy of intersection types can be generally
characterized by location, which implies an expected design speed condition, and
traffic demand.
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Figure 3.1 Progression of Decision Making in Intersection Type Selection
3.4.1 Rural Intersections

Priority intersections predominate on rural roads. For the two-lane system, these
provide access for turning movements. As traffic demands increase on the major
road, the priority intersection type at some point can no longer process the demand
and the safety performance may degrade. This leads to the need to implement a
roundabout. For rural roads with typical traffic demands, roundabouts should be
sufficient. In special cases (and specifically on rural freeways regardless of traffic
demand) grade-separated interchanges may be used. Note that, because of the crash
risks associated with high speed rear-end and angle crashes that can occur at traffic
signals, signalized intersections on rural highways are not employed in Qatar.
3.4.2 Urban Major Road Intersections

For urban arterials and collectors, the progression of type selection begins with
priority intersections. Depending on the context (spatial availability, presence of
pedestrians), as traffic increases, the next type of intersection considered may be
either a roundabout or a signalized intersection. For very high-volume conditions the
QHDM offers special intersection types and arterial-to-arterial grade separations
designed for the urban environment. Expressway intersections should be
interchanges.
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3.4.3 Urban Local Road Intersections

For intersections on urban local roads, the operating speed of the road should be
lower, and the design and operation of the intersections should place pedestrian
safety of primary importance. The selection of the appropriate intersection type thus
follows a progression that includes not only traffic demand but also pedestrian
activity. Priority intersections may apply, but their design and operation may need to
include stop control rather than yield and, in some cases, may include provision for
pedestrian signals. All-stop intersections, not used for higher classification facilities,
may be the most appropriate type because they support pedestrians crossing any
intersection leg. Roundabouts do not apply for local road intersections (other than the
possible use of mini-roundabouts for traffic calming or speed management). Local
road intersections may need to be signalized to fully enable both vehicular turning
traffic and pedestrians.
3.5 Route Designation

The initial step should include determining the traffic flow and capacity of the
intersection. The designer should confirm the functional classification of the
intersecting roads and use that information to identify permitted intersection types as
detailed in Table 2.2.
3.6 Traffic Flows and Capacity

Consideration should be given to the expected traffic flows in the current year, the
opening year, and the design year. In general, uncontrolled intersections are suitable
only on local roads and where traffic flows are relatively low.
3.7 Local Conditions

The context, as defined by land use, topography, and natural and manmade
constraints, will influence the physical feasibility of a solution. Other important
context features include the intersection location as part of the local road network.
Proximity to adjacent intersections of different types will influence the selection of an
appropriate type of intersection for a particular location. The existence of or need for
access to adjoining properties is also a factor. Intersection selection clearly is based
not only on traffic or functional classification, but also on the unique site context
features.
3.8 Overview of Operational and Design Trade-offs

Selection of the best intersection form will involve a site-specific analysis of the trade-
offs. In most cases, the designer will have choices among the basic permitted forms.
The trade-offs involve the transportation objectives of safety and mobility for the full
range of users. They also involve the costs and impacts of each type of solution.
Table 3.1 is a qualitative summary of these trade-offs. It is intended to assist the

designer in review and consideration of what are the most important objectives, what
are the inherent attributes of each type, and what are the typical costs and challenges
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associated with implementation. Included in Table 3.1 for perspective is an

assessment of grade-separated interchanges. Refer to Part 9, Interchanges and
Freeway or Motorway Corridors.
Table 3.1 Summary of Basic Trade-offs Among Intersection Types

Costs and Adverse Effects
Traffic Operations and Safety
of Implementation
Effect on Access for properties adjacent

Minimize stopping, idling and resultant
Provide greatest total throughput or
Accommodate non-motorized Users
Operations and Maintenance Cost

Favor Higher Volume, higher class
fuel consumption and emissions

Reduce or Eliminate High-speed
Provide for all movements in all
Minimize Total Delay
Construction Cost
Crossing conflicts
Total Footprint
to intersection
Visual Impacts
directions
roadway
capacity
Intersection
Types
Priority 
          
Intersection
Roundabout            
Signal
Controlled            
Intersection
Grade
Separated            
Interchange
Notes:
 Performs best
 Performs moderately successfully
 Performs worst
3.9 Designation of Priority Intersections

Priority intersections are appropriate where traffic volumes are relatively light; for
example, in many rural areas or where there are few conflicting turning movements,
such as a right-in/right-out intersection. This intersection form favors the major road
over the minor road, requires a minimum footprint, and has low cost of operation.
This form has limitations in capacity associated with traffic movements on the minor
road, especially when traffic flow on the major roadway is high. Left turns are
prohibited, and the capacity of the right-turn discharge decreases as volume increases
on the priority road.
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Typically, there are several options for priority intersections based on the geometric
requirements of the intersecting roads. These include simple intersections and
staggered T‐intersections. Further details are provided in Part 6, Design for Priority
Intersections.
3.9.1 Needs for Traffic Signal Controlled Intersections

Signalized intersections have more capacity than other at‐grade intersections. They
allow movements to be treated equally through the allocation of the circular green
signal. Signalized intersections provide the most positive protection for pedestrians
crossing at‐grade than the other two forms of intersections. Allocation of time to
movements and to pedestrians imposes delay on users. It also increases stopped and
idling time compared to other forms of intersections.
Traffic signal systems include signal installations, controllers, detectors, and other
hardware. These require continual maintenance. The cost of a signalized intersection
can be among the highest of at‐grade forms, depending on the number and
arrangement of lanes and the right‐of‐way needed.
The investigation of the need for a traffic control signal should include an analysis of
factors related to the existing operation and safety at the study location, the potential
to improve these conditions, and the criteria contained in the latest edition of the
Qatar Traffic Control Manual (MOT, 2015):
 Criterion 1 – Intersection vehicular traffic flow volumes

 Criterion 2 – Pedestrian flow volumes
 Criterion 3 – School or civic amenity access
 Criterion 4 – Coordination and management of traffic flow
 Criterion 5 – Known crash locations
The criteria provide guidance on the types of situations where traffic control signals
are suitable. At least one of these criteria should be met before a traffic signal is
considered; however, satisfaction of a traffic signal criterion shall not in itself require
the installation of a traffic control signal.
For a traffic signal project to be considered, it is the responsibility of the design

engineer to consider the impact that traffic signals may have on the traffic locally and
the wider network, and act to provide the most efficient strategy to minimize network
delay. The engineer will complete a design and operational study that establishes the
benefits and costs.
Further details on the design of signal controlled intersections are provided in Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections.
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3.10 Data and Analysis for Intersections

Classified traffic counts, including pedestrians and cyclists, for proposed operating
conditions, including off-peak, should be conducted to assess the intersection
operation for both opening and design years.
For signal controlled intersections, it is important that both peak and off-peak flows
be considered, particularly where part-time signals are to be used. The intersection
layout and arrangement should be designed to achieve an efficient layout and
accommodate users and their desired paths or destinations.
Other basic data that are commonly required include the following:
• Topography at sites
• Adjacent land use, access points to properties, and special site constraints, such as
the location of public utilities, trees, monuments, property boundaries, buildings,
and drainage structures, including pipes
• Compilation and analysis of crash data for the most recent 5-year period. Five
years is a typical period to use in the analysis of crashes; however, no fewer than
3 years should be used.
• Current traffic, including cyclists and pedestrians
• Special network functions, existing and proposed, such as freight routes and bus
routes
• Values of economic factors, such as operating and delay costs, and rates for
construction and maintenance work
• Property values and utility adjustment costs to be used in the analysis stage
• Budget limits
• Special constraints, such as political commitments, flood levels
• The predicted traffic flows and turning movements
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4 Roundabout Type Selection

4.1 Route Designation
Roundabouts are intersections where traffic circulates counterclockwise around a
central island; traffic entering a roundabout is required to yield to vehicles on the
circulatory roadway. In Qatar, new roundabouts incorporate either one or two lanes
on the circulatory roadway. Consequently, new roundabouts with three or more lanes
on the circulatory roadway are not permitted.
Roundabouts can be useful where an intersection requires three or more approaches

or where a transition of roadway cross sections is required. In general, roundabouts
minimize delays for vehicles while maintaining safe passage of all road users through
the intersection. Because vehicular traffic is required to slow down on the approach
to a roundabout, these intersection types can also be a useful traffic-calming feature.
Location constraints are often a dominant factor, particularly in urban areas, and it
may be found that provision of a roundabout is not appropriate due to difficulty in
achieving a suitable geometric layout. Roundabouts also may not be suitable in areas
that use urban traffic control, integrated demand management, or other
circumstances where access control is required.
4.2 Traffic Flows and Capacity

Consideration should be given to the expected traffic flows both in the opening or
existing year and in the design year. In general, roundabouts can accommodate higher
traffic volumes than priority intersections and lower traffic volumes than grade-
separated interchanges or signalized intersections.
A primary value of the roundabout is its elimination of right-angle conflicts, which

create the most severe crashes on higher-speed roads. For this reason, roundabouts
are appropriate solutions on lower-volume, high-speed roads intersecting with other
roads with similar speeds and volumes.
Roundabouts are intended to operate in a self-regulating manner. They perform

satisfactorily when flows are balanced on each approach. A roundabout allows traffic
from any approach to navigate through the circulatory roadway under the same basic
yield-to-entry protocol. The operating costs of roundabouts are minimal, as there are
no traffic signals to maintain. When a roundabout operates at traffic volumes well
under its capacity, vehicles typically will be moving constantly, reducing braking,
idling, and fuel emissions. However, this operating condition can be challenging for
pedestrians desiring to cross one or more of the approaches.
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Roundabouts can take considerable space to construct. Access control is necessary on

approaches. With these considerations and the concerns about pedestrians, the
following conditions require special care in considering their use:
• There is an expected or forecast of significant growth in traffic through the

roundabout.
• There is an expected or forecast of high or unbalanced demand on one or two of
the approaches.
• Pedestrians are prevalent or expected to become prevalent based on future
development.
• Patterns of traffic vary significantly throughout the day.
4.3 Data and Analysis for Roundabouts

Classified traffic counts (including pedestrians and cyclists) for proposed operating
conditions, including off-peak, should be undertaken to assess the intersection
operation for both opening and design years.
The following data should be reviewed to determine the suitability of a roundabout

for a particular situation:
• Whether the approach roads are single lane or multilane

• The speed limit on the approach roads
• The level of traffic flow
• The level of nonmotorized user flow
• Other constraints, such as right-of-way availability and access needs near one or
more approaches
Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, provides for additional details regarding the design of
roundabouts.
Other basic data that are commonly required include the following:
• Topography at sites
• Land use, access points to properties and special site constraints, such as the
location of public utilities, trees, monuments, property boundaries, buildings, and
drainage structures including pipes
• Compilation and analysis of crash data for the most recent 5-year period.
Five years is a typical period to use in the analysis of crashes; however, no fewer
than 3 years should be used.
• Special network functions, existing and proposed, such as freight routes and bus
routes
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• Values of economic factors, such as operating and delay costs, and rates for
construction and maintenance work
• Property values, utility adjustment costs to be used in the analysis stage
• Budget limits
• Special constraints, such as political commitments, flood levels
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5 High-volume At-grade
Intersection Types
5.1 Introduction
For most corridors and intersections, the solutions in previous chapters will be
sufficient. However, as development and traffic volumes increase in Qatar and along
certain highways, the need for creative solutions to intersection design and
operations will emerge.
Agencies having to deal with very high traffic volumes on arterial streets have
successfully tested and implemented unique design solutions for at-grade
intersections. This section summarizes a selection of at-grade intersections that have
potential applicability to the urban multilane arterials in Qatar.
A common theme among these solutions is addressing the dilemma created by the
combination of high through volumes and high left-turning traffic volumes. In these
situations, there is a limit to the capacity of a conventional signal controlled
intersection. Increasing the number of left-turn lanes from two to three often
produces little or no net benefit, as the space needed for the paths of three abreast
turning requires operation of the intersection under highly inefficient “split phasing,”
in which each approach has its own phase and simultaneous opposing movements are
not possible.
Three special intersection forms can be implemented to address increased traffic

volumes: indirect left-turn intersections, also known as Michigan left-turn
intersections; “superstreet” intersections; and continuous-flow intersections.
5.2 Indirect Left-turn Intersections

An indirect left-turn intersection is one in which left turns are prohibited. Drivers are
directed by advance signing that their turn is to be made by turning right at the
intersection, then proceeding down the crossroad to a median U-turn. From there,
drivers proceed through the intersection again in the desired direction of travel. This
treatment should apply to both left turns on the crossing road, thus necessitating
U-turn roadways on both sides of the intersection.
By prohibiting left turns, the signal phase for it is eliminated, as is the need for storage
of left turns on the approach. The operational trade-off is that left turns go out of
direction and that traffic actually passes through the intersection twice—once as a
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right-turn movement and again as a through movement (Federal Highway

Administration [FHWA], 2004).
Figure 5.1 illustrates an indirect left-turn intersection. This design is applicable for
multilane arterials with sufficient median to allow the U-turn to be completed by a
sufficiently large vehicle such as a single unit truck. Agencies that use this design often
operate the U-turn as a yield or stop controlled intersection. The U-turn roadway
should be 180 to 200 meters (m) or more away from the intersection. Special
diagrammatic signing is used on the approach to the intersection to aid drivers.
The U-turn movement can also be signalized, with crossroad through traffic stopped
for the U-turning traffic. If the median is wide enough, the U-turn movement can
operate as a two-lane movement. Where signalization is used and the U-turn volumes
are greater than 300 vehicles per hour, the separation of the U-turn from the
intersection may need to increase to 200 m or more as indicated by a traffic analysis.
Storage length requirements for the U-turn would be determined using the same
design criteria applied to conventional left-turn storage.
Source: FHWA (2004).
Figure 5.1 Indirect Left-turn Intersection with Median U-turn Crossover
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5.3 “Superstreet” Intersections

A “superstreet intersection” is very similar to the median U-turn above. As shown in
Figure 5.2, movements for the crossroad turn right—both through and left-turning
movements, are prohibited. Thus, the U-turn roadways are designed as two-lane
U-turns and are signalized. The separation from the crossroad should be determined
by the length of storage for the U-turn traffic using each crossover. In most cases, this
storage will be 200 m or more as indicated by a traffic analysis. The operation of the
single intersection that in conventional design would have four phases is translated into
three intersections, each of which operates with only two phases. Note: Pedestrians can
be routed through the middle of the intersection and cross during the signal phase
carrying turning traffic from the major road into the crossroad.
Figure 5.2 “Superstreet” Intersection
5.4 Continuous-flow Intersections

A continuous-flow intersection follows the same operational concept as that discussed
in Section 5.3. A single, high-volume intersection requiring four phases for turning
movements is translated into a local network of five coordinated two-phase
intersections. In a continuous-flow intersection, the left turns are “transposed” or cross
the opposing through traffic upstream of the major intersection. This movement is done
using a signal. Once on the opposite side of the through traffic, drivers can continue
with the turn to the crossroad during the same signal phase as the opposing through
traffic.
This highly efficient concept can be applied to all four approaches, as shown on
Figure 5.3, or to just one crossroad with conventional left turns operating on the other
roadway. The concept also can be applied to high-volume, three-approach
intersections.
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With a continuous-flow intersection, the spacing between the central intersection and
approach crossovers should be at least 100 m, with additional storage as indicated by
a traffic analysis. With storage length requirement for the crossover queues, the
length of access control along each approach can be significant—as much as 200 m or
more. The transposed left-turn movements should be physically separated from
opposing traffic. The example continuous-flow intersection, shown on Figure 5.3, with
full 3.65 m lane widths and separation, can require 130 m of total width (including
right-turn lanes), possibly requiring the acquisition of additional right-of-way.
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Figure 5.3 Continuous-flow Intersection

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5.5 Arterial-to-arterial Grade Separations

For instances where a high-volume intersection, such as those presented in this
section, is not possible, and traffic demand exceeds the capacity of a conventional
signalized intersection, designers may need to consider an interchange between the
two arterials. Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, describes
basic arterial-to-arterial concepts that may have applicability in urban settings.
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References
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Signalized Intersections: Informational Guide. Report

No. FHWA‐HRT‐04‐091. U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. 2004.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transport Master Plan Qatar. Doha, Qatar.
2007.
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Volume 1
Part 5
Qatar Roadway Design Criteria
VOLUME 1 PART 5
QATAR ROADWAY DESIGN CRITERIA
Disclaimer
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‫‪QATAR ROADWAY DESIGN CRITERIA‬‬
‫تنويه‬
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VOLUME 1 PART 5
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ....................................................................................................v
1 Urban Roadway Design ...................................................................................................1

1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways........................................................................ 2
1.1.2 Design Vehicle .............................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Decision Sight Distance ................................................................................ 4
1.1.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................................... 4
1.1.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance ...................................................... 4
1.1.6 Median Width .............................................................................................. 4
1.1.7 Parking, Sidewalks, and Bike Paths .............................................................. 4
1.1.8 Interchanges with Arterials and Rural Freeways ......................................... 5
1.1.9 Collector-Distributor Roads .......................................................................... 5
1.1.10 Vertical Clearances ....................................................................................... 5
1.1.11 Right-of-Way Widths .................................................................................... 5
1.2 Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads and Boulevards.................. 5
1.2.2 Design Vehicle .............................................................................................. 8
1.2.3 Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................................... 8
1.2.4 Curbs ............................................................................................................ 8
1.2.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance ...................................................... 8
1.2.6 Median Width .............................................................................................. 9
1.2.7 On-street Parking ......................................................................................... 9
1.2.8 Bike Paths ..................................................................................................... 9
1.2.9 Sidewalks ...................................................................................................... 9
1.2.10 Intersection Design ...................................................................................... 9
1.2.11 Service Roads ............................................................................................. 10
1.2.12 Interchanges ............................................................................................... 10
1.2.13 Vertical Clearances ..................................................................................... 10
1.2.14 Right-of-Way Widths .................................................................................. 10
1.3 Design Criteria for Collectors ..................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Network Connections ................................................................................. 13
1.3.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.3 Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................................. 13
1.3.4 Median Width ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.5 Curbs .......................................................................................................... 13
1.3.6 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance .................................................... 14
1.3.7 On-street Parking ....................................................................................... 14
1.3.8 Bike Paths ................................................................................................... 14
1.3.9 Sidewalks .................................................................................................... 14
1.3.10 Intersection Design .................................................................................... 15
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1.4 Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads............................................................... 15
1.4.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 16
1.4.4 Curbs ........................................................................................................... 16
1.4.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearances ................................................... 17
1.4.6 On-street Parking ....................................................................................... 17
1.4.7 Bike Paths ................................................................................................... 17
1.4.8 Sidewalks .................................................................................................... 17
1.4.9 Intersection Design ..................................................................................... 17
1.4.10 Driveways ................................................................................................... 18
1.4.11 Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds ..................................................................... 20
2 Rural Roadway Design Criteria...................................................................................... 23

2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways ............................................................................ 24
2.1.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 24
2.1.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile .................................................. 24
2.1.4 Decision Sight Distance .............................................................................. 24
2.1.6 Median Width ............................................................................................. 26
2.1.7 Curbs ........................................................................................................... 26
2.1.8 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zones ............................................................... 26
2.1.9 Interchanges ............................................................................................... 27
2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials .............................................................................. 27
2.2.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 29
2.2.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile .................................................. 29
2.2.4 Decision Sight Distance .............................................................................. 29
2.2.5 Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................ 29
2.2.7 Median Width ............................................................................................. 29
2.2.8 Curbs ........................................................................................................... 30
2.2.9 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone................................................................. 30
2.2.10 Interchanges ............................................................................................... 30
2.2.12 Intersection Design ..................................................................................... 30
2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors ............................................................................ 31
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2.3.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 31
2.3.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile.................................................. 31
2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................ 33
2.3.6 Median Width ............................................................................................ 33
2.3.7 Curbs .......................................................................................................... 33
2.3.8 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone ................................................................ 34
2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads ........................................................................ 34
2.4.2 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................ 36
2.4.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile.................................................. 36
2.4.5 Curbs .......................................................................................................... 36
2.4.6 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone ................................................................ 36
References .............................................................................................................................37
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Tables
Table 1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways ............................................................. 3

Table 1.2 Major Urban Arterial and Collector Distributor Road Design Criteria............... 6
Table 1.3 Minor Urban Arterial and Boulevard Design Criteria ........................................ 7
Table 1.4 Major Urban Collector Design Criteria ............................................................ 11
Table 1.5 Minor Urban Collector Design Criteria ............................................................ 12
Table 1.6 Urban Local and Service Road Design Criteria................................................. 16
Table 1.7 Recommended Driveway Geometric Elements............................................... 18
Table 2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways .................................................................. 25
Table 2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials .................................................................... 28
Table 2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors ................................................................. 32
Table 2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Locals Roads ............................................................. 35
Figures
Figure 1.1 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Passenger Car and Single Unit Truck ..... 19
Figure 1.2 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Semitrailer.............................................. 19
Figure 1.3 Driveway Return Treatments .......................................................................... 20
Figure 1.4 Cul-de-Sac and Turning Head Layouts and Dimensions .................................. 21
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AASHTO American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (United

States)
Ashghal Public Works Authority of Qatar
DB design-build
DSD decision sight distance
H horizontal
m meter(s)
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (United States)
PSD passing sight distance
Qatar Rail Qatar Railways Company
SSD stopping sight distance
TMPQ Transportation Master Plan for Qatar
UK United Kingdom
V vertical
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1 Urban Roadway Design

This chapter presents guidance on the applicable geometric design criteria for urban
roadways. Urban roadways are built adjacent to densely populated areas that may be
zoned for commercial, industrial, recreational, or residential. They have different
characteristics than rural roadways, and provide varying levels of access and mobility.
There needs to be an optimum balance between providing mobility and providing
access. The functional classification is the link that provides this balance.
The following road classifications in an urban environment are defined in Part 2,

Planning, of this manual:
• Urban Expressway
• Urban Arterials
− Major Arterials
− Minor Arterials
− Boulevards
− Collector Distributors
• Urban Collectors
− Major Collectors
− Minor Collectors
• Urban Local
− Service Roads
• Local Roads
This section is further subdivided into four sub-sections:
• Section 1.1: Design Criteria for Urban Expressways

• Section 1.2: Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads and
Boulevards
• Section 1.3: Design Criteria for Collectors
• Section 1.4: Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads
The design criteria for urban roadways presented in this manual are based on
international best practices, primarily from the United States and the United Kingdom
(UK), using the following references:
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• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),

A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th edition, 2011a
• AASHTO, Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011b
• Department for Transport, UK Highways Agency, Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, 2013
• Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual, 1997
• National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Guide for the
Geometric Design of Driveways, Report 659, 2010
• Ohio Department of Transportation, State Highway Access Management Manual, 2001
• Illinois Department of Transportation, Access to State Highways, 1990
• Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan
for Qatar (TMPQ), Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar, 2008
• Ashghal, The Qatari Street National Public Realm Guidelines, 2014
1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways

Urban expressways carry most vehicle trips into and out of urban areas and generally
carry medium to high traffic volumes (50,000 to 80,000 vehicles per day [vpd]) at high
design speeds (100 to 140 kilometers per hour [kph]). The primary function of an
expressway is to provide mobility. Access is limited to interchanges. The expressways
generally are designed for a level of service (LOS) C. Urban expressways can be of
many forms—depressed, elevated, or a combination of these—depending on the
topography and the available right-of-way.
Table 1.1 presents the minimum design criteria for urban expressways. For further
guidance on the design criteria, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual and the guidance provided in this chapter. For typical cross sections for urban
expressways, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. Table 1.1 provides values for
a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
in Table 1.1 of Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. However, designers may select a
design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.

Network connections from urban expressways to rural freeways, other urban
expressways, and major arterials shall be accomplished with interchanges only.
1.1.2 Design Vehicle

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle on urban
expressways. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Part 2,
Planning, of this manual.
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Table 1.1 Design Criteria for Urban Expressways
Paved
Shoulder Vertical Curve
Minimum Radius (m) Width (m) Median Width (m) K Values for SSD
Max/
Design Year Design Four and Eight or Preferred
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Min Lane Six Lane More Lanes, Mina Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super Width (m) Left Right Divided Divided SSD (m) Crest Sag (%)
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 3.65 185 52 26
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 3.65 220 74 31

50,000 to
C 120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 3.65 1.2b 3.0 3.2c 6.8c 250 95 37 3/0.5
80,000
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 3.65 285 124 43
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 3.65 325 161 50

Notes:
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
a Absolute minimum grade shall be 0.3 percent.
b For four-lane and six-lane divided expressway the minimum shoulder width is 1.2 m, preferred is 3.0 m. For eight-lane divided and more, minimum shoulder width is 3.0 m.
c Median widths shown are minimum widths. Refer to Section 1.1.6 in this Part.
d Normal Cross Slope, 2 percent.

kph = kilometers per hour

m = meters
SSD = stopping sight distance
Super = superelevation
vpd = vehicles per day
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1.1.3 Decision Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance (SSD) values in Table 1.1 are derived from guidance in the
AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2011a) and should be
provided along the expressway. As the interchange approaches, additional sight
distance referred to as decision sight distance (DSD) may be provided to enhance the
traffic operations. Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this
manual contains guidance in providing DSD.
1.1.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of
2 to 5 percent are applicable on urban expressways, as shown in Table 1.1. For further
guidance on calculation of superelevation transition lengths and application of the
transition length to the horizontal curves, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this manual.
1.1.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearance

On four-lane divided urban expressways with two lanes in each direction, the
minimum lateral offset is 1.2 meters (m) on the left and 3.0 m on the right side. For
discussion on lateral offset and horizontal clearance, refer to Section 3.7 in Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements.
1.1.6 Median Width

Median width is the distance between the edges of traveled ways of the opposing
traffic and includes the width of the median shoulders. The median width varies and is
dependent on the width of the shoulders, width of the light pole unit foundations,
width of the piers or the foundation of the sign trusses, or the width needed to
accommodate the rail that may be placed in the median. The designer should
establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project within the project
limits and as well as for the corridor.
For four- and six-lane divided urban expressways, the minimum median width is
3.2 m, which accommodates two 1.2 m median shoulders and a single double-faced
concrete median barrier. For eight-lane divided and above the minimum median
width is 6.8 m, which accommodates two 3.0 m median shoulders and a single
double-faced concrete median barrier.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, for additional details on medians.
1.1.7 Parking, Sidewalks, and Bike Paths

On-street parking is the parking provided adjacent to the traveled way, within the
roadway pavement On-street parking shall not be provided adjacent to the traveled
way on urban expressways. Parking, sidewalks, and bike paths can be provided, but
they must be segregated from the expressway.
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1.1.8 Interchanges with Arterials and Rural Freeways

Expressways are connected to arterials and rural freeways via interchanges. The
interchange design should be in accordance with the design criteria presented in
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this manual.

Collector-distributor roads run parallel to expressways. Design criteria for collector-
distributor roads are presented in Section 1.2 and also discussed in Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this manual.
1.1.10 Vertical Clearances

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under urban expressways
should be at least 6.5 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For
additional details regarding the vertical clearances refer to Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this manual.
1.1.11 Right-of-Way Widths

For Urban Expressways, right-of-way width generally varies from 64 m to 264 m.
1.2 Design Criteria for Arterials, Collector Distributor Roads

and Boulevards
Urban arterials link the traffic from collectors to the expressways and provide an
integrated network serving the entire urban area. They carry low to medium volume
of traffic (20,000 to 60,000 vpd) with design speeds ranging from 50 to 100 kph. Based
on the function and service they provide, arterials are subdivided into major arterial,
minor arterials, and boulevards. For detailed descriptions of these functional
classifications, refer to Part 2, Planning, of this manual.
Table 1.2 presents the minimum design criteria for the major arterials and Table 1.3
the minimum criteria for minor arterials and boulevards. For further guidance on the
design criteria, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. For typical
cross sections for urban arterials, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements.
Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 provide values for a range of potential selected design speeds
in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for
each functional classification as shown in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual. However, designers may select a design speed other than those specified in
Table 1.1 of Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of
this manual.

Network connections from major arterials to expressways should be by interchanges.
Connections from minor arterials to collectors should be accomplished by signal
control, priority intersections, or roundabouts. Limited connections to the local roads
are permitted, upon justification and approval from the Overseeing Organization.
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Table 1.2 Major Urban Arterial and Collector Distributor Road Design Criteria
Paved Shoulder Vertical Curve
Design Minimum Radius (m) Width (m) K Values for SSD

Design Lane Median
Year AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width Width SSD Max/Preferred
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Left Right (m) (m) Crest Sag Mina Grades (%)
Major 80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17

Urban
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 21
Arterial: C 3.65 1.2b 3.0 3.2c 4/0.5
30,000 to
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
60,000
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10

Collector
Distributor 70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13
Road: D 4.6e 1.2f 3 5g 3/0.5
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17
5,000 to
50,000 21
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
Notes:
b For six-lane divided major arterial the minimum shoulder width is 1.2 m, preferred is 3.0 m. For eight-lane and above, the minimum shoulder width is 3.0 m.
c Median width shown is minimum width. Refer to Section 1.2.6 in this Part.
e For one lane collector distributor road the lane width is 4.6 m for two lane collector distributor lane width of each lane is 3.65 m.
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f Left shoulder width for one lane collector distributor road is 1.2 m and for two lane it is 1.8 m.
g Median width shown is minimum width. Median width includes right shoulder of the urban expressway the left shoulder of the collector distributor road and the barrier width.

kph = kilometers per hour, LOS = level of service, m = meters, SSD = stopping sight distance, Super = superelevation , vpd = vehicles per day
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Table 1.3 Minor Urban Arterial and Boulevard Design Criteria
Curbed Shoulder Vertical Curve

Minimum Radius (m) Width (m) K Values for SSD
Design Lane Median
Design Year AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width Width SSD Max/Preferred
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Left Right (m) (m) Crest Sag Mina Grades (%)
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
60 720 640 365 255 3.65 0.35 0.35 12.2c 85 11 10
70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13

Minor Arterial:
C
20,000 to 50,000
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 3.65 1.2b 3.0 3.2c 160 39 21 4/0.5
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 26
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10

Boulevard:
D 70 1,020 900 510 360 3.65 0.35 0.35 12.2c 105 17 13
30,000 to 60,000
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17

Notes:
b for six-lane divided minor arterial the minimum shoulder width is 1.2 m, preferred is 3.0 m. For eight-lane and above, the minimum shoulder width is 3.0 m.
c Median widths shown are minimum widths. Refer to Section 1.2.6 in this Part.
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m = meters
PAGE 7

Super = superelevation , vpd = vehicles per day
VOLUME 1 PART 5

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle at the interchange
locations and intermediate semitrailer WB-15, should be used at other locations on
the major arterials. On minor arterial and boulevards, preferred design vehicle is
intermediate semitrailer, WB-15; however, at minimum, intermediate semitrailer
WB-12 should be used. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to
Part 2, Planning, of this manual.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent and the maximum superelevation rates of
2 to 5 percent are applicable on urban arterials, as shown in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3.
For further guidance on calculation of superelevation transition lengths and
application of the transition length to the horizontal curves, refer to Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual.
Superelevation on horizontal curves is advantageous on high-speed arterials with

posted speeds greater than 50 kph and should be applied. On low-speed urban
arterials and boulevards where posted speeds are 50 kph or less, it may be impractical
or infeasible to provide superelevation because of right-of-way constraints, frequency
of crossroads, driveways, proximity of adjacent properties, control of drainage, and
desire to maintain low speed operations. Therefore, provision of superelevation on
low-speed urban arterials and boulevards with posted speeds equal or less than
50 kph may be optional.
1.2.4 Curbs
On low-speed urban arterial corridors with posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs
normally are placed adjacent to the traveled way to control drainage and parking and
to minimize right-of-way impacts. Curbs should be offset at least 0.35 m, from the
edge of the roadway.
Curbs are not recommended along roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater.
If curbs are used in conjunction with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater to control
drainage and minimize right-of-way impacts, they should be placed at least 1.2 m
from the edge of the traveled way or at the edge of the paved shoulder, whichever is
farther from the traveled way or a barrier should be used.
For guidance on curb types, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.

On curbed sections, the minimum lateral offset should be 0.6 m. At curbed
intersection locations, lateral offset should be at least 0.9 m to accommodate truck
turns. At uncurbed locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For discussion on
lateral offset and horizontal clearance, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.
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1.2.6 Median Width

traffic and includes the width of the median shoulders. The median width varies and
dependent on the width of the shoulders, and width needed to accommodate
landscaping or development of left turn lanes at the intersections. The designer
should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project within the
project limits, as well as for the corridor in coordination with the Overseeing
Organization.
For four- and six-lane divided urban major arterials and high speed minor arterials
(design speeds greater than or equal to 80 kph) the minimum median width is 3.2 m,
which accommodates two 1.2 m median shoulders and a single double faced concrete
median barrier. For eight-lane divided and above the minimum median width is 6.8 m,
which accommodates two 3.0 m median shoulders and a single double-faced concrete
median barrier.
For low speed urban arterials and urban boulevards minimum raised median width is
12.2 m which accommodates two 3.65 m left turn lanes, two 2.1 m separators and
0.35 m shy distance from the edge of the through travel lanes.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for additional details on
medians.
1.2.7 On-street Parking

roadway pavement. On-street parking shall not be provided on major and minor
arterials or boulevards adjacent to the traveled way, within the roadway pavement.
Parking along the service road adjacent to the arterial and the boulevard can be
provided with adequate separation between the two roadways. For parking
dimensions and service roads widths, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.
1.2.8 Bike Paths

On arterials and boulevards, bike paths shall not be provided within the roadway
pavement, adjacent to the traveled way. Refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public
Transportation, of this manual for further guidance on bike paths.
1.2.9 Sidewalks
Sidewalks may be provided on one side or both sides of the roadway, within the right-
of-way with adequate separation from the traveled way. The sidewalk widths should
be in accordance with The Qatari Street National Public Realm Guidelines (2014).
Refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual for
further guidance on sidewalks.
1.2.10 Intersection Design

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of an arterial. Good
intersection design should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate
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turning radii, and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and
accommodation of pedestrians and cyclists within the right‐of‐way footprint. Refer to
Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and
Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this manual for design criteria. Markings
and signing shall be per Qatar Highway Traffic Control Manual (MOT, 2015).
1.2.11 Service Roads

One‐way service roads with parking on one side are common in Qatar. They run
parallel to the arterials and provide access to abutting commercial and retail
establishments. Service roads are physically separated from the arterials by curbed
medians, reducing the number of access points onto the arterial and separating the
high‐speed arterial traffic from low‐speed service road traffic. Service road
connections to arterials should be designed as at‐grade intersections in accordance
with the design criteria presented in Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, and
Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this manual. Service roads should be
designed in accordance with the criteria presented in Section 1.4 in this Part.
1.2.12 Interchanges
Major arterials are connected to urban expressway by interchanges. Interchange
design should be in accordance with the design criteria presented in Part 9,
Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under arterials should be
at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional
details regarding the vertical clearances, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.

For major arterials, right‐of‐way width generally varies from 50 m to 64 m. For minor
collectors, the right‐of‐way width varies from 40 m to 50 m, and for boulevards, the
minimum width is 64 m.
1.3 Design Criteria for Collectors

Urban collectors are the links between the local and service roads and the arterials.
They collect traffic from the residential, industrial, and commercial neighborhoods
and channel that traffic into arterial systems. The collector system gives equal
importance to both mobility and access. Collectors carry low to medium volume
traffic (5,000 to 50,000 vpd) and have varying design speeds ranging from 50 to
80 kph. Based on the function and service they provide, collectors are designated
major or minor. For detailed descriptions of these functional classifications, refer to
Part 2, Planning, of this manual.
Table 1.4 presents the minimum design criteria for the major collectors and Table 1.5
presents the minimum criteria for minor collectors. For further guidance on the
design criteria, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. For typical
cross sections for urban arterials, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements.
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Table 1.4 Major Urban Collector Design Criteria
Curbed Shoulder Vertical Curve
Design Minimum Radius (m) Width (m) K Values for SSD

Design Lane
Year AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width Median SSD Max/Preferred
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Left Right Width (m) (m) Crest Sag Mina Grades (%)
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
10,000 to 60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10

D 3.65b 0.35 0.35 5.7c 6/0.5
50,000 70 1,020 900 510 360 105 17 13
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17

Notes:
a Absolute minimum vertical grade is 0.3 percent.
b Lane width can be reduced to 3.3 m In commercial areas and to 3.0 m in residential areas.
c Median width shown is minimum width. Refer to Section 1.3.4 in this Part.

m = meters

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Table 1.5 Minor Urban Collector Design Criteria
Curbed Paved
Shoulder Width Vertical Curve
Design Year Minimum Radius (m) (m) K Values for SSD

Design Lane
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width SSD Max/Preferred
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Left Right (m) Crest Sag Mina Grades (%)
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 7
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 10 6/0.5

5,000 to
D 3.65b 0.35c 0.35c,d
20,000 70 1020 900 510 360 105 17 13
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 17

Notes:
a Absolute minimum grade is 0.3 percent.
b Lane width can be reduced to 3.3 m in commercial areas and to 3.0 m in residential areas.
c Preferred curbed shoulder width is 0.35 m, minimum is 0 feet, the curbs can be placed at the edge of traveled way.
b Curb shoulder width with parking is 2.5 m in commercial and residential areas and 3.0 m in industrial areas.

m = meters
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Network connections from collectors to arterials and local roads should be
accomplished by signal control intersections, priority intersections, or roundabouts.

Intermediate semitrailer, WB-12, should be used as the design vehicle for collectors.
However, at minimum, single unit truck, SU-12, should be used. For additional details
regarding the design vehicles, refer to Part 2, Planning, of this manual.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent, and maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on urban collectors, as shown in Table 1.4 and Table 1.5.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for further guidance on
calculating superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition length
to the horizontal curves.
Superelevation is advantageous on high-speed collectors with posted speeds greater

than 50 kph, and should be applied. On low-speed urban collectors in built-up areas
where posted speeds are equal to and less than 50 kph, it may be impractical or
unfeasible to provide superelevation because of right-of-way constraints, frequency
of crossroads, driveways, proximity of adjacent properties, control of drainage, and
desire to maintain low speed operations. Therefore, provision of superelevation on
low-speed urban collectors with posted speeds less than or equal to 50 kph is
optional.
1.3.4 Median Width

dependent on the width of the shoulders and width needed to accommodate
landscaping or development of left turn lanes at the intersections. The designer
should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project within the
project limits, as well as for the corridor in coordination with the Overseeing
Organization.
For major urban collectors, minimum raised median width is 5.7 m, which
accommodates one 3.0 m left turn lane, one 2.0 m separator and 0.35 m shy distance
from the edge of the through travel lanes.
medians.
1.3.5 Curbs
On low-speed urban collector corridors with posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs
normally are placed adjacent to the traveled way to control drainage and parking and
to minimize right-of-way impacts. Curbs should be offset at least 0.35 m, from the
edge of the traveled way.
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from the edge of the traveled way or at the edge of the paved shoulder, whichever is
farther from the traveled way or a barrier should be used.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for guidance on curb types
used in Qatar.

turns. At uncurbed locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For more
information on lateral offsets and horizontal clearance, refer to Section 3.7 in Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.

roadway pavement. For major collectors parking shall not be provided adjacent to the
traveled way within the roadway pavement. Parking should be provided along the
service road for major collectors and for the minor collectors, on-street parallel
parking adjacent to the traveled way may be provided in commercial, industrial, and
residential areas. A parking bay width of at least 2.5 m for commercial and residential
areas and 3.0 m for industrial areas should be provided adjacent to the right lane.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for further guidance and
details on parking bay design details.
1.3.8 Bike Paths

Bike paths shall not be provided on the roadway pavement, adjacent to the traveled
way.
Bike paths can be provided adjacent to the roadway with adequate separation from
the edge of the traveled way. The width of the bike paths should be in accordance
with The Qatari Street National Public Realm Guidelines (2014).
Refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual for
further guidance on bike paths.
1.3.9 Sidewalks
Sidewalks may be provided on one side or both sides of the roadway, within the right-
of-way with adequate separation from the traveled way. The sidewalk widths should
For further guidance on sidewalks, refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public
Transportation, of this manual.
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Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of a collector. Good

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under collectors should
be at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional
details regarding the vertical clearances, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.

For major collectors, right‐of‐way width generally varies from 32 m to 40 m and for
minor collectors, the right‐of‐way width vary from 20 m to 32 m.
1.4 Design Criteria for Local and Service Roads

Urban local roads and service roads link residential, industrial, and commercial
neighborhoods and urban collectors. They channel the traffic from the neighborhoods
to the collector systems. Access is the predominant function of the local and service
roads, while mobility is minor. Local roads carry low traffic volumes (less than
5,000 vpd). Generally, local roads and service roads are designed for low speeds
(50 kph or less).
Table 1.6 lists the minimum design criteria for local roads and service roads. For
further guidance on the design criteria, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.
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Table 1.6 Urban Local and Service Road Design Criteria
Vertical Curve Max/

Design Minimum Radius (m) K Values for SSD Preferred
Year Design Lane Minc
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width SSD Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) (m) Crest Sag (%)
30 180 160 90 65 35 2 2.5

Less than
D 40 360 320 185 130 3.65a,b 50 4 4.5 8/0.5
5,000
50 510 450 260 180 65 7 7
Notes:
a In commercial areas the lane width can be reduced to 3.3 m and in residential areas the lane width can
be reduced to 3.0 m
b For service roads that parallel the arterials and collectors, the width should be at least 5.8 m with
parking (3.3 m lane plus 2.5 m parking).

c Absolute minimum vertical grade on curbed section is 0.3 percent

m = meter

Signal control intersections, priority intersections, or roundabouts are recommended
network connections from local and service roads to collectors.

Single unit truck, SU-12, should be used as the design vehicle for local and service
roads. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Part 2, Planning, of
this manual.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent. The maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on local roads, as shown in Table 1.6. On low-speed local and
service roads in built-up areas where posted speeds are 50 kph and less, it may be
impractical or infeasible to provide superelevation because of right-of-way
constraints, frequency of crossroads, driveways, proximity of adjacent properties,
control of drainage, and desire to maintain low speed operations. Therefore,
provision of superelevation on local and service roads may be optional.
1.4.4 Curbs
On low-speed local and service roads, curbs normally are placed adjacent to the
traveled way to control drainage, control parking, and minimize the right-of-way
impacts. Curbs may be placed adjacent to the traveled way.
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Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for guidance on curb types
used in Qatar.
1.4.5 Lateral Offset and Horizontal Clearances

turns. At uncurbed locations, the minimum lateral offset is 1.2 m. For discussion on
lateral offset and horizontal clearance, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.

On‐street parking is the parking provided adjacent to the traveled way, within the
roadway pavement. A parking bay width of at least 2.5 m for commercial and
residential areas and 3.0 m for industrial areas should be provided adjacent to the
right lane. Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for further
guidance and details on parking bay design details.
1.4.7 Bike Paths

Bike paths shall not be provided on the roadway pavement, adjacent to the traveled
way.
Bike paths can be provided adjacent to the roadway with adequate separation from
the edge of the traveled way. The width of the bike paths should be in accordance
with The Qatari Street National Public Realm Guidelines (2014).
Refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public Transportation, of this manual for further
guidance on bike paths.
1.4.8 Sidewalks
Sidewalks may be provided on one side or both sides of the roadway, within the right‐
of‐way with adequate separation from the traveled way. The sidewalk widths should
For further guidance on sidewalks, refer to Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public
Transportation, of this manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of a local and service
roads. Good intersection design should provide adequate intersection sight distance,
adequate turning radii, and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and
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1.4.10 Driveways
Driveways are access points that connect adjacent properties to the roadway.
Driveway geometry depends on driveway type and the volume of traffic. Driveway
types include residential, commercial, and industrial. The type of driveway will dictate
the type of design vehicle to be used. The design vehicle establishes the minimum
width of the driveway and radius dimensions. In commercial areas, the volume of the
traffic using the driveway determines number of lanes on the driveway and will
establish the overall driveway width. Table 1.7 lists the recommended dimensions
based on international best practices. See the references listed in Section 1.0 in this
Part.
Table 1.7 Recommended Driveway Geometric Elements

Distance
Width of Driveway between
(m) Radius of Longitudinal Driveways (m)
Type of Design One- Drivewaya Driveway Grade
Driveway Vehicleb way Two-way (m) (percent) 30 kph 50 kph
Residential P 3.65 7.3 4.5 6.67
Less
Commercial SU-12 5.0 8.0 7.5 6.67 80
than 50
Industrial WB-12 5.0 8.0 10.5 5.00
Notes:
a Radius drive return treatments are preferred, but flared drive treatment as shown in Figure 1.3 are
acceptable for residential drives.

b Refer to Table 6.2 in Part 2, Planning, of this manual for design vehicle details.

m = meters
Consideration should be given to the following elements when designing driveways:
• Location of driveways: The location of a driveway affects the operation of an

adjacent roadway. Driveways should be located where adequate sight distance
could be provided, and they should be visible to the drivers on the roadway. For
sight distance requirements, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual. When proposed drives are added to an existing corridor, the proposed
drives should be located such that there is an adequate distance between the
existing drive and the proposed drive to provide required sight distance.
• Spacing between driveways: Table 1.7 lists the recommended spacing between
driveways. However, the designer should coordinate with the Overseeing
Organization and establish the spacing as required.
• Driveway channelization islands: Channelization at commercial and industrial
driveways controls and directs the traffic to its designated path and defines the
merge and diverge areas, as illustrated in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. The islands
should be designed to accommodate the design vehicle.
• Driveway profile and cross slope: Driveway profile should be smooth and provide
efficient movements in and out of the driveway; see Figure 1.3. The profile should
be flat and still provide adequate drainage. Table 1.7 lists the recommended
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longitudinal grades. Cross slope of the driveway should be consistent with grading
and the topography and should provide adequate drainage.
Figure 1.1 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Passenger Car and Single Unit
Truck
Figure 1.2 Channelization for Design Vehicle—Semitrailer
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Figure 1.3 Driveway Return Treatments
1.4.11 Cul-de-Sacs and Turnarounds

Cul-de-sacs and turnarounds are local access roads that are open at one end only and
have a turning area at the closed end. The turning areas can be of various shapes, as
shown in Figure 1.4, the dimensions are shown for information only. The choice and
layout of the turning area depends on the width of the roadway and the position of
the properties that need to the accessed and the available right-of-way.
A circular turning area is desirable, but the other shapes shown in Figure 1.4 are not
precluded. The geometry will depend on the available right-of-way and the design
vehicle expected to use the road. Refer to Part 2, Planning, of this manual for choice
of design vehicles and use the appropriate design vehicle to generate the geometry of
the cul-de-sacs and turnaround to determine the required right-of-way needed for
construction.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under local roads should
be at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For additional
details regarding the vertical clearances refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.

For local roads, right-of-way width is generally 24 m.
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Figure 1.4 Cul-de-Sac and Turning Head Layouts and Dimensions
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2 Rural Roadway Design Criteria

This chapter presents guidance on the application of geometric design criteria for
rural roadways.
The TMPQ defines rural roadways as “Roads that lie adjacent to areas which are
predominantly natural, with little or no adjacent built land use development”. Rural
roadways have different characteristics than urban roadways, and provide varying
levels of access and mobility.
The various road classifications in a rural environment are defined in Part 2, Planning,
of this manual and are as follows:
• Rural freeways
• Rural arterials
• Rural collectors
• Rural local
This section is further subdivided into four sub-sections:
• Section 2.1: Design Criteria for Rural Freeways

• Section 2.2: Design Criteria for Rural Arterials
• Section 2.3: Design Criteria for Rural Collectors
• Section 2.4: Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads
The design criteria for rural roadways presented in this manual are based on
international best practices, primarily from the United States of America and the UK,
using the following references:
• AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th edition, 2011a
• AASHTO, Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition, 2011b
• Department for Transport, UK Highways Agency, Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, 2013
• Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual, 1997
• Transportation Master Plan for Qatar (TMPQ), Guide to Planning Roads in Qatar,
2008
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2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways

Rural freeways connect major cities and regions within Qatar as well as
internationally. They carry traffic volumes greater than 8,000 vpd, under free-flowing
traffic conditions. Rural freeways are designed for high speeds ranging from 100 kph
to 140 kph. The primary function of the freeway is to provide mobility. Access is
limited to interchanges. Rural freeways generally are designed for LOS B. They carry at
least two lanes in each direction with a varying median width.
Table 2.1, on the following page, presents the minimum design criteria for rural
freeways. Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for further
guidance on the design criteria and on typical cross sections.
functional classification as shown in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. However,
designers may select a design speed other than that specified in Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements for a given functional classification through departure process
specified in Part 25, Departures from Standard Process.

Network connections from rural freeways to other rural freeways, rural arterials, rural
collectors, and urban expressways shall be by interchanges only.

Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle on rural freeways
and on designated truck routes. For additional details regarding the design vehicles,
refer to Part 2, Planning, of this manual.
2.1.3 Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile

Rural freeways are designed for high-speed operation and free flow conditions. The
horizontal alignment and vertical alignment should be smooth with a combination of
flatter horizontal curves and gentle longitudinal grades. The horizontal curves are
designed with maximum 5 percent superelevation and the vertical profiles with a
maximum grade of 3 percent, as shown in Table 2.1. Sag vertical K values shown on
Table 2.1 are for unlighted roadway conditions as specified in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements.

The SSD values shown in Table 2.1 are derived from guidance in the AASHTO A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2011a) and should be provided along the
freeway. As the interchange approaches, additional DSD should be used to enhance
safety and traffic operations. Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors,
of this manual provides guidance for providing DSD.
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Table 2.1 Design Criteria for Rural Freeways
Vertical Curve
Max/
Design Shoulder Width K Values for Roadside Slopesd
Min Preferred
Year Minimum Radius (m) (m) SSD (V:H)
Design Lane Minc
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width Median SSD Grades Fore Back
(vpd) LOS (kph) Supere Super Super Super (m) Left Right Width (m) (m) Crest Sag (%) Slope Slope
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 220 74 55

Greater
B 120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 3.65 3.0a 3.0a 10b 250 95 63 3/0.5 1:5 1:4
than 8,000
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 285 124 73
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 325 161 84

Notes:
a 3.0 m paved shoulder
b
median width shown is minimum width. Refer to Section 2.1.6 in this Part.
c Absolute minimum grade is 0.3 percent.
d For fore slopes steeper than 5:1, provide appropriate vehicle restraining system along the roadside.
e Normal Cross Slope, 2 percent.

H = horizontal

m = meters
V = vertical
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Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on rural freeways, as shown in Table 1.1. Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual provides further guidance on calculating
superelevation transition lengths, and application of the transition length to the
horizontal curves.
2.1.6 Median Width

dependent on the width of the shoulders, width of the features that need to be
accommodated in the median such as; light pole unit foundations, width of the piers
or the foundation of the sign trusses, or the width needed to accommodate the rail.
The designer should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project
within the project limits and as well as for the corridor.
For rural freeways, minimum open median width is 10 m, which accommodates 2 to

3.0 m median shoulders and a parallel guardrail system, separated by 4.0 m face to
face, on both sides of the roadway.
Open medians generally should be graded with fore slopes of 1V:5H or flatter. The
median should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered. For a
future 10-lane divided rural freeway, the median width should be at least 50.85 m to
accommodate three future lanes in each direction. If there is a master plan for the
provision of rail in the median, the median width should also be adjusted accordingly
in coordination with Qatar Railways Company (Qatar Rail).
medians.
2.1.7 Curbs
from the edge of the traveled way or behind a guardrail. The use of curbs should be
limited to isolated locations such as lighted interchange locations to control drainage
and minimize right-of-way.
2.1.8 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zones

Since the rural freeways operate at high speeds, the roadside environment should be
designed to be forgiving and to provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles.
Slopes flatter than 1V:5H should be used along the freeway with required clear zones.
Clear zones are a function of traffic volume, design speed, and roadside slopes.
Adequate clear zone should be provided as stated in Part 23, Design and Operations
of Road Safety, of his manual.
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2.1.9 Interchanges
Rural freeways are connected to other rural freeways, rural arterial, rural collectors, and
urban expressways via interchanges. The interchange design should be in accordance with
the design criteria presented in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors,
of this manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural freeways
should be at least 6.5 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For

For rural freeways, right-of-way width varies from 64 m to 264 m.
2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials

Rural arterials carry moderate traffic volumes, ranging from 2,000 to 8,000 vpd, and
connect major land uses within a small region. Rural arterials collect traffic from the rural
collectors and channel it to the rural freeways. They are designed for design speeds
ranging from 100 kph to 120 kph. The primary function of the arterials is to provide
mobility. They have limited access to freeways by interchanges and to collectors by
priority intersections, signalized intersections, or roundabouts. Rural arterials generally
are designed for LOS C. They carry at least two lanes in each direction and have a divided
median of varying width. Design of arterials carrying only one lane in each direction
should not be precluded. Design criteria for two lane undivided arterials is also presented
in this Section.
Table 2.2 presents the minimum design criteria for rural arterials. Refer to Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for further guidance on the design criteria
and on typical cross sections.
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standard Process.

Network connections from rural arterials to rural freeways and collectors should be
accomplished with interchanges and intersections, respectively.
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Table 2.2 Design Criteria for Rural Arterials
Vertical Vertical
Curve Curve
Max/
Shoulder Width K Values K Values
Design Preferred
Year Minimum Radius (m) (m) Based on SSD Based on PSD
Design Minimum Minimum Minc
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Lane Median SSD PSD Crest Grades
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super Width (m) Left Right Width (m) (m) Crest Sag (m) (%)
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45 580 390

2,000
to C 110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 3.65 3.0a 3.0a 10b 220 74 55 630 460 4/0.5
8,000
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 250 95 63 690 555
Notes:
b median width shown is minimum width. Refer to Section 2.2.7 in this Part.
c Absolute minimum grade shall be 0.3 percent.

m = meters
PSD = passing sight distance
SSD = sight stopping distance
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Interstate semitrailer, WB-20, should be used as the design vehicle at the interchange
locations and intermediate semitrailer, WB-15, should be used at other locations on
the rural arterials. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to
Table 6.2 in Part 2, Planning, of this manual.

Rural arterials are designed for high-speed operation at LOS C, which is close to free-
flowing conditions. The horizontal and vertical alignments should be smooth, with a
combination of flatter horizontal curves and gentle longitudinal grades. The horizontal
curves are designed with maximum 5 percent superelevation and the vertical profiles
with a maximum grade of 4 percent and K values, as shown in Table 2.2 for both
multilane divided and two-lane arterials. Sag vertical K values shown on Table 2.2 are
for unlighted roadway conditions as specified in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of
this manual.

The SSD values in Table 2.2 are derived from guidance in the AASHTO A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2011a) and should be provided along the
arterials. As the interchange approaches, additional DSD should be provided to
enhance safety and traffic operations. Guidance in providing DSD is presented in
Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this manual.
2.2.5 Passing Sight Distance

On two-lane undivided rural arterials, sufficient opportunities should be provided for
drivers to overtake slow-moving vehicles. Passing sight distance (PSD) is the design
element that could provide these passing opportunities. PSD is the distance required
for a vehicle to pass another vehicle traveling in the same direction comfortably and
safely, without conflict with vehicles traveling in the opposing direction. PSD is a
function of the design speed. For a detailed discussion on PSD, refer to Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. Table 2.2 provides design values for PSD
and the K values for designing vertical profile based on PSD.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent, and the maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on rural arterials, as shown in Table 2.2. Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual provides further guidance on calculation of
superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition length to the
horizontal curves.
2.2.7 Median Width

accommodated in the median such as; light pole unit foundations, width of the piers
or the foundation of the sign trusses, or the width needed to accommodate the rail.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 29
VOLUME 1 PART 5
The designer should establish a consistent median width at the onset of the project
within the project limits and as well as for the corridor.
For rural arterials, minimum open median width is 10 m, which accommodates 2 to

median should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered. If
there is a master plan for the provision of rail in the median, the median width should
also be adjusted accordingly in coordination with Qatar Rail.
2.2.8 Curbs
drainage and minimize right-of-way impacts, they shall be placed at least 3.0 m from
the edge of the traveled way or behind the guardrail. The use of curbs should be
limited to isolated locations such as lighted interchange or intersections to control
drainage and minimize right-of-way.
2.2.9 Roadside Slopes and Clear Zone

Rural arterials operate at high speeds; the roadside environment should be designed
to be forgiving and to provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes
flatter than 1V:5H should be used along the arterials with required clear zones. Clear
zones are a function of traffic volume, design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate
clear zone should be provided as stated in Part 23, Design and Operations of Road
Safety, of his manual.
2.2.10 Interchanges
Rural arterials are connected to rural freeways and urban expressways by
interchanges. The interchange design should be in accordance with the design criteria
presented in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, of this manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges of the arterials over or under
rural freeways should be at least 6.5 m over the entire roadway width, including
shoulders. At other locations, the clearance should be at least 6.0 m over the entire
roadway width, including the shoulders. For additional details regarding the vertical
clearances refer to Table 4.5 in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.

Intersection design has a significant impact on the operation of an arterial. Good
accommodation of pedestrians and cyclists within the right-of-way footprint. Refer to
PAGE 30 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 5

For rural arterials, right‐of‐way width is 64 m.
2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors

Rural collectors carry traffic volumes ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 vpd, and collect the
traffic from arterials and distribute to the local roads and adjacent rural land uses.
They are designed with design speeds ranging from 50 kph to 100 kph. The collector
system gives equal importance to both mobility and access. Generally, the collectors
are designed for a minimum LOS D. Most rural collectors are two‐lane roads with one
lane in each direction, although some may be two or three‐lane divided highways.
Table 2.3 presents the minimum design criteria for rural collectors. Refer to Part 3,
and on typical cross sections.
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standard Process.

Network connections from rural collectors to arterials and local roads should be
accomplished with roundabouts or priority intersections, and sometimes by signalized
intersections if signals are warranted.

Intermediate semitrailer, WB‐12, should be used as the design vehicle on rural
collectors. For additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Part 2,

The horizontal and vertical alignment should be smooth with a combination of flatter
horizontal curves and gentle longitudinal grades. Horizontal curves are designed with
maximum 5 percent superelevation and vertical profiles with a maximum grade of
6 percent and K values, as shown in Table 2.3, for both multilane divided and two‐lane
collectors. Sag vertical K values shown in Table 2.3 are for unlighted roadway
conditions as specified in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 31
PAGE 32

VOLUME 1 PART 5
Table 2.3 Design Criteria for Rural Collectors
Vertical
Curve Max/
K Values Preferred
Shoulder Width K Values Based Based on Minc
Design
Minimum Radius (m) (m) on SSD PSD Grades (%)
Year Design Min Lane Median
AADT Speed No 2% 3.5% 5% Width Width SSD PSD
(vpd) LOS (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) Left Right (m) (m) Crest Sag (m) Crest
40 360 320 185 130 50 4 9 250 75
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 13 290 100
60 720 640 365 255 85 11 18 345 140

1,000
D 70 1,020 900 510 360 3.65 3.0a 3.0a 10b 105 17 23 410 195 6/0.5
to 2,000
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 130 26 30 460 245
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 160 39 38 520 315
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 185 52 45 580 390

Notes:
b median width shown is minimum width. Refer to Section 2.3.6 in this Part.
c Absolute minimum grade shall be 0.3 percent.

m = meters
VOLUME 1
PSD = passing sight distance

Super = superelevation, vpd = vehicles per day
VOLUME 1 PART 5
2.3.4 Passing Sight Distance

On two-lane undivided rural collectors, sufficient opportunities should be provided for
drivers to overtake slow-moving vehicles. PSD is the design element that could provide
these passing opportunities. PSD is the distance required for a vehicle to pass another
vehicle traveling in the same direction comfortably and safely without any conflict with
the vehicle traveling in the opposing direction. It is function of the design speed. Part 3,
Roadway Design Elements, of this manual contains detailed discussion regarding PSD.
Table 2.3 provides design values for PSD and the K values for designing vertical profile
based on PSD.

Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent. The maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on rural collectors, as shown in Table 2.3. Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual provides further guidance on calculation of
superelevation transition lengths and application of the transition length to the
horizontal curves.
2.3.6 Median Width

accommodated in the median such as; light pole unit foundations, landscaping or the
foundation of the sign trusses. The designer should establish a consistent median
width at the onset of the project within the project limits and as well as for the
corridor.
For rural collectors minimum open median width is 10 m, which accommodates 2 to

median should be wide enough when provisions of future lanes are considered.
2.3.7 Curbs
drainage and minimize right-of-way impacts, they shall be placed at least 3.0 m from
the edge of the traveled way or behind the guardrail. The use of curbs should be
limited to isolated locations such as intersections to control drainage and minimize
right-of-way.
For posted speeds less than 80 kph, curbs should be placed at the edge of the paved
shoulder.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 33
VOLUME 1 PART 5

In general, the rural roadside environment should be designed to be forgiving and to
provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes flatter than 1V:5H
should be used along the roadway with required clear zones. Clear zones are a
function of traffic volumes, design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone
should be provided as stated in Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of his
manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural collectors
shall be at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For
additional details regarding the vertical clearances, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design

Intersection design has a significant impact on collector operation. Good intersection
design should provide adequate intersection sight distance, adequate turning radii,
and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and accommodation of
pedestrians and cyclists within the right‐of‐way footprint. Refer to Part 4,
Intersections and Roundabouts, Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, and Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections, of this manual for design criteria. Markings and
signing shall be per Qatar Highway Traffic Control Manual (MOT, 2015).

For rural collectors, right‐of‐way width varies between 24 m to 40 m.
2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Local Roads

Rural local roads carry low traffic volumes (less than 1,000 vpd) and provide access to
the adjacent properties. They are generally designed for a design speed of 50 kph. The
primary function of local roads is to provide access. The local roads generally are
designed for a minimum LOS D and have one lane in each direction.
Table 2.4 presents the minimum design criteria for rural local roads. Refer to Part 3,
and on typical cross sections. Table 2.4 lists design speed values other than 50 kph for
information only.

Network connections from rural local roads to collectors should be accomplished with
priority intersections or roundabouts.
PAGE 34 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1
Table 2.4 Design Criteria for Rural Locals Roads
Vertical Curve
Minimum Radius (m) K Values Based on SSD
Design Year
AADT Design No 2% 3.5% 5% Lane Width Shoulder Width SSD Max/Mina
(vpd) LOS Speed (kph) Superd Super Super Super (m) (m) (m) Crest Sag Grades (%)
30 180 160 90 65 35 2 6
Less than
D 40 360 320 185 130 3.65 3.0b 50 4 9 8/0.5
1,000
50 510 450 255 180 65 7 13
Notes:
b paved shoulder width is 1.5 m and 1.5 m of graded width.

m = meters

VOLUME 1 PART 5
PAGE 35
VOLUME 1 PART 5

Single unit truck, SU‐12, should be used as the design vehicle on rural local roads. For
additional details regarding the design vehicles, refer to Part 2, Planning, of this
manual.

Local road alignments shall be designed to fit the existing topography with flatter
curvature and gentle longitudinal grades. Horizontal curves are designed with
maximum 5 percent superelevation and vertical profiles with a maximum grade of
8 percent and K values, as shown in Table 2.4. Sag vertical K values shown on
Table 2.4 are for unlighted roadway conditions as specified in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements.

Normal cross slope should be 2 percent. Maximum superelevation rates of 2 to
5 percent are applicable on local roads, as shown in Table 2.4. Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this manual provides further guidance on calculation of superelevation
transition lengths and application of the transition length to the horizontal curves.
2.4.5 Curbs
If curbs are used to control drainage and minimize right‐of‐way impacts, they should
be placed at the edge of the paved shoulder.

In general, the rural roadside environment should be designed to be forgiving and to
provide adequate recovery area for errant vehicles. Fore slopes flatter than 1V:5H
should be used along the roadway with required clear zones. Clear zones are a function
of traffic volumes, design speed, and roadside slopes. Adequate clear zone should be
provided as stated in Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this manual.

Vertical clearance to road structures or road bridges over or under rural local roads
shall be at least 6.0 m over the entire roadway width, including shoulders. For

Good intersection design should provide adequate intersection sight distance,
adequate turning radii, and adequate storage lengths for left and right turns, and

For rural local roads, right‐of‐way width is generally less than or equal to 20 m.
PAGE 36 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 5
References
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, United
States. 2011a.
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011b.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street, Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Department for Transport. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. UK Highways Agency: London,
England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/. 2013.
Illinois Department of Transportation. Access to State Highways. Division of Highways;

Springfield, Illinois, United States. May 1, 1990.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual. Civil Engineering
Department: Doha, Qatar. 1997.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Transportation Master Plan for Qatar—
Guide to Planning Roads. Doha, Qatar. 2009.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Guide for the Geometric Design of
Driveways. Report 659. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States. 2010.
Ohio Department of Transportation. State Highway Access Management Manual.

Version 8‐15‐03. Columbus, Ohio, United States. December 2001. Revised March 2008.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 37
Volume 1
Part 6
Design for Priority Intersections
VOLUME 1 PART 6
DESIGN FOR PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪DESIGN FOR PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 1 PART 6
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................. vii
1 General Design Guidance ................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 General Design Considerations ................................................................................... 1
1.3 Application of Priority Intersections to the Qatar Road Network ............................... 2
2 Priority Intersection Types ..............................................................................................3

2.1 Priority Intersection Types........................................................................................... 3
2.2 Priority Intersections for Two-Lane Collectors and Local Access ................................ 4
2.2.1 Simple T-intersection ................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 T-intersection with Ghost Island .................................................................. 4
2.2.3 Channelized Left-Turn Lanes for T-Intersections on Two-Lane Roads (Single
Lane Dualling) ............................................................................................... 6
2.2.4 Crossroads (Four-Leg) Intersections .......................................................... 10
2.2.5 Staggered T-Intersections .......................................................................... 11
2.2.6 Skew or Y-Intersections .............................................................................. 16
2.3 Priority Intersections for Multi-Lane Arterials and Collector Roads ......................... 17
2.3.1 Priority Intersection with Two-Lane Minor Road ....................................... 17
2.3.2 Priority Intersections between Two Multi-Lane Roads .............................. 18
2.3.3 Unsignalized Median U-Turns .................................................................... 21
2.4 Accommodating Pedestrians at Multi-Lane Priority Intersections............................ 22
3 Design Procedure for Priority Intersections ...................................................................23

3.1 Priority Intersection Design Procedure ..................................................................... 24
3.2 Choice of Simple, Ghost or Channelized Left-Turn Priority Intersection................... 26
3.2.1 Guidelines for the Operational Viability of Priority T-Intersections .......... 27
3.3 Reconstruction of Priority Intersections.................................................................... 30
4 Design Controls for Priority Intersections ......................................................................31

4.1 Design Speed ............................................................................................................. 31
4.2 Design Vehicles .......................................................................................................... 31
4.3 Design Level of Service .............................................................................................. 33
4.3.1 Level of Service Definitions for Priority Intersections ................................ 33
4.3.2 Level of Service Analysis and Intersection Type Selection ......................... 34
4.4 Locating Priority Intersections ................................................................................... 34
4.4.1 Major Road Alignment ............................................................................... 35
4.4.2 Minor Road Alignment ............................................................................... 35
4.4.3 Skewed Crossroads .................................................................................... 38
4.4.4 Y-Intersections ........................................................................................... 39
4.5 Vertical Alignment ..................................................................................................... 40
4.6 Spacing of Intersections............................................................................................. 41
4.7 Visibility ..................................................................................................................... 41
VOLUME 1 PAGE I
VOLUME 1 PART 6
5 Geometric Design Details for Priority Intersections ....................................................... 47

5.1 Corner Radii ............................................................................................................... 47
5.1.1 T-Intersection Corner Radii ........................................................................ 47
5.1.2 Corner Radii for Channelized Right Turns .................................................. 49
5.2 Roadway Widths ........................................................................................................ 50
5.2.1 Through-Lane Widths ................................................................................. 50
5.2.2 Widths of Minor Road Approaches ............................................................ 50
5.2.3 Widths around Corners .............................................................................. 51
5.3 Diverging and Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers ................................................... 52
5.3.1 Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers .......................................... 53
5.3.2 Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers ........................................................... 57
5.4 Major Road Left-Turn lanes ....................................................................................... 61
5.4.1 Channelized Major Road Left-Turn Lanes .................................................. 62
5.5 Turning Roadways ...................................................................................................... 66
5.5.1 Turning Roadway Width ............................................................................. 67
5.5.2 Turning Roadway Merge Nose ................................................................... 67
5.5.3 Sight Distance through Turning Roadways................................................. 68
5.6 Channelizing Islands ................................................................................................... 68
5.6.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 68
5.6.2 Function of Islands...................................................................................... 69
5.6.3 Raised versus Flush Island Types ................................................................ 69
5.6.4 Design of Islands ......................................................................................... 70
5.7 U-Turns ...................................................................................................................... 80
5.7.1 Safety at U-Turns ........................................................................................ 81
5.7.2 U-Turn Elements ......................................................................................... 82
5.8 Service Roads ............................................................................................................. 85
5.8.1 Service Road Diverge and Merge ............................................................... 86
5.8.2 Service Road Direct Connection ................................................................. 88
5.8.3 Local Grade Separation .............................................................................. 88
5.9 Pavement Markings ................................................................................................... 90
5.10 Traffic Control Devices ............................................................................................... 90
5.11 Intersection Lighting .................................................................................................. 90
6 Other Design Elements ................................................................................................. 91

6.1 Driveways and Major Private Entrances .................................................................... 91
6.1.1 Location and Classification ......................................................................... 91
6.1.2 Visibility at Driveways and Private Entrances ............................................ 91
6.2 Priority Intersections in Residential Areas ................................................................. 91
6.2.1 Typical Configurations ................................................................................ 91
6.2.2 Older Residential Areas .............................................................................. 93
6.2.3 Corner Plots at Priority Intersections ......................................................... 94
6.3 Pedestrian and Bike Facilities .................................................................................... 95
6.3.1 Pedestrian Facilities .................................................................................... 95
6.3.2 Wheelchair Ramps and Mobility Impaired Users ....................................... 96
PAGE II VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 6
6.3.3 Bike Facilities .............................................................................................. 96

6.4 Landscape .................................................................................................................. 97
6.5 Rail Consideration ...................................................................................................... 97
6.5.1 General ....................................................................................................... 97
6.5.2 Grade Separation ....................................................................................... 98
6.5.3 At-grade Crossings ..................................................................................... 98
6.5.4 Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................... 100
6.5.5 Vertical Alignment .................................................................................... 100
References ........................................................................................................................... 101
VOLUME 1 PAGE III

VOLUME 1 PART 6
Tables
Table 2.1 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency Savings by Adding a Left-turn Lane to a
Simple T-Intersection........................................................................................... 9
Table 2.2 Minimum Stagger Distance for Right/Left Staggered Intersection ................... 13
Table 4.1 Guidance for Selection of Design Vehicles at Intersections .............................. 32
Table 4.2 Level of Service Criteria for Two-Way, Stop-Controlled Intersections .............. 33
Table 4.3 Effect of Intersection Skew Angle on Crash Frequency at Unsignalized
Intersections ...................................................................................................... 35
Table 4.4 Minimum X and Y Visibility Distances from the Minor Road ............................ 45
Table 5.1 Circular Corner Radii .......................................................................................... 48
Table 5.2 Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Roadway Widths .................................. 52
Table 5.3 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Diverge ................... 55
Table 5.4 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Merge .................... 59
Table 5.5 Taper Length on Priority Intersection Merge .................................................... 60
Table 5.6 Minimum Channelized Left-Turn Deceleration Length (Ldl) .............................. 64
Table 5.7 Guidelines for Estimating Number of Vehicles Stored in Major Road Left-Turn
Lane at Priority Intersections............................................................................. 65
Table 5.8 Stopping-Sight Distance and Horizontal Offset Requirements for Inside of
Right-Hand Turning Roadways .......................................................................... 68
Table 5.9 Offset from Traffic Lanes to Island Curbs .......................................................... 70
Table 5.10 Channelizing Island Offset ................................................................................. 71
Table 5.11 Design of Radius R1 ............................................................................................ 72
Table 5.12 Tapers for Divisional Islands .............................................................................. 75
Table 5.13 Visibility Distances at U-Turns ........................................................................... 81
Table 5.14 Direct Taper Length for U-Turns (d) .................................................................. 82
Table 5.15 Minimum Turning Widths Needed for U-Turns (M) .......................................... 83
Table 5.16 Deceleration Length for U-Turns (c) .................................................................. 83
Table 5.17 Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length ....................................................... 87
Table 6.1 Chamfer Length at Corner Plot .......................................................................... 95
PAGE IV VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 6
Figures
Figure 2.1 Simple T-Intersection ........................................................................................... 4

Figure 2.2 Ghost Island T-Intersection .................................................................................. 5
Figure 2.3 Layout of Left-turn Lanes for Right/Left Staggered Ghost Island
Intersection .......................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.4 Priority T-Intersection on Two-Lane Highway with Major Road
Left-Turn Lane ...................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.5 Channelized Left-Turn Urban Priority T-Intersection ........................................... 7
Figure 2.6 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency for Simple Priority T-Intersections ...............8
Figure 2.7 Crossroads .......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.8 Simple Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections .................................12
Figure 2.9 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersection with Ghost Island
Left Turn Lane..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.10 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes ..........15
Figure 2.11 Priority Left-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes ..................16
Figure 2.12 Priority Right-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes ...............17
Figure 2.13 Priority T-Intersection on Multi-Lane Roadway with Median Separation .........18
Figure 2.14 Priority Intersection between Two Multi-Lane Roads .......................................19
Figure 2.15 Minor Road Approach Reduced through U-Turn Facility (Urban Use Only) ......20
Figure 2.16 Unsignalized Median U-Turn .............................................................................. 21
Figure 3.1 Flowchart Outlining Design Procedure .............................................................. 25
Figure 3.2 Approximate Level of Priority Intersection Provision for Varying Traffic
Flows in Urban Conditions ................................................................................. 27
Figure 3.3 Level of Service by Delays to the Minor Road Left-Turning Traffic ....................28
Figure 4.1 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes .....................36
Figure 4.2 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes and
Auxiliary Lane for Major Road Right Turns......................................................... 37
Figure 4.3 Design Solutions for Skewed Crossroads ........................................................... 38
Figure 4.4 Design Solutions for Y-Intersections .................................................................. 39
Figure 4.5 Y-Intersection Hidden by Crest Curve ................................................................ 40
Figure 4.6 Minor Road Approach Gradient ......................................................................... 41
Figure 4.7 Visibility Criteria at Priority Intersections .......................................................... 44
Figure 4.8 Visibility Criteria with a Curved Major Road ......................................................44
Figure 5.1 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Tapers ........................................................48
Figure 5.2 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Compound Curve.......................................49
Figure 5.3 Typical Layout of Channelized Right Turn ..........................................................50
VOLUME 1 PAGE V
VOLUME 1 PART 6
Figure 5.4 Minor Road Approaches .................................................................................... 51

Figure 5.5 T-Intersection with Channelizing and Right-turn Auxiliary Lanes ..................... 53
Figure 5.6 Right-Turn Auxiliary Lane on Diverge of Multi-Lane Priority Intersection ........ 53
Figure 5.7 Alternative Taper Diverge.................................................................................. 57
Figure 5.8 Auxiliary Lane on Merge .................................................................................... 58
Figure 5.9 Alternative Taper Merge ................................................................................... 60
Figure 5.10 Right-Turn Approach Where an Auxiliary Lane Is Not Provided ....................... 61
Figure 5.11 Priority Ghost Island T-Intersection with Left Turn Lane .................................. 62
Figure 5.12 Priority T-Intersection with Left-Turn Lane ....................................................... 63
Figure 5.13 Turning Roadways at Priority Intersections ...................................................... 67
Figure 5.14 Channelizing Island Design for T-Intersection ................................................... 71
Figure 5.15 Priority Intersection with Skewed Minor Road ................................................. 73
Figure 5.16 Divisional Ghost Island Development ................................................................ 74
Figure 5.17 Divisional Physical Island Development ............................................................ 75
Figure 5.18 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island with Turning Roadway ......................... 76
Figure 5.19 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island without Turning Roadway .................... 77
Figure 5.20 Typical Urban Divisional Island with Pedestrian Refuge ................................... 78
Figure 5.21 Typical Layout of Corner Island with Turning Roadway .................................... 79
Figure 5.22 Typical Layout of Corner Island without Turning Roadway ............................... 80
Figure 5.23 Unsignalized Median U-Turn ............................................................................. 84
Figure 5.24 Service Road Diverge with Taper ....................................................................... 86
Figure 5.25 Service Road Diverge/Merge with Auxiliary Lane ............................................. 86
Figure 5.26 Weaving Length ................................................................................................. 87
Figure 5.27 Turning Roadways at Termination of Service Road........................................... 88
Figure 5.28 Local Grade Separation...................................................................................... 89
Figure 6.1 Multiple Access Local Roads Joining a Major Road ........................................... 92
Figure 6.2 Access Roads Consolidated Prior to Access to the Major Road ........................ 93
Figure 6.3 Development of Chamfer at Corner Plot ........................................................... 94
Figure 6.4 Bike Crossings at Minor Roads .......................................................................... 97
PAGE VI VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 6
CMF crash modification factor
HCM Highway Capacity Manual
HSM Highway Safety Manual
m meter
m/s/s meters per second per second
R1 radius
RIRO right-in, right out
WB wheelbase
VOLUME 1 PAGE VII

VOLUME 1 PART 6
PAGE VIII VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 6
1 General Design Guidance

1.1 Introduction
The Qatar road and street system is established to provide a level of mobility in priority
based on the functional classification of each road, within an overall framework that
has traffic safety as its basis. The term “priority” refers to the designation of one
roadway over another in terms of the favoring traffic flow. The safety component of
the framework is in the applicability of the various types of intersections with respect
to the most significant intersection crash risks:
• Crossing conflicts are inherent to intersections. At high speeds, crossing conflicts

produce severe (fatal and injury) crash types.
• Left turns comprise the second most significant multivehicle crash type. Left-turn
movements from both major roads and minor roads represent potential conflicts.
• Vehicle-pedestrian conflicts are a significant concern. Pedestrians crossing

intersections are vulnerable; most crashes involving pedestrians result in severe
injury or fatality.
1.2 General Design Considerations

Control at priority intersections is by the provision of either “Yield” or “Stop” signs with
corresponding road markings as necessary. The selection of control to be used for a
particular intersection shall be determined by the ability of the design to meet the
applicable geometric criteria. Where the design criteria are not met or there is a
particular safety concern then stop control shall be provided.
All priority intersections have the advantage that major road traffic is not delayed.
However, care must be taken to ensure that very high speeds and overtaking
maneuvers are not encouraged in the area of the intersection, and that intersection
design, particularly where traffic predictions are uncertain, should allow flexibility for
efficient upgrading in the future.
The guidance contained in Part 2, Planning, shall be considered in assessing the

appropriate use of major/minor priority intersections within the Qatar roads hierarchy.
This part describes one of the core intersection types applied to the Qatar road
network, it outlines the types of priority intersection utilized on the Qatar road
network, their applicability to a particular location and the geometric design of the
individual elements used in combination to assemble them.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 1
VOLUME 1 PART 6
Many of the elements of a priority intersection are dealt with separately and the
designer should work systematically through the design procedure prior to assembling
the component parts. This is an iterative process, and it may be necessary to alter part
of the intersection design covered previously in order to achieve a satisfactory solution.
1.3 Application of Priority Intersections to the Qatar Road

Network
As introduced in Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, the determination of the
priority intersection as the appropriate type of intersection for a particular location is
based on the functional classification of the intersecting roads, design speeds, and the
expected or forecast design-year traffic. The planning process for determining
intersection type favors selection of the priority intersection because of the high quality
of service provided to the major road and the cost and efficiency of the intersection
form.
However, there are limitations to the traffic-carrying capability of the priority

intersection. Given the rapid and continuing growth in activity and traffic in Qatar, care
should be taken in the planning and design of priority intersections. Traffic demand
forecasts may be uncertain, thus, flexibility for future upgrading of the intersection may
be needed, such as the setback of the right-of-way reservations to allow for the
reconstruction and possible signalization in the future.
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2 Priority Intersection Types

2.1 Priority Intersection Types
A priority intersection is one in which both the continuity and traffic control establish
and reinforce the priority of traffic flow for one roadway over the other. At a priority
intersection, the traffic flow for the major roadway is continuous and not stopped by
traffic control. The minor roadway terminates or intersects with the major roadway,
with the minor road traffic controlled by yield or stop control. The major road where
traffic is unimpeded is the priority road.
The figures in this part are drawn with yield control, with the exception of those
intersections where stop control is specifically required.
Priority intersections are central to reinforcing the primacy of traffic flow for the higher
classification facilities.
There are five basic types of priority intersections:
• T-type
• Crossing, or 4-leg
• Staggered
• Skew, or Y-type
• Right-in, right-out (RIRO) divided highway
The Qatar road network is purposely configured to minimize unsignalized 4-leg minor
road crossings of major roads and unsignalized left turns from minor roads to divided
priority roads. With such a network, the T-type priority intersection is the most
common intersection encountered by drivers.
T-type and staggered priority intersections provide a variety of options for the designer
based on approach vehicular volume and type including simple, ghost island and
channelized left-turn lanes for the major road turning traffic.
Y-type priority intersections should be avoided for new roads in Qatar; refer to
Clause 4.4.4 for guidance.
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2.2 Priority Intersections for Two-Lane Collectors and Local

Access
2.2.1 Simple T-intersection
A T-intersection is the simplest form of priority intersection. In this form, a single minor
road gives way to the major road, intersecting at a 90-degree angle. To the extent
possible, the intersecting angle at a T-intersection shall be between 70 and 110 degrees
(an angle of skew of no more than 20 degrees). Simple T-intersections have no painted
or physical islands in the major road and no channelizing islands in the minor road
approach. As shown on Figure 2.1.
This form is appropriate for most priority intersections on two-lane minor rural roads
with lower traffic volumes. Left turns are very infrequent for such roads, and sufficient
gaps are available, assuming the road geometry provides sight distance for such gaps.
It is also an appropriate form of intersection for most local access roads in urban areas,
where traffic flows are, and will remain, low even after full development of the area.
Where pedestrian movements in some urban locations are high, there may be a benefit
to adding a raised channelizing island to the minor road to act as a refuge.
Figure 2.1 Simple T-Intersection
2.2.2 T-intersection with Ghost Island

When a simple T-intersection is no longer the appropriate solution, the next option is
to introduce widening on the major road to accommodate a ghost island, which
incorporates an extra central lane for turning traffic. The minor road approach should
also have a channelizing island to direct vehicles to the correct position for turning
movements. Refer to Figure 2.2.
Ghost islands will enhance safety of the intersection by giving shelter to left-turning
traffic from opposing vehicles and vehicles approaching from behind. Measures to
discourage overtaking at ghost island widening could be the use of physical traffic
islands, solid yellow “no overtaking” lines, different colored surfacing and ceramic
studs.
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However, ghost islands shall not be positioned where the overtaking opportunity is
restricted either side of the intersection because drivers may use the wide ghost island
hatching and central lane as a place to overtake. If a ghost island has to be positioned
at these locations then an alternative intersection arrangement such as physical islands
and channelizing the major road left-turn movement should be considered, also known
as single lane dualling.
Ghost island intersections shall not be used where traffic turning left out of the minor
road needs to make the maneuver in two stages. This can occur when the major road
flow exceeds 18,000 annual average daily traffic (AADT) (two-way). Intersection design
is a key element of the overall design process for road projects.
Figure 2.2 Ghost Island T-Intersection
2.2.2.1 Guidelines for Designing Ghost Islands

For new intersections, the desirable width of a ghost island turning lane shall be 4.0 m,
but a relaxation to 3.0 m is permissible. At urban and suburban intersections, it can
sometimes be advantageous to use a greater width not exceeding 5.0 m to allow a
degree of shelter in the center of the road for large goods vehicles turning left from the
minor road to execute the turn in two separate maneuvers.
For improvements to existing intersections, where space is very limited, a reduced

width may be unavoidable. The width of ghost island shall not be less than 2.5 m.
At right/left staggered intersections, the deceleration lengths would overlap but the
width of the ghost island shall not be increased to make them lie side by side. The
starting points of the left turning section shall be joined by a straight line, which will
mean at higher design speeds, the full width of the turning lane will not be developed
until the end of the diverging section (as shown in Figure 2.3). The width of the turning
lane shall be the full width of the ghost island.
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Figure 2.3 Layout of Left-turn Lanes for Right/Left Staggered Ghost Island
Intersection
2.2.3 Channelized Left-Turn Lanes for T-Intersections on Two-Lane Roads

(Single Lane Dualling)
When major-road turning traffic or major-road through traffic increases such that the
left-turn movement causes delays and potential rear-end conflicts, a priority
intersection designed with physical islands to protect and channelize left-turn lanes
may be necessary. Figure 2.4 shows this form of priority intersection for a two-lane
rural highway, and Figure 2.5 shows a simplified form for a two-lane urban road.
On two-lane rural roads raised, physical islands are used to shelter left-turning traffic
on the major road and prevent overtaking in the opposing direction. A median width of
10 meters (m) or greater is sufficient for passenger-vehicle traffic turning left out of the
minor road to make the maneuver in two stages: first crossing oncoming traffic from
the left, then waiting in the median area for a gap in traffic from the right to complete
the maneuver.
The length of the major road left-turn divisional island shall be based on driver
deceleration from the design speed to an assumed stop condition while waiting for a
gap in opposing through traffic to make the turn.
The physical nose of the islands and pavement markings on their approach serves to
provide notice to drivers of the intersection. In cases where the major road approach
is on a significant upgrade such that the intersection is hidden, the divisional island
should be lengthened beyond the crest of the vertical curve to provide advance notice
to drivers. Advance warning signs for major road traffic such as “No
Passing/Overtaking” shall be coordinated with the channelization. Where possible,
channelized left-turn lanes shall be lit.
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Figure 2.4 Priority T-Intersection on Two-Lane Highway with Major Road

Left-Turn Lane
With the introduction of physical islands, roadway widths shall provide for passing of
stalled or otherwise parked vehicles. On rural highways with paved shoulders, a 4 m
lane width and 1 m offset to the median island is sufficient. In urban areas with curbed
roadways, 1 m offsets both left and right of the 4 m lane width provide sufficient
operating width.
Right-turning deceleration lanes for traffic from the major road to minor road may be
included with this intersection form, and example of this is illustrated in Figure 4.2.
These are particularly desirable for intersections on roads with design speeds greater
than 80 kilometers per hour (kph). Right-turn acceleration lanes from minor roads onto
two-lane major roads are not allowed.
On urban two-lane roads where the density of traffic is higher, speeds are low, and the
right-of-way is limited, this form of priority intersection with a channelized major road
left turn can be reduced in scale to simple raised refuge islands and a reduced width for
the major road left turn. Figure 2.5 shows the form of channelized left-turn urban
priority T-intersection.
Figure 2.5 Channelized Left-Turn Urban Priority T-Intersection
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2.2.3.1 Guidelines for Designing Priority T-Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes

In general, a separate left-turn lane from the major, priority road is desirable because
it provides protection for decelerating, turning vehicles from higher-speed through
traffic approaching in the same lane. Providing a left-turn lane, however, increases the
construction cost of the intersection including right-of-way. The relative importance
and value of the left-turn lane can be characterized by the expected safety performance
of the T-intersection with and without the left-turn lane.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Highway Safety Manual (HSM) (2010) describes the expected safety performance of
unsignalized (stop-controlled) T-intersections on rural roads. Figure 2.6 shows the
modeled crash frequency per year for the equivalent of a simple T-intersection as a
function of the AADT of both the major and minor roads. For example, a minor road
with 1,000 vehicles per day (vpd) intersecting a major road with 10,000 vpd can be
expected to have an average of 2.2 crashes per year. The HSM also suggests that the
addition of a left-turn lane from the major road can reduce total intersection crashes
by 44 percent.
Table 2.1 shows the potential savings in crashes per year by designing a priority
intersection with a channelized left-turn lane, as shown on Figure 2.4, compared with
a simple T-intersection, as shown on Figure 2.1.
Source: HSM Figure 10-4, Volume 2 Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010)
Figure 2.6 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency for Simple Priority T-Intersections
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Table 2.1 Predicted Annual Crash Frequency Savings by Adding a Left-turn Lane
to a Simple T-Intersection
AADT on a Major Road (vpd)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
500 0.07 0.11 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.40
AADT 1000 0.09 0.16 0.22 0.27 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52 0.57
on a 1500 0.11 0.19 0.27 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.58 0.64 0.69
Minor
2000 0.13 0.22 0.31 0.39 0.46 0.53 0.60 0.67 0.73 0.80
Road
(vpd) 2500 0.14 0.25 0.34 0.43 0.51 0.59 0.67 0.74 0.82 0.89
3000 0.16 0.27 0.38 0.47 0.56 0.65 0.73 0.81 0.89 0.97
Notes:
Savings of less than 1 crash in 5 years
Savings of up to 1 crash in 4 years
Savings of up to 1 crash per year
Source: Based on Figure 2.6 above and Table 10-13, “Crash Modification Factors (CMF) for Installation of
Left-turn Lanes on Intersection Approaches” in HSM, Volume 2, Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010).
AADT = annual average daily traffic vpd = vehicles per day
The following guidance is suggested by Table 2.1:
• For cases in which the design-year approach volumes are sufficiently low that the
expected savings for including a left-turn lane are less than one crash in 5 years, as
shown in light green in Table 2.1, a simple T-intersection typically will suffice. For
example, for minor road approach volumes of up to 500 vpd and major road
approach volumes of up to 1,500 vpd the savings are less than 0.2 per year, which
translates to less than one crash in 5 years.
• For cases in which the combination of design-year approach volumes produces
potential savings of up to one crash in 4 years, shown in green in Table 2.1, a simple
T-intersection is generally acceptable. However, designers may choose to
incorporate a left-turn lane where the possibility of exceeding design-year traffic is
a concern and when doing so is readily achievable due to cost and right-of-way
availability. A simple T-intersection may be built, but the right-of-way may be
reserved for future improvement.
savings of up to one crash in 3 years, as shown in yellow in Table 2.1, the designer
should generally favor inclusion of a left-turn lane over a simple T-intersection.
However, if the costs of including the right-of-way are significant, the construction
of a simple T-intersection may be acceptable. When such a decision is made, the
Overseeing Organization should be advised so they can monitor the safety
performance of the location over a 5-year time period following its construction.
savings of up to one crash every 1 to 2 years, as shown in orange and red in
Table 2.1, the designer shall design the intersection to include a left-turn lane. In
these cases, the added construction and right-of-way costs clearly will be justified
by the improved safety performance over time.
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The Overseeing Organization shall approve the decision to include or not include a
left-turn lane at a two-lane road priority intersection on a case-by-case basis.
2.2.4 Crossroads (Four-Leg) Intersections

A “crossroads” is the crossing of a minor road intersecting with the major road, as
shown on Figure 2.7. Traffic on the major road, shown from left to right on the figure,
is through traffic and is not stopped. A simple crossroads intersection consolidates
multiple potential conflicts at a single location. One conflict in particular is unique to
this form, the right-angle crossing conflict.
Figure 2.7 Crossroads
As the crossing conflict is potentially among the most severe, the design philosophy in
Qatar is to avoid or minimize the use of priority (unsignalized) crossroads. The
occurrence of crossroads should be limited to lower volume and lower speed
(operating or posted speeds). Staggered T-intersections, discussed in Section 2.6, are a
typical means of providing access to both sides of a major road as an alternative to
crossroads.
2.2.4.1 Crossroads on High-Speed Rural Roads

Crossroads intersections produce the potential for serious right-angle crashes. For this
reason, crossroad intersections on rural roads, where the posted speed is 80 kph or
greater, shall not be constructed in Qatar. Existing crossroads intersections are
potential candidates for reconstruction based on observed safety performance.
Alternative solutions include construction of a roundabout or conversion to staggered
T-intersections.
2.2.4.2 Crossroads on Lower-Speed Urban Roads

Along local urban roads, posted speeds are 50 kph or lower and rights-of-way are
generally more limited. However, the risk of right-angle crashes at crossroads applies
in urban contexts as well as rural contexts. Roundabouts are often a desirable
alternative with regard to vehicle safety. However, they may not be practical because
of land take requirements in urban intersections.
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For cases in which the design-year minor road traffic entering the intersection is less
than 15 percent of total entering traffic from all approaches, a roadway with a single
crossroad intersection may be considered.
However, because of the sensitivity of minor road traffic volume to crash risk, care
should be taken when considering or designing crossroad intersections. Future,
unforeseen development that causes traffic increases on minor roads beyond projected
flows is likely to lead to an increase in total crashes. In some instances, all-stop control
may be appropriate.
2.2.4.3 Crossroads with All-Stop Control

There may be cases on minor urban roads where a crossroads intersection should have
all-stop control. In context zones where pedestrians are prevalent and their mobility
and safety is the paramount concern, implementing all-stop control can produce
meaningful benefits to pedestrians. This solution may also apply where intersection
sight distance is insufficient because of immovable buildings, walls or other
obstructions outside the right-of-way.
The HSM suggests the following safety benefits of converting a two-way stop controlled
intersection to an all-stop on urban minor roads:
• 75 percent reduction in right-angle crashes (all severities)

• 18 percent reduction in rear-end crashes (all severities)
• 43 percent reduction in pedestrian crashes (all severities)
2.2.5 Staggered T-Intersections

A staggered T-intersection refers to the design of two priority T-intersections with the
minor road forming the T intersecting on opposite sides of the major, priority road. This
design is intended to serve access to land uses on both sides of the major road without
the less-desirable crossroads configuration discussed above. The design and operation
of staggered T-intersections should be viewed as a single unit. Key considerations
include the arrangement of the minor road T-intersections relative to each other,
spacing between the intersections, and the channelization needed for operation of
each intersection.
There are two basic configurations for staggered T-intersections, referred to as

“left/right” and “right/left.” The configuration can be used both with and without
channelized left-turn lanes from the major road. Either configuration may be
appropriate, depending on the context. The two configurations differ considerably in
their operation and resulting design requirements. They are illustrated on Figure for
simple staggered T-intersections and Figures 2.9 and 2.10 for more complicated
T-intersections with a left-turn lane.
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Figure 2.8 Simple Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections
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2.2.5.1 Design and Operation of Left/Right Stagger

With the left/right stagger, the left-turn movements from the major road occur on the
“outside,” i.e., the approach to each minor roadway. The major road left-turn
channelization thus occurs on the “outside.” This allows for somewhat lesser spacing
between the intersections. Stagger distances shall be sufficiently large for drivers to be
able to navigate and make decisions, treating each intersection independently.
A center-to-center stagger distance of 50 m or more is generally the minimum required
for simple left/right staggered T-intersections on local access roads.
The capacity of a staggered T-intersection will be less under the left/right stagger
compared to a right/left stagger. The most critical movements are left turns from the
minor road; in the left/right stagger the left turns from each minor road consist of both
the left-turn volumes and the minor road “through” (minor road to minor road)
volumes.
2.2.5.2 Design and Operation of Right/Left Stagger

At right/left staggered intersections, the major road left turns occur on the “inside,”
i.e., between the two minor road intersections. The left-turn lane requirements,
including deceleration and development of tapers adds up to a much greater minimum
stagger distances between the minor roads.
Minimum dimensions for staggered intersections with channelized left-turns are

provided in Table 2.2, in which the two sets of left-turn lanes are designed essentially
back-to-back and comprise the sum of the two deceleration lengths lying side-by-side
plus the turning lengths and queuing lengths, as appropriate. The minimum dimensions
are shown in parenthesis in Table 2.2 comprising the deceleration length and two
turning lengths at each end. The queuing length is assumed to be 0 m in the minimum
case.
The right/left stagger has greater capacity than the left/right stagger in that the critical
left-turn movement from the minor roads only consist of left-turn demand. The minor
road “through” traffic (minor road to minor road) operates as a right turn from the
minor road and a left turn from the major road to the other minor road. Major road
left-turn capacity is generally very high, and additional major road left-turning traffic
will not pose significant operational problems.
Table 2.2 Minimum Stagger Distance for Right/Left Staggered Intersection

Stagger Distance (m) Stagger Distance (m)
Design Speed (kph)
Ghost Island Left-turns Channelized Left-turns
50 70 (10+50+10) Not applicable
60 95 (10+75+10) Not applicable
70 120 (10+100+10) Not applicable
80 150 (10+130+10) 150 (10+130+10)
100 220 (10+200+10) 220 (10+200+10)
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2.2.5.3 Safety Effects of Staggered T-Intersections

Staggered T-intersections have a superior safety performance to crossroads when
minor road traffic is greater than 15 percent relative to total entering traffic.
Figure 2.9 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersection with Ghost Island Left
Turn Lane
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Figure 2.10 Left/Right and Right/Left Staggered Intersections with Left-Turn Lanes
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2.2.6 Skew or Y-Intersections

Skew intersections are created when a minor road joins a major road at an angle of
70 degrees or less, this is also sometimes referred to as a Y-intersection. Skew
intersections may be left or right handed.
The acute angle of minor road approach creates particular difficulties for vehicle
turning movements and poor conditions for minor road driver visibility. Large vehicles
in particular will require an extensive area of road surface to accommodate their swept
path and starting on an acute turn will also increase the time taken to clear the
intersection.
By channelizing the minor road with islands and road markings, the approach can be
improved on safety grounds by increasing the intersection angle to 90 degrees and
controlling the conflict points.
Skew intersections could occur in a variety of combinations including simple, ghost

island and channelized left-turn lanes for the major road turning traffic. Refer to
Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12 for typical left skew and right skew intersections.
Figure 2.11 Priority Left-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes
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Figure 2.12 Priority Right-Skew T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes
2.3 Priority Intersections for Multi-Lane Arterials and

Collector Roads
Design and operation of priority intersections on divided roads is significantly different
from two-lane, un-divided roads. The additional risks associated with greater traffic
volumes and width of exposure to conflicts are such that higher risk left-turn
movements are prohibited at multi-lane priority intersections. The prohibition of left-
turn movements is established by the continuation of a raised median.
The prohibition of left turns into and out of the minor road has implications on local
access, circulation, and street network function. Where multi-lane priority intersections
exist, there must be suitable proximate locations for the prohibited movements to
occur. U-turns can be made at signalized intersections, and roundabouts.
When designing a road network of intersections, the traffic demand effects of such
restrictions should be understood and accounted for in the sizing, design, and operation
of proximate intersections.
2.3.1 Priority Intersection with Two-Lane Minor Road

Figure 2.13 shows a typical multi-lane priority intersection commonly known as RIRO.
Major or minor priority intersections without signalization are only permitted where
the left-turn maneuver to and from the minor road is prevented by the median, and a
RIRO configuration is used. The operation of the right-turning movements will typically
yield, except in cases where the presence of pedestrians along the major road sidewalk
is sufficient to warrant a signalized stop for minor road traffic.
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Figure 2.13 Priority T-Intersection on Multi-Lane Roadway with Median

Separation
Right-turning traffic to the minor road is generally provided with a deceleration

auxiliary lane to separate the decelerating traffic from the higher speed through traffic.
Similarly, an acceleration auxiliary lane is generally provided for right-turning traffic
entering the priority roadway.
These auxiliary or acceleration and deceleration lanes to and from the minor road are
based on the design speed of the major roadway. Chapter 5 contains advice on those
requirements.
2.3.2 Priority Intersections between Two Multi-Lane Roads

In some cases, a multi-lane road may begin or terminate at a multi-lane major road,
with the intersection being unsignalized. This special case of a priority intersection
between two multi-lane roads is illustrated on Figure 2.14.
Multi-lane roads are generally associated with design year average daily traffic (ADT) of
15,000 vpd or more. Turning movements to/from the minor road will thus be higher
volume. Consequently, the right turn from the major approach forming the diverge leg
of the minor road shall be designed with an auxiliary lane that is dropped at the right
turn.
2.3.2.1 Minor Road Approach

The terminating approach to the intersection shall be merged into one lane of traffic
on the approach to the intersection. As major road traffic is not stopped, this right turn
shall be designed as an additional lane wherever possible to maximize discharge
capacity. Note that the ability to develop an additional lane and the capacity of this
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right turn will be greatly influenced by a proximate downstream intersection. In ideal

settings, right-turning traffic will have 400 m or more to merge and change lanes as
necessary.
Figure 2.14 shows the taper and geometry of the terminating two-lane section merging
to one lane. The preferred approach is to merge the left lane to the right lane, given
that most traffic will be in the right lane, and the merging maneuver is consistent with
the next maneuver, the right turn.
Upstream of the priority intersection, drivers may expect that they will be able to make
a left turn at the next intersection, given they are on what appears to be a major road
(multi-lane). If a convenient U-turn movement, such as illustrated in Figure 2.15, cannot
be provided, it is important to communicate the turn restriction through signing well
upstream of the intersection, ideally directing drivers to where they can go to make the
desired maneuver.
Figure 2.14 Priority Intersection between Two Multi-Lane Roads
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Figure 2.15 Minor Road Approach Reduced through U-Turn Facility

(Urban Use Only)
2.3.2.2 Diverge Approach from Major Road

The major road right-turning roadway forms the beginning of the multi-lane minor
roadway departing the intersection. The diverge should include a deceleration auxiliary
lane, given the expectation of substantial traffic volume, but the turning roadway
should be designed for only one lane of right-turning traffic. Development of the second
lane can occur at a convenient location, considering driveways and other intersections,
downstream of the turning roadway.
During periods of high traffic volume, some queue building on the right turn may be
expected. The capacity of a right-turn from an auxiliary lane under ideal conditions will
be approximately 1,000 vph.
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2.3.3 Unsignalized Median U-Turns

In exceptional cases, a system analysis of access and circulation traffic may result in the
need to consider midblock unsignalized median U-turns, as shown in Figure 2.16. The
reasons for such a solution may include any of the following:
• A downstream signalized intersection is considered too far away, increasing out-of-

direction travel for the left-turning traffic.
• Left-turning demand translated to the next downstream signalized intersection
may require so much additional time for the left-turn/U-turn phase such that the
overall LOS of the intersection is significantly degraded.
• Particular critical land uses or activities are present, requiring more direct access
than through downstream U-turns.
The presence of the U-turn movement as the way to make a left turn shall be signed on
the minor road approach to the intersection. Junction approach sight distance shall be
provided on the major road approach to the location of the U-turn opening from which
traffic will enter the major road. The U-turn movement shall be 130 to 200 m
downstream of the intersection.
The Overseeing Organization may choose to implement a median U-turn, given

site-specific needs and conditions.
The geometric design of U-turns is covered in Section 5.7.
Figure 2.16 Unsignalized Median U-Turn
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2.4 Accommodating Pedestrians at Multi-Lane Priority

Intersections
In many locations, such as boulevards, there may be a significant and continual
presence of pedestrians. Provision for safe pedestrian mobility crossing intersections
will be important. As a minimum, well-marked pedestrian crossings with drop curbs
should be provided. Where pedestrians are present through much of the day, it may
be appropriate to implement the following:
• Pedestrian-actuated signalization, with signal control for both lanes of right-turning

vehicles
• Pedestrian crossing pavement markings, as defined in the latest edition of the
Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM) for pedestrian crossing points.
In low speed locations, these may be combined with raised tables to provide a level
crossing for pedestrians and encourage traffic to approach slowly.
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3 Design Procedure for Priority

Intersections
The overall aim in designing a priority intersection shall be to provide drivers with
layouts that have consistent standards and are not likely to confuse them. Wherever
practical, the layout shall be designed to follow the traffic pattern with the principal
movements being the easiest paths. This improves the smoothness of operation and
makes the traffic pattern more readily understood by drivers. Unduly sharp radii or
complex paths involving several changes in direction shall be avoided.
Design dimensions, details, and guidance in this part should be sufficient for the
detailed design of most priority intersections. Every intersection is unique with respect
to the local context (e.g., terrain, location, adjacent land uses, and right-of-way
availability) and the volume and pattern of design-year traffic. The design controls
described in this part require development of design-year traffic to a level of detail
sufficient to characterize individual turning-movement demands. Some dimensions are
based directly on vehicular demands and, as such, one single design value cannot be
published.
The design speed of the roadway, design level of service (LOS) of the priority
intersection, and the selected design vehicles must also be considered during
intersection design. Since these factors often vary, a tailored intersection design is
required.
The final intersection layout shall be looked on as a whole. It is important that on

entering an intersection, drivers should be able to see and understand, both from the
layout and advanced traffic signage, the path they should follow and the likely actions
of crossing, merging, and diverging vehicles.
The designer shall aim to achieve the best balance between the separate design
components to produce an overall intersection that works safely and efficiently. The
final assessment of the design of a priority intersection can only be carried out when
looking at the intersection both as a whole and in the context of those links and
adjacent intersections along the route. The designer shall consider the design from all
the potential road users’ point-of-view and trace through the possible movements. In
particular, the demands placed on the driver shall be considered, keeping in mind what
preceded arrival at the intersection and what will follow. It is particularly important to
determine what will be visible to the driver as they approach the intersection.
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3.1 Priority Intersection Design Procedure

In selecting the appropriate form of intersection, designers shall refer to Part 2,
Planning, relating to the permitted form of intersection on each route classification.
The flow chart in Figure 3.1 shows the design process for major and minor priority
intersections in a series of interrelated design steps.
The most appropriate type of major or minor priority intersection can be chosen from
those described in this part. The decision should be based on a wide range of factors,
taking into account design-year traffic, including the nature and proportions of large-
goods and passenger-carrying vehicles, their geometry, and an initial estimate of entry
and turning-stream capacities. The designer should also consider the particular site
characteristics, such as development and topography.
The next step is to determine the key geometric parameters design controls, for
example, design speed, vehicles, and LOS. Relevant safety issues, such as traffic control
and sight lines, should be considered. The designer should take account of road users’
specific requirements and incorporation of the preliminary landscape design within the
intersection.
Having established the various components of the intersection design, the designer
should size the intersection or verify that the capacity of the intersection will provide
the desired LOS for design traffic. This may include evaluation of multiple times for
intersections with highly variable total volumes or patterns of turning traffic.
In the concept-level design, designers should verify that alignment and channelization
details are appropriate; curbs, edge elevations, and slopes will provide for drainage;
and traffic control devices can be located where necessary to meet the requirements
of the latest edition of the QTCM. Before proceeding to final design, a drivability check
should then be performed to assess first the assembly of the components of the
intersection design. This should include a visual assessment of the intersection on all
approaches from the driver’s view. Secondly, the intersection should be considered
within the context of its adjacent links and adjacent intersections on the route. As a
whole, the layout should suit the traffic pattern, with the principal movements
following readily drivable vehicular paths.
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Figure 3.1 Flowchart Outlining Design Procedure
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3.2 Choice of Simple, Ghost or Channelized Left-Turn Priority

Intersection
For two-lane urban roads, Figure 3.2 provides guidance on the various levels of
T-intersection that may be applicable for different combinations of entry and turning
traffic flows and different roadway geometry and traffic delays.
However, other factors, particularly in relation to route classification and design speed,
also need to be considered before a final decision is made.
There are three types of priority T-intersection applicable in Qatar:
• Simple
• Ghost island
• Physical islands with channelized left turn from the major road
Simple T-intersections apply where the intersection serves a small development or

subdivision with little traffic generation such that the minor road flow does not exceed
300 vehicles per day (vpd) and the major road flow does not exceed 13,000 vpd.
As both major and minor road traffic increases, providing space for major road
left-turning traffic off the through lane becomes more important. A left-turning facility
such as a ghost island should be considered where the minor road flow exceeds
500 vpd. Ghost islands shall not be installed where major road flows exceed 18,000 vpd,
because it will force minor road left-turning traffic to make the turn in two movements.
At this point wide physical divisional islands will be required to provide protection for
minor road left-turning traffic to make the maneuver in two stages.
T-intersections with physical divisional islands and major road channelized left turns
are appropriate for major road traffic volumes up to 15,000 vpd and minor road traffic
of less than 5,000 vpd.
For situations in which the minor road is a multi-lane road, other alternative
intersection concepts may be more appropriate than a priority intersection.
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Source Design Manual for Roads and Bridges UK TD 42/95
Figure 3.2 Approximate Level of Priority Intersection Provision for Varying Traffic
Flows in Urban Conditions
3.2.1 Guidelines for the Operational Viability of Priority T-Intersections

The capacity of simple T-intersections can be influenced by the presence of upstream
and downstream intersections, including signal-controlled intersections that can alter
the typical traffic pattern of random arrivals at the simple intersection. For major-road
traffic from 12,000 to 15,000 vpd, mainline gaps for turning traffic are fewer during
peak periods, resulting in longer delays for minor-road traffic and the potential for left
turn from the major road to also create delays and rear-end conflicts.
The operational acceptability of a priority intersection is based on two considerations:
1. The ability of left-turning traffic from the major road to do so in a manner that does
not create conflicts with the major road opposing through traffic
2. The ability of traffic from the minor road to select gaps from a stopped position and
enter the major road, accelerating into traffic safely.
Research on gap acceptance behavior at stop-controlled intersections shows that time

gaps of 7.5 seconds are sufficient for most passenger car drivers to make a left turn
from a minor, stopped condition onto the priority road. Drivers of single-unit trucks
were observed to accept longer time gaps of 9.5 seconds.
The Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) (2010) includes
methods for estimating the LOS of stop- or signal-controlled T-intersections. LOS
analysis of unsignalized intersections is based on the priority of those movements that
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are controlled or should yield to higher-priority movements. The two most critical
movements evaluated are the left turn from the major road (which must yield to
oncoming traffic in the opposing direction) and left turns from the minor road (which
must yield to major road through traffic in both directions and to left turns from the
major road). LOS is based on estimated time delays to these movements. Figure 3.3
summarizes the effect of traffic on both roadways for a typical simple intersection.
Figure 3.3 Level of Service by Delays to the Minor Road Left-Turning Traffic
The HCM methodology assumes the intersection is isolated and arrivals on approaches
are random. The assumed conditions are tangent mainline and approaches, 90-degree
angle of intersection, and unlimited sight distance.
Figure 3.3 provides general, planning-level information to help evaluate the operational
acceptability of T-type priority intersections based on the delay and LOS to minor road
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traffic and left-turning traffic from the major road. The values are based on two
assumptions for turning traffic from the major road:
1. The top table is for a lower volume of turning traffic, 10 percent of approach
volume.
2. The bottom table is for a higher volume of turning traffic, 30 percent of approach
volume.
Both tables assume a 50/50 distribution of turning traffic from the minor road. Use of
the table is demonstrated as follows:
For major road approach design hour volume of 500 vehicles per hour (vph; one
direction of travel) and minor road approach volume of 200 vph LOS of the minor
road left turn Vml would be:
• LOS D for the case in which major road left turns, VML are small (10 percent) per
the top table
• LOS E for the case in which major road left turns, VML are greater (30 percent) per
the bottom table
In both cases, the LOS for the left turn from the major road, VML is LOS A.
Note that the LOS is highly sensitive to both major road and minor road traffic volumes.
As major road approach volumes increase beyond 500 vph in one direction, the number
of gaps for minor road left turns decreases such that even relatively low approach
volumes of 50 to 100 vph would encounter long delays and LOS E to F. Note also that
major road left-turning traffic can operate reasonably (LOS B) under even high volume
conditions.
The approach hourly volumes in Figure 3.3 will typically be approximately 5 to 6 percent
of average daily traffic (ADT). For example, a one-way design year approach volume of
600 vph may be consistent with a design year volume of 8,300 to 12,000 ADT. The
typical practical capacity of a two-lane road is approximately 15,000 to 18,000 vpd.
Figure 3.3 can be referenced with interpolation to gain an understanding of the

operation of the proposed intersection, but best practices in documenting a design
decision are to conduct a location-specific analysis using the HCM or a similar method
and design-year traffic. Judgment is also necessary to account for potential effects of
proximate intersections or major private accesses and driveways on the pattern of
arrivals and flow through the intersection.
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3.3 Reconstruction of Priority Intersections

When design-year traffic increases such that left turns off the priority road become
more difficult and delays increase, upgrading the design to provide a left-turn lane from
the major road shall be considered. Operation may be acceptable through much of the
day, but during peak traffic periods, LOS E or F may occur, which may not be acceptable.
Delays can be measured and crash histories can be reviewed to determine the need for
adding a left-turn lane.
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4 Design Controls for Priority

Intersections
4.1 Design Speed
Geometric standards for intersections are related to the traffic speed of the major road.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, to determine the appropriate design speed.
4.2 Design Vehicles

The design vehicle selected for design of a priority intersection will affect both the
radius of turns and the entry width. Selection of an appropriate design vehicle is a
choice by the designer and shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. It shall
reflect a balance between providing for the largest vehicles that may use the
intersection and shall consider the costs, right-of-way, crossing distance for
pedestrians, entry and exit speeds of vehicles on the minor road, and how drivers may
perceive and drive through the intersection.
The design of every intersection shall enable entry or use by emergency vehicles. In
addition, some form of heavy vehicle or truck will use the intersection, even if only
infrequently, for deliveries and servicing the surrounding properties. In residential
areas, a school bus may use the intersection. For a minor road serving an industrial
area, the largest truck, which may be a semitrailer, would be an appropriate design
vehicle.
Table 4.1 shows guidance for selection of the appropriate design vehicle for use in
developing the intersection geometry. Designers shall use design software that
replicates the swept-paths of the design vehicles.
Where lanes are greater than 50 m long, an additional light vehicle passing a stranded
design vehicle shall be considered within the lane geometry.
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Table 4.1 Guidance for Selection of Design Vehicles at Intersections
Design Condition Roadway Type Design Vehiclea
Parking lot entry/exit Local road, collector road Passenger car
Local road intersection Urban local road, collector road Single-unit truck or bus
(unsignalized)
Local road entry/exit Rural arterial (priority) Single-unit truck or bus
Collector road entry/exit Rural arterial (priority) Single-unit truck or bus
Signalized intersection Minor or major arterials WB-20, single-unit truckb
Two-lane roundabout Minor or major arterials WB-20, single-unit truck
Signalized intersection or Freeway or expressway WB-20

roundabout interchange ramp terminal
U-turn movement Signalized intersection Passenger car or single-unit truck

or bus
Notes:
a Emergency vehicles shall be able to access all conditions.
b More than one design vehicle may be used if patterns and types of traffic vary by approach leg.
WB = wheelbase
Geometric parameters for use in the design of a priority intersection allow for a 16.5 m
long articulated vehicle. This type of vehicle has a greater turning width than most other
vehicles that are likely to use these intersections regularly. If the major or minor priority
intersection being designed is in an area where there is likely to be regular use by large
vehicles, the designer shall complete the design to allow for these vehicles.
The composition and turning movements of traffic will influence the geometric layout
adopted. For example, a high proportion of heavy trucks will dictate the minimum lane
width and corner radii to be adopted at the intersection. A high proportion of turning
traffic may require the provision of a segregated or dedicated turning lane at the
intersection to provide adequate traffic capacity.
Allowance shall be made for the swept turning paths of long vehicles where they can
reasonably be expected to use an intersection. Consideration shall be given to the
maneuvering characteristics of these vehicles in the design of staggered intersections.
Where buses or other long rigid vehicles constitute a significant part of traffic during a
typical day, then corner radii and lane widths shall be increased to facilitate their swept
width requirements.
In urban situations, where the major road design speed is 80 kph or less and the
proportion of heavy trucks is low, the intersection may be designed for a single unit or
smaller truck, resulting in occasional encroachment onto opposing lanes for the
infrequent larger vehicles. In such cases, increasing the offset of signs, lights, or other
roadside furniture shall be considered as a prudent measure against errors, should a
larger vehicle encroach on the curb.
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Part 2, Planning, contains further information on the characteristics of design vehicles.
4.3 Design Level of Service

The analysis of capacity and LOS is one of the most important considerations in the
design of intersections. The capacity or traffic-carrying capability of the urban road
network largely depends on the capacity of its intersections.
4.3.1 Level of Service Definitions for Priority Intersections

In new road and intersection design, a selected LOS forms the basis for sizing the
roadway and its elements. For priority intersections, the LOS is based on delays to
drivers along the minor or yield/stopped intersection approaches. With stop-controlled
intersections, the main road traffic undergoes no delay. LOS refers to the ability of
minor road traffic to find gaps and turn onto the major road. Table 4.2 summarizes the
definition of LOS for unsignalized, two-way, stop-controlled intersections replicating
the critical operation of priority intersections.
Table 4.2 Level of Service Criteria for Two-Way, Stop-Controlled Intersections
Control Delay (seconds/vehicle) Level of Service by Volume-to-Capacity Ratio
0–10 A
>10–15 B
>15–25 C
>25–35 D
>35–50 E
>50 F
Source: Transportation Research Board. HCM. Exhibit 19-1. 2010.
Each location is unique. Traffic often is not random but is affected by upstream
conditions along both major approaches. Indeed, one potential solution to improve the
operation of a priority intersection is to adjust signal timing of an adjacent signalized
intersection to create time gaps for traffic.
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4.3.2 Level of Service Analysis and Intersection Type Selection

Part 2, Planning, summarizes the LOS for roadway design that are the basis for planning
and design decisions. LOS is not among the 16 criteria subject to the Departure from
Standards process. Although the selection of an appropriate LOS should follow the
guidance in Part 2, Planning, the definition of LOS is different for each facility type and
set of conditions. With respect to priority intersections, the following applies:
• The majority of traffic through the priority intersection is either free flowing, for
example, major road through traffic, or marginally delayed very little, such as,
minor road right-turning traffic and major road left-turning traffic. Such operations
are the intent of the principle behind a priority intersection.
• A LOS less than that specified for the condition (e.g., LOS D versus C) in the case of
priority intersections means that the critical left-turning traffic from the minor road
may undergo 10 more seconds of delay (e.g., 25 to 35 seconds of delay rather than
15 to 25 seconds of delay), as shown in Table 4.2.
• LOS analysis for design purposes is performed for the critical design-hour traffic
(typically workday peak hours). Operation of unsignalized intersections during
off-peak conditions will typically be much better than during the peak hours.
• Strict adherence to the LOS guidance may, in the case of priority intersections, lead
to selection of a more costly solution, when LOS D or even LOS E during short time
periods may be acceptable.
• HCM analysis methodologies include many assumptions. Decisions on the type of
intersection should, to the extent possible, include understanding of site-specific
conditions that may affect the actual operation of the intersection.
• Predicted or expected safety performance may represent a more significant factor
in the design decision making process.
4.4 Locating Priority Intersections

The intent of priority intersections is to allow for local access and turning movements
to occur safely to or from a major road with minimal impact to traffic flow on the major
road. In siting such intersections, the designer shall balance the many physical controls
and constraints with traffic operational and design requirements.
Locating the intersection itself will generally be associated with siting the minor
roadway. For roads on new alignment, locating the new road itself will often be based
on following property lines and avoiding adverse impacts to existing developed land
uses.
In locating priority intersections, alignment and geometry that provide clear lines of
sight for drivers on the minor road approaches are the most important considerations.
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4.4.1 Major Road Alignment

Ideally, major and minor priority intersections shall be sited on major road tangents.
Research into human factors demonstrates that drivers misjudge the speed and time
gap of oncoming traffic approaching on a curve. In addition, the turning maneuver and
acceleration itself is more difficult and time-consuming on a curve.
For cases in which a major or minor priority intersection on a curve is unavoidable, the
preferred alignment is for T-intersections to be sited with the minor road on the outside
of the curve, and within a 20-degree skew angle from a right angle to the major road.
This is especially important for intersections in which multiple lanes are approaching
on the major road. In such cases, this provides for clear sight lines to both major road
traffic streams from the minor road traffic.
On two-lane rural highways, passing or overtaking shall be prohibited on the

approaches to and through the priority intersections.
4.4.2 Minor Road Alignment

Intersecting roads shall generally meet at or nearly at right angles. Roads intersecting
at acute angles require extensive turning roadway areas. In addition, drivers have
limited peripheral vision, and acute angles can make the perception of crossing traffic
difficult. Research has shown that older drivers have limited ability to turn their heads
and hence have difficulties with acute-angled intersections. Truck turning maneuvers
can also be difficult, because when a large vehicle turns through an obtuse angle, the
driver has areas of poor visibility on the right side of the vehicle. In addition, acute-
angled intersections increase the exposure time for the vehicles crossing the main
traffic flow.
Skewed intersections, ones in which the angle of intersection is significantly different

from 90 degrees, present special design challenges. To the extent possible, these
should be avoided. However, context constraints may require a designer to accept
some skew. Table 4.3 shows the potential additional crash risk for priority
T-intersections designed on skews.
Table 4.3 Effect of Intersection Skew Angle on Crash Frequency at Unsignalized

Intersections
Angle of Skew Crash Modification Factor

Crash Types
(degrees)a 3-Leg 4-Leg
10 Fatal plus injury 1.2 1.4
aAngle of skew is measured from 90 crossing (0 degrees of skew).
CMF expresses the effect of the angle of skew compared with a base condition, which is 90 degrees
(0 degrees of skew). For example, a crash modification factor of 1.4 means that the intersection is
expected to have a crash frequency of 1.4 times, or 40 percent, more than the base condition
Source: HSM, Volume 2, Chapter 10 (AASHTO, 2010)
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Figure 4.1 illustrates a skewed priority T-intersection with major road left-turn
channelization. Either a left- or right-hand skew may be designed.
In designing the intersection, designers should strive to bring the minor road approach
to as close to 90 degrees as possible right at the intersection. Where a skew is
unavoidable, designers should incorporate left-turn channelization regardless of the
approach traffic volumes in order to provide clarity of the intersection arrangement to
drivers through channelization of the vehicle flows.
The design favors the left-turn movement from the major road over the right turn from
the major road in the opposing direction. For cases in which the left-turn volume from
the major road is significant, the use of an auxiliary deceleration lane for the
right-turning movement should be considered to provide room for queued right turns
to yield outside of the through traffic lane. This is illustrated on Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.1 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes
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Figure 4.2 Priority Skewed T-Intersection with Major Road Left-Turn Lanes and
Auxiliary Lane for Major Road Right Turns
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4.4.3 Skewed Crossroads

Designers should avoid crossroads intersections with skew angles greater than
5 degrees (i.e., the intersecting angle should be from 85 to 95 degrees). The effect of
skew on crash frequency is even greater for crossroads intersections than for
T-intersections, as shown in Table 4.3. Even a 10-degree skew may produce a 4 percent
increase in crash risk.
Designers working on reconstruction projects in which skewed crossroads exist have a

range of design options to address the skew, as shown on Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Design Solutions for Skewed Crossroads
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4.4.4 Y-Intersections
Designers should avoid Y-intersection alignments. Two design options for
Y-intersections, shown on Figure 4.4, may be appropriate. Option A is suitable for cases
in which the roadway on tangent is the major road. Option B is suitable for cases in
which the roadway on horizontal curve is the major road.
Figure 4.4 Design Solutions for Y-Intersections
Y-intersections can create additional visibility problems where the intersection is

hidden by a crest curve; Figure 4.5 illustrates this. In the top part of Figure 4.5, drivers
unfamiliar with the horizontal curve may be misled by the roadway following the
tangent, particularly at night or in other poor light conditions. In addition, drivers
approaching on the curve in the other direction will have difficulty seeing traffic
approaching on the other roadway.
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A Y-intersection
hidden by a
crest may
surprise the
driver.
Source: Federal Highway Administration, 2007.
Figure 4.5 Y-Intersection Hidden by Crest Curve
4.5 Vertical Alignment

The best locations for intersections are on level ground or where the grade of the major
road approach is 2 percent or less. Downhill approaches on the major road exceeding
3 percent, particularly on high-speed roads, may produce traffic speeds above those
desirable through the intersection and create the potential for drivers on the minor
road to misjudge the gap between vehicles. Steep uphill approach grades are also
undesirable, particularly at the minor road approach. Such grades increase the time and
distance to accelerate from a stopped position to the mainline speed.
Minor road approach grades shall be minimized to the extent possible near the
intersection. Design of a relatively flat platform or zone of 15 to 20 m, or for at least
one passenger car at the yield line is desirable. This may be reduced to 10 m in
residential areas. Approach gradients within this zone should be limited to a maximum
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of 3 percent. Grades exceeding 3 percent within this zone (L) shall be considered as
Departures from Standards. Figure 4.6 illustrates the minor road approach.
The most important considerations regarding grade are the provision of full corner sight
distance and the development of the profile, cross slope, and edge of pavement
elevations to enable appropriate drainage of the intersection approach.
Figure 4.6 Minor Road Approach Gradient
4.6 Spacing of Intersections

Intersection spacing is influenced by the land use environment and by a road’s
functional classification within the road hierarchy. The number of intersections and
their spacing represents a balance between providing sufficient direct access to
adjacent properties and areas, meeting the needs of the local road network, and the
desire to minimize potential points of conflict or sources of delay for major road traffic.
Should the number and importance of existing cross routes necessitate multiple, closely
spaced intersections, consideration shall be given to combining roads before they meet
the main road to mitigate close intersection spacing.
Intersections ideally operate independently of each other. The minimum spacing

between adjacent intersections for the various road classifications should be in
accordance with the values provided in Part 2, Planning Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
4.7 Visibility
Clear visibility on the approach to, at, and traveling through an intersection is essential
for the safe and efficient use of that intersection. In determining the correct visibility
requirements for an intersection, the designer must consider both the layout of the
intersection and the vehicles that will use it.
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The visibility and intervisibility requirements provided in this section are related to the
design speed of the major road; little benefit is to be gained by increasing the
requirements. However, each intersection must be considered on a site-specific basis,
with an assessment made of additional visibility to be provided due to factors such as:
• Width of major road to be crossed

• Traffic control on the minor approach road
• Turning movements to be made at the intersection
• Gradient of the approaches and departures
• Types of vehicle that will be using the intersection, e.g., large, slow-speed vehicles
require additional visibility
As well as having adverse safety implications, poor visibility reduces the capacity of
turning movements.
Drivers approaching a major or minor intersection from the major road or the minor
road shall have unobstructed visibility in accordance with the following clauses.
The envelope of visibility for driver's eye height is described in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements.
Major Road
Drivers approaching a major or minor intersection along the major road approaches
shall be able to see the minor road entry from a distance corresponding to 1.5 times
the stopping sight distance (SSD) for the design speed of the major road, as described
in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. This intervisibility allows drivers on the major road
to be aware of traffic entering from the minor road in time for them to slow down and
stop safely if necessary. The concept of adequate visibility to make safe turning
movements also applies to vehicles turning left into the minor road from the major
road.
Minor Road
Minor road traffic has to approach the intersection and join or cross the major road
when there are gaps in the major road traffic streams. It is, therefore, essential that
minor road drivers have adequate visibility in each direction to see the intersection
layout and oncoming major road traffic in sufficient time to make their maneuvers
safely.
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The principle of providing the required visibility for drivers approaching the intersection
from the minor road has three distinct features; refer to Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8:
1. W: Approaching drivers should have unobstructed visibility of the intersection

from a distance corresponding to the SSD for the design speed of the minor road.
This allows drivers time to slow down safely at the intersection, or stop, if
necessary. Where a yield or stop sign is proposed, the visibility envelope shall be
widened to include the sign.
2. Z: A driver approaching the intersection should be able to see the intersection form
and peripheral elements of the intersection layout. This provides the driver with
an idea of the possible movements and conflicts, and possible required action
before reaching the major road. This point is the Z point; it is 15 m back along the
centerline of the minor road measured from the continuation of the line of the
nearside edge of the running roadway of the major road, but not from the
continuation of the back of the major road hardstrip, if this is present.
3. X, Y: The distance back along the minor road from which full visibility is measured
is the X distance. It is measured back along the centerline of the minor road from
the continuation of the line of the nearside edge of the running lane of the major
road. The preferred X distance is 10 m.
From this point, an approaching driver shall be able to see clearly points to the left and
right on the nearer edge of the major roadway at a distance given in Table 4.4,
measured from its intersection with the centerline of the minor road. This is the Y
distance. Any distance less than those in Table 4.4 are a Departure from Standards.
If the line of vision is partially within the major road, it shall be made tangential to the
nearer edge of the major road running lane, as shown in Figure 4.8.
In difficult circumstances, where major road design speeds are less than 80 kph, the X
distance may be reduced from 10 to 7.5 m for lightly trafficked simple intersections,
and, in exceptionally difficult circumstances, to 5.0 m back from the nearer edge of the
major road running lane. In some urban locations where only light vehicles are involved,
the X distance can be further reduced to 2.5 m.
The X distance, from which full Y distance visibility is provided, should preferably be not
more than 10 m, because this induces high minor road approach speeds into the
intersection and leads to excessive land take.
Similarly, although the Y distance should always be provided, there is little advantage
in increasing it, because this too can induce high approach speeds and take the
attention of the minor road driver away from the immediate intersection conditions.
Increased visibility should not be provided to increase the capacities of various turning
movements.
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Figure 4.7 Visibility Criteria at Priority Intersections
Figure 4.8 Visibility Criteria with a Curved Major Road
These visibility standards apply to new intersections and to improvements to existing

intersections.
If the major road is one way, a single visibility splay in the direction of approaching
traffic will suffice. If the minor road serves as a one-way exit from the major road, no
visibility splays will be required if forward visibility for turning vehicles is adequate.
Vehicles parked within splay lines can obstruct visibility. Parking and access should be
designed to prevent this. Care should also be taken in the placing of signs, landscaping,
and street furniture within the visibility splay areas so that their obstructive effect is
minimized.
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Table 4.4 Minimum X and Y Visibility Distances from the Minor Road
Design Speed of Major Road (kph) Y Distance (m) Minimum X Distance (m)
120 295 10
100 215 10
80 160 10
70 120 7.5*
60 90 7.5*
50 70 5.0*
<50 50 2.5*
Note: In all cases the preferred X distance is 10 m. The minimum X distances given shall only be used in
difficult circumstances, in accordance with Section 4.7.
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5 Geometric Design Details for

Priority Intersections
The geometric design of priority intersections includes corner radii, widths of roadways,
taper and auxiliary lane dimensions, medians and median openings, and traffic islands.
Appropriate dimensions vary by context and functional needs of the intersection.
The geometric parameters used here allow for use by a 16.5 m long articulated vehicle,
refer to Section 4.2, Design Vehicles.
5.1 Corner Radii

Design of intersection corners should accommodate the paths of the largest vehicles
that would typically use the intersection. The ease of turn, desired speeds, and
placement of the vehicle through the turn will vary based on the functional class of the
roadways and other context features.
Corners may be designed with simple radii, compound curves (either two-centered or
three-centered), or simple radii offset from the through edges of pavement with short
tangent tapers. The latter solutions, compound curves and simple radii with tangent
offsets, efficiently fit the swept paths of the larger-design vehicles.
5.1.1 T-Intersection Corner Radii

For simple T-intersections without merge or diverge auxiliary lanes and where no
provision is to be made for larger trucks or buses, the minimum circular corner radius
shall generally be 6 m in urban areas and 10 m in rural areas. These minimum radii are
appropriate on urban local roads and service roads where pedestrian mobility and
safety is a priority.
Where provision is to be made for large trucks or buses, the corner radii shall be
designed with larger circular corner radii and a short swept path taper. Figure 5.1 shows
circular corner radii incorporating tapers. Note that the tapers are placed on the
departure end of the corner radius. The recommended combination of corner radii and
taper are shown in Table 5.1.
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Figure 5.1 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Tapers
Table 5.1 Circular Corner Radii

Taper Rate Length of Taper (m) Corner Radius (m)
Intersection Type
T L R
Urban Simple
1:5 30 10
Intersection
Rural Simple
1:10 25 15
Intersection
Staggered Intersection 1:8 32 15
All Other Not applicable Not applicable 20
Where large trucks comprise a significant portion of the turning movements,

compound circular curves shown in Figure 5.2 shall be used together with a minor road
channelizing island.
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Figure 5.2 Circular Corner Radii Incorporating Compound Curve
The design of an intersection shall be checked to ensure the design vehicle swept path
remains within the curb faces using appropriate vehicle swept path software. The
vehicle wheel tracks shall be a minimum of 500 mm from the face of curbs and vehicle
overhangs shall remain within the roadway except in exceptional cases that shall be
approved by the overseeing authority. In these instances, the designer shall ensure that
signage and street furniture is located outside the vehicle swept path overhangs.
Where right-turning acceleration facilities are not provided, the angle of incidence
between the mainline edge of pavement and the line of the vehicle entering shall not
be less than 70 degrees when positioned at the yield or stop line. This will enable drivers
entering the mainline roadway to look both ways without relying on mirrors for
mainline visibility. The angle of incidence in this situation is to be controlled by
channelizing islands; refer to Figure 5.10.
5.1.2 Corner Radii for Channelized Right Turns

Where right-turn auxiliary lanes are introduced on the major road, channelized right
turns are used at the end of the auxiliary lane. The right-turn curve radius into the minor
road shall be at least 20 m where the major road design speed is 80 kph or lower. At
higher design speeds, the minimum radius shall be 40 m. The minimum lane width
around this corner will depend on the curve radius selected with reference to Table 5.2.
The merging nose and lane from the minor road shall be introduced to the major road
through a separate turning roadway, with a minimum radius of 25 m where the major
road design speed is 80 kph or lower. At higher speeds the minimum radius shall be
30 m. Figure 5.3 illustrates the layout of a channelized right-turn.
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Figure 5.3 Typical Layout of Channelized Right Turn
5.2 Roadway Widths

5.2.1 Through-Lane Widths
The lane widths to be provided through priority intersections are dependent on the
intersection type, as follows:
• At simple intersections and ghost island intersections, the lane width through the
intersection shall be the same as in advance of the intersection.
• Where left-turn channelization with physical islands is included, the through lane
in each direction shall be 4 m wide, excluding shoulders or offsets to the edges of
any physical island, Figure 5.12, dimension - c. Total paved width of through lanes
shall be 6 m to allow traffic to pass a stopped vehicle without leaving the paved
width, illustrated in Figure 2.4.
• At intersections on multi-lane roads, the through-lane widths through the
intersection shall be the same as in advance of the intersection.
5.2.2 Widths of Minor Road Approaches

The width of the minor road approach is dependent on whether a channelizing island
is provided. Where no channelizing island is provided the nominal approach width of
the minor road shall continue up to the tangent point of the corner curve to join the
major road.
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Where a channelizing island is provided in the minor road approach, Figure 5.4 details
the layout of such approaches. Both lanes of the minor road shall be a minimum 4.0 m
wide at the point where the hatched markings surrounding the channelizing island
begin.
At the point where the channelizing island commences the minimum width on either
side shall be as follows:
• On the approach to the major road: 4.0 m wide for a ghost island or 4.5 m wide for
channelized left-turn intersections, exclusive of any shoulder. If the minor road
approach consists of two lanes then the dimension shall be increased to 5.5 m.
• On the exit from the major road: 4.5 m wide for a ghost island or 5.0 m wide for
channelized left-turn intersections, exclusive of any shoulder.
Figure 5.4 Minor Road Approaches
5.2.3 Widths around Corners

Where roadways are taken around short radius corners (R) such as adjacent to
channelizing islands, as shown in Figure 5.3, added width (W) shall be provided to
accomodate the swept area of larger vehicles. Table 5.2 lists the minimum widths of
turning roadways for various inside corner radii based on a 16.5 m design vehicle. On
single-lane sections greater than 50 m long, an allowance shall be made for the passing
of broken-down vehicles, and the minimum physical width provided shall be (WT) as
listed in the third column, “Single-Lane Roadway Width with Room to Pass Stationary
Vehicles.”
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Table 5.2 Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Roadway Widths
Single-Lane Two-Lane Width for One-Way or

Roadway Two-Way Traffic (Excluding Shoulder
Width Single-Lane Roadway Provision) - W (m)
Inside (Excluding Width with Room to
Corner/Curve Shoulder Pass Stationary Vehicles
Radius – R Provision) - W (Including Shoulder
(m) (m) Provision) - WT (m) Left Lane Right Lane Total
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6
Where 16.5 m articulated vehicles are expected, but likely to form only a very small
percentage of the total number of vehicles and where conflicts will not occur on bends,
the roadway widths may be reduced to allow for the lower-class vehicles that will
regularly use the intersection with an additional 1 m allowance for variation in vehicle
position.
5.3 Diverging and Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Auxiliary lanes and tapers at priority intersections provide multiple functions:
• Deceleration from higher-speed major road traffic to make a right or left turn
• Acceleration for the right turn from the minor road yield condition to the
higher-speed major road
• Separation of queued left-turning traffic at priority T-intersections (awaiting a gap
in opposing through traffic)
• Separation of channelized right-turning traffic onto the minor road at priority
T-intersections, yielding to left-turning traffic from the opposing major road
direction of travel
• Separation of queued right-turning traffic from the major road yielding to
pedestrians crossing the intersection
Figure 5.5 shows a typical design of priority T-intersection with an auxiliary lane for right
turning, decelerating and accelerating traffic.
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Figure 5.5 T-Intersection with Channelizing and Right-turn Auxiliary Lanes
5.3.1 Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Auxiliary lanes at right-turn intersections allow the deceleration of vehicles exiting the
mainline and acceleration of vehicles entering the mainline to occur off the main
roadway and, therefore, with less effect on the mainline flow. Figure 5.6 shows a typical
design.
Figure 5.6 Right-Turn Auxiliary Lane on Diverge of Multi-Lane Priority

Intersection
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Traffic is introduced to the right-turn lane by an auxiliary lane. Where an auxiliary lane
is present, the hatched road markings are extended along their current path until the
intersection with the centerline of the minor road.
Where a paved shoulder is provided on the major road, this shall be continued along
the auxiliary lanes but shall not be provided in front of the channelizing island along the
major road edge. A setback clearance to the island shall be provided in accordance with
Clause 5.6.4.
Where successive priority intersections are introduced on multi-lane roads, the

potential for weaving shall be considered.
5.3.1.1 Guidelines for Application of Right-Turn Diverge Auxiliary Lanes

Removing decelerating traffic from high-speed through lanes improves the safety
performance of the intersection. The HSM (AASHTO, 2010) documents an expected
reduction in crash risk for the addition of a right-turn lane on the approach to a 3-leg
unsignalized intersection as follows (the base condition is a 3-leg intersection with no
right-turn lanes):
• Crash modification factor (CMF) of 0.86 for all crash types and severities (14 percent
reduction)
• CMF of 0.77 for all injury crashes (23 percent reduction)
Diverging auxiliary lanes are appropriate for the following conditions in the design year:
• The volume of right-turning traffic is greater than 600 vehicles AADT (one way)
• The percentage of heavy trucks is greater than 20 percent, and the volume of
right-turning traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT (one way)
• The intersection is on an upgrade or downgrade greater than 4 percent, and the
volume of right-turning traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT (one way)
Where the major road traffic flow is greater than 7,000 to 8,000 AADT (one-way), the
figures given in the preceding list for turning traffic may be halved.
Diverging right-turn auxiliary lanes shall be used for roads with the following conditions:
• Rural, multi-lane priority intersections, rural arterials, and collector roads

• Urban multi-lane priority intersections with a priority road design speed of 100 kph
or greater; all functional classes
They may be considered on other roads depending on traffic volumes, available right-
of-way and other factors, for example, priority road T-intersections on two-lane roads
with divisional islands and left-turn lanes
Right-turn auxiliary lanes are typically not provided at simple T-intersections, although
they may be used where traffic volumes and patterns suggest a benefit.
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Diverging auxiliary lane lengths for right turns shall be in accordance with Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Diverge
Minimum Auxiliary Lane

Design Speed (kmh) Length –a (m) Direct Taper Length –b (m)
Rural 50 80 5
80 80 15
100 160 25
120 230 30
140 Not applicablea Not applicable
Urban 50 40 5
60b 50 (40)c 10
70b 65 (40)c 10
80 80 (50)c 15
100 120 (80) 25
120 Not applicablea Not applicable
Notes:
a For auxiliary lanes at interchanges, refer to Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections.
b 60 kph and 70 kph design speeds may occur where a diverging auxiliary lane is required from a
ramp; refer to Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections.

c Figures in parentheses may be applied where intersection spacing is a constraint.
The diverging auxiliary lane length is defined as being from the beginning of the direct
taper to the start of the radius around the corner, as shown as dimension (a) in
Figure 5.6. Therefore, the direct taper length is included within the auxiliary lane length
stated in Table 5.6.
The minimum lengths are based on vehicle deceleration, assuming that 10 percent
occurs on the mainline prior to entering the deceleration facility. In urban situations,
because of the more constrained nature, auxiliary lengths may be reduced further (as
indicated by the number in parentheses in Table 5.3) in situations where intersection
spacing is a constraint.
The deceleration rate on the level is assumed to be 2.5 meters per second per second
(m/s/s). However, the minimum auxiliary lane lengths should not be less than 40 m.
The auxiliary lane should be of sufficient length to allow vehicles to slow to a stop at
the end of the lane. Therefore, any reduction from the lengths indicated in Table 5.3
shall be a Departure from Standards.
The width of the diverging auxiliary lane shall be 3.65 m. For reconstruction, including
widening projects in which right-of-way or other constraints limit the cross section,
right-turn auxiliary lane widths as narrow as 3.4 m may be acceptable. The benefits of
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the auxiliary lane are associated with the lane’s presence and length. There is no
meaningful loss of function associated with a narrowing from 3.65 to 3.4 m. Auxiliary
lane widths less than 3.65 m shall require a Departure from Standards.
Where the intersection accommodates vehicles making a left turn into the minor road,
yield markings shall be provided at the end of the auxiliary diverge lane. These markings
are not required on multi-lane highways or roads at which left turns from the major
road are not provided.
At the end of the auxiliary lane, a curve radius into the minor road of at least 20 m
should be used where the major road design speed is 80 kph or lower. At higher design
speeds, the minimum radius should be 40 m. The minimum lane width around this
corner will depend on the curve radius selected and is defined in Table 5.2.
Where diverging auxiliary lanes are provided, they should include an adjacent shoulder
strip equal to that of the associated major road. However, because right-turn lanes
increase the footprint of the intersection, they increase the cost and may increase the
need for additional right-of-way. Where space is limited and right-of-way is unavailable,
a designer may consider converting some or all of the shoulder to a right-turn lane on
the approach to the intersection, perhaps with only minor additional widening of 1 to
2 m. Although this design would require a Departure from Standards for shoulder
width, it may be demonstrated to have a superior safety and operational performance
compared with the intersection with no right-turn lane.
Right-turn auxiliary lanes at priority intersections will typically not include length for
storage. The right-turning traffic, in most cases, is not stopped through the turn.
For special cases in which pedestrians crossing the priority intersection are prevalent,
designers may provide length for one or two queued vehicles stopped in advance of
the pedestrian crossing. An additional length of 10 to 15 m may be used. In cases of
very high-volume pedestrian activity, the need for a pedestrian signal would produce
queuing and could require additional right-turning lane length.
For cases in which a downstream intersection or other element limits the ability to
achieve the total desirable length of auxiliary lane, designers may foreshorten the
direct taper thus maximizing the length of full lane available for deceleration. Some
deceleration can also be assumed to occur in the through lanes. The minimum length
of right-turn lane should be based on deceleration from a speed no less than 30 kph
below the design speed.
5.3.1.2 Through-Lane Continuity and Right-Turn Lanes

Mainline lanes shall continue through intersections and not be dropped at a right turn.
Where substantial turning volume occurs or where the road is to transition its basic
number of lanes (say, from four lanes to two), a typical diverge right-turn auxiliary lane,
such as shown in Figure 5.6, shall be provided. The reduction in through lanes shall
occur at least 200 m downstream of the intersection.
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5.3.1.3 Diverging Tapers

Although the use of diverging auxiliary lanes is the preferred treatment for right-turn
lanes there may be instances where there is not enough width in the right-of-way to
include an auxiliary lane or a substandard auxiliary lane. In these instances, a diverging
taper shall be used as illustrated in Figure 5.7. The length of diverge taper to be the
same as the equivalent auxiliary lane as shown in Table 5.3, or as long as possible within
the site constraints.
The use of a diverge taper shall be a Departure from Standards.
Figure 5.7 Alternative Taper Diverge
5.3.2 Merging Auxiliary Lanes and Tapers

Merging auxiliary lanes permit minor road traffic to accelerate before joining the faster
traffic streams on the mainline where the joining traffic may otherwise impede flow or
produce a potential rear-end crash. A typical merging auxiliary lane design is shown on
Figure 5.8. A merging auxiliary lane shall not be used at priority intersections on
two-lane roads or where two-lane roads are channelized by divisional islands into two
single-lane roadways.
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Figure 5.8 Auxiliary Lane on Merge
5.3.2.1 Guidelines for Application of Merging Auxiliary lanes

Merging auxiliary lanes shall be used at all rural priority intersections on multi-lane
roads, including all functional classifications. They shall also be used for priority
intersections on all urban multi-lane roads with a design speed of 100 kph or greater,
except where their inclusion is determined to create a weaving problem.
Merging auxiliary lanes shall be preceded by a turning roadway nose, detailed in

Clause 5.5.2 and illustrated as (c) in Figure 5.8.
Merging auxiliary lanes may also be considered for lower design speeds when the
volume of right-turning traffic in the design year exceeds 600 vehicles AADT (one-way).
However, where the merging auxiliary lane is for an upgradient of greater than
4 percent or where the percentage of large goods vehicles exceeds 20 percent, the
threshold value is reduced to 450 vehicles AADT (one-way).
Omission of a merging auxiliary lane in accordance with the above conditions shall
require a Departure from Standards. Merging auxiliary lane lengths, shown as
dimension (a) in Figure 5.8, shall be in accordance with Table 5.4.
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Table 5.4 Minimum Auxiliary Lane Lengths on Priority Intersection Merge
Design Speed Minimum Auxiliary Direct Taper Nose Length – c

(kph) Lane Length - a (m) Length - b (m) (m)
Rural 50 Not applicablea Not applicable Not applicable
80 165 35 40
100 285 35 40
120 460 35 40
Urban 50 Not applicablea Not applicable Not applicable
60b 95 35 40
70b 95 35 40
80 95 35 40
100 150 35 40
Notes:
a At lower design speeds and where an auxiliary lane cannot be accommodated
traffic, shall be required to yield.

b 60 kph and 70 kph design speeds may occur where merging auxiliary lane is
required on to a ramp; refer to Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled

Intersections.
The auxiliary lane lengths indicated allow a typical passenger car to accelerate to an
appropriate speed before merging with the mainline traffic. The lengths provided for
rural roads allow the merging vehicle to accelerate to 10 percent less than the mainline
design speed. In more constrained urban locations, the shorter auxiliary lanes provided
allow merging vehicles to accelerate to 30 percent less than the mainline design speed.
Notwithstanding, the minimum length shall be 95 m to allow sufficient maneuvering
opportunity. The auxiliary lane lengths specified in Table 5.4 include a direct taper of
35 m length at the end of the parallel section.
Vehicles traveling within an auxiliary lane should have sufficient opportunity to

accelerate adequately to enable comfortable merging maneuver.
A separate turning lane, with a radius of at least 25 m where the main road design
speed is 80 kph and lower, and at least 30 m above this speed, shall be used to introduce
the merging auxiliary lane from the minor road. The initial width of the lane will depend
on the radius of the turning lane, determined from Table 5.2.
Auxiliary lanes of lengths less than those specified in Table 5.4 shall be considered a
Departure from Standards.
5.3.2.2 Merging Tapers

Where an auxiliary merging lane cannot be achieved to the standards in Table 5.4 due
to constraints, a taper layout is a preferable alternative to a substandard auxiliary lane,
Figure 5.9 illustrates the arrangement.
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Merging tapers shall not be used at priority intersections on two-lane roads or where
two-lane loads are channelized by divisional islands into two single-lane roadways.
At some junctions on dual roadways, there may be safety benefits in providing merging
tapers at lower flows.
A separate turning lane, with a radius of at least 25 m where the main road design
speed is 80 kph and lower, and at least 30 m above this speed, shall be used to introduce
the merging taper from the minor road. The initial width of the lane, which will depend
on the radius of the turning lane determined from Table 5.2, shall be decreased at a
constant taper the length of which is dependent on the design speed.
The lengths of the tapers to be used are given in Table 5.5. The minimum initial width
of a merging taper shall be 4.0 m.
On dual roadways, with a design speed of 120 kph or greater, the merging taper may
be preceded by a short nose of 40 m length formed between it and the end of the 30 m
approach curve. The back of the nose should have a minimum width of 2 m, illustrated
in Figure 5.9.
The use of a merge taper shall be a Departure from Standards.
Figure 5.9 Alternative Taper Merge
Table 5.5 Taper Length on Priority Intersection Merge

Design Speed (kph) Merging Length – a (m)
80 90
100 110
120 130
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5.3.2.3 Minor Road Right-Turn Approach where an Auxiliary Lane is Not Provided
On multi-lane roads with design speeds of 80 kph and lower, or where merging auxiliary
lanes cannot be accommodated because of weaving constraints, vehicles shall be
required to yield at the intersection. In such circumstances, the angle of incidence
between the yielding traffic and the mainline roadway shall be not less than 70 degrees.
Figure 5.10 shows such a design.
Figure 5.10 Right-Turn Approach Where an Auxiliary Lane Is Not Provided
5.4 Major Road Left-Turn lanes

Left-turn movements from major or minor roads at priority intersections can be
separated from through traffic by divisional ghost or physical islands so that the number
of traffic conflicts is reduced.
Preventing or minimizing conflicts by separation means that drivers have only simple
decisions regarding their movements at any one time. For the separation to be
effective, the junction must be large enough for drivers to identify in adequate time
those vehicles that conflict with their intended path. This will enable gaps in the traffic
flow to be used effectively by traffic entering the intersection.
Major road left-turn lanes comprise a number of individual elements combined to

enable the passage of through traffic, left-turning vehicles, and the storage of major
road left-turning vehicles. In addition, they provide space for warning and directional
signage at an intersection.
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5.4.1 Channelized Major Road Left-Turn Lanes

Major road left-turn lanes at intersections allow for the deceleration, queuing and
turning of vehicles leaving the major through road and turning left, across oncoming
traffic, into the minor road. This lane allows vehicles to leave the major road through
lane and therefore have less impact on the mainline flows.
Clause 2.2.3 addresses the traffic operational and safety performance guidelines for
left-turn lanes at two-lane priority intersections. Left turns that are unsignalized are
prohibited on multi-lane roads.
Figure 5.11 shows a typical layout for this form of intersection with ghost islands.
Figure 5.12 shows a typical layout for this form of intersection with physical divisional
islands.
Figure 5.11 Priority Ghost Island T-Intersection with Left Turn Lane
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Figure 5.12 Priority T-Intersection with Left-Turn Lane
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5.4.1.1 Components of Auxiliary and Left-Turn Lane Lengths

The length of the auxiliary and left-turn lanes for turning vehicles consists of three
components:
• Deceleration (or acceleration) length

• Storage or queuing length and turning length, where exiting the major road
• Entering or exiting taper
Ideally, the total length of the auxiliary or left-turn lane shall be the sum of the length
for these three components. Assuming a moderate amount of deceleration occurs
within the through lanes is acceptable, as is assuming that deceleration occurs over the
taper length.
Turning Length (Tl)

The turning length is provided to allow long vehicles to position themselves correctly
for the left turn. It is not specifically included within the calculation of left-turn auxiliary
lane length but is required. The turning length shall be 10 m long irrespective of the
type of intersection, design speed or gradient, measured from the centerline of the
minor road.
Deceleration Length (Ldl)

Lengths for deceleration are based on an assumed rate of 2 m/s/s. The deceleration
lengths on channelized left-turns shall be in accordance with Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Minimum Channelized Left-Turn Deceleration Length (Ldl)

Design Speed of Major Road (kph) Deceleration Length - Ldl (m)
50 55
60 75
70 100
80 130
100 200
120 Not applicable
Queue Length (Lq)

The left-turn auxiliary lane on facilities exiting the major road shall be sufficiently long
to store the number of vehicles likely to accumulate during a critical period. The queue
or storage length shall be sufficient to avoid the possibility of left-turning vehicles
stopping in the through lanes waiting for a gap in the opposing traffic flow. As traffic
arrivals are random, where possible, designers should estimate queuing requirements
based on twice the mean rate of arrivals, which represents a 95th percentile arrival, as
shown in Table 5.7.
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Table 5.7 Guidelines for Estimating Number of Vehicles Stored in Major Road
Left-Turn Lane at Priority Intersections
Estimated Queue for Average Delay
LOS C LOS D
(15 to 25 seconds (25 to 35 seconds
Left Turn Design Average 2 x Average
average delay) average delay)
Hour Volume Arrivals per Arrivals per
(vph) Minute Minute Average [2 x Ave.] Average [2 x Ave.]
60 1 2 0 [0 to 1] 1 [1 to 2]
120 2 4 0 [1 to 2] 2 [2 to 4]
180 3 6 1 [2 to 3] 3 [4 to 5]
240 4 8 2 [4 to 5] 4 [6 to 7]
300 5 10 3 [5 to 6] 5 [8 to 9]
For most cases, assuming one to four vehicles will be queued at some time during the
design hour to await a gap should be sufficient. Assuming 8 m per vehicle comprising
the vehicle length plus gap, this translates to 8 to 32 m (for example, 30 m) for queuing
four vehicles. Approved traffic analysis software that simulate traffic in the intersection
can also be used to estimate storage requirements. A minimum of 10 m for queuing
one vehicle is appropriate for lower-volume left turns operating at LOS A or B.
Direct Taper Lengths (Ldt)

Direct tapers are to be used at the commencement of deceleration left-turning auxiliary
lanes. Tapers shall be designed to be clearly direct and divergent from the through
lanes. Tapers that are too long take away length for storage and, in the extreme, may
inadvertently attract through traffic into the turning lane.
Direct taper rates are a function of design speed. Deceleration on the taper is assumed
at 1.8 m/s/s. Table 5.3 provides the required length of direct taper applicable for left
turn diverges in rural and urban locations.
The beginning of a taper shall be adjusted as necessary based on the alignment of the
approach road. Where an intersection is downstream from a crest vertical curve,
starting the taper farther upstream on the upgrade makes it visible to drivers on the
approach to an intersection. Similarly, extending the beginning of a taper on the
tangent approach to a horizontal curve can communicate the impending turn lane and
intersection if they are not visible.
For urbanized areas, short tapers appear to produce better targets for the approaching
drivers and allow drivers to more positively identify an added auxiliary lane. Short
tapers are preferred for deceleration lanes at urban intersections because of slow
speeds during peak periods.
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5.4.1.2 Total Length of Left-turn Auxiliary Lane Including Taper

The total desirable length of left-turn lane, including taper, is given by the sum of the
components:
L total = Lq + Ldl + Tl
Note: Ldl from Table 5.6 is inclusive of Ldt
For cases in which an upstream intersection or other element limits the ability to
achieve the total desirable length, designers may foreshorten the taper thus
maximizing the length of full lane available for deceleration and storage. Some
deceleration can also be assumed to occur in the through lanes. The minimum length
of the left-turn lane should be based on deceleration from a speed no less than 20 kph
below the roadway design speed, with no provision for queue length (Lq = 0).
5.4.1.3 Left-Turn Auxiliary Lane Widths (d)

The width of a left-turning lane shall be 3.65 m. For reconstruction projects in which
other design requirements create constraints, left-turn lane widths as narrow as 3.3 m
may be used. The substantive safety benefit is associated with the presence of the left-
turn lane; marginal differences in width will not adversely affect safety performance.
Lane widths of less than 3.65 m shall require a Departure from Standards.
5.4.1.4 Components of Lanes and Divisional Islands (c, f, g, h)

The width of through lanes (c) is discussed in Clause 5.2.1.
The width of left-turn divisional islands (f, g) are discussed in Clause 5.6.4.4.
The width of median opening (h) is discussed in Clause 5.6.4.4.
5.5 Turning Roadways

At priority intersections, turning roadways are most often used in association with
auxiliary lanes and channelizing islands to facilitate right-turning vehicles on and off the
major road, as shown on Figure 5.13. They are also commonly used at roundabouts, as
discussed in Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, and signalized intersections, as discussed
in Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, to remove right-turning vehicles
from other conflicts within the intersection.
At priority intersections, turning roadways may be used where auxiliary lanes are
provided on or off the mainline.
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Figure 5.13 Turning Roadways at Priority Intersections
5.5.1 Turning Roadway Width

In turning roadways, additional width shall be provided to allow for the swept path of
heavy trucks and the cut-in of trailer units. Where auxiliary lanes are provided (both
merging and diverging), they shall include an adjacent paved shoulder equal to that of
the associated major road.
Table 5.2 lists the minimum widths of turning roadways for various inside corner radii.
5.5.2 Turning Roadway Merge Nose

At the start of the merging facility, a short merge nose 40 m long shall precede the
merging auxiliary, formed between the auxiliary lane and the end of the approach curve
in a turning roadway. The minimum width of the back of the nose shall be 2 m, as
illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Traffic leaving the right-turn lane shall merge with the major road traffic via an auxiliary
lane. The hatched road markings are extended from the minor road centerline to link
with those for the merge nose and the channelizing island is designed within the
hatched road markings.
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5.5.3 Sight Distance through Turning Roadways

Obstructions along the roadside may create the potential for sight restrictions to
drivers on the turning roadway. Stopping-sight distance should be maintained,
consistent with the expected speed of drivers on the turning roadway.
Table 5.8 shows that the roadside along the inside of the right-hand turning roadway
should be free of obstructions to the driver’s line of sight up to 2.2 m for turning
roadways with corner radii of 40 to 100 m.
Table 5.8 Stopping-Sight Distance and Horizontal Offset Requirements for Inside
of Right-Hand Turning Roadways
Offset from Right
Edge of Turning
Radius of Turning Stopping Sight Roadway to Physical
Roadway (m) Vehicle Speed (kph) Distance (m)a Obstruction (m)b
20 20 20 0
40 30 35 2.1
60 30 35 0.8
100 40 50 1.3
aFrom Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, Table 2.1
bFrom Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, Figure 2.1
Beyond the start of the merge nose, or from the end of the curve radius where no
merge nose is provided, the sight distance shall be in accordance with the design speed
of the road being entered.
5.6 Channelizing Islands

5.6.1 Principles
Channelizing islands that control and direct traffic movements into the proper paths for
their intended use and are an important part of intersection design. Islands may be
ghosted or curbed, a common form of which are divisional islands that serve as a guide
around which turning vehicles operate.
Channelizing islands shall be placed so that the proper course of travel is obvious, easy
to follow, and of unquestionable continuity.
Intersections with multiple turning lanes may need three or more islands to channelize
the various movements. There are practical limitations to the use of multiple islands
for channelizing traffic. Too many islands may cause confusion and result in wrong-way
movements into opposing traffic lanes. Islands inhibit drainage flows and increase
maintenance costs. Fewer large islands are generally preferable to a greater number of
smaller islands.
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5.6.2 Function of Islands

An island is a defined area between traffic lanes used to control vehicle movement,
provide pedestrian refuge, or locate traffic control devices. Islands accomplish one or
more of the following purposes:
• Separate conflicts
• Control the angle of conflict
• Reduce the size of open pavement areas
• Regulate traffic and indicate proper use of an intersection
• Facilitate or favor a predominant turning movement
• Assist and protect pedestrians
• Protect and separate or store turning and crossing vehicles
• Locate traffic control devices and other fixed elements, such as lighting
• Warn drivers on minor roads that an intersection is ahead
Islands serve to accomplish those purposes through three primary functions:
• Channelize: to control and direct traffic movement, usually turning

• Divide: to divide opposing or same-direction traffic streams
• Deflect: to direct traffic streams
Islands generally are elongated or triangular and are situated in areas not intended for
use by vehicles. Islands shall be located and designed to offer little obstruction to
vehicles, be relatively inexpensive to build and maintain, and occupy a minimum of
roadway space. However, they shall be commanding enough that motorists will not
drive over them. The dimensions and details depend on the particular intersection
design and shall conform to the general principles described in the following section.
5.6.3 Raised versus Flush Island Types

Islands may be delineated by a raised curb or by pavement area marked by paint or
thermoplastic markings. The advantage of raised-curb islands are that they provide a
clear, positive form of channelization, and they provide the opportunity to serve
intersection needs that should be physically separated from vehicle traffic. They are
typically more readily seen at night or in poor light conditions than flush or painted
islands. Disadvantages are that the raised island itself becomes an object that, if struck
at high speeds, can create loss of control of the vehicle. Raised islands also increase the
maintenance cost of the intersection. They may require drainage structures, and the
curbs may collect sand that must be routinely cleaned.
Flush or painted islands delineate paths for drivers. They can be driven over without
creating problems for driver control. They do not interrupt drainage flows. For painted
islands to remain effective, they must be re-painted regularly and cleaned to ensure
they are not obscured by sand and grit.
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5.6.3.1 Applications of Raised-Curb Islands

The primary use of raised-curb islands is to clearly channelize traffic through an
intersection and provide refuge for pedestrians and space to locate traffic control
devices, such as traffic signals, in locations that meet the design criteria for their
placement as per the QTCM. Raised islands shall have a minimum area of 4.5 square
meters.
Raised-curb islands generally shall not be used in rural areas where speeds are high,
given their crash risk potential if struck. In other locations, raised-curb islands shall be
accompanied by intersection lighting, and the curb face should be painted or otherwise
delineated. Where used, raised-curb islands shall be offset from the right edge of
roadway as discussed in Clause 5.6.4.
5.6.3.2 Applications of Flush, Painted Islands

Painted islands can be used in high-speed intersections to delineate vehicle paths. They
also are effective at intersections with very high traffic volumes where spaced is limited,
precluding the ability to construct a raised island of sufficient size. For intersections in
which pedestrians are expected, painted islands shall not be considered usable as
pedestrian refuge.
5.6.4 Design of Islands

Important design dimensions for islands include the approach and departure noses or
ends and the offset from the edges of traveled way. The actual design of the island
should comfortably accommodate and reinforce the swept path of the design vehicle
selected for the intersection. Where paved shoulders are continued adjacent to an
island, the curb shall be located to the outside edge of the paved shoulder.
5.6.4.1 Curb Offsets

Raised curbed islands shall be offset from the traveled way or lanes at a distance related
to the design speed of the adjacent roadway. Table 5.9 lists the minimum clearance
between the traveled way or lane and the front face of the island curb. Designers shall
place islands based on the swept path requirements of the selected design vehicle, with
offsets from the path consistent with those in Table 5.9 to the curbed island.
Table 5.9 Offset from Traffic Lanes to Island Curbs

Design Speed (kph) Offset (m)
Rural
≥100 1.0
<100 0.50
Urban
≥100 0.5
<100 0.35
Note: On urban local roads and service roads where heavy vehicles are not expected, the clearance may
be reduced to zero.
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5.6.4.2 Channelizing Island at Priority T-Intersections

At heavily trafficked intersections, it may be necessary to physically separate
left-turning traffic from the major road from queued traffic waiting to turn left from the
minor road. Figure 5.14 shows the preferred channelizing island layout for
T-intersections or staggered intersections, where the minor road median is inclined to
the major road at an angle of between 70 and 110 degrees. Figure 5.14 shall be used in
conjunction with Table 5.10 and Table 5.11.
Figure 5.14 Channelizing Island Design for T-Intersection
Table 5.10 Channelizing Island Offset

Minor Road Inclination, θ˚ Offset d (m)
70 1.5
80 2.0
90 2.5
100 2.0
110 1.5
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Table 5.11 Design of Radius R1

Major Road Layout at Intersection Radius R1 (m)
Two-lane road 12
Two-lane road with ghost left-turn lane from 14
mainline
Two-lane road with physical island left-turn lane 22
from mainline
• “Edge of major roadway” means the edge of major road traveled way.
• The circular arc, R1 is tangential to the offset d, from the minor road median and
the outside edge of the through traffic lane on the major road into which
left-turning traffic from the minor road will turn.
• By striking a circular arc of radius (R1 + 2) m from the same center point as arc R1 to
intersect the edge of the major road, point A is established where a straight line
drawn from the center point of arc R to this intersection crosses R.
• The circular arc R2 is tangential to the outside edge of the major road outside
diverging lane and passes through point A.
• Radius R2 is normally the same value as R1 but shall be designed with the island
nose positioned 2 to 4 m from the edge of the main road and the width of the island
lying between 2 to 5 m.
The design is intended to separate left-turning traffic from the major road from queued
traffic waiting to turn left from the minor road.
Left-turn Control Radii (R1 and R2) and Throat Width

Control radii for left turns are based on accommodating the swept path of the design
vehicle. The width of the throat (completion of the left turn into the minor road) is a
critical dimension. Left-turning drivers should feel comfortable completing the turn at
a reasonable speed and thus clearing the opposing through traffic in the minimum time.
A width of at least 5 m will accommodate most larger-turning vehicles, but this
dimension should be established through design analysis using the swept path of the
design vehicle.
5.6.4.3 Channelizing Islands at Skewed Intersections

Channelizing islands are particularly necessary at skew intersections to separate
movements and channelize flows. Islands are used to enable vehicles to enter the
intersection at appropriate right angles, facilitating visibility for drivers. Figure 5.15
shows typical layouts for skewed intersections.
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The design of a minor road approach channelizing island for skew intersections is similar
to that for regular T-intersections, with the following exceptions:
• The centerline of the minor road is turned with a radius of at least 50 m to meet
the edge of the major road at right angles.
• For right-hand skew intersections, the island shall be about 15 m long. The left-
hand side of its tail (viewed from the minor-road approach) shall touch the curved
minor road median and be rounded off at a radius of 0.75 to 1.00 m.
• The offset d for right-hand skew intersections is 4.5 m.
• For left-hand skew intersections, the circular arc R touches the curved minor road
median and is tangential to the offset edge of the through traffic lane on the major
road into which left-turning traffic from the minor road will turn.
• The island shall be approximately 15 m long. The tail is offset about 1 m to the left
of the curved minor road median (viewed from the minor road approach) and
rounded off with a radius of 0.75 to 1.00 m.
The design of the major road right-turn and channelizing island shall meet the
requirements of Table 5.9, Table 5.10, and Figure 5.15.
Figure 5.15 Priority Intersection with Skewed Minor Road
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5.6.4.4 Divisional Islands for Left Turns

Figure 5.12 illustrates a major road channelized left-turn with divisional islands. The
desirable width of the divisional island (f) at the crossing point shall be 10.0 m, including
median shoulders. This width will shelter most heavy trucks turning left from the minor
road, except for very long vehicles. In exceptional circumstances, where routine use by
very long vehicles is expected and a roundabout is not feasible, a width of as much as
14.0 m may be needed to shelter the largest articulated vehicles (16.5 m), or a width of
16.5 m may be needed if a drawbar trailer combination (20.0 m) is the design vehicle.
The minimum width of a physical divisional island (g), usually at the end of the direct
taper, shall be 3.5 m. The divisional island shall be introduced symmetrically about the
major road centerline by using hatched road markings with a taper.
The opening in the median for intersections at the crossing point (h) shall be based on
providing for the turning paths of left turns from the major road and from the minor
road. For most typical cases (typical design vehicles, 90-degree crossing angles), this
width will be approximately 10 to 15 m. This opening may need to be increased with
oversize design vehicles or where the intersection is on a skew.
Divisional Island Tapers

Channelized left-turn lanes, whether introduced as ghost islands, Figure 5.16, or
physical islands, Figure 5.17, shall normally be developed symmetrically about the
centerline of the major road to their maximum width at the tapers shown in Table 5.12.
The maximum island width should continue through the junction to the tangent point
of the minor road radius and the edge of the major.
Figure 5.16 Divisional Ghost Island Development
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Figure 5.17 Divisional Physical Island Development
Table 5.12 Tapers for Divisional Islands

Taper for Ghost Island and Taper for Multi-Lane
Design Speed (kph) Channelized Left Turns (1:T) Roadways (1:T)
50 1:20 1:40
60 1:20 1:40
70 1:20 1:40
80 1:25 1:45
100 1:30 1:50
120 Not applicable 1:55
Note: Taper for multi-lane roads is not for use at intersections but for the transition from a two-lane road
to a multi-lane road.
Guidelines for Application of Divisional Islands

Where channelized left-turn lanes are defined with physical islands, the divisional island
should be introduced by means of hatched markings until there is sufficient width to
accommodate the appropriate sign on the nose of the physical island with the required
running clearances to it.
Where intersections are located on sharp curves, islands may be introduced

asymmetrically to suit the circumstances. It is also acceptable to introduce islands
asymmetrically in other circumstances such as to avoid particular site constraints. In
such cases, tapers shall be installed at the same rates as Table 5.12 thus increasing the
overall length of the taper.
5.6.4.5 Major Road Right-Turn Islands at Turning Roadways

Right-turn islands may be used to channelize traffic flows and separate conflict points
within an intersection. They have the additional benefit of reserving space for signage
and aiding pedestrian movement by providing a refuge at busy intersections. A typical
layout is illustrated in Figure 5.18.
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The corner radii and roadway widths for turning roadways given in Table 5.2 shall be
used to construct the right-turn lane. The raised island at right-turning roadways shall
be set back from the traveled way as required in Table 5.9.
Figure 5.18 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island with Turning Roadway
5.6.4.6 Minor Road Right-Turn Island for Direct Entry with No Auxiliary Lane
In instances where right-turn lanes do not lead into auxiliary lanes, corner islands shall
be designed so that vehicles approach the mainline at an appropriate angle (not less
than 70 degrees), thus enabling drivers entering the mainline to look up and
downstream along the mainline without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility.
Figure 5.19 provides details for setting out corner islands where turning roadways are
not provided.
Where corner islands are provided in areas of pedestrian demand, the designer shall
size the island to provide an acceptable LOS for pedestrians.
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Figure 5.19 Typical Layout of Right-Turning Island without Turning Roadway
5.6.4.7 Refuge Islands for Pedestrians and Cyclists

A refuge island for pedestrians or a bike path at or near a crossing aids and protects
pedestrians and cyclists who cross the roadway. Raised-curb channelizing or divisional
islands can be used as refuge areas. Refuge islands can be used for pedestrians and
cyclists crossing a wide street, and are used primarily in urban areas. The location and
width of crossings and the provision of wheelchair ramps influence the size and location
of refuge islands
An island that serves as a refuge for pedestrians shall be at least 2 m wide, preferably
2.5 m wide, to accommodate wheelchairs, prams, and strollers. The minimum width
for a pedestrian refuge island is 1.5 m, but it is noted that this offers little protection
for pedestrians. The island shall be a raised-curb island. The width may be increased,
depending on anticipated pedestrian flows and associated requirements. Where the
facility is required to accommodate dismounted cyclists, the minimum width shall be
increased to 2 m. The island may have openings in the center at roadway level to make
the crossing easier for pedestrians, as shown on Figure 5.20. Dropped curbs for
accessibility shall be installed opposite the refuge openings and where openings are not
provided. Pedestrians and cyclists shall have a clear path through the island,
unobstructed by poles, signposts, utility boxes, or other items. Care shall be taken that
street furniture does not obstruct drivers’ views of pedestrians.
Refuge islands shall be appropriately sized to provide sufficient space for the
comfortable waiting of pedestrians.
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Figure 5.20 Typical Urban Divisional Island with Pedestrian Refuge
5.6.4.8 Corner Islands

Corner islands channelize traffic flows and separate conflict points within an
intersection. They have the additional benefit of reserving space for signage and aiding
pedestrian movement by providing a refuge at busy intersections.
Where corner islands are provided in areas of high pedestrian demand, the designer
shall size the island to provide an acceptable LOS for pedestrians.
Corner Islands with Turning Roadways

The corner radii and roadway widths for turning roadways given in table 5.2 shall be
used to construct the right-turn lane. The raised island at the right-turning roadway
shall be set back from the travelled way.
Important design dimensions for islands include the approach and departure noses or
ends and the offset from the edges of the travelled way. The actual design of the island
should comfortably accommodate and reinforce the swept path of the design vehicle
selected for the intersection. Where paved shoulders are continued adjacent to an
island, the curb shall be located to the outside edge of the paved shoulder.
Figure 5.21 provides the typical layout for triangular corner islands used in
channelization. The minimum offset dimensions shall be based on the design speed of
the major and minor roads, as referred to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements.
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Figure 5.21 Typical Layout of Corner Island with Turning Roadway
Corner Island for Direct Entry with No Auxiliary Lane

In instances where right-turn lanes do not lead into auxiliary lanes, corner islands shall
be designed so that vehicles approach the mainline at an appropriate angle (not less
than 70 degrees), thus enabling drivers entering the mainline to look up and
downstream along the mainline without relying on mirrors for mainline visibility.
Figure 5.22 provides details for the layout of corner islands where turning roadways are
not provided.
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Figure 5.22 Typical Layout of Corner Island without Turning Roadway
5.7 U-Turns
The provision of U-turn facilities are appropriate for a limited number of situations on
divided roadways and when combined with other forms of intersection in urban
situations.
Generally, rural U-turns shall be provided in advance of or beyond intersections as

follows:
• Beyond an intersection to enable drivers to return to an important intersection if

they miss a turn
• Beyond an intersection to accommodate left-turn traffic movements not otherwise
catered for at the intersection
• In advance of an intersection where through and other turning movements would
be hampered by the U-turn movement
• To facilitate maintenance operations and emergency services
Rural U-turns shall be positioned at least 400 m beyond or in advance of any

intersection. This dimension may be reduced to 130 or 200 m in low-speed urban
situations.
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Where a U-turn facility is to be provided, consideration should be given to providing a

reciprocal U-turn. This enhances safety by reducing the likelihood of any illegal turning
movements that may have resulted from the provision of a single U-turn facility, and it
presents a consistent layout to drivers.
One of the key requirements for a satisfactory U-turn design is that the width of the
roadway, including any shoulder or turning bay, be sufficient to permit the turn to be
made without encroachment beyond the outer edges of the road pavement. The
minimum turning widths for a U-turn are shown in Table 5.15. In addition, space for the
left-turn lane, edge strips and physical islands between the waiting vehicle and through
traffic shall be provided.
5.7.1 Safety at U-Turns

Safety is a major concern at all intersections, particularly on high-volume, high-speed
roads. U-turn facilities shall not be placed on high-volume or high-speed roads.
Designs that enable vehicles to be in a protected position while waiting to turn are
safest. Designs that make the turning vehicle cross and leave the opposing roadway
before returning to the right lane with a standard merge movement along an auxiliary
lane are also safer.
The area of median near the U-turn shall be kept uncluttered and free from
obstructions that are over 1.0 m high and wider than 500 millimeters, with the
exception of signs. The visibility requirements are given in Table 5.13.
Table 5.13 Visibility Distances at U-Turns

Design Speed on Major Road S1 S2
(kph) (m) (m)
50 50 5.0
60 75 7.5
80 125 10.0
100 175 10.0
This measure will allow drivers exiting from the U-turn to see vehicles approaching from
their right, and for them to be seen by drivers on the major road.
U-turns shall not be located where the major road gradient is greater than 4 percent.
U-turns contribute to congestion by drawing slow-moving turning traffic into the

offside lane. U-turn movements by heavy or of slow moving vehicles also add to the
crash hazard. However, U-turns can occasionally provide the best economically
available design.
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5.7.2 U-Turn Elements
5.7.2.1 General
The following are the main elements in the production of an acceptable U-turn facility:
• Median width
• Length of the median opening
• Use of acceleration/deceleration lanes and direct tapers
• Nature of the turning traffic
• Design speed of the main road
Figure 5.23 details the standard U-turn layout and arrangements for rural locations.
5.7.2.2 Direct Taper Length (d)

The direct taper length is the length over which the width of a left turning lane is
developed. Left-turn lanes shall be introduced by means of a direct taper whose length
is part of the deceleration length and depends on the design speed. This taper length is
given in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14 Direct Taper Length for U-Turns (d)

Design Speed Direct Taper Length - d
(kph) (m)
50 5
60 5
70 15
80 15
100 25
5.7.2.3 Width of Physical Islands in the Median

The width of physical median at the turning point shall be in accordance with
Table 5.15. The total median width will also include the left-turn lane, roadway edge
strips and physical separation between waiting vehicles and through traffic. The
minimum width of physical island separating the storage lane from the through lanes
shall be 1.2 m or that necessary to incorporate signage.
At intersections where U-turns are allowed, Table 5.15 recommends median widths of
5m to 16m or wider for passenger vehicle and single truck traffic, respectively, to turn
from the inner lane on one road to the outer lane of a two-lane opposing roadway.
U-turns are not recommended from the through lanes.
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Table 5.15 Minimum Turning Widths Needed for U-Turns (M)

M – Minimum Width of Median for Design Vehicle
P SU BUS WB-12 WB-15
Length of Design Vehicle
Type of Maneuver 5.7 m 9.0 m 12.0 m 15.0 m 16.5 m
Inner lane to 9m 19 m 19 m 18 m 21 m
inner lane
outer lane
shoulder
Inner lane to jug 2m 10 m 10 m 10 m 12 m

handle
Source: AASHTO, 2011
5.7.2.4 Left-turn Lane

The length of the left-turn lane depends on the major road design speed and the
gradient. It consists of a median opening length, a storage or queuing length, and a
deceleration length. The deceleration length shall be provided in accordance with
Table 5.16.
Table 5.16 Deceleration Length for U-Turns (c)

Design Speed Rural - c Urban - c
(kph) (m) (m)
50 40 40
60 – 50
70 – 65
80 80 80
100 150 150
5.7.2.5 Median Opening (a)

The opening in the median at the crossing point shall typically be 11.0 m wide, as shown
on Figure 5.23. However, this shall be adjusted to suit long vehicles or those with
abnormal loads.
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Figure 5.23 Unsignalized Median U-Turn
5.7.2.6 Storage or Queuing Length (b)

The storage or queuing length shall be determined. The queuing length shall be
separated from through traffic by a physical island on each side. The queuing lane width
shall be a minimum of 5.0 m.
5.7.2.7 Merging Auxiliary Lane Length (e)

The merging auxiliary lane length shall be constructed in accordance with Clause 5.3.2.
The merge length commences a minimum distance of 45 m from the inside radius of
the median opening. The distance of 45 m is required for the design vehicle to be
parallel to the major road following the U-turn movement.
The shoulder width on the exit of the U-turn shall enable the design vehicle to make
the U-turn without using excessive steering lock while maintaining a 1 m edge strip
from the outside wheel to the edge of surfacing. The shoulder should be marked or
studded to guide vehicles to the merging length.
5.7.2.8 Road Lighting

It is particularly important that U-turns are clearly visible to through traffic. In all cases,
street lighting shall be provided. Refer to Part 18, Street Lighting.
5.7.2.9 Traffic Signs and Road Markings

U-turns shall be clearly signed in accordance with the latest edition of the QTCM.
Providing additional signing for the traffic on the through route to indicate that vehicles
may be crossing the road ahead should be considered.
5.7.2.10 Drainage and Crossfall

To allow for surface water drainage and promote driver comfort, the road crossfall on
the major road shall be continued through the U-turn. Checks shall be made for flat
areas at all changes in gradient, superelevation, or crossfall. Surface runoff shall not be
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allowed to collect in streams and flow from the U-turn across the major through road,
or to collect on or cross the U-turn lane. Surface water runoff should not present a
hazard to maneuvering and braking vehicles. In addition, the rural situation requires
the engineer to carefully consider the maintenance requirements of any drainage
system they adopt; refer to Part 10, Drainage.
5.8 Service Roads

Service roads shall be provided in the urban situation where through traffic on an arterial
or higher classification road will be significantly affected by traffic maneuvers from
developments adjacent to the through road. The function of the service road is as follows:
• Collect connecting minor roads and concentrate the entrances and exits to a
limited number of locations along the adjoining road, thereby allowing major road
traffic to flow more freely
• Provide road users with a safer environment adjacent to developments by
separating them from higher speed through traffic
Service roads are typically parallel to major roads. However, their vertical alignment is
often governed by a lower design speed and can be used to match threshold levels in
existing development situations.
Service roads should preferably be connected to major roads by using the major/minor
intersection criteria listed in this part. However, limited reservation space usually
requires the intersection to connect at a skew to the major road. This creates the
following undesirable situations that the designer should recognize when preparing
service road designs:
• Angled diverge off the main roadway encourages high-speed entry into the service
road and is a potential danger to other service road users
• Angled merge onto the main roadway requires the drivers to make use of their
mirrors to affect a safe merge with major road through traffic
These situations can be mitigated by the following:
• Eliminating parking and providing uncluttered visibility in the area of merges and
diverges
• Introducing a chicane-type maneuver at the entrance to a service road to slow
traffic entering the service road
• Increasing the intersecting angle to 70 degrees where vehicles entering and
vehicles using the service road meet
• Avoiding long, straight service roads
• Provide auxiliary lanes with satisfactory diverge/merge lengths
• Siting diverges and merges away from other intersections or traffic generation
points on the major road and service road
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5.8.1 Service Road Diverge and Merge

Figure 5.24 and Figure 5.25 show a diverge with taper and direct approach yield or stop
condition for a service road along an urban road with a design speed of 80 kph or lower.
The length of diverge taper shall be in accordance with Table 5.3.
Where design speeds are 100kph or greater and space permits, the preferred diverge
and merge arrangement for a service road is by auxiliary lanes as shown in Figure 5.22.
The spacing of diverge nose to merge nose is fixed by the design constraints of the
facility. Where space is limited, the major road shoulders are widened to accommodate
the auxiliary deceleration or acceleration lane.
Figure 5.24 Service Road Diverge with Taper
Figure 5.25 Service Road Diverge/Merge with Auxiliary Lane
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The length of diverge and merge auxiliary lanes shall be in accordance with Table 5.3
and Table 5.4.
The minimum weaving length between merges and diverges is given in Table 5.17 and
shown on Figure 5.26.
Table 5.17 Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length

Design Speed Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving Length - L
(kph) (m)
50 208
60 250
70 292
80 333
100 417
120 500
Figure 5.26 Weaving Length
The minimum weaving length in meters between successive merge/merge or

diverge/diverge measured between the tips of the noses shall be as follows:
Weaving Length (min) = 3.75V
V = design speed of main road (kph)
The distance given by the formula may be increased due to the minimum requirements
for effective signing.
Service roads would generally be one-way, in the same direction as the major road, the
major road always being a divided roadway. However, where space permits, a service
road may be two-way with normal T-intersection entries and exits onto the major road.
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5.8.2 Service Road Direct Connection

Figure 5.27 shows a plan for the case in which a parallel service road connects to the
mainline without provision of an auxiliary lane because a downstream constraint
precludes the use of the merging auxiliary lane.
Figure 5.27 Turning Roadways at Termination of Service Road
To achieve the required minimum angle of incidence, the service road “sweeps” away
from the mainline using curves with minimum radii of 15 m. Traffic-calming measures
may be incorporated upstream of the curves to reduce speeds.
The roadway width through the curve should accommodate the path requirements for
the design vehicle.
A straight section that is at least 5 m long should be provided on the inside channel
immediately in advance of the yield line to allow vehicles to align before turning. The
corner radius shall be in accordance with Clause 5.1.1.
5.8.3 Local Grade Separation

To allow for required traffic movements, T-intersections with median separation shall
be incorporated with other nearby facilities for turning traffic. One method of achieving
this is to provide local grade separations, the principle of which is shown on Figure 5.28.
Two right-in, right-out connections are used with a grade separation. Link roads shall
be designed in accordance with Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. Other solutions are
discussed in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors.
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Figure 5.28 Local Grade Separation
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5.9 Pavement Markings

Pavement markings are critical at intersections in providing clear guidance for road
users. Advice on pavement markings at intersections is provided in the latest edition of
the QTCM.
5.10 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices may be provided at intersections with high vehicle use to
improve operations and reduce the potential for right-angle crashes. The provision of
traffic signal-control devices has an impact on the components and geometric layouts
of intersections. Signal-controlled intersections generally will have greater need for
channelization.
Advice on the design of signal-controlled intersections is provided in Part 8, Design for

Signal Controlled Intersections, and the latest edition of the QTCM.
5.11 Intersection Lighting

Lighting can affect the safety of highway and street intersections, as well as the
efficiency of traffic operations. Both visibility and depth perception are impaired at
night. For the benefit of unfamiliar users, lighting at rural intersections is desirable to
aid the driver in reading sign messages during nighttime or low-visibility periods.
The HSM (AASHTO, 2010) indicates that the presence of intersection lighting may have
the following effects on crashes:
• Reduce all nighttime injury crashes by 38 percent

• Reduce pedestrian nighttime crashes by 42 percent
Intersections with channelization, particularly multiple road geometrics, shall include

lighting. Light poles shall be placed with sufficient offsets from the edge of traveled
ways such that even oversized vehicles (greater than the design vehicle) will not strike
the poles.
Large channelized intersections especially need illumination because of the higher

range of turning radii that are not within the lateral range of vehicle headlight beams.
Intersection lighting requirements are further addressed in Part 18, Street Lighting.
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6 Other Design Elements

6.1 Driveways and Major Private Entrances
6.1.1 Location and Classification
Driveways and entrances are, in effect, intersections and shall be designed consistent
with their intended use.
Direct access from freeways, expressways, and arterial roads is prohibited in both
urban and rural situations. Ideally, driveways and private entrances shall be accessed
from local roads and urban service roads. On limited occasions, they may be accessed
from collector roads and boulevards.
Driveways and entrances shall be positioned at locations providing good visibility to and
from the intersection, in line with the principles outlined for priority intersections.
Driveways and entrances located on collector roads and boulevards shall not be
positioned within the mainline stopping sight distance of an adjacent intersection. On
local roads and service roads, the minimum spacing between adjacent accesses shall
be 25 m.
Vehicles shall not be required to stop on the main through road to access a private
development. Gateways, barriers, and security points shall be set sufficiently back from
the through road so that adequate storage is provided.
6.1.2 Visibility at Driveways and Private Entrances

Visibility triangles from driveways and private entrances shall be in line with the
corresponding requirements for priority intersections outlined in this part. The
Y distances measured along the mainline shall be determined by mainline design speed.
In the case of driveways and private entrances, the minimum X distance may be further
reduced to 2.5 m. Obstructions to visibility, including property boundaries shall not be
permitted within the visibility triangle. It is also undesirable to allocate designated
parking areas within the visibility triangle of a driveway or private entrance.
6.2 Priority Intersections in Residential Areas

6.2.1 Typical Configurations
Careful consideration must be given to intersections in urban areas and particularly in
residential areas, where there is the likelihood of pedestrians crossing the road and
where there may be on-street parking.
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The most commonly used intersection to access developments and the most
appropriate is the T-intersection.
As shown on Figure 6.1, the major traffic flow is on the through route, typically a minor
collector or local access road, with individual residential access roads joining. To reduce
the degree of access to the through route, it is desirable to consolidate intersections by
linking them to a secondary access road before entering the through route, as shown
on Figure 6.2. This can reduce the number of intersections on the through route,
thereby improving capacity and safety. It can also have the benefit of reducing speeds
on residential roads by introducing additional low-speed corners between the through
route and residential areas.
The preferred form of vehicular crossing movement in local access roads is a staggered
T-intersection. The use of simple crossroads is discouraged.
Roundabouts may also be used at intersections in residential areas. Roundabouts are

most applicable where the volume of traffic on the minor road approach is similar to
that on the major road and where the overall volume of traffic is such that vehicles on
the minor road may experience severe delays if a priority intersection is used. Compact
roundabouts or mini-roundabouts may also be appropriate in residential areas. Refer
to Part 7, Design for Roundabouts.
Figure 6.1 Multiple Access Local Roads Joining a Major Road
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Figure 6.2 Access Roads Consolidated Prior to Access to the Major Road
6.2.2 Older Residential Areas

Common issues relating to older residential areas in Qatar include the following:
• Narrow road reservations creating limited sight lines, especially at intersections

• Limited space to meet parking demands
• Street system of ill-defined throughways, crossroads, and rat-runs
• Limited space for pedestrians and nonmotorized users
Enhancements to control traffic movement and to improve environmental conditions

may be considered at existing priority intersections. Improvements shall be carefully
planned to meet the requirements of the area. Traffic shall be restricted from areas
where it is undesirable, rat-runs shall be closed, parking regulated, and surface water
effectively collected. The following are typical actions:
• Closure or partial closure of one or more legs of a crossroads

• Introduction of parking at appropriate locations
• Closure of some minor access roads leading into residential developments from
major and minor arterials
• Identification of schools, shops, mosques, and similar areas that may require
specific consideration for parking
• Addition of appropriate traffic-calming features
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6.2.3 Corner Plots at Priority Intersections

When developing roads in urban situations, adjacent developments shall be completed
in a manner that respects and maintains the road design standards. The primary
concern in development planning is providing sufficient sight lines at urban
intersections.
To enable adjacent developments to be planned that provide for road visibility

requirements, planners shall determine the appropriate right-of-way “chamfer” at
corner plots. Right-of-way lines often are not set to allow for full sight lines in
accordance with standards, unless a special design reservation is included, as shown on
Figure 6.3. A chamfer is the triangle formed by a distance from the plot corner to a
point along the right-of-way line adjacent to the roadway.
It may often be the case that development planning precedes the road design. The
guidance herein enables both road planners and site developers to determine
appropriate right-of-way chamfer distances for corner plots, in advance of the road
design criteria being determined.
Chamfer distances are determined based on the right-of-way widths provided on the
approaching roads. The development of chamfers is shown on Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 Development of Chamfer at Corner Plot
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The minimum chamfer lengths at corners are as indicated in Table 6.1. The chamfer
length is determined by the right-of-way width of the adjacent road. Therefore,
referring to Figure 6.3, dimension D1 is determined by the right-of-way width of
Street A, and D2 is determined by the right-of-way width of Street B.
Table 6.1 Chamfer Length at Corner Plot
Right-of-Way Width (m) Adjacent Chamfer Length, D (m)
<24 8
24–32 12
>32 16
The dimensions listed Table 6.1 are appropriate where the angle of intersecting roads
is between 70 and 110 degrees. If intersection angles are outside this range, further
guidance shall be sought from the relevant planning authority. The dimensions in Table
6.1 apply to residential roads only. In commercial and industrial areas, further guidance
shall be sought from the relevant planning authority.
6.3 Pedestrian and Bike Facilities

The needs of nonmotorized users should be considered as part of the overall design of
an intersection. The appropriate level of provision for pedestrians and cyclists will
depend on the nature of the intersection and the relative levels of use. For example, an
urban intersection in a commercial area with high pedestrian use will require greater
provision than a rural intersection where pedestrian numbers are negligible.
6.3.1 Pedestrian Facilities

The requirements of pedestrians shall be carefully considered in the design and choice
of major or minor priority intersections. It is preferable to provide separate pedestrian
routes away from the intersection, where road widths are less and traffic movements
more predictable, but this is rarely practical. In those cases, the following facilities shall
be considered:
• A minor-road central refuge at an unmarked crossing place

• Zebra crossing, with or without a central refuge, as shown in the QTCM
• Displaced controlled pedestrian crossing
• Subway or footbridge
The type of facility selected will depend upon the volumes and movements expected
of both pedestrians and traffic. The selected facility shall be designed in accordance
with current recommendations and requirements of Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and
Public Transportation. The use of similar types of pedestrian facilities at the same
intersection is recommended, to avoid confusion to pedestrians and drivers.
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Controlled at-grade pedestrian crossing points on the minor road shall be at least 15 m
back from the yield line and shall be sited to reduce to a minimum the width to be
crossed by pedestrians provided they are not involved in excessive detours from their
desired paths. Central refuges shall be used wherever possible on urban roads but not
in the major road in a rural situation.
6.3.2 Wheelchair Ramps and Mobility Impaired Users

When designing a project involving curbs and adjacent pedestrian paths to
accommodate pedestrian traffic, proper attention shall be given to the needs of
persons whose mobility depends on wheelchairs and other devices. Key considerations
for wheelchair users include the following:
• Drop curbs at crossing points

• Limited gradients for ease of use
• Adequate width to provide access
• Textured surfacing for the visibly impaired
6.3.3 Bike Facilities

When bike paths enter an intersection, the intersection design may need to be
modified. Special sight-distance considerations, or special traffic signal designs, such as
conveniently located pushbuttons at pedestrian-actuated signals or even separate
signal indications for cyclists, are potential measures.
Stopping-sight distance shall be provided for drivers approaching the intersection from
the minor road, with clear sight lines to cyclists for turning motorists from the major
roads into the minor road.
Bike paths shall be aligned to intersect roads at approximately 90 degrees. Dropped

curbs shall be provided on both sides of the road to facilitate bike crossings.
At locations where bike or shared-paths cross a minor, local intersecting street, the
design of the local street shall perform the following:
• Provide appropriate signage and delineation to alert motorists of the existence of

the crossing and the priority that applies
• Encourage safe and correct use by cyclists
• Not impede the safety of motorists turning in from the major road
Unsignalized crossings of local streets shall require cyclists to yield to road traffic.
Where traffic volumes exceed 3,000 vpd, a typical refuge shall be provided. For straight-
across crossing of a minor road, as shown on Figure 6.4, the crossing point shall be
positioned to provide refuge for at least one car length between the crossing point and
mainline roadway.
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Figure 6.4 Bike Crossings at Minor Roads
Additional advice on the treatment of bikes at intersections is provided in Part 19,

Pedestrian, Bike and Public Transportation.
6.4 Landscape
A landscape plan for a priority intersection shall delineate the corner sight distance
requirements that are determined by the designer. Landscaping using trees or
vegetation that can block sight lines when fully grown should be avoided within the
limits of the sight lines. Decorative walls, art, or other features should also be placed
outside the limits of the corner sight lines. Details on landscaping are given in Part 22,
Landscape and Planting Design.
6.5 Rail Consideration

6.5.1 General
In general, crossing rail lines shall be by grade separation and at-grade crossings shall
be avoided wherever possible. At-grade crossings represent some of the highest level
of risk to rail and road through misuse by users or equipment failures. In particular:
• At-grade crossings of the railway lines for the metro with any kind of road shall not
be allowed
• At-grade crossings of any railway lines with any kind of road with a design speed of
100kph or greater shall not be allowed
• At-grade crossing of any railway line with any road with controlled access shall not
be allowed.
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For all works, the Rail-Protection-Zone (RPZ) and Safety Zones are to be obtained from
the Qatar Rail Authority and applied within the design. All relevant railway standards,
regulations and guidelines shall also be complied with.
6.5.2 Grade Separation

Roads designed to cross existing rail lines shall be grade-separated. In most cases, the
roadway will cross over the railroad. The minimum vertical clearance, measured from
the top of the rail to the underside of the nearest part of a structure, for roadway
structure over a rail line depends on the designation of the rail line:
• For heavy rail, the minimum vertical clearance shall be 7.7 m.

• On all other lines, the minimum vertical clearance shall be 7.0 m.
Rail crossings of expressways, freeways, and multi-lane major and minor arterials shall
be grade-separated. New roadways involving rail crossings for which there are two or
more sets of tracks shall be grade-separated. Specific light-rail tram systems that
operate on streets within specific developments shall be designed to meet the
requirements below and those of the Qatar Rail Authority.
For roads with at-grade crossings being reconstructed, a design study shall be
performed to determine the right-of-way, access, and construction cost needs
associated with converting the crossing to a grade separation. The Overseeing
Organization will determine whether the road reconstruction project shall include a
grade-separated roadway.
The Overseeing Organization may request a design study for roads with at-grade
crossings undergoing a 3R project, but it is not required.
6.5.3 At-grade Crossings

New at-grade railway crossings shall be constructed only with the approval of the
Overseeing Organization, which will establish requirements for a study necessary for
such approval and will be solely responsible for authorizing new at-grade rail crossings.
The design of any at-grade crossing shall be reviewed and approved by the Qatar Rail
Authority.
The design of railway or highway at-grade crossings shall be made concurrently with
the determination of type of warning devices to be used.
Traffic control devices for railway or highway at-grade crossings consist primarily of
signs, road markings, and active warning devices, including flashing-light signals and
automatic gates. In determining the need for active warning devices at an at-grade
crossing, designers shall consider the following:
• Rail system and functional classification of the highway

• Volume of traffic
• Volume of railway traffic
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• Maximum speed of trains

• Design speed of the road
• Presence of pedestrians and bikes
• Crash history of the at-grade crossing
• Road geometry of the crossing, including sight distance
Where provided, at-grade crossings shall take one of two basic forms:
• Form A: Crossings operated by line of sight, following general regulations for road
traffic
• Form B: Crossings operated under signal protection
Crossings following Form A generally will be limited to very infrequent rail traffic, such
as serving a spur to an industrial land use, with low train speeds and road posted speeds
of 40 kph or less, with appropriate reduction of the maximum speed on the approach
to the crossing. Form A crossings may be sufficient for local roads and collectors with
lower traffic volumes. Crossings operated by line of sight (Form A) shall have the
appropriate warning signs, road markings, and traffic signals.
Crossings with systems according to Form B are appropriate for roadways with posted
speeds higher than 40 kph and for arterials in both rural and urban areas. Form A
crossings shall be protected by barriers where the crossing is located on the open line
of the rail-bound system and either by barriers or flashing lights where the crossing is
within a facility, such as a freight yard or port.
The potential for complete elimination of at-grade crossings shall be given prime
consideration. When a road with an at-grade crossing is programmed as a
reconstruction project, the scope of work shall include a study of converting the
crossing to a full grade separation.
At-grade crossings of railway lines for light rail systems with any kind of road shall have
the following characteristics:
• Road and light rail transit traffic operated by line of sight and regulated by traffic
lights.
• Sightlines shall be free of obstacles.
• Light Rail Transit shall have priority over street traffic.
• No barriers are required.
At-grade pedestrian crossings of any railway line for metro shall not be allowed
At-grade pedestrian crossings of the railway lines for heavy rail shall only be allowed in
dedicated areas such as freight yards, depots, intermodal yards, ports etc.
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6.5.4 Horizontal Alignment

At at-grade crossings the road alignment shall intersect the tracks at as close to a 90-
degree angle as practical. There shall be complete access control, i.e., no public
intersections or private driveways, within a 50 m minimum, and preferably 100 m or
more, from the centerline of the rail line. Crossings shall be located on tangent
alignment for both the roadway and rail line to the extent practical.
For roads parallel to the railway, where such roads intersect another road with an at-
grade rail crossing, there shall be sufficient distance between the tracks and the
highway intersections to enable highway traffic in all directions to move freely.
Provision for queuing between the rail line and intersection is a key design parameter.
Where physically restricted areas make it impossible to obtain adequate queuing
distance between the main track and a highway intersection, the designer shall
consider:
• Interconnection of the highway traffic signals with the grade-crossing signals to

enable vehicles to clear the grade crossing when a train approaches
• Placement of a “Do Not Stop On Track” sign on the roadway approach to the grade
crossing
6.5.5 Vertical Alignment

At at-grade crossings the intersection of highway and railway shall be made as level as
practical. Vertical curves shall be of sufficient length to provide an adequate view of the
crossing.
To prevent drivers of low-clearance vehicles from becoming caught on the tracks, the
crossing surface shall be at the same plane as the top of the rails for a distance of 0.6 m
outside the rails. The surface of the highway shall not be more than 75 millimeters
higher or lower than the top of nearest rail at a point 9 m from the rail unless track
superelevation makes a different level appropriate. Vertical curves shall be used to
traverse from the highway grade to a level plane at the elevation of the rails.
Superelevated rails or a roadway approach section that is not level will necessitate a
site-specific analysis for rail clearances.
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VOLUME 1 PART 6
References
AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual (HSM). 1st edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington DC, United States. 2010.
Federal Highway Administration. Mitigation Strategies for Design Exceptions. U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC, United States. 2007.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning. Qatar Traffic Control Manual. Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC, United
States. 2010.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 101

Volume 1
Part 7
Design for Roundabouts
VOLUME 1 PART 7
DESIGN FOR ROUNDABOUTS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪DESIGN FOR ROUNDABOUTS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 1 PART 7
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations .......................................................................................................v
1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Definitions and Principles ............................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 General ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Design Principles ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.3 Roundabout Key Dimensions .......................................................................... 2
1.2 Roundabout Categories .................................................................................................. 4
1.2.1 General ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2.2 Mini-roundabouts ........................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Single-lane Roundabouts ................................................................................ 5
1.2.4 Two-lane Roundabouts ................................................................................... 6
1.2.5 Grade-separated Roundabouts ....................................................................... 7
1.2.6 Signalized Roundabouts .................................................................................. 7
1.3 Road Space Allocation and Lane Management .............................................................. 8
1.3.1 Public Transport .............................................................................................. 8
1.3.2 Cyclists ............................................................................................................. 9
2 Operational Analysis ........................................................................................................11

2.1 Traffic Operation .......................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Effect of Geometric Elements ....................................................................... 11
2.1.2 Definition of Roundabout Capacity ............................................................... 11
2.2 Traffic Data ................................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Capacity and Performance Analysis ............................................................................. 12
2.3.1 Capacity ......................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Performance Analysis .................................................................................... 12
2.4 Safety Considerations ................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 General .......................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Curbs ............................................................................................................. 15
2.4.3 Two-wheeled Vehicles .................................................................................. 15
2.4.4 Large Vehicles................................................................................................ 15
3 Geometric Design ............................................................................................................17

3.1 General Considerations ................................................................................................ 17
3.1.1 Design Objectives .......................................................................................... 17
3.1.2 Location of Roundabouts .............................................................................. 17
3.1.3 Design Vehicle ............................................................................................... 18
3.2 Key Design Elements..................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter .............................................................................. 18
3.2.2 Circulatory Roadway ..................................................................................... 20
3.2.3 Central Island ................................................................................................ 20
3.2.4 Splitter Islands ............................................................................................... 20
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VOLUME 1 PART 7
3.2.5 Alignment of Entry Lanes .............................................................................. 21

3.2.6 Entry Curb Radius (r) ..................................................................................... 22
3.2.7 Approach Half Width (v) ................................................................................ 23
3.2.8 Entry Width (e) .............................................................................................. 23
3.2.9 Average Effective Flare Length (l’)................................................................. 23
3.2.10 Entry Angle (ϕ) .............................................................................................. 24
3.2.11 Entry Path Radius .......................................................................................... 26
3.2.12 Exit Width ...................................................................................................... 31
3.2.13 Exit Curb Radius ............................................................................................. 31
3.2.14 Free Right-turn Lanes .................................................................................... 32
3.2.15 Entry Layout at Free Right-turn Lanes ........................................................... 36
3.2.16 Exit Layout on Free Right-turn Lanes ............................................................ 39
3.2.17 Non-physically Separated Free Right-turn Lanes .......................................... 40
3.2.18 Buses and Free Right-turn Lanes ................................................................... 40
3.3 Sight Distance ............................................................................................................... 40
3.3.1 Approach Visibility ......................................................................................... 40
3.3.2 Visibility at Roundabouts ............................................................................... 41
3.3.3 Forward Visibility at Entry ............................................................................. 42
3.3.4 Visibility to the Left at Entry .......................................................................... 43
3.3.5 Circulatory Visibility ....................................................................................... 45
3.3.6 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility......................................................................... 46
3.3.7 Visual Intrusions ............................................................................................ 46
3.4 Other Aspects of Design ............................................................................................... 47
3.4.1 Cross Slope and Longitudinal Gradient ......................................................... 47
3.4.2 Curbs .............................................................................................................. 48
3.5 Signing and Marking ..................................................................................................... 50
3.5.1 Signing ........................................................................................................... 50
3.5.2 Road Markings ............................................................................................... 50
3.6 Landscaping Recommendations ................................................................................... 50
3.7 Lighting Recommendations .......................................................................................... 51
3.8 Pedestrians and Cyclists ................................................................................................ 52
3.8.1 Principles for Pedestrian Crossings ............................................................... 52
3.8.2 Pedestrian Crossing Locations and Dimensions ............................................ 52
3.8.3 Provision of Facilities by Roadway Functional Classification ........................ 53
References ................................................................................................................................ 55
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Tables
Table 1.1 Roundabout Categories and Key Features .......................................................... 4

Table 3.1 Minimum Inscribed Circle Diameters for Roundabouts.................................... 18
Table 3.2 Turning Width Dimensions for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller
Roundabouts ..................................................................................................... 19
Table 3.3 Entry Curb Radius .............................................................................................. 22
Table 3.4 Exit Curb Radius ................................................................................................. 32
Table 3.5 Minimum Sight Distance on Free Right-turn Lane (C) ....................................... 35
Table 3.6 Minimum Curve Radii and Roadway Widths for WB-15 Design Vehicle ........... 36
Table 3.7 Minimum Diverge and Merge Tapers and Auxiliary Lanes ............................... 37
Table 3.8 Minimum Entry and Exit Section Length Factor ................................................ 37
Table 3.9 Visibility Distance at Roundabouts .................................................................... 41
Table 3.10 Provision for Nonmotorized Users at Roundabouts ......................................... 54
Figures
Figure 1.1 Roundabout Key Dimensions .............................................................................. 2

Figure 1.2 Mini-roundabout ................................................................................................. 4
Figure 1.3 Single-lane Roundabout ...................................................................................... 5
Figure 1.4 Two-lane Roundabout ......................................................................................... 6
Figure 1.5 Grade-separated Roundabout ............................................................................ 7
Figure 1.6 Bus Lane Treatment at Roundabouts .................................................................. 8
Figure 1.7 Bike Paths at Roundabouts ................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.1 Use of Additional Chevron Signing at Roundabouts ......................................... 15
Figure 3.1 Turning Width Layout for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at
Smaller Roundabouts ........................................................................................ 19
Figure 3.2 Arc Projected from the Splitter Island to the Central Island at Entry ............... 21
Figure 3.3 Approach Half Width, Entry Width, and Entry Radius ...................................... 22
Figure 3.4 Average Effective Flare Length .......................................................................... 24
Figure 3.5 Entry Angle Measurement on Large Roundabouts ........................................... 25
Figure 3.6 Entry Angle Measurement at Smaller Roundabouts ......................................... 25
Figure 3.7 Entry Path Radius Determination ...................................................................... 27
Figure 3.8 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Right-Curving Approach ...................... 28
Figure 3.9 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Left-Curving Approach ........................ 28
Figure 3.10 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Typical Three-leg Roundabout ............ 29
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VOLUME 1 PART 7
Figure 3.11 Staggering of Roundabout Legs to Increase Entry Path Radius......................... 30

Figure 3.12 Reverse Curves on Approach to Roundabouts .................................................. 30
Figure 3.13 Typical Two-lane Roundabout Exit Where Island Length is ≥ 20 m .................. 31
Figure 3.14 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Merge ............................. 34
Figure 3.15 Free Right-turn Lane with Auxiliary Lane Diverge and Merge........................... 34
Figure 3.16 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Yield Control on Exit ....... 35
Figure 3.17 Example of Calculation Entry and Exit Section Lengths for a 1.5-m-wide
Island Less than 50 m ........................................................................................ 38
Figure 3.18 Termination of Hatched Road Markings at Channelizing Island ....................... 39
Figure 3.19 Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach ....................... 41
Figure 3.20 Forward Visibility at Entry ................................................................................. 42
Figure 3.21 Visibility to the Left at the Yield Line ................................................................. 43
Figure 3.22 Visibility to the Left 15 m in Advance of the Yield Line ..................................... 44
Figure 3.23 Circulatory Visibility ........................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.24 Visibility at Entry to a Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit .................................... 46
Figure 3.25 Cross Slope Design Using 2:1 Ratio Circular Crown Line ................................... 48
Figure 3.26 Method of Terminating Edge Strips on Undivided Highway Approach to a
Roundabout ....................................................................................................... 49
Figure 3.27 Method of Terminating Shoulders on a Divided Highway Approach to a
Roundabout ....................................................................................................... 49
Figure 3.28 Shared At-grade Pedestrian and Cyclist Crossing Adjacent to Roundabout ..... 53
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ϕ entry angle
a entry path radius
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
e entry width
ICD inscribed circle diameter
IES Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
l’ average effective flare length
m meter(s)
r entry curb radius
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
v approach half-width
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PAGE VI VOLUME 1
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1 Introduction
1.1 Definitions and Principles
1.1.1 General
Roundabouts are intersections at which traffic circulates counterclockwise around a
central island and traffic entering the intersection is required to yield to vehicles on
the circulatory roadway. In Qatar, new roundabouts incorporate either one lane or
two lanes on the circulatory roadway. This part describes the geometric design of new
roundabouts and for upgrading existing intersections.
The use of roundabouts on various road classifications is subject to the permitted

intersection types defined in Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, Table 2.2, of this
manual.
This Part relates to permitted roundabout types on the road network.

Recommendations are given on roundabout type selection, geometric layout,
visibility, pavement cross slope, and the provision of facilities for nonmotorized users.

The principal objective of roundabout design is to provide the safe passage of vehicles
between crossing traffic streams, with minimal delay. This is achieved by a combination of
geometric layout features that are ideally matched to traffic volumes and speeds, as well
as the location-specific constraints that apply. In urban situations, right-of-way constraints
have a significant influence on the design process for improvements to existing
intersections.
Roundabouts should be designed to match the forecast traffic demand and are most
efficient when vehicular flows are reasonably well-balanced between legs
(Department for Transport, 2007). Consideration should be given to the geometric
layout of the approach legs to achieve a satisfactory design.
Entry width and effective flare length are the most important determinants of
capacity, whereas the entry path radius is the most important parameter for safety,
since it governs the speed of vehicles through the roundabout (Kimber, 1980). The
entry path radius is particularly important when approach speeds are high.
Roundabouts may, in some situations, be successful in calming traffic, by reducing
vehicle speeds through the intersection.
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1.1.3 Roundabout Key Dimensions

Roundabouts are made up of a number of distinct but interrelated key elements. When
considering the design of roundabouts, it is essential that these elements are correctly
defined and measured. Key parameters are shown in Figure 1.1 and defined in the
following paragraphs.
Figure 1.1 Roundabout Key Dimensions
Approach half-width (v) is the width of the traffic lanes on the approach to the
roundabout, upstream of any entry flare. It is the shortest distance between the right
edge of traveled way and the centerline of a two-lane roadway, or in the case of a
divided highway, the left edge of traveled way. Where there is white edge markings
or hatching, the measurement should be taken between the markings rather than
curb to curb. Some capacity models use approach half-width in order to estimate the
capacity of the roadway in advance of the roundabout.
Central island is the raised island at the center of the roundabout. On smaller
roundabouts, the central island can include a truck apron, allowing larger vehicles to
negotiate the roundabout while maintaining adequate entry path radius.
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Circulatory roadway is the one-way roadway surrounding the central island or truck
apron.
Entry angle (ϕ) serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict angle between entering
and circulating traffic streams. At smaller roundabouts, where entries and exits are
closely spaced, the angle can be measured between the entry and the adjacent exit.
Entry flare is a localized widening at the point of entry. Two-lane roundabouts usually
have flared entries at the yield line in order to increase capacity. Single-lane
roundabouts should also be slightly flared to accommodate large vehicles.
Entry curb radius (r) is the minimum radius of the right curb line at the entry. It is the
radius of the best fit circular curve over a length of 25 meters (m) measured on the
curb line from a point 25 m ahead of the yield line to a point 10 m downstream of it.
Entry path radius (a), or its inverse, the entry path curvature, is a measure of the
deflection to the right imposed on vehicles entering a roundabout. Entry path radius
is the most important determinant of safety at roundabouts as it governs the speed of
vehicles through the intersection and whether drivers are likely to yield to circulating
vehicles. To determine the entry path radius, the fastest path allowed by the
geometry is drawn. This is the smoothest, flattest path that a vehicle can take through
the roundabout in the absence of other traffic. The entry path radius is a measure of
the smallest, best-fit circular curve with a length of 25 m, occurring along the vehicle
path in the vicinity of the yield line, but no more than 50 m in advance of it.
Entry width (e) is the width available on immediate entry to the roundabout,
measured perpendicular to the approaching lanes, between the right curb and the
splitter island or median in the case of a divided highway. For capacity assessment,
the measurement should be taken as the total width of the lanes that drivers are
likely to use, which is normally between any white edge lining or hatching.
Exit curb radius is the exit equivalent to the entry curb radius, and is the minimum
radius of the right curb line at the exit.
Exit width is the width available on the immediate exit measured perpendicular to
the exit lanes, between the right curb and the splitter island, or the median in the
case of a divided highway.
Inscribed circle diameter (ICD) is the diameter of the outside edge of the circulatory
roadway. In cases where the roundabout is noncircular, the local value in the region
of the entry is taken.
Splitter islands are curbed, raised areas on the approaches to a roundabout, located
and shaped to direct and separate traffic movements into and out of a roundabout.
They may be enhanced by road markings to further guide vehicles into the
roundabout. Splitter islands can act as a pedestrian refuge island if they are large
enough to give adequate safe standing space for accompanied wheelchair users and
pedestrians with pushchairs.
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1.2 Roundabout Categories

1.2.1 General
Table 1.1 summarizes roundabout categories and key features. Information on
geometric parameters is detailed in Chapter 3 in this Part.
Table 1.1 Roundabout Categories and Key Features

Roundabout Lanes at Urban Rural
Type Entry Classifications Classifications Key Features
Fully mountable central
Mini- One lane island featuring low-level
Local road only Not applicable
Roundabout on all legs mountable curb
Single-lane One lane Minor collector, Raised island with
Collector, local truck apron
Roundabout on all legs Service, local
Boulevard, major
Two lanes
Two-lane and minor Arterial, Raised island with truck
on at least
Roundabout collector, service, collector, local apron on smaller layouts
one leg
local
Grade- Two lanes Expressway, major
Freeway, Incorporates at least two
separated on at least arterial, collector
arterial bridges in layout
Roundabout one leg distributor
Signalized To be used only for retrofit on existing roundabouts.
Roundabout Refer to Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, Chapter 4, of this manual.
1.2.2 Mini-roundabouts
On local roads in residential or recreational areas where large vehicles are not
prevalent, the provision of mini-roundabouts can be appropriate. Mini-roundabouts
have reduced inscribed circle diameter in range of 18 m to 22 m and incorporate
single-lane entries and exits on each leg, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Mini-roundabout
The central island and splitter islands on a mini-roundabout should be distinguished

from the roadway by alternative paving of contrasting color. In addition, the central
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island and splitter islands should incorporate low-level mountable curbs, allowing
large vehicle overrun while discouraging overrun by passenger cars. Mini-
roundabouts featuring a flush painted central island are not permitted.
1.2.3 Single-lane Roundabouts

Single-lane roundabouts are appropriate on lower-classification, urban and rural
routes, providing an alternative to a crossroad intersection. The nonflared entries and
exits give the designer more flexibility in locating pedestrian crossings. A single-lane
roundabout has single-lane entries and exits on all legs (Figure 1.3). The width of the
circulatory roadway is such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one another.
Single-lane roundabouts may have low values of entry and exit radii in conjunction
with high values of entry deflection. This design has less capacity than two-lane
roundabouts but is particularly suitable where there is a need to accommodate the
movement of pedestrians and cyclists.
The maximum width of the circulatory roadway is 6 m with a truck apron provided to
accommodate the turning movements of large vehicles. Single-lane roundabout have
a minimum central island diameter of 4 m and should only be selected for use where
all approaches are undivided highways with design speeds of 50 kilometers per hour
(kph) or less.
Figure 1.3 Single-lane Roundabout
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1.2.4 Two-lane Roundabouts

A two-lane roundabout has a curbed central island at least 4 m in diameter, as shown
in Figure 1.4. The approaches may be undivided or divided highways. A two-lane
roundabout normally has flared entries and exits, allowing two vehicles to enter or
leave the roundabout simultaneously. The circulatory roadway therefore needs to be
wide enough for two vehicles to travel alongside each other on the roundabout itself.
Typically, the circulatory roadway will be between 6.0 m and 10.0 m in width.
Two-lane roundabouts should be selected for use where at least one of the
approaches is a divided highway. New roundabouts with three or more lanes are not
permitted.
The circulatory roadway on large, two-lane roundabouts can be difficult for cyclists to
negotiate, especially at the roundabout entries and exits; therefore, it is
recommended that consideration be given to the provision of off-street bike paths
around the perimeter of two-lane roundabouts.
Figure 1.4 Two-lane Roundabout
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1.2.5 Grade-separated Roundabouts

A grade-separated roundabout is one that has at least one approach coming from a
roadway at a different level. This type of roundabout can be used as part of an
interchange.
A roundabout can be designed to be at a higher level than the major road, or it can be
at ground level with the major road passing above. It is also possible to provide a
three-level interchange with the roundabout designed to be at the mid-level of two
mainlines. Figure 1.5 shows a typical grade-separated roundabout.
Figure 1.5 Grade-separated Roundabout
Grade-separated roundabouts should be designed as two-lane roundabouts. The

circulatory roadway needs to be wide enough for two vehicles to travel alongside one
another on the roundabout itself. New grade separated roundabouts with three or
more lanes are not permitted.
1.2.6 Signalized Roundabouts

A signalized roundabout has traffic signals on one or more of the approaches and at
the corresponding point on the circulatory roadway itself. Traffic signals may be
installed with either continuous or part-time operation.
It is not permitted to design a new intersection as a signalized roundabout; therefore,

an alternative type of intersection or interchange should be considered. However,
signal control may be installed at existing roundabouts in response to any of the
following problems:
• Excessive queuing on one or more of the approaches

• Capacity problems, such as unbalanced traffic flows
• Safety, such as excessive circulatory speeds
In some cases, the desired result may be achieved without traffic signal installation by
making suitable changes to the layout. These changes should be checked using
appropriate modeling software prior to installing traffic signals.
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At busy traffic signalized roundabouts, there may be insufficient storage space on the
circulatory roadway for all traffic waiting. In such instances, appropriate controls
should be in place, through road markings and signal phasing, so that queuing traffic
does not block the circulatory roadway or entries to the roundabout.
Further details of signalized roundabouts are provided in Part 8, Design for Signalized
Intersections, of this manual and the Qatar Traffic Control Manual, Part 5, Traffic
Signals.
1.3 Road Space Allocation and Lane Management

1.3.1 Public Transport
Roundabouts generally should be available for use by all transportation modes,
including buses, taxis, and cars. Where roundabouts are to be located on transit
routes, the designer should liaise with the public transport operators. Options that
can be considered include elements such dedicated bus lanes in advance of and
following the roundabout.
Bus lanes should terminate in advance of roundabouts and recommence following the
roundabout, as shown in Figure 1.6. Bus stops should be located sufficiently far away
from roundabout entries and exits and never within the circulatory roadway (National
Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2010).
Figure 1.6 Bus Lane Treatment at Roundabouts
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1.3.2 Cyclists
Cyclists should be encouraged to use off-street facilities at roundabouts, particularly
at large roundabouts where significant operating speeds are experienced on the
circulatory roadway. A typical layout is shown below in Figure 1.7. For further guidance
on providing for cyclists, refer to Section 3.8 in this Part.
Figure 1.7 Bike Paths at Roundabouts
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2 Operational Analysis
2.1 Traffic Operation
2.1.1 Effect of Geometric Elements
The geometry of the roundabout should be designed to encourage vehicles
approaching the roundabout to decelerate to a speed that will allow them to safely
negotiate the roundabout avoiding conflicts with other road users. The approach
speed is governed by the following parameters:
• Approach half width (v)

• Entry path radius (a)
• Volume of traffic on the approach
Several geometric parameters influence the rate at which approaching vehicles can
enter the roundabout. The approach half width and the entry width directly influence
the number of vehicles that can queue side by side at the yield line. The width of the
circulatory roadway influences how many vehicles can travel side by side on the
roundabout. Extensive research has found that the following parameters have the
most significant effect on entry capacity:
• Approach half width (v)

• Entry width (e)
• Entry angle (ϕ)
• Average effective flare length (l’)
Research has found that the size of the ICD has a relatively insignificant effect on the
capacity and that the entry curb radius has an insignificant effect on entry capacity,
providing the entry curb radius is at least 20 m.
Thus, the geometric design of a roundabout, together with the combined traffic
volume, may significantly influence the operational efficiency of the intersection.
2.1.2 Definition of Roundabout Capacity

The capacity at a roundabout is the maximum rate at which vehicles can enter the
circulatory roadway during a given period under prevailing traffic and geometric
conditions. For operational studies, an analysis period assessing a single “worst-case”
15-minute period is used, assessing all approaches over the same period. More than
one 15-minute period may have to be assessed to establish the peak; for example,
during the morning, midday, and evening peak periods. Operational analyses are
carried out to check the volume-to-capacity ratio of each approach, taking into
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account the geometric parameters and the traffic volumes on other approaches and
the circulatory roadway.
On a properly designed and well-functioning roundabout, capacity is measured at the

yield line of each leg. On two-lane roundabouts, it is important that the demands on the
individual approach lanes be balanced to avoid lane starvation at the yield line.
2.2 Traffic Data

Traffic data are needed for each approach to the roundabout, including the
proportions of each turning movement. Volumes comprising various vehicle types
should be converted to passenger car equivalents and defined for each 15-minute
interval. Traffic volumes should be collected for at least the morning, midday, and
evening peak periods.
Manual data collection at roundabouts can be inherently difficult, and the use of
closed-circuit television cameras should be considered to cover each entry. Where
queuing occurs, the traffic survey should include traffic counts taken concurrently
with entry counts and upstream of the start of the queue, to collect data that are
representative of the true demand.
2.3 Capacity and Performance Analysis

2.3.1 Capacity
The capacity of a roundabout and how it is influenced by geometric parameters is
discussed in Section 2.1 in this Part. Similar to other uncontrolled intersections,
roundabouts do not perform in a predictable manner once the ratio of volume-to-
capacity exceeds 0.85. For this reason, it is recommended that the volume-to-capacity
ratio at all approaches does not exceed 0.85.
2.3.2 Performance Analysis

Analysis of roundabouts should be carried out in accordance with the latest version of
the Guidelines and Procedures for Traffic Studies (Ministry of Municipality and Urban
Planning [MMUP], 2011). Key performance measures typically used to analyze the
performance of roundabouts include the following:
• Level of service (LOS)

• Volume-to-capacity ratio
• Average delay
• Average queue length
• 95th percentile queue length
• Approach delay and LOS on worst-case movement
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2.4 Safety Considerations

2.4.1 General
The Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) has studied the characteristics of crashes at
roundabouts in relation to geometric layout design and traffic flows. The studies
provide insight into how various aspects of design interact to influence crash type and
frequency. The relationships of crash characteristics constitute the fundamentals of
design for safety. As relationships between differing aspects of design are not always
mutually compatible, minimizing the likely incidence of a particular type of crash may
increase the potential for another. Therefore, design is often a balance between
operational efficiency, minimizing delays at the intersection, and various safety
aspects within applicable location constraints. Location constraints are often the
dominating factor when designing improvements to an intersection, particularly in
urban areas.
Numerous studies have shown significant safety improvements when conventional

intersections are converted to roundabouts (Hall and Surl, 1981; Maycock and Hall,
1984; and Kennedy et al., 1998). Many have shown that crash severity at roundabouts
is much lower than at unsignalized and signalized intersections. This is mainly due to
the speed reducing effects of roundabouts together with a low impact angle of
vehicles at conflict points, which together reduce the forces experienced by vehicle
occupants significantly.
The most common factor affecting safety at roundabouts is excessive speed, both at
entry and within the roundabout. The most significant factors contributing to high
entry and circulating speeds are as follows:
• Inadequate entry deflection

• Small entry angles
• Inadequate visibility on approaches
• Inadequate advance warning signing
• Very large ICDs
Additional safety aspects to be considered in designing a roundabout include:
• Gradient: Approach gradients should provide appropriate conditions for vehicles

entering the roundabout. Steep uphill gradients can make roundabout entry
difficult, particularly for large vehicles, while steep downhill gradients may
encourage excessive speeds at entry, thus increasing crash potential.
• Visibility to the left at entry: This has comparatively little influence upon crash
risk. There is nothing to be gained by increasing visibility above the recommended
level.
• Crest curves: Roundabouts should not be sited on crest curves where the visibility
on approach to the roundabout is impaired.
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• Entry and exit speeds: Roundabouts should be designed to encourage slow entry
to the roundabout and quick exit to leave the roundabout clear for the next users.
• Pedestrian crossings: Location of controlled pedestrian crossings in the vicinity of
entries and exits. Further guidance is given in Section 3.8 in this Part.
Based on studies carried out in the United Kingdom, the following measures have
been found to help reduce the crash frequency at roundabouts; however, the
designer should bear in mind that the overprovision of signs can have a detrimental
effect on the visual environment and can dilute important messages to drivers if they
result in information overload (Department for Transport, 2013):
• Repositioning or reinforcing advance warning signs.

• Provision of map-type advance directional signs.
• Making the yield line more conspicuous (Department for Transport, 2007)
• Extending the central island chevron signing farther to the right, as shown in
Figure 2.1, may aid in emphasizing the amount of deflection at the roundabout
(Department for Transport, 2007). On divided highways, additional chevron
signing located within the median area in line with the left approach lane, as
shown in Figure 2.1, may also prove beneficial (Department for Transport, 2007).
• When approach speeds are low, such as in urban areas, a ring of contrasting
paving can be laid in a chevron pattern inside the central island perimeter at a
gentle slope. Chevron signs should also be installed at these locations. In rural
areas, raised curbed chevrons on roundabouts are not recommended. Experience
has shown that physical obstructions such as chevron curbing will be struck
inadvertently at night by drivers who are unaware of the intersection ahead. Only
chevron signs should be placed in these locations.
• Landscaping in urban areas where approach speeds are high enhance the visibility
of the roundabout.
• Provision of transverse yellow bar markings on high-speed, divided highway
approaches has shown a 57 percent reduction in crashes based on studies in the
United Kingdom by the Transport Research Laboratory.
• Provision of appropriate levels of skid resistance on the approaches to
roundabouts and on the circulatory roadways.
• Avoidance of abrupt and excessive superelevation in the entry region.
• Physical adjustment of central island or splitter islands, or both, to achieve
compliant roundabout geometry.
• Provision of “Reduce Speed Now” signs or countdown markers, or both.
High circulatory speeds often cause merging concerns at roundabout entries. Such
concerns normally occur at large roundabouts with excessively long circulatory
roadways.
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If entry issues are caused by inadequate visibility to the left, good results can be
achieved by moving the yield line forward in conjunction with curtailing the adjacent
circulatory roadway by hatched road markings or extension of the splitter island.
Figure 2.1 Use of Additional Chevron Signing at Roundabouts
2.4.2 Curbs
Care should be taken with the choice of curb type for roundabout design. Safety
concerns can arise where certain specialized, high-profile curbs are used around the
central island. Observations have shown that striking the curbs can result in loss of
vehicle control or overturning of vehicles unless the approach angle is small and
vehicle speeds are low. If high-profile curbs are used on approaches, consideration
should be given to the provision of pedestrian guardrails. When installing pedestrian
guardrails, care should be taken to maintain visibility sightlines for drivers.
2.4.3 Two-wheeled Vehicles

Roundabouts have a good overall safety record for most users; however, cyclists and
motorcyclists are especially vulnerable in areas of conflict, particularly at large two-
lane roundabouts. Therefore, it is essential that these vehicle types be considered in
the design process. Particular guidance on designing for cyclists is detailed in
Section 3.8 in this Part.
2.4.4 Large Vehicles

Crashes involving large vehicles often cause major congestion and delay and are
expensive to clear, especially at major intersections. Roundabouts where large vehicle
issues persist usually exhibit one or more of the following features:
• Long straight, high-speed approaches with inadequate entry deflection leading to

high entry speeds
• Low circulating flow combined with excessive visibility to the left
• Long straight sections of circulatory roadway leading into deceptively tight curves
• Sharp turns into exits
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• Excessive cross slope changes on the circulatory roadway

• Excessive adverse cross slope on the circulatory roadway
Load shedding is an inherent problem for some vehicles at low speeds. Research has
shown that a large articulated vehicle with a center of gravity height of 2.5 m above
the ground can overturn on a 20-m radius curve at speeds as low as 24 kph. Particular
attention should be paid to comply with pavement surface tolerances and to avoid
abrupt changes in cross slope. It is good practice to make exit radii greater than entry
radii.
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3 Geometric Design
3.1.1 Design Objectives
Designing a roundabout involves selecting the various geometric parameters that find
a balance between safety and capacity. Roundabouts operate most safely when their
geometry forces traffic to enter and circulate at slow speeds. Horizontal curvature
and narrow roadway widths are used to produce this reduced-speed environment.
Conversely, the capacity of roundabouts is negatively affected by low-speed design
elements. As the widths and radii of entries and circulatory roadways are reduced, so
too is capacity. In addition, geometric parameters at roundabouts are also controlled
by the swept path width of large vehicles. Thus, a roundabout is designed to achieve
safety while balancing operational performance and accommodating large vehicles.
3.1.2 Location of Roundabouts

Besides functioning as an intersection, a roundabout can also be helpful in
accomplishing the following:
• Facilitate a change in the roadway cross section; for example, from divided to
undivided highways.
• Emphasize the transition from a rural to an urban or suburban environment.
• Allow U-turns to be executed safely.
• Facilitate heavy left-turn flow.
Most crashes at priority intersections are associated with left turns. The
inconvenience of banned left turns can be mitigated by providing a roundabout
nearby.
Roundabouts are preferably located on level ground or in sags rather than at or near
crests, because it is difficult for drivers to interpret the layout when approaching on
an upward grade. However, there is no evidence that roundabouts on crests are
intrinsically unsafe if they are correctly signed and adequate visibility has been
provided on the approach to the yield line. Roundabouts should not be sited at the
bottom of or on long descents.
Roundabouts in urban areas often are incompatible with urban traffic control
systems. These systems move vehicles through controlled areas in platoons, or
groups, by adjusting traffic signal times to suit progress. Roundabouts can interfere
with platoon movement to the extent that subsequent inflows to downstream traffic
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signals cannot be reliably predicted and, thus, the sequence breaks down. In cases
where there is a heavy left-turn flow, the roundabout may be a better option.
Where several roundabouts are to be installed on the same route, they should be of
similar design to the extent possible with the traffic volumes concerned, in order to
provide route consistency and, hence, safety for drivers. For closely spaced
roundabouts, the designer should check queue lengths and storage available on the
roadway linking the roundabouts. Where a proposed roundabout may affect the
operation of an adjacent intersection, or vice versa, the interactive effects should be
examined.

At roundabouts, allowance should be made for the swept path widths of long
vehicles. The recommended design vehicle for roundabout design is the AASHTO
WB-15 tractor-semitrailer. Further information on design vehicles is given in Part 2,
3.2 Key Design Elements

3.2.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter
The ICD is the diameter of the largest circle that can be fitted into the roundabout
outline. Table 3.1 lists the minimum ICD values for each roundabout type that can
accommodate the WB-15 tractor-semitrailer design vehicle.
Table 3.1 Minimum Inscribed Circle Diameters for Roundabouts

Minimum
Roundabout ICD Recommended Design
Type (m) Vehicle Central Island Treatment
Mini-roundabout 18 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Fully mountable central island
featuring low level mountable curb
Single-lane 28 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Raised central island with truck
Roundabout apron
Two-lane 28 WB-15 tractor-semitrailer Raised central island, with truck
Roundabout apron on smaller layouts
The smallest ICD on a mini-roundabout is 18 m. Provision for large vehicles is provided

by incorporating a fully mountable central island together with a fully mountable
splitter islands on all approaches. The largest ICD value for mini-roundabouts is 22 m.
The smallest ICD for single-lane and two-lane roundabouts is 28 m. On smaller

roundabouts, it may be difficult to provide sufficient vehicle deflection on entry,
therefore the provision of a truck apron is often needed. A truck apron incorporates a
low-level mountable curb that provides adequate deflection for passenger cars while
allowing overrun by large vehicles. Truck aprons should have the same cross slope
value and direction as that of the circulatory roadway. For details of low-level
mountable curb, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.
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Caution should be exercised in the use of roundabouts with large inscribed circle
diameters, as these can have the effect of encouraging high circulatory speeds.
Figure 3.1 shows the swept path width for a WB-15 tractor-semitrailer at smaller one-
lane and two-lane roundabouts with inscribed circle diameters in the range of 28 m to
36 m. In these cases, splitter islands should not extend into the inscribed circle
diameter. Table 3.2 shows turning width dimensions for WB-15 tractor-semitrailer at
smaller roundabouts.
Figure 3.1 Turning Width Layout for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller

Roundabouts
Table 3.2 Turning Width Dimensions for WB-15 Tractor-Semitrailer at Smaller

Roundabouts
Central Island Diameter Radius R1 Radius R2 Minimum ICD
(m) (m) (m) (m)
4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0
6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8
8.0 5.0 13.9 29.8
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8
12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0
14.0 8.0 15.6 33.2
16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6
18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0
Source: Geometric Design of Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2007)
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3.2.2 Circulatory Roadway

Where possible, the circulatory roadway should be circular in plan, avoiding
deceptively tight horizontal curvature. In cases of complex roundabouts of noncircular
geometry, tight curves should be avoided because they can lead to loss of control
crashes and increase the risk of load shedding by large vehicles.
The width of the circulatory roadway on two-lane and grade-separated roundabouts

should not exceed 10 m. On single-lane roundabouts, the width of the circulatory
roadway should not exceed 6 m. A truck apron surrounding the central island can be
used to provide additional width for large vehicles; however, the additional width
provided by a truck apron is not included in the definition of the circulatory roadway
width. If the circulatory roadway does not correspond to these maximum widths, it is
considered a Departure from Standard.
The width of the circulatory roadway should be constant around the roundabout and
be between 1.0 and 1.2 times the maximum entry width. If turning proportions are
such that one section of circulatory roadway has a relatively low flow, it is not
considered good practice to reduce the circulatory roadway width by extending the
splitter island into the circulatory roadway. If the width of the circulatory roadway is
not in accordance with this paragraph, it is considered a Departure from Standard.
It is generally considered good design practice to avoid short lengths of reverse curve
between entries and adjacent exits by linking the curves or joining them with straight
segments between the entry curb radius and the exit curb radius.
3.2.3 Central Island

The central island should be circular and at least 4 m in diameter. The ICD, the width
of the circulatory roadway, and the central island diameter are interdependent: once
any two of these are established, the remaining measurement is determined
automatically.
To provide sufficient entry deflection for light vehicles at single-lane or smaller two-
lane roundabouts, a truck apron can be incorporated. A truck apron incorporates a
low-level mountable curb that provides adequate deflection for passenger cars while
allowing overrun by large vehicles. Truck aprons should have the same cross slope
value and direction as that of the circulatory roadway. For details of low-level
mountable curb, refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.
3.2.4 Splitter Islands

Splitter islands are used on each roundabout leg and are located and shaped to
separate and direct traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. The geometry of a
splitter island is defined by the alignment geometry of entrances and exits, and is
generally unique to each site. Splitter islands are located in the residual area at the
approaches to roundabouts between entrances and exits that is left after the
optimum roundabout geometry has been established.
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Curbing is the recommended treatment for splitter islands. If there is insufficient

space to accommodate a full height curbs, as may be the case on a smaller
roundabout, the splitter island should incorporate low-level mountable curbs and
alternative contrasting paving to allow occasional vehicle overrun. Road markings can
also be used to extend the splitter island on the approach, the exit, or the circulatory
roadway.
Curbed splitter islands can act as pedestrian refuges if they are large enough to give
adequate standing space for accompanied wheelchair users, pedestrians with
pushchairs and cyclists. A minimum pedestrian island width of 2.0 m should be
provided but this should be increased where nonmotorized user demand is high. Signs
and other street furniture can be located on splitter islands provided adequate
clearance to the edge of traveled way is maintained and visibility is not obscured.
3.2.5 Alignment of Entry Lanes

In order to reduce the likelihood of vehicle paths overlapping on the circulatory
roadway, the alignment of entry lanes is critical.
On rural roundabouts, where design speeds are relatively high, the curb line of the
splitter island, or median in the case of a divided highway, should lie on an arc which,
when projected forward, meets the central island tangentially to reduce the likelihood
of vehicle paths overlapping, as shown in Figure 3.2. In urban areas, where design
speeds are lower, this is less important, but should be achieved where possible. Care
should be taken to confirm the resultant entry angle is not too low.
Figure 3.2 Arc Projected from the Splitter Island to the Central Island at Entry
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3.2.6 Entry Curb Radius (r)

Entry curb radius, r, is the minimum radius of curvature of the right hand side curb line
from a point 25 m in advance of the yield line to a point 10 m downstream of it as
shown in Figure 3.3. Minimum values for entry curb radius for the various roundabout
types as detailed in Table 3.3. The entry curb radius should not be less than 6 m at mini-
roundabouts and 10 m at single-lane roundabouts. At two-lane roundabout entries, the
minimum entry curb radius is 10 m; however, where regular use by large vehicles is
expected, it should not be less than 20 m.
Table 3.3 Entry Curb Radius

Minimum Entry Curb Radius, r
Roundabout Type (m)
Mini-Roundabout 6
Single-lane Roundabout 10
Two-lane Roundabout 10
Two-lane Roundabout (particularly for large vehicles) 20
Source: Based on guidance from Geometric Design of Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2007)
Although entry capacity can be increased by increasing the entry curb radius, once its
value reaches 20 m, further increases only result in very small capacity improvements.
Reducing the entry radius below 15 m reduces capacity.
Figure 3.3 Approach Half Width, Entry Width, and Entry Radius
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3.2.7 Approach Half Width (v)

The approach half width, v, is the total combined width of all approaching traffic lanes
on the link upstream of any entry flare, as shown in Figure 3.3. Some capacity models
use this to estimate the capacity of the roadway in advance of the roundabout.
3.2.8 Entry Width (e)

Entry width, e, is the width available on immediate entry to the roundabout,
measured perpendicular to the approaching lanes, between the right curb and the
splitter island or median in the case of a divided highway. The entry width is
measured from the point of maximum deflection at point A, as shown in Figure 3.3.
It is good practice to have two lanes on all entries to a two-lane roundabout.

Therefore, where the approach road is limited to one lane upstream, an additional
lane should be provided in advance of the roundabout entry. The relationship
between entry width and capacity is significant. Entry width is the largest single factor
affecting capacity, apart from approach half width.
There may be some cases, usually associated with low predicted flows, where
increased entry width is not operationally necessary on a two-lane roundabout, but it
is still recommended that two entry lanes be provided. This will give added flexibility
at abnormal flow periods in the future and a passing facility in the event of
breakdown, and will ease the problem of space provision for long vehicles turning.
Lane widths at the yield line should not be less than 3 m and not more than 4.5 m.
Entry width at single-lane roundabouts should be 4.5 m. The width of any additional
lane should be tapered back in the entry flare to a minimum width of 2.5 m.
Reduction in these widths is considered to be a Departure from Standard.
The development of entry lanes should take into account the anticipated turning
proportions and possible lane bias, as drivers often have a tendency to use the right
lane. A lane that widens into two should maximize use of the entry width. The use of
short lanes on the left is not recommended.
3.2.9 Average Effective Flare Length (l’)

Entry flaring is localized widening at the point of entry. Two-lane roundabouts usually
have flared entries with the addition of a lane at the yield line to increase capacity.
The average effective flare length, l', is the average length over which the entry
widens, as shown in Figure 3.4.
The capacity of an entry can be improved by increasing the average effective flare
length. A minimum length of about 5 m is desirable in urban areas, whereas 25 m is
adequate in rural areas. Flare lengths greater than 25 m may improve the geometric
layout but have little effect in increasing capacity. Flare lengths should not be greater
than 100 m, as beyond this the design becomes one of link widening. Where the
design speed is high, entry widening should be developed gradually, avoiding any
sharp angles.
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The measurement of average effective flare length is shown in Figure 3.4 and is
constructed as follows:
• AB = entry width, e
• GH = approach half width, v
• GD is parallel to AH and distance v from AH (v is measured along a line
perpendicular to both AH and GD and, therefore, the length of AD is equal to v
only if AB is perpendicular to the median at A).
• CF' is parallel to BG and distance one-half BD from the curb line BG.
• Average effective flare length, l’ = CF’
Figure 3.4 Average Effective Flare Length
3.2.10 Entry Angle (ϕ)

The entry angle, ϕ, serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict angle between
entering and circulating traffic streams. Depending on the size of the roundabout, the
following methods should be used to determine the entry angle.
For large roundabouts where links are widely spaced the entry angle is measured as
shown in Figure 3.5.
Line BC is a tangent to line EF, which is midway between the right entry curb line and
the splitter or median island, where this intersects the circulatory roadway. Curve AD
is constructed as the locus of the midpoint of the used section of the circulatory
roadway, which is a proxy for the average direction of travel for traffic circulating past
the entry.
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The entry angle is measured as the acute angle between BC and the tangent to AD at
the point of intersection between BC and AD, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 Entry Angle Measurement on Large Roundabouts
Figure 3.6 shows the layout for smaller roundabouts. This construction is used when
there is insufficient separation between entry and adjacent exit to be able to define
the path of the circulating vehicle clearly. The angle between the projected entry and
exit paths is measured and then halved to find the entry angle, ϕ.
Figure 3.6 Entry Angle Measurement at Smaller Roundabouts
Line BC is the same as in Figure 3.5.
Line GH is the tangent to line JK, which is in the following exit, midway between the
right curb and the splitter or median island, where this intersects the outer edge of
the circulatory roadway.
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BC and GH intersect at L. The entry angle, ϕ is then defined by:
ϕ = BLH/2
If the angle GLB exceeds 180 degrees, ϕ is taken to be zero.
The entry angle, ϕ, should lie between 20 and 60 degrees with the optimum angle
being between 30 and 45 degrees. High entry angles tend to lower capacity and
produce excessive entry deflection, which can lead to sharp braking at entries
accompanied by rear end crashes, especially on high-speed approaches. Low entry
angles force drivers into merging situations where they will be forced to look over
their shoulder or use side mirrors to merge with circulating traffic.
3.2.11 Entry Path Radius

Entry path radius is one of the most important safety factors at roundabouts. It is a
measure of the amount of entry deflection to the right imposed on vehicles at entry
to the roundabout. This governs the speed of vehicles through the roundabout and
whether or not drivers are likely to yield to circulating vehicles.
The entry path radius should be checked for all turning movements. It should not
exceed 70 m at single-lane roundabouts. At other roundabouts, except mini-
roundabouts, the entry path radius should not exceed 100 m (Department for
Transport, 2007). At mini-roundabouts, there is no maximum value for entry path
radius. Where the entry path radius is greater than these values, it is considered a
Departure from Standard.
Determining the entry path radius is based on the following assumptions and shown
in Figure 3.7 through Figure 3.10.
• The entering vehicle is 2 m wide so that it maintains a distance of at least 1 m

between its centerline and any curb or edge marking, and that it is continuing
straight ahead at a four-leg roundabout and across the head of the tee at a three-
leg roundabout.
• There is no other traffic on the approach and on the circulatory roadway.
• The driver negotiates the site constraints with minimum deflections and that lane
markings by the yield line are ignored.
• The commencement point of the vehicle path is located 50 m in advance of the
yield line and at least 1 m from the edge of traveled way or centerline.
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• The vehicle proceeds as follows:

− First, toward the yield line
− Then, toward the central island of the roundabout, passing through a point
not less than 1 m from the right hand curb, the position of which relative to
the starting point depends on the amount of approach flare to the right
− Then continuing on a smooth path with its centerline, never passing closer
than 1 m from the central island, more in some configurations
Figure 3.7 Entry Path Radius Determination
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Figure 3.8 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Right-Curving Approach
Figure 3.9 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Left-Curving Approach
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Figure 3.10 Entry Path Radius Determination for a Typical Three-leg Roundabout
On a layout of the roundabout, to a scale not less than 1:500, draw the centerline of
the most realistic path that a vehicle would take in its complete passage through the
roundabout on a smooth alignment without sharp transitions.
The exact path drawn is a matter of personal judgment. The results should be examined
for compliance and consistency with the appropriate clauses in this section. Any reverse
of curvature in the vehicle path around the central island should be drawn so that there
is no sharp deviation between that curve and the entry curve. Particular care in
checking entry path radius is needed when considering small central island designs.
This tightest radius can be measured by means of suitable templates. The entry path
radius is measured on the curved length of path near the yield line, but not more than
50 m in advance of it as shown in Figure 3.7 through Figure 3.10. The entry path
radius is the radius of the best-fit circular curve over a length of 25 m.
At single-lane and smaller two-lane roundabouts incorporating a truck apron, the

entry path radius is measured relative to the outer perimeter of the truck apron
rather than that of the central island (Department for Transport, 2007).
One method for increasing entry deflection at roundabouts is to stagger the legs, such
that the centerline of each leg intersects with the roundabout slightly left of center,
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as shown in Figure 3.11. This method also results in a reduction in the overall size of
the roundabout, minimizing land acquisition, and in addition, helps to provide a clear
exit route of sufficient width to avoid conflicts (Department for Transport, 2007).
Figure 3.11 Staggering of Roundabout Legs to Increase Entry Path Radius
Another method for increasing entry deflection at roundabouts, especially on high-

speed divided highways, is to use a combination of reverse curves on the approach as
shown in Figure 3.12. This method also has the added benefit of helping to reduce
vehicle speeds on the immediate approach to the roundabout.
Figure 3.12 Reverse Curves on Approach to Roundabouts
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3.2.12 Exit Width

The exit width is measured similarly to entry width. It is the distance between the
right curb line and the splitter island or, in the case of a divided highway, the median
where it intersects with the outer edge of the circulatory roadway. As with the entry
width, it is measured perpendicular to the right hand curb line. Values typically are
similar to or slightly less than entry widths; that is, exits have less flaring.
The number of lanes at an exit should be equal to the number of lanes at the
corresponding entry for the straight though-traffic movement. At single-lane
roundabouts, only one lane should be provided. There should be no more than two
lanes on an exit.
On undivided highway exits where the length of the splitter island is 20 m or greater,
a minimum width of 6 m, measured perpendicular to the right curb, should be
provided adjacent to splitter island to allow traffic to pass a broken down vehicle.
Figure 3.13 shows a typical two-lane roundabout exit using some of the principles
described here.
Figure 3.13 Typical Two-lane Roundabout Exit Where Island Length is ≥ 20 m
3.2.13 Exit Curb Radius

Table 3.4 lists acceptable ranges of exit curb radius. For a two-lane roundabout, a
value of 40 m is desirable, but for larger roundabouts on high-speed roads, a higher
value can better fit the overall intersection geometry. A compound curve starting with
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a radius of 40 m, developing to a larger radius, of up to 100 m, usually offers the best

solution. Larger values of exit radii can lead to high exit speeds, which may not be
appropriate where pedestrian crossing facilities are located immediately downstream.
Table 3.4 Exit Curb Radius

Minimum Exit Curb Radius Maximum Exit Curb Radius
Roundabout Type (m) (m)
Mini-roundabout 6 20
Single-lane Roundabout 15 20
Two-lane Roundabout 20 100
Source: Based on guidance from Geometric Design of Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2007)
The spacing of an exit and the preceding entry should not be less than the
combination of the minimum entry curb radius and the minimum exit curb radius. If a
roundabout is to be modified to include an additional entry, care should be taken so
that this does not affect safety at the preceding entry and the following exit. It may be
necessary to redesign the whole roundabout if adequate spacing between entries and
exits cannot be achieved.
3.2.14 Free Right-turn Lanes

Free right-turn lanes are a useful method for providing improved service to vehicles
intending to leave a roundabout at the first exit after entry. Through a free right-turn
lane, vehicles are able to proceed directly to the first exit without having to interact
with vehicles on the circulatory roadway. This is particularly appropriate at two-lane
roundabouts.
There is a simple procedure to provide guidance to determine if a free right-turn lane

would be beneficial to a roundabout design and merit further investigation. It is based
on total traffic in-flows at entry, vehicle composition, right-turning traffic, and the
number of entry lanes. The inclusion of a free right-turn lane should be considered if
the following is true for the individual approach:
R ≥ F/E
where:
R = flow of right-turning vehicles per hour
F = total entry flow in vehicles per hour
E = total number of entry lanes including the free right-turn lane
Source: Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at Roundabouts (Department for
Transport, 2003)
In cases where R and F/E are very close, consideration of other factors, such as safety,
should be included in the appraisal.
The removal of flow from the circulatory roadway can improve the overall
performance of the roundabout, but vehicle composition should be examined when
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considering the use of these lanes. If the right-turning vehicles are predominantly
light and there are high proportions of large vehicles leaving the roundabout, there
could be problems with different speeds at the merge, particularly if this is on an
uphill gradient. If dedicated lanes are to be used in such situations, they should finish
with a yield line at the exit from the lane.
The use of free right-turn lanes in urban areas where pedestrians are expected is not
recommended. Pedestrians should be channeled using a guardrail to a suitable
crossing point. If this is not possible, the channelizing island should be of sufficient
width to accommodate the anticipated peak number of pedestrians, and the location
of pedestrian crossing points should be carefully considered.
Free right-turn lanes should include a fully curbed channelizing island. Vehicles are
channeled into the right-hand lane by lane arrows and road markings supplemented
by advance direction signs. The operation of the free right-turn lane should not be
impaired by traffic queuing to use the roundabout itself.
Free right-turn bypass lanes should not be designed to encourage high speeds. The
curve radius used for the free right-turn lane will depend on both the design speed of
the approach road and site constraints. The driver’s perception of the approach and
free right-turn lane radii will be a determining factor in their approach speed.
Therefore, the designer should consider the need for speed reduction measures on the
approach depending on the minimum curve radii used. For divided highways, a
minimum inside curve radius of 30 m is recommended, and in all instances the inside
curve radii should not be less than 10 m. The radius at exit should not be less than the
radius at entry.
Superelevation along the free right-turn lane should be designed in accordance with
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual to a maximum value of 5 percent.
Examples of free right-turn lanes at roundabouts are shown in Figure 3.14 to

Figure 3.16.
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Figure 3.14 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Merge
Figure 3.15 Free Right-turn Lane with Auxiliary Lane Diverge and Merge
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Figure 3.16 Free Right-turn Lane with Direct Taper Diverge and Yield Control on
Exit
Stopping sight distance for the design speed of the main approach road should be
provided to the start of the inside curve radius at the start of the free right-turn lane.
Forward visibility from the main approach road into the free right-turn lane to the start
of the exit section, should be in accordance with Table 3.5. The maximum curve radius
defined in Table 3.5 refers to the maximum radius encountered on the inner edge
through the length of the free right-turn lane. Beyond the start of the exit section, the
stopping sight distance should be in accordance with the design speed of the road being
entered. Reduction in stopping sight distance is considered a Departure from Standard.
Table 3.5 Minimum Sight Distance on Free Right-turn Lane (C)

Maximum Curve Radius on
Free Right-turn Lane, (C) Minimum Sight Distance
(m) (m)
≤20 35
21–40 70
41–80 90
81–100 120
>100 215
Transport, 2003)
The roadway width should be sufficient to accommodate the swept path of the design
vehicle. Table 3.6 provides guidance for minimum roadway widths through the free
right-turn lane for a WB-15 tractor-semitrailer. However, hatched road markings can
be provided on the inside of the curve to reduce the marked lane width to a minimum
of 3.65 m.
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Where the channelizing island is less than 50 m in length, it is not necessary to make
allowance for broken-down vehicles and, in such cases, the width of the free right-turn
lane should be as detailed in the second column of Table 3.6. However, when the
island is longer than 50 m, the lane width should be increased as detailed in the third
column of Table 3.6, and a swept-path analysis should be performed to allow passing
of a broken-down vehicle.
Table 3.6 Minimum Curve Radii and Roadway Widths for WB-15 Design Vehicle
Minimum Curve Radius on Free Free Right-turn Lane Roadway Free Right-turn Lane Roadway
Right-turn Lane, (C) Width for Island Length <50 m Width for Island Length ≥50 m
(m) (m) (m)
10 8.4 10.9
15 7.1 9.6
20 6.2 8.7
25 5.7 8.2
30 5.3 7.8
40 4.7 7.2
50 4.4 6.9
75 4.0 6.5
100 3.8 6.3
>100 3.65 6.0
Transport, 2003)
The channelizing island should not prevent a right turn at the roundabout in the usual
manner by way of the circulatory roadway.
The maximum longitudinal gradient on a free right-turn lane at a roundabout should

be limited to 5 percent.
The merging between vehicles from a free right-turn lane and other vehicles exiting
the roundabout should take place relatively close to the roundabout, where speeds
are still comparatively low.
Under no circumstances should two right-turn lanes be used together. If right-turning

traffic is very high and cannot be accommodated by a single free right-turn lane, then
alternative forms of intersection should be investigated.
3.2.15 Entry Layout at Free Right-turn Lanes

The two basic forms of entry layout for a free right-turn lane are as follows:
• Direct taper (A) followed by entry section (B), as shown in Figure 3.14
• Auxiliary taper (F) and auxiliary lane (G) followed by entry section (B) as shown in
Figure 3.15
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The type of diverge will be dependent on traffic and site constraints. The use of the
minimum values provided in Table 3.7 is recommended. The design speeds defined in
Table 3.7 and Table 3.8 relate to the design speed of the road from which the free
right-turn lane diverges, or onto which it merges.
Table 3.7 Minimum Diverge and Merge Tapers and Auxiliary Lanes
Minimum Auxiliary Minimum Auxiliary

Minimum Direct Taper Length Lane Length
Design Speed Taper Rate (F) and (J) (G) and (H)
(kph) (A) and (E) (m) (m)
≤ 60 1:10 30 55
> 60 1:15 45 85
Source: Based on guidance from Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2003)
The free right-turn lane width should be at least 3.65 m at the beginning of the
diverge nose as shown in Figure 3.14 to Figure 3.16. Any reduction from this value is
considered a Departure from Standard.
The recommended length of the entry section should be the larger of the following
values:
• The widening needed to accommodate the channelizing island, subject to a

minimum width of 2.1 m, consisting of a 1.5 m wide island plus a 0.3 m road
marking offset on each side, as shown in Figure 3.18, multiplied by the
appropriate factor in Table 3.8.
• The widening needed to accommodate the swept path of a large vehicle as
detailed in Table 3.6, multiplied by the appropriate factor in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Minimum Entry and Exit Section Length Factor

Design Speed on Major Roadway Entry and Exit Section Factor
(kph) (B) and (D)
≤70 20
80 and 90 25
≥100 30
Source: Based on guidance from Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2003)
Figure 3.17 shows how to calculate the length of the entry and exit section and for a
1.5-m-wide channelizing island less than 50 m long on an undivided highway
approach.
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Figure 3.17 Example of Calculation Entry and Exit Section Lengths for a 1.5-m-wide
Island Less than 50 m
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The taper for the chevron road markings on the nose should be developed
asymmetrically on the right-turn bypass lane side, as shown in Figure 3.17. The nose
edge line marking should terminate in a position offset 0.3 m from the edge of the
physical island, as shown in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18 Termination of Hatched Road Markings at Channelizing Island
3.2.16 Exit Layout on Free Right-turn Lanes

The three basic types of exit layout from a free right-turn lane are as follows:
• Merge consisting of exit section (D), and merge taper (E), as shown in Figure 3.14
• Merge consisting of exit section (D), auxiliary lane (G), and auxiliary taper (J), as
shown in Figure 3.15
• Yield control, as shown in Figure 3.16
Exits with merge tapers or auxiliary lanes consist of a merge maneuver between the
traffic leaving the roundabout circulatory roadway and the free right-turn lane. These
layouts inherently include risks associated with vehicles exiting the roundabout being
in the side-mirror visually impaired spot for traffic using the free right-turn lane. This
situation may contribute to crashes between merging vehicles as well as nose-to-tail
crashes, particularly for motorists with limited ability to look over their shoulders and
for some drivers of large vehicles.
When a free right-turn lane exits onto a divided highway, merge tapers or auxiliary
lanes should be provided, as detailed in Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15. In the situation
where a free right-turn lane exits onto an undivided highway, yield control can be
provided, as shown in Figure 3.16.
The exit section from the free right-turn lane and the associated merge nose should
be provided in accordance with Table 3.7 and Table 3.8. The width of the right-turn
bypass lane should be at least 3.65 m at the end of the exit section, as shown in
Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15. Any reduction in this width is considered a Departure
from Standard.
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Any widening needed to accommodate the swept paths of large vehicles through the
free right-turn lane should be removed along the length of the exit section. As with
the entry section, the length of the exit section and adjacent merge nose is calculated
using the larger value of the width of the channelizing island and the widening required
to accommodate the design vehicle, as shown in Figure 3.17. The angle of the chevron
road markings at the nose should be developed, as shown in Figure 3.17, and terminate
in a position offset from the edge of a physical island, as shown in Figure 3.18.
At the beginning of a roundabout exit, it is recommended that its width allows for an
extra traffic lane over and above that of the link downstream, provided that the
maximum of two lanes on exit is not exceeded. Where a free right-turn lane is
present, the exit width reduction should be completed upstream of the end of the
free right-turn lane exit section.
A yield exit from a free right-turn lane should be located as close as practical to the
roundabout, at a minimum entry angle of 45 degrees between the yield line and the
entering vehicle as shown in Figure 3.16.
Signs and street furniture placed on the physical island near the exit should not
obstruct visibility between the free right-turn lane exit and the adjacent roundabout
exit lane.
3.2.17 Non-physically Separated Free Right-turn Lanes

Right-turn bypass lanes separated from the circulatory roadway by no more than a
flush, painted island can be subject to abuse by drivers. Consequently, non-physically
separated free right-turn lanes are not permitted.
3.2.18 Buses and Free Right-turn Lanes

Free right-turn lanes can improve journey time reliability on bus routes, either in
isolation or as part of a larger traffic management proposal. However, the use of bus-
only free right-turn lanes at roundabouts needs careful consideration. Factors
including the number of buses using the dedicated lane and any detrimental impact
on the overall capacity of the roundabout should be taken into account. Bus stops and
bus bays should not be located within the free right-turn lane.
3.3 Sight Distance

3.3.1 Approach Visibility
The forward visibility at the approach to a roundabout should be as indicated in
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for the appropriate design speed of
the approach. This stopping sight distance is measured to the yield line, as shown in
Figure 3.19. Stopping sight distance should be obtainable from a driver’s eye height of
1.08 m to an object height of 0.60 m.
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Figure 3.19 Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance on Curved Approach
3.3.2 Visibility at Roundabouts

Table 3.9 details the visibility distances applicable at roundabouts of varying size.
These distances should be used when assessing the forward visibility at entry,
visibility to the left at entry, and circulatory visibility. Refer to Figure 3.20 through
Figure 3.24.
Table 3.9 Visibility Distance at Roundabouts

Inscribed Circle Diameter Visibility Distance
(m) (m)
<40 Whole Intersection
40 to 60 40
60 to 100 50
>100 70
Source: Geometric Design of Roundabouts (Department for Transport, 2007)
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3.3.3 Forward Visibility at Entry

Drivers of vehicles approaching the yield line should be able to see to an object height
of 0.60 m on the full width of the circulatory roadway for the appropriate visibility
distance indicated in Table 3.9, measured along the centerline of the circulatory
roadway. Visibility should be checked from a driver’s eye height of 1.08 m at the
center of the right lane and a distance of 15 m back from the yield line, as shown in
Figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20 Forward Visibility at Entry
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3.3.4 Visibility to the Left at Entry

Drivers of all vehicles approaching the yield line should be able to see the full width of
the circulatory roadway to their left from the center of the left lane at the yield line for
a distance appropriate to the visibility distance, listed in Table 3.9, measured along the
centerline of the circulatory roadway and shown in Figure 3.21.
Visibility should also be checked from the center of the left lane at a distance of 15 m
back from the yield line, as shown in Figure 3.22. The envelope of visibility should be
obtainable from a driver’s eye height of 1.08 m to an object height of 1.08 m.
Checks should be made that traffic sign location, street furniture, safety barriers, and
other potential obstructions do not restrict visibility.
Figure 3.21 Visibility to the Left at the Yield Line
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Excessive visibility to the left at entry could result in high entry speeds, potentially
resulting in crashes. This can be mitigated by design, such as through the careful use
of landscaping on the approach to the roundabout, enabling the designer to limit
visibility to the left to that necessary for the safe and efficient operation of the
roundabout.
Figure 3.22 Visibility to the Left 15 m in Advance of the Yield Line
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3.3.5 Circulatory Visibility

Drivers of all vehicles circulating on a roundabout should be able to see the full width of
the circulatory roadway ahead of them for the visibility distance, as indicated in
Table 3.9. Circulatory visibility is checked from a point 2 m out from the central island,
as shown in Figure 3.23, using a driver’s eye of 1.08 m and an object height of 0.60 m.
It is often useful to improve the conspicuousness of central islands by the use of

landscaping however, any landscaping provided should not interfere with drivers sight
lines.
Once a vehicle has crossed the inscribed circle at the exit from the roundabout,
stopping sight distance should be provided in accordance with Part 3, Roadway Design
Figure 3.23 Circulatory Visibility
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3.3.6 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility

Where a pedestrian crossing is positioned in advance of a roundabout, approaching
drivers should be able to see the full width of the crossing, from a distance equal to
the stopping sight distance for the design speed of the approach, as detailed in Part 3,
At the yield line, all drivers should be able to see the full width of a pedestrian crossing
across the next exit if the crossing is within 20 m of the roundabout at shown in
Figure 3.24). Pedestrian crossings should not be positioned between 20 m and 60 m
from the yield line. Refer to Section 3.8 in this Part and Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and
Public Transportation, of this manual for further advice relating to pedestrians and
other nonmotorized users.
Figure 3.24 Visibility at Entry to a Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit
3.3.7 Visual Intrusions

Where traffic signs are to be erected at roundabouts within visibility envelopes, the
mounting height should not be less than 2 m above the roadway surface.
Traffic signs, street furniture, and landscaping should not obstruct driver’s sight lines,
however, isolated slim objects such as lighting columns, sign supports, and bridge
columns can be ignored provided they are less than 550 millimeters wide
(Department for Transport, 2007).
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3.4 Other Aspects of Design

3.4.1 Cross Slope and Longitudinal Gradient
Immediately in advance of the roundabout yield line, steep gradients should be
avoided or flattened. This zone of limited gradient should be within 15 m of the yield
or stop line but may be reduced to 10 m in residential areas. Approach gradients
within this zone should be limited to a maximum of 3 percent. An approach gradient
higher than 3 percent is considered to be a Departure from Standard.
On the approaches and exits, superelevation can assist drivers in negotiating the
associated curves. When used, the superelevation value should be appropriate to the
speed of vehicles, and equal to or greater than those necessary for surface drainage,
but should not exceed 5 percent. Superelevation should be reduced to 2 percent from
a point 20 m in advance of the yield line, given that, with adequate advance signing
and entry deflection, speeds on approaches should be reducing.
Cross slope and longitudinal gradient combine to provide the necessary slope that will
drain surface water from the roadway. Thus, although the following clauses are for
simplicity written in terms of cross slope, the value and direction of the greatest slope
should always be taken into account when considering drainage flow paths.
Except on large grade-separated roundabouts, where the circulatory roadway should

have appropriate superelevation, adequate cross slope is should be provided in order
to drain surface water on circulatory roadways. Cross slope on the circulatory
roadway should be 2.0 percent.
In order to minimize surface water ponding, longitudinal edge profiles should be

graded at not less than 0.67 percent, with 0.5 percent considered the minimum. The
design gradients alone do not achieve satisfactory drainage; therefore, the correct
positioning and spacing of gullies is critical.
At two-lane roundabouts on high-speed roads, it is good practice to arrange for cross

slope to assist vehicles maneuvering around the circulatory roadway and to reduce
drainage flow paths. To do this, a crown line is formed. This line can divide the
circulatory roadway in the proportion 2:1 internal to external, as shown in
Figure 3.25. Alternatively, the crown line can join the ends of the splitter islands.
The conflicting cross slope at the crown lines have a direct effect on driver comfort
and may be a contributory factor in load shedding and large vehicle roll-over crashes.
Over a given section, the maximum recommended arithmetic difference in cross slope
is 5 percent. Lower values are desirable, particularly for roundabouts with a small ICD.
There should be no sharp changes in cross slope and a smooth crown is essential.
At mini-roundabouts and single-lane roundabouts, it is sometimes more appropriate

to apply a constant cross slope in one direction across the full width of the circulatory
roadway. At roundabouts where the design speed does not exceed 50 kph on any
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VOLUME 1 PART 7
approach, the cross slope can slope outwards to ease drainage and help keep speeds
down. The cross slope also makes the central island more conspicuous.
At exits, superelevation should be provided where necessary to allow vehicles to

accelerate safely away from the roundabout. However, as with entries, cross slope
adjacent to the roundabout should not exceed 2 percent. If the exit leads into a left-
hand curve, superelevation should be introduced gradually.
Drainage of the central island should be considered in roundabout design in order to

obtain adequate cross slope and provision for collection. Water from the central
island should not be designed to run on to the circulatory roadway.
Figure 3.25 Cross Slope Design Using 2:1 Ratio Circular Crown Line
3.4.2 Curbs
Roundabout entries and exits should be curbed, and shoulders on each approach
should terminate where entry widening begins. Where connecting roads are not
curbed, the simplest procedure is to start the curbs on the approach at the back of
the shoulder and then terminate the edge of traveled way road marking in a short
smooth curve or taper, as shown in Figure 3.26 and Figure 3.27. On the exit, the
curbing can terminate at the end of the exit curb radius.
PAGE 48 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 7
Figure 3.26 Method of Terminating Edge Strips on Undivided Highway Approach

to a Roundabout
Figure 3.27 Method of Terminating Shoulders on a Divided Highway Approach to a

Roundabout
VOLUME 1 PAGE 49
VOLUME 1 PART 7
3.5 Signing and Marking

3.5.1 Signing
Signing, including destination signs, regulatory signs, warning signs, and information
signs should be provided in accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.
Advance direction signs should be provided on the approach to the roundabout.

Generally, these signs should be a map style sign displaying a plan of the intersection
and the destination or street names of the adjoining roads. Direction signs should also
be provided at exits to provide confirmation of destination or street names to road
users as they leave the intersection.
3.5.2 Road Markings

Road markings are used to channel traffic and, when appropriate, to indicate a
dedicated lane. Lane indication arrows to reinforce the advance map-type direction
signs at entries can be beneficial where heavy traffic flows occur in a particular
direction.
Lane dedication by arrows and markings on the circulatory roadway is not normally
recommended. However, where a roundabout is particularly extensive, partially
signalized, and it is tending to a circulatory system, then some degree of
channelization by road markings may prove beneficial in the operation of the
roundabout.
Road markings are detailed in the Qatar Traffic Control Manual.
3.6 Landscaping Recommendations

Roundabouts can form significant features on a road, both within the wider landscape
and in an urban context, and can represent an opportunity to contribute to a sense of
place. The landscape design can be considered as a specific project to develop an
overall and coordinated landscape approach. Roundabouts can act as landmarks and
wayfinding features through distinctive design however, special care is needed in the
central island so that this area does not become used for recreational purposes.
Features such as benches, picnic areas, and fountains should therefore be avoided.
The landscaping design within the roundabout and adjoining approaches should be
carried out by specialists in landscaping design and maintenance. Landscaping design
should be carried out in coordination with the highway designer to avoid obstructing
visibility sight lines.
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Other than amenity benefits, the landscaping treatment of roundabouts and its
approaches can have several advantages. Generally, the landscaping on the
approaches should accomplish the following:
• Make the median and roundabout more obvious to approaching traffic.

• Minimize introducing hazards to the intersection, such as trees, poles, walls,
guardrail, monuments, or large rocks.
• Avoid obscuring the form of the roundabout or the signing to the driver.
• Maintain adequate visibility.
• Indicate to the driver that they cannot pass straight through the intersection.
• Discourage pedestrian traffic through the central island.
• Help visually impaired pedestrians locate sidewalks and pedestrian crossings.
Planting on the median or splitter island on the immediate approach to the

roundabout, up to 15 m from the yield line, should be avoided to achieve
unobstructed visibility to the left. On large roundabouts, landscaping and planting
should be designed and located to prevent excess visibility to the right.
Maintenance of landscaping and the safety of maintenance personnel should be

carefully considered. Plants, grass, and trees should be selected with consideration
given to the likely maintenance regime.
In rural areas, where sources of irrigation water may not be available, alternative
methods of landscaping should be considered, but without introducing hazards that
would compromise safety of road users. Further guidance on Landscaping is provided
in Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design.
3.7 Lighting Recommendations

Due to the constrained curvature of roundabouts, the effectiveness of vehicle
headlights is limited. Illumination of roundabouts is therefore an important feature
for nighttime visibility of hazards and obstructions (Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America [IES], 2008). Street lighting provides visibility from a distance for users
approaching the roundabout as well as visibility of the key conflict areas improving
users’ perception of the layout and visibility of other users within the roundabout
(IES, 2008).
An approaching driver must be able to see the general layout and operation of a
roundabout in time to make the appropriate maneuvers. Adequate lighting should
therefore be provided at all roundabouts (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011).
It is also important that approaching drivers are not misled by the projection of the
lighting layout beyond the roundabout, particularly when visibility is restricted. The
layout of the luminaires at roundabouts should therefore contrast with that provided
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VOLUME 1 PART 7
on the approaches. This can be achieved by locating the luminaires around the outer
perimeter of the roundabout.
When a roundabout is being modified, the lighting layout should be checked for
suitability with the new road arrangement. Further guidance on the provision of
Street Lighting at roundabouts is given in Part 18, Street Lighting, of this manual.
3.8 Pedestrians and Cyclists

3.8.1 Principles for Pedestrian Crossings
Pedestrian crossing locations at roundabouts are a balance between pedestrian
convenience, pedestrian safety, and roundabout operations.
• Pedestrian desire lines: Pedestrians want crossing locations as close to the

intersection as possible to minimize out-of-direction travel. The farther the
crossing from the roundabout, the more likely pedestrians are to choose a shorter
route that may put them in danger.
• Pedestrian safety: Both crossing location and crossing distance are important.
Crossing distance should be minimized to reduce exposure of pedestrian-vehicle
conflicts. Pedestrian safety may also be compromised at a crossing very close to
the yield line, because driver attention is directed to the left to look for gaps in
the circulating traffic stream. Where possible, crossings should be located to take
advantage of the splitter island; crossings should be located at distance from the
yield line, as measured in increments of approximate vehicle lengths to reduce
the chance that vehicles will be queued across the crossing.
• Roundabout operations: Roundabout operations, primarily vehicular, can be
affected by controlled crossing locations, particularly on the exit. A queuing
analysis at the exit crossing should therefore be carried out.
3.8.2 Pedestrian Crossing Locations and Dimensions

Where an island serves as a refuge for pedestrians, it shall be at least 2 m wide,
preferably 2.5 m wide to accommodate wheelchairs, prams and strollers. The
minimum width for a pedestrian refuge island is 1.5 m; however, this offers little
protection for pedestrians. The island shall be a raised-curbed island. The width may
be increased depending on anticipated pedestrian flows and associated requirements.
Where the facility is required to accommodate dismounted cyclists, the minimum
width shall be increased to 2 m.
At single-lane roundabouts, the pedestrian crossing should be located one vehicle-

length (7.5 m) away from the yield line. At two-lane roundabouts, the pedestrian
crossing should be located between 7.5 m and 20 m away from the yield line.
Pedestrian crossing should not be located within the region between 20 m and 60 m
from the yield line.
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The pedestrian refuge should be designed at street level, rather than being elevated
to the height of the splitter island. This eliminates the need for ramps within the
refuge area, which can be cumbersome for wheelchairs.
Dropped curbs should be provided on each end of the crossing. In addition, tactile
paving should be provided at the crossing facility, to assist the visually impaired.
Further information about provisions for pedestrians is included in Part 19,
Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual.
3.8.3 Provision of Facilities by Roadway Functional Classification

Provisions for nonmotorized users at roundabouts, including cyclists, should be in
accordance with Table 3.9 and Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of
this manual.
Off-street bike paths should generally be provided at roundabouts, except on single-

lane roundabouts on low-speed local roads. Where off-street bike paths are provided,
at-grade crossings should be configured to be shared between pedestrians and
cyclists. Figure 3.28 shows a typical arrangement.
Figure 3.28 Shared At-grade Pedestrian and Cyclist Crossing Adjacent to

Roundabout
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In rural areas, uncontrolled pedestrian crossings may be appropriate where

nonmotorized user demand is low. Table 3.9 indicates the recommended provision
for cyclists and pedestrians where there is sufficient demand to justify them. Further
advice on providing for nonmotorized users is given in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and
Public Transportation, of this manual. At large roundabouts on high-speed roads,
grade-separation for nonmotorized users is the preferred solution.
Table 3.10 Provision for Nonmotorized Users at Roundabouts

Posted
Highway Speed on Two-Way Recommended Combined Bike
Type on Approach AADT on Recommended Pedestrian and Pedestrian
Approach (kph) Leg Cyclist Provision Provision Provision
Four-lane Signal-controlled, Signal-controlled, Signal-controlled,
>50 Any
divided grade-separated grade-separated grade-separated
Four-lane Signal- Signal-
≤50 >25,000 Signal-controlleda
divided controlleda controlleda
Four-lane 16,000 to Signal- Uncontrolled or
≤50 Signal-controlleda
divided 25,000 controlleda signalized
Informal or
Four-lane
≤50 <16,000 Informal uncontrolled Informal
divided
crossing
Two-lane Signal- Signal-
≤50 >12,000 Signal-controlleda
undivided controlleda controlleda
Informal or
Two-lane 8,000 to Informal or
≤50 Informal uncontrolled
undivided 12,000 signalized
crossing
Two-lane
≤50 <8,000 Informal Informal Informal
undivided
Notes:
a In rural areas, signalized facilities may be omitted where pedestrian and bike flows do not justify their
provision.
PAGE 54 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 7
References
States. 2011.
Department for Transport. “Segregated Left Turn Lanes and Subsidiary Deflection Islands at
Roundabouts.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. TD51/03.
UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section3/td5103.pdf. November 2003.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Roundabouts.” Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges. Volume 6, Section 2, Part 3. TD 16/07. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section2/td1607.pdf. August 2007.
Department for Transport. Reducing Sign Clutter. Traffic Advisory Leaflet (TAL) 01/13.
UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.britishparking.co.uk/write/Documents/Library/info%20notes/DfT_advice_leaflet_-
_Reducing_sign_clutter_-_Jan_2013.pdf. January 2013.
Hall, R. D., and R. A. J. Surl. “Accidents at Four Arm Roundabouts and Dual Carriageway
Intersections – Some Preliminary Findings.” Traffic Engineering and Control. Vol. 22, Issue 6:
pp. 339-344. 1981.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES). Design Guide for Roundabout Lighting.
IES DG-19-08. New York, New York, United States. 2008.
Kennedy, Janet V., R. D. Hall, and S. R. Barnard. Accidents at Urban Mini-Roundabouts. TRL
Report 281. Transportation Research Laboratory (TRL): Wokingham, Berkshire, England. 1998.
Kimber, R. M. The Traffic Capacity of Roundabouts. TRRL Laboratory Report No. LR942. Transport
and Road Research Laboratory: Berkshire, England. 1980.
Maycock, G., and R. D. Hall. Accidents at 4-Arm Roundabouts. TRL Report LR1120. Transportation
Research Laboratory (TRL): Wokingham, Berkshire, England. 1984.
Studies. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. May 2011.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Roundabouts: An Informational

Guide. 2nd Edition. Report 672. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States.
2010.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 55
Volume 1
Part 8
Design for Signalized
Intersections
VOLUME 1 PART 8
DESIGN FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪DESIGN FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 1 PART 8
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 General Design Controls .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Design Principles .......................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 General Design Considerations .................................................................... 2
1.2 Signalized Intersection Design Process........................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Intersection Sizing and Cycle Length ............................................................ 3
1.2.2 Pedestrians ................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Initial Design Efforts ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Arrangement and Operations ...................................................................... 3
1.2.5 Level of Service ............................................................................................. 5
2 Intersection Types ..........................................................................................................7

2.1 Intersection Design Plans ............................................................................................ 7
2.1.1 Signalized Crossroads ................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Signalized T-Intersections ............................................................................ 9
2.1.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections .............................................................. 9
2.1.4 Development of Right Turn and Left Turn Deceleration Lanes at
Intersections ............................................................................................... 10
3 Geometric Design .........................................................................................................15

3.1 General Controls ........................................................................................................ 15
3.1.1 Considerations............................................................................................ 15
3.1.2 Design Speed .............................................................................................. 15
3.2 Intersection Visibility ................................................................................................. 15
3.2.1 Visibility on Intersection Approach ............................................................ 15
3.2.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone ................................................................. 16
3.3 Geometric Parameters .............................................................................................. 19
3.3.1 Corner Radii ................................................................................................ 19
3.3.2 Roadway Widths ........................................................................................ 19
3.3.3 Roadway Widths around Corners .............................................................. 20
3.3.4 Swept Paths Requirements ........................................................................ 20
3.3.5 Simultaneous Left Turns............................................................................. 23
3.3.6 U-Turns at Intersections ............................................................................. 23
3.3.7 Median U-Turns.......................................................................................... 24
3.4 Lane Configurations ................................................................................................... 26
3.4.1 Signalized Approach Lanes ......................................................................... 26
3.4.2 Storage Lanes ............................................................................................. 27
3.4.3 Lane Continuity .......................................................................................... 28
3.5 Staggered Intersections ............................................................................................. 29
3.5.1 Stagger Distances ....................................................................................... 29
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VOLUME 1 PART 8
3.5.2 Storage Length for Staggered Intersections ............................................... 30

3.5.3 Left and Right Staggers ............................................................................... 31
3.5.4 Right and Left Staggers ............................................................................... 31
3.6 Turning Lanes and Islands .......................................................................................... 31
3.6.1 Right-Turn Lanes with Separation Island (Exclusive Right-Turn Lanes)...... 31
3.6.2 Acceleration Merging Lanes at Right-Turn Lanes ....................................... 32
3.6.3 Signal Control on Right-Turn Lanes ............................................................ 35
3.6.4 Left-Turn Lanes ........................................................................................... 36
3.6.5 Channelizing Islands and Pedestrians......................................................... 38
3.7 Signals ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.7.1 Visibility and Positioning ............................................................................ 43
3.7.2 Signal Head Arrangement........................................................................... 43
4 Signalized Roundabouts ............................................................................................... 45

4.1 General....................................................................................................................... 45
4.1.1 Application of Design.................................................................................. 45
4.1.2 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities ..................................................................... 46
4.1.3 Geometric Design Standards ...................................................................... 46
4.1.4 Size .............................................................................................................. 47
4.2 Signal Control ............................................................................................................. 47
4.2.1 Extent of Signal Control .............................................................................. 47
4.2.2 Methods of Signal Control .......................................................................... 48
4.2.3 Duration of Signal Control .......................................................................... 49
4.3 Geometric Modifications ........................................................................................... 50
4.3.1 General ....................................................................................................... 50
4.3.2 External Approach Lane on the Outside..................................................... 50
4.3.3 External Approach Lane on the Inside........................................................ 51
4.3.4 Internal Approach Lanes............................................................................. 52
5 Other Design Elements ................................................................................................. 55

5.1 Pedestrians and Cyclists ............................................................................................. 55
5.1.1 General Considerations .............................................................................. 55
5.1.2 Specific Measures for Pedestrians ............................................................. 55
5.1.3 Pedestrian Refuges and Separation Islands ............................................... 56
5.1.4 Use of Tactile Paving .................................................................................. 57
5.1.5 Crossing Places ........................................................................................... 58
5.1.6 Specific Measures for Cyclists .................................................................... 58
5.2 Transit Facilities at Intersections ............................................................................... 60
References ............................................................................................................................. 61
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 61
PAGE II VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 8
Tables
Table 1.1 LOS Criteria for Signalized Intersections .............................................................. 5

Table 2.1 Deceleration Length at Segregated Right- and Left-Turn Approach Lanes ........13
Table 2.2 Taper Rates ......................................................................................................... 13
Table 3.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Typical Design Speeds ............................................16
Table 3.2 Minimum Median Widths Needed for U-Turns .................................................24
Table 3.3 Provision of Merging Acceleration Lanes ........................................................... 32
Table 3.4 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades
of Two Percent or Less ....................................................................................... 34
Table 3.5 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade ......................35
Table 3.6 Deceleration Length of Segregated Left-Turn Approach Lanes Based on the
Design Speed of the Roadway ............................................................................ 36
Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways .........................................43
Figures
Figure 1.1 Example of a Typical Signalized Intersection ....................................................... 4

Figure 2.1 Crossroads ............................................................................................................ 8
Figure 2.2 Example of a Small Signalized T-Intersection ....................................................... 9
Figure 2.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections ..................................................................... 10
Figure 2.4 Deceleration Lanes at Intersection Approaches ................................................11
Figure 3.1 Visibility Requirements on Approach to Intersection ........................................16
Figure 3.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossings..........................17
Figure 3.3 Intersection Intervisibility Zone with Pedestrian Crossings ...............................17
Figure 3.4 Major Obstruction to Intervisibility .................................................................... 18
Figure 3.5 Mitigation of Major Obstruction to Intervisibility ..............................................19
Figure 3.6 Examples of Swept Paths ................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.7 Islands Set Back from Edge of Intersecting Roadway ........................................21
Figure 3.8 Stop Lines That Are Set Back to Accommodate Swept Path of
Large Vehicles ..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.9 Localized Widening at T-Intersection to Accommodate Swept Path of Large
Vehicles .............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 3.10 Simultaneous Left Turns ..................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.11 Example of a Median U-turn Intersection .......................................................... 25
Figure 3.12 Roadway Geometry of a Signalized Median U-Turn ..........................................26
Figure 3.13 Right-Turn Approach Lane.................................................................................. 27
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VOLUME 1 PART 8
Figure 3.14 Left-Turn Approach Lane ................................................................................... 27

Figure 3.15 Displaced Pedestrian Crossing ........................................................................... 28
Figure 3.16 Lane Continuity through Intersection Intervisibility Zone................................. 29
Figure 3.17 Stagger Distance and Storage Length ................................................................ 30
Figure 3.18 Right-Turn Lane without Acceleration Lanes .................................................... 33
Figure 3.19 Right-Turn Lane with Acceleration Lanes .......................................................... 34
Figure 3.20 Key Dimensions for Left-Turn Approach Lanes ................................................. 37
Figure 3.21 Details of Corner Islands .................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.22 Typical Rural Returning Roadway Layout .......................................................... 40
Figure 3.23 Shoulder and Curb Radius Return Transition .................................................... 41
Figure 4.1 Intersection Control Area .................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.2 Large, Signalized Roundabout with Partial, Direct Signal Control ..................... 48
Figure 4.3 Signalized Roundabout with Indirect Signal Control ......................................... 49
Figure 4.4 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Outside ...................... 51
Figure 4.5 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Inside ......................... 52
Figure 4.6 Improvement to Internal Queuing Lanes .......................................................... 53
Figure 5.1 Pedestrian Refuge.............................................................................................. 57
Figure 5.2 Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-Turn Lanes .............................................. 58
Figure 5.3 Shared Pedestrian and Cyclist At-Grade Crossings at Signalized
Intersection........................................................................................................ 59
PAGE IV VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 8
AASHTO American Association of State Transportation and Highway Officials (United

States)
CLV critical lane volume
LDL distance traveled before stopping
LDT distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on the
tapered turn lane
LQ queue length, or storage length
m meters
m2 square meters
m/m meters per meter
m/s2 meters per second squared
UK United Kingdom
v/c volume to capacity
VOLUME 1 PAGE V
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VOLUME 1 PART 8
1 Introduction
1.1 General Design Controls
Traffic control signals are devices that control vehicular and non-motorized traffic
(pedestrians and cyclists) by indicating the correct route for legal movement through
intersections. Traffic signals are either pre-timed or traffic-actuated, in which case the
arrival and presence of vehicles changes the time interval for each movement through
the intersection.
Traffic control signals can be used at several types of intersections. Intersections can
be designed for signal control or signal control can be added to an existing
intersection. The information in this part shall apply to all new signalized intersections
and to all existing priority intersections or roundabouts modified to operate with
signal controls.
Traffic control signal installations include poles, mast arms, and the signal heads that
display the order of priority. The design of traffic signal installations is addressed in
the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM). This part of the Qatar Highway Design
Manual (QHDM) describes the geometric design of intersections so that they can be
signalized in accordance with the guidance in the QTCM. Among the most important
design principles for signalized intersections is the visibility of the signal heads. Careful
consideration should be given to horizontal and vertical curvature with respect to
signal visibility, nonmotorized users needs, and intersection details to provide
effective signal operation. This part identifies those aspects of signal control that have
an effect on geometric layout and should be considered throughout the design
process.
This part provides the standards, methodology, and best practices for the geometric
design of signalized intersections located on roads with a design speed of
80 kilometers per hour (kph) or less. Traffic signals are not recommended on
expressways with speed limits in excess of 80 kph or on rural roads. The QTCM
provides guidance on the method of installation, signal control, and display
sequences. Road and intersection designers should familiarize themselves with the
requirements and guidance provided in the QTCM. Close cooperation, particularly in
the early design stages, is crucial where various engineering staff members are
responsible for different design aspects (for example, geometry, signal control, and
street lighting).
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VOLUME 1 PART 8
1.1.2 General Design Considerations

Traffic signal control can enhance the efficiency of an intersection by reducing
congestion and separating different vehicle movements to reduce conflict. Therefore,
the expected need for traffic control signals should be understood during initial
planning and concept development for new intersections and for the improvement of
existing intersections.
Signalized intersections occur on urban roads, including arterials, collectors, and local
roads, and should be considered in association with the route classification
requirements in Part 2, Planning, of this manual.
Consideration of the installation of traffic control signals should be assessed by a

needs-based study, as outlined in the QTCM. This assessment should include the
following factors:
• Feasibility and desirability of alternative intersection solutions: priority, roundabout,

and grade-separated
• Road classification and expected traffic speeds
• Crash records for an existing intersection
• Whether the intersection is within an urban traffic control area and, if so, its
proximity to other intersections or roundabouts
Traffic signal controls can be implemented in association with other strategies such
as:
• Providing a safer, convenient environment for pedestrians and cyclists

• Giving priority to buses and coaches
• Providing area traffic control
• Accommodating at-grade light rail transit systems
The geometric design of intersections should be coordinated with the development of

traffic control plans early in the project development phases. A concept design layout
that illustrates the provision, number, and type of lanes should be developed, discussed
and agreed upon with the Overseeing Organization prior to developing detailed design
plans.
1.2 Signalized Intersection Design Process

Signalized intersection design requires an understanding of the following basic traffic
operational principles for signalized intersections:
• The capacity of a lane is based on the discharge of a queue from a stopped position.
This is a different capacity concept than an uninterrupted flow on roadway
segments.
• The number and type of conflicting movements that require their own allocation of
signal priority time dictate the total capacity of the intersection.
PAGE 2 VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1 PART 8
• In most cases, the accommodation of left-turning traffic is the determining factor

for intersection capacity and design.
• Design geometry, including turning lane lengths, is based on queuing under peak
traffic conditions during signal phases when each approach is stopped.
• The number of signal phases necessary for all legal movements directly affects the
total signal cycle length, and signal cycle length directly affects length of the queues.
1.2.1 Intersection Sizing and Cycle Length

Designers should refer to QTCM Part 5 for details on:
• Traffic data
• Sizing of intersection and number of lanes required
• Signal timings and phasing
1.2.2 Pedestrians
Providing sufficient crossing time for pedestrians, including cyclists walking their
bikes, people using wheelchairs, and people pushing strollers should be considered
depending on the location and approach. In urban arterials and boulevards, medians
should be provided so that crossing can occur during separate phases. Designers
should check that their signal timing assumptions provide sufficient time for
pedestrians to cross the intersection. The QTCM provides details on walking speed
assumptions and other input for designing signalized pedestrian crossings.
1.2.3 Initial Design Efforts

The initial functional design layouts provide the lane arrangements and channelization
of the intersection. Design features that relate specifically to pedestrians, cyclists, and
buses are discussed in Section 5, Other Design Elements, in this part.
The figures in this part were developed based on the QTCM and illustrate generalized
road layouts. Guidance regarding traffic signal location, type, aspect, and symbol for
particular circumstances is provided in the QTCM. The application of other design
features and turning restrictions are described in this part. The inclusion or exclusion of
design features is not intended to suggest applicability to particular intersection
arrangements.
1.2.4 Arrangement and Operations

The size and complexity of an intersection depends on the combination of geometric
design features described in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual and the
number of signal groups, phases, and separately signaled movements. For example,
the number of conflicting vehicular movements increase dramatically as the number
of intersection legs increase. An intersection with four two-way legs has 32 conflict
points, and an intersection with six two-way legs has 172 conflict points. Priority
intersections, such as simple T-intersections and crossroads, have fewer legs and
fewer conflict points. T-intersections can often be modified to accommodate the
requirements of signal control more readily than staggered intersections, skew
intersections, or intersections with more than four legs.
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VOLUME 1 PART 8
Figure 1.1 depicts a typical signalized intersection. Similar principles can be adopted
for other layouts. Features of the signalized intersection layouts can be considered for
most situations.
Figure 1.1 Example of a Typical Signalized Intersection
When designing signalized intersections, the designer shall do the following:
• Provide sufficient advance warning in accordance with the requirements of the

QTCM, so drivers know which route to take at the intersection.
• Guide drivers into intended lanes by using pavement markings and traffic signs in
accordance with the QTCM.
• Provide drivers and nonmotorized users a clear view of traffic signals at
intersections, in accordance with the QTCM requirements.
• Give drivers a clear view of pedestrian crossing facilities on approach and on exits.
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• Give drivers adequate visibility within the intersection intervisibility zone, see
Section 3.2.1 of this part. Intervisibility represents mutual visibility or sight between:
− Drivers
− Drivers and nonmotorized users
− Road users and traffic control devices including signals and signs
• Develop channelization and turning paths for design vehicles that support the
intended phasing of movements.
The geometric features and layout shall be designed to accommodate the positioning
of signaling equipment, including mast arms where appropriate, pedestrian facilities
and equipment, traffic signs, illuminated bollards, guardrails, and stop lines. During the
early stages of the design process, the designer shall consider the space requirements
for locating signaling equipment and street furniture within sidewalks and islands so
that the islands have sufficient width to provide uncluttered pedestrian crossings. For
the minimum clearance criteria for signs and street furniture, refer to the QTCM.
When developing the geometric design, the designer should also consider
development of traffic control plans and maintenance requirements for the
intersection, including traffic signals, and how the intersection would be used when
under police control.

According to the Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board [TRB],
2010), the level of service (LOS) for a signalized intersection is defined based on the
average stopped delay per vehicle within the period being assessed (usually 1 hour), as
shown in Table 1.1. In addition to the LOS, the design operation shall result in a volume
to capacity (v/c) ratio of less than 1.0 for all movements. The proposed intersection
plan, with lane configurations and phasing plan, shall operate with the selected design
LOS and v/c ratio for design hour traffic. The intersection plan shall be approved by the
Overseeing Organization.
Table 1.1 LOS Criteria for Signalized Intersections
Level of Service Stopped Delay per Vehicle

(seconds)
A ≤10
B >10 to 20
C >20 to 35
D >35 to 55
E >55 to 80
F >80
Source: TRB, 2010.
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2 Intersection Types
2.1 Intersection Design Plans
Intersection design plans defined in this part incorporate specific features applicable
to traffic signal control. These features shall be fully considered when designing new
intersections that require signal control. Subject to some geometric modifications,
signal control can be added to existing intersection layouts designed in accordance
with Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this manual. Modifications
to unsignalized intersections shall be based on meeting the specific needs of signal head
locations, and providing queuing and storage lengths for turn lanes consistent with their
expected operation under signal control.
Lane arrangement is key to the successful operation of signalized intersections. The

crossing distances for vehicles and nonmotorized users should be as short as practical
to reduce exposure to conflicting movements and to reduce clearance intervals,
circular yellow and all-circular-red signal indications, as necessary, and therefore, time
lost during the signal cycle. The number of through lanes at the stop line shall be
maintained across the intersection. Lane widths on the approach to the intersection
shall be in accordance with Section 3.3, Geometric Parameters, in this part.
The size of traffic islands and pedestrian refuges is also important. Adequate
clearance between the curb and street furniture is necessary to prevent damage by
vehicles that have a lateral overhang. Islands and refuges shall be of a sufficient width
to provide uncluttered pedestrian crossings. References shall be made to the QTCM for
minimum clearances.
Acceleration lanes may be needed for a safe merge of the turning vehicles with the
through traffic. The length of the acceleration lane should be sufficient to allow the
merge. Refer to Part 9, Section 5.1.3, for a detailed discussion of merging lanes and
Tables 5.5 and 5.6 for acceleration length.
Generally, a dimension of 300 meters (m), measured from the stop line to the
beginning of a merging taper, is needed for intersections subject to a 80 kph speed
limit. The acceleration lane can be merged into the through lanes at tapers of 1:20 to
1:40, depending on speed (See table 2.2 in this Part 8 document).
The need to provide right-turn lanes at the corners of an intersection should be

assessed based on traffic demands, which may allow right-turning traffic to yield or
stop rather than wait for the appropriate signal indication. The needs of pedestrians
should also be considered.
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If U-turns are to be permitted at the intersection, lane widths and turning movements
of different vehicles should be considered, and the position of pedestrian refuges
checked for possible conflicts. Section 3.3.6, U-Turns at Intersections, in this part
provides the geometric criteria for U-turns.
On multi-lane highway intersection approaches, dedicated left-turn and U-turn lanes

should be physically separated from through lanes by islands for the forecasted
queuing length. Similarly, on two-lane highway intersection approaches, entering and
departing traffic in opposing lanes should be separated by a median or physical island.
Section 3.2, Intersection Visibility, in this part provides the minimum visibility
requirements for primary signals. Refer to the QTCM for information about the
equipment required at all new traffic signs and the operation of the equipment.
2.1.1 Signalized Crossroads

A crossroad is an at-grade intersection of two roads that cross at roughly right angles.
Figure 2.1 shows a small, simple crossroad intersection. Significantly larger crossroads
can be required, particularly in densely populated cities and at the intersection of
divided roadways. These roadways are likely to incorporate additional features, such
as channelizing islands and designated turning lanes, which are discussed in this part.
As described in Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this manual, four-approach

intersections are generally not designated as priority intersections. Four-approach
crossroad intersections are appropriate where signal control will be provided to
manage crossing conflicts.
Figure 2.1 Crossroads
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2.1.2 Signalized T-Intersections

Figure 2.2 shows a simple, small signalized T-intersection, typical of a situation where
road space may be restricted and heavy trucks in significant proportions are not
expected. Refer to Chapter 3, Geometric Design, of this part for details of geometric
design features including intersection intervisibility and storage length. Refer to
Chapter 5, Other Design Elements, in this part for details of pedestrian crossing
provision. On figure 2.2, it is assumed that the low number of pedestrian movements
and the requirement to provide a left turn from approach C to B have led to a decision
not to provide a pedestrian crossing on Approach C. The following specific design
features are incorporated into the example:
• Circular corner radii without tapers, with no provision for swept paths of heavy
trucks
• Displaced pedestrian crossing on approach B linked to the intersection signals
• In-line pedestrian crossing on approach A
Figure 2.2 Example of a Small Signalized T-Intersection
Left turns on multi-lane roads may be provided at signalized T-intersections.
2.1.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections

Signalized staggered intersections may be a left/right or right/left configuration, as
shown on Figure 2.3. Both configurations have unique signal control issues. Closely
spaced, staggered, and signalized intersections should have coordinated signals to
control queue lengths within the stagger area. No two intersections are alike;
therefore, only general guidance is provided in this Section.
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The combination of turning movements from each traffic lane and the geometric
constraints imposed by the intersection can cause blocking within the stagger area
where there is insufficient storage length. This length can result in traffic congestion
and conflicts if not dealt with properly. In such cases, queuing and storage lengths
may be provided on the outside approaches to both intersections. Refer to
Section 3.5.2, Storage Length, in this part for more information.
Figure 2.3 Signalized Staggered Intersections
2.1.4 Development of Right Turn and Left Turn Deceleration Lanes at

Intersections
On high-volume and high-speed roads, dedicated right turn or left turn lanes are
needed upstream of intersections to enhance safety and for operational purposes.
Providing deceleration lanes for right or left-turn movements at intersections allows
drivers to slow down and veer off the mainline with minimal impact to the through
traffic, and stop at the signal if required. As shown on Figure 2.4, the length of the
turn lane consists of the following components:
• Distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on the
tapered turn lane (LDT)
• Distance traveled in the turn lane to come to a stop (LDL).
• Queue length, or storage length (LQ)
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Deceleration Lanes at Intersection Approaches

Figure 2.4
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For discussion on storage lengths, refer to Section 3.4.2, Storage Lanes, in this part.
Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 provide values for deceleration lengths and taper rates for
various design speeds. The deceleration length values are calculated based on the
following assumptions (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials [AASHTO], 2011):
• The speed differential between the through traffic and the turning traffic when the
turning vehicle clears the through traffic lane is 15 kph.
• Deceleration rate for the vehicle moving laterally from the through lane into the
turn lane is 1.8 meters per second squared (m/s2) and average deceleration rate
traveling in the turn lane to come to stop is 2.0 m/s2.
The values in the Table 2.1 are calculated using the following equations:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 − 𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐
𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐
𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 =
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[ ]
𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 −𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐 𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐

𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫 = 𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + 𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = + 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[ ]
𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
where:
LD = deceleration length, m
LDT = distance traveled during the lateral movement from the through lane on to the
turn lane, m
LDL = distance traveled to before stopping, m
U = speed of the left turn vehicle after completing the lateral movement, kph; 15 kph
lower than the design speed
a1 = deceleration rate, m/s2; 1.8 m/s2
a2 = deceleration rate, m/s2; 2.0 m/s2
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The values provided in the table could be used for tangent grades less than or equal
to 3 percent. If the downgrades or upgrades exceed 3 percent, the designer may need
to adjust the values in Table 2.1 using the following equation:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 −𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐 𝑼𝑼𝟐𝟐

𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫 = 𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 + 𝑳𝑳𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = + 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[ ±𝑮𝑮]
𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
where:
G = grade, meters per meter (m/m) and ± is the upgrade or downgrade
Table 2.1 Deceleration Length at Segregated Right- and Left-Turn Approach

Lanes
Design Speed (kph) Deceleration Length (m)

50 55
60 75
70 100
80 130
100 200
Table 2.2 provides taper rates to calculate the required length to develop the required
width prior to introducing left turn lanes at intersections, as shown in Figure 2.4. The
same taper rates also can be applied to calculate the required length to drop lanes
beyond the intersections as shown in Figure 3.13. The lane-add taper rates are used
to introduce lanes on the left or on the right as shown in Figure 2.4.
Table 2.2 Taper Rates
Design Speed (kph) Taper Rate* Lane Add Taper Rate
20 1:10 1:5
30 1:15 1:5
40 1:20 1:5
50 1:25 1:5
60 1:30 1:5
70 1:35 1:5
80 1:40 1:10
90 1:45 1:10
100 1:50 1:10
110 1:55 1:10
120 1:60 1:10
130 1:65 1:10
140 1:70 1:10

* - Taper rates provided also are applicable to calculate the required length to drop lanes at the
intersections.
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3 Geometric Design
3.1 General Controls
3.1.1 Considerations
This Section summarizes the geometric features to be considered in the design of
signalized intersections. Many features are considered separately, and designers
should adopt a systematic approach to incorporate the appropriate features.
3.1.2 Design Speed

Several design criteria are dependent on the approach speed of vehicles. Refer to
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual to determine appropriate design
speeds for each intersection approach. Where the design criteria cannot be achieved,
speed control measures should be implemented to reduce the approach speed to an
appropriate level for the available stopping sight distance.
Part 2, Planning, and Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual provide
guidance for determining posted speeds and design speeds, respectively.
Drivers traveling at even moderately high speeds on roads where signal controls are
installed can face difficult decisions when the circular green signal indication changes
to circular yellow signal indication. Drivers choose between attempting to stop and
continuing through the intersection. Because of the increased braking distances
needed at higher speeds, drivers need adequate warning that they are approaching a
signalized intersection.
3.2 Intersection Visibility

3.2.1 Visibility on Intersection Approach
The minimum visibility on the immediate approach to a signalized intersection shall
be the stopping sight distance (SSD) for the approach design speed as described in
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. Any reduction in the SSD on the
immediate approaches to the intersection shall be considered a Departure from
Standards.
The minimum sight distance to the primary signal is governed by the SSD. Table 3.1
lists typical design speeds and SSD values for the design of new signalized
intersections. Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual provides SSD values
for other design speeds, such as when modifying existing intersections on roads.
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Each traffic lane shall have intervisibility equivalent to the SSD for at least one primary
signal associated with its particular movement. The visibility envelope shall be
increased to include the height of the signal head, as shown on Figure 3.1.
Table 3.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Typical Design Speeds
Design Speed (kph) Stopping Sight Distance (m)
80 130
70a 105
60a 85
50 65
Note:
a Sight distances apply to interchange ramps only.
Figure 3.1 Visibility Requirements on Approach to Intersection
Once the control strategy for the intersection has been established and queue lengths
determined, additional checks should be made to so that the appropriate SSD is
provided to the back of the queue. Where the SSD cannot be achieved, measures
should be taken to reduce queue lengths and to provide signs warning drivers of
potential stopped traffic ahead.
The visibility requirements for nonsignalized elements of the intersection shall be in

accordance with Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this manual.
Visibility requirements for pedestrians using crossings are discussed in Section 5,

Other Design Elements, in this part.
3.2.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone

The intersection intervisibility zone is the area used for assessing visibility within the
intersection between drivers at each stop line, or between drivers and pedestrians.
Such an assessment helps identify measures to mitigate the effects of obstructions in
the intersection. The intervisibility zone extends from 2.5 m behind the stop line
across the full roadway width for each approach, as shown on Figure 3.2.
To help drivers entering the intersection see the full extent of the pedestrian crossing
and its approach, the intersection intervisibility zone should be extended to include
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the full width of the tactile paving laid parallel to the edge of the roadway, as shown
on Figure 3.3 (approaches A and B). For a description of tactile paving, refer to
Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual.
Figure 3.2 Intersection Intervisibility Zone without Pedestrian Crossings
Figure 3.3 Intersection Intervisibility Zone with Pedestrian Crossings
The intersection intervisibility zone does not have to be extended to include a

midblock pedestrian crossing, which is not at an intersection.
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At a staggered intersection, the design will result in two independent intersection

intervisibility zones. As the stagger length reduces, the intersection intervisibility
zones will overlap, forming a single intersection intervisibility zone.
Where a staggered pedestrian crossing is provided, the portion of the crossing

immediately adjacent to the intersection should be included in the intersection
intervisibility zone.
At new signalized intersections, major obstructions to intervisibility within the

intersection intervisibility zone, such as those caused by buildings, should be avoided.
Under these conditions, each obstruction shall be considered as a Departure from
Standards, and measures shall be taken to mitigate their effects on intervisibility.
Figure 3.4 shows the reduction in intervisibility for a vehicle at the stop line on the
right-turn approach lane (approach C) and the departure lane and pedestrian crossing
(approach D) caused by a major obstruction. Figure 3.5 shows how the intervisibility
between approaches C and D can be mitigated by moving the stop line forward and
providing an inline pedestrian crossing on approach C. When adjusting the position of
the stop line and the pedestrian crossing, the effect of the position of the pedestrian
refuge area on vehicle-swept paths shall be checked, and its effect on pedestrians,
particularly the visually impaired, shall be considered.
Figure 3.4 Major Obstruction to Intervisibility
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Figure 3.5 Mitigation of Major Obstruction to Intervisibility
Minor obstructions to visibility caused by slim objects within the intersection

intervisibility zone, such as lighting columns, sign supports, signal posts, controller
cabinets, and guardrails, can be unavoidable in the optimum design. When placing
signs, street furniture, and landscaping at the intersection, the designer should
consider minimizing the obstructive effect. Minor obstructions are not considered a
3.3 Geometric Parameters

3.3.1 Corner Radii
Corner radii and associated provision for heavy trucks shall be in accordance with
Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections.
3.3.2 Roadway Widths

When new intersections are designed as signalized intersections, approach lane
widths shall be equal to the through lane widths. Any reduction in width at new
signalized intersections shall be considered a Departure from Standards.
If a signalized intersection or an uncontrolled intersection is being improved or

modified and available road space is restricted, the permitted lane widths for straight
ahead approach lanes may be reduced to 3 m if the design speed does not exceed
50 kph and the reduced width enables a necessary extra lane to be provided on multi-
lane entries. Any reduction below these widths at an existing intersection shall be
considered a Departure from Standards.
Pavement markings should be provided to channelize traffic. Diagonal crosshatch

markings should be used on areas of roadways that would otherwise result in
excessively wide lanes or that could cause driver confusion.
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3.3.3 Roadway Widths around Corners

Where provision is to be made for heavy trucks, buses, and coaches, roadways or
lanes may require widening around curves, in accordance with Part 6, Design for
Priority Intersections.
3.3.4 Swept Paths Requirements

Computer simulations of vehicle movements that can be interactively superimposed
over a computer-generated design model of the intersection is the preferred way to
predict swept paths. The simulations can help the designer minimize the required
widening within the intersection and identify surplus pavement areas that can be
removed, as shown on Figure 3.6.
Signalized intersections with associated splitter islands and pedestrian refuges can
restrict the movement of vehicles, particularly large trucks. Where provision is to be
made for large trucks, an allowance should be made for the swept paths of the design
vehicle. The swept paths should be checked for all permitted turning movements.
Figure 3.6 and Figure 3.7 show examples of swept paths that illustrate the general
requirements for design vehicles that are defined in Part 2, Planning and Part 6,
Design for Priority Intersections.
Figure 3.6 Examples of Swept Paths
Where an intersection approach has multiple channelized turning lanes for a single
maneuver, such as two adjacent left-turn lanes, the swept paths shall be checked so
that adequate space is provided for the design vehicle and a passenger car, or cars if
there are more than two lanes, to turn simultaneously from the adjacent lanes.
Where the number of large vehicles is high and simultaneous turns are anticipated, a
larger swept path may need to be considered.
The most efficient intersection phasing plan involves simultaneous operation of

opposing left turns. Placing stop lines on both approaches and designing the
departure lanes to include a median island nose should allow these movements to
occur without overlapping. The median noses and pedestrian refuges should be set
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back at least 1.5 m from a line extended from the edge of the intersecting road as
Figure 3.7 Islands Set Back from Edge of Intersecting Roadway
Adequate clearance between the edge of roadway and any street furniture, including
signal heads, signal backplates, subsidiary signal heads, mast arms, and safety
barriers, is needed to prevent damage by vehicles that have a lateral overhang. In
addition, the clearance should be of a sufficient width to provide uncluttered
pedestrian crossings. A minimum clearance of 0.6 m should be provided, but
designers should refer to the QTCM for guidance. Additional clearance may be
required where the cross-slope of the roadway is greater than 2.0 percent. Special
care should be taken to provide sufficient clearance on high-speed roads where road
restraint systems may be required or where supports for structures such as
pedestrian bridges or overhead sign gantries must be accommodated. Refer to
Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety.
Without specific provisions for large trucks, drivers can have difficulty completing a
turning maneuver without encroaching upon opposing lanes. Where this is likely, it
may be necessary to set the stop line and pedestrian crossings if present, back from
the intersection, as shown on Figure 3.7. Stop lines on adjacent approach lanes should
not be staggered because heavy trucks in the inside approach lane can prevent drivers
in the outside approach lane from seeing the primary signal to the right or
pedestrians. Where adjacent lanes are controlled by different signal groups and have
independent primary signals, staggered lanes may be acceptable, but intervisibility
shall be maintained.
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In difficult confined situations and at small intersections, the channel and sidewalk
opposite the minor road may be set back to provide additional width for the swept
path of large trucks and other long vehicles, as shown on Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8 Stop Lines That Are Set Back to Accommodate Swept Path of Large
Vehicles
Figure 3.9 Localized Widening at T-Intersection to Accommodate Swept Path of

Large Vehicles
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3.3.5 Simultaneous Left Turns

Sufficient space should be provided for adequate separation between two design
vehicles carrying out simultaneous left-turn maneuvers. At least 2.0 m of clearance
should be provided between opposing turning vehicles (refer to Figure 3.10). The
clearance should be increased to 3 m where turning volumes and speeds are likely to
be high; for example, at single-point urban diamond interchanges. Pavement
markings should be in accordance with the QTCM, and the alignment of opposing
lanes should allow vehicles to turn safely and clearly identify the travel path.
Figure 3.10 Simultaneous Left Turns
Opposing left-turning approach lanes may be aligned and channelized to facilitate

simultaneous left turns. Median (separator) can be introduced to separate left turning
traffic from the through traffic based on operational and safety considerations.
Where signal phasing is initially intended to separate left-turn maneuvers at crossroad

intersections, these requirements shall still be applied to allow flexibility in future
signal phasing.
3.3.6 U-Turns at Intersections

At intersections where U-turns are allowed, the roadway including shoulders and
median should be sufficiently wide to allow the design vehicle to turn from the left-
turn lane around the median (including curb, if any) and into the roadway of the
opposing traffic lanes. AASHTO (2011) recommends median widths of 5 m to 16 m or
wider for passenger vehicle and single-unit truck traffic, respectively, to turn from the
inner lane on one road to the outer lane of a two-lane opposing roadway. U-turns are
not recommended from the through lanes. The minimum width of medians to
accommodate U-turns by different design vehicles turning from the lane adjacent to
the median is given in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2 Minimum Median Widths Needed for U-Turns
M – Minimum Width of Median for Design Vehicle
P SU BUS WB-12 WB-15
Length of Design Vehicle
Type of Maneuver 5.7 m 9.0 m 12.0 m 15.0 m 16.5 m
inner lane
outer lane
shoulder
Inner lane to jug 2m 10 m 10 m 10 m 12 m

handle
3.3.7 Median U-Turns

The volume and pattern of traffic or other special considerations can suggest the need
for U-turning between signalized intersections or interchanges on multi-lane roads.
The reasons for such a solution can include any of the following:
• A downstream signalized intersection is considered too far away, increasing out-of-

direction travel for the left-turning traffic.
• U-turning demand translated to the next downstream, signalized intersection may
require so much additional time for the left-turn/U-turn phase such that the overall
LOS of the intersection is significantly degraded. This can occur, for example, in
association with a multi-lane minor road priority intersection.
• Particular critical land uses or activities are present requiring more direct access
than through downstream U-turns.
• Regularly spaced emergency openings are needed on controlled-access highways

and divided highways where openings facilitate U-turns during highway-related
maintenance, law enforcement activities, and emergency situations including
medical and fire emergencies and natural or manmade disasters.
Midblock median U-turn is generally utilized to improve safety and operation at

signalized intersections by eliminating left-turning movements. However, median U-
turns can also be provided to accommodate motorist on minor roads at priority
intersections (T-intersections) desiring to go through or turn left where neither the
through nor the left-turn movements are provided.
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At signalized intersections, the left turning vehicles on the major street are directed
through the intersection to make a U-turn movement at a downstream directional
crossover (usually signalized), proceed back in the opposite direction, shift to the right
lane, and make a right turn onto the minor street at the intersection. Similarly, left-
turning vehicles on the minor street at a signalized intersection with the major street,
are directed to turn right onto the major street, shift to the left lane of the major
street, make a U-turn movement at the same directional crossover, and proceed in
the opposite direction through the intersection. See Figure 3.11.
Design and layout of Median U-turn intersections are generally influenced by right-of-
way availability and traffic volumes and can have different variation including the
following:
• Placing the directional crossover control either on the major road or the minor road
• Placing the directional control on both major and minor roads
• Placing additional pavement opposite of crossovers on the outside edge of the
travel lane to accommodate vehicle swept path and reduce median width
Figure 3.11 Example of a Median U-turn Intersection
At T-intersection of a minor and a major road, where through and/or left turning
movements are not provided, motorists can use the median U-turn to go to their
intended destination. Figure 3.12 shows a U-turn solution suitable for passenger car
operation on multi-lane arterials with raised median widths of 6 m or more. Left-turning
traffic from a minor road at an upstream intersection, where a left turn is either
prohibited or not provided, turns right, shifts to the left through lane, then accesses the
U-turn opening, completes the U-turn, and continues on the major road toward the
intended destination. Refer to Part 6, Section 5.7 for further design details.
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Figure 3.12 Roadway Geometry of a Signalized Median U-Turn
The U-turn design may accommodate passenger vehicles only, with signing
prohibiting trucks; or it may be designed for larger vehicles. If the median U-turn is
designed for larger vehicles, additional pavement to accommodate the swept path of
a larger design vehicle (single-unit truck or small bus) shall be provided.
The presence of the U-turn arrangement as the way to make a left turn is signed on
the minor approach to the intersection to inform drivers. Decision sight distance
should be provided on the major road approach to the location of the U-turn opening,
from which traffic will enter the major road.
Implementation of the U-turn arrangement shall be limited to roads signed for 80 kph
or lower speed. The U-turn lane should be stop controlled. It should be located a
sufficient distance upstream of the next signalized intersection or roundabout so as
not to interfere with its operation. As a general planning guide, there should be a
distance of 300 m from the U-turn to the center of signalized intersection. However,
an analysis of the median and 95th percentile stopped queues on the signalized
intersection approach should govern the location decision.
The unique aspects of an unsignalized median U-turn are such that it should be closely
monitored following its opening to traffic. Locating the opening as described above
should enable implementation of signal control should this be necessary.
The Overseeing Organization may choose to implement a median U-turn given site-
specific needs and conditions.
3.4 Lane Configurations

3.4.1 Signalized Approach Lanes
Approach lane widths shall be in accordance with Section 3.3.2, Roadway Widths, in
this part.
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Intersection capacity can be increased by widening the road near the intersection to
provide dedicated right- or left-turn approach lanes. Vehicles in the dedicated turn
lanes often move independently from those in other lanes, and sufficient lane width
and length should be provided to allow this. Additional turn lanes shall be developed
with tapers of 1:5, as shown on Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14. Physical segregation of
turning lanes by channelizing islands is addressed in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and
Islands, in this part.
Figure 3.13 Right-Turn Approach Lane
Figure 3.14 Left-Turn Approach Lane
Dedicated left-turn lanes or U-turn lanes shall be signalized. Dedicated right-turn

lanes, which are discussed in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and Islands, in this part may
be signalized or controlled by yield road markings and signs.
3.4.2 Storage Lanes

The storage length is the length of the full-width approach lane to an intersection,
measured from the stop line, over which vehicles can queue without obstructing or
being obstructed by vehicles in the adjacent lane.
The storage length of right and left-turn approach lanes should be designed to meet
the capacity requirements of the intersection based on a traffic analysis of the
intersection operation. To prevent turning traffic from blocking the adjacent lane, the
approach lane should be of sufficient length to accommodate the longest queue of
stopped traffic, regardless of whether that traffic is turning or going straight through
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the intersection. Similarly, traffic may be prevented from entering the right- or left-
turn lane where there is a high proportion of straight-ahead traffic queuing in the
adjacent lane. The storage length may be extended to enable traffic to enter the
turning lane unobstructed (Department for Transport, 2004).
As a general guide in initial plan development, the following equation can be used:
length of 95th percentile queue in a lane (m) =

design hour volume for the turning movement (vph)/3
where:
m = meters
vph = vehicles per hour
Left-turn storage lanes should be separated for their full length by a channelizing
island, as described in Section 3.6, Turning Lanes and Islands, in this part. Provision of
storage lanes or acceleration lanes for right-turning traffic is optional; their provision
and length should be justified based on traffic demands and operational conditions.
Where midblock or displaced pedestrian crossings are installed as shown in Figure 3.15,
designers should provide adequate storage length to avoid traffic queuing in the crossing.
Figure 3.15 Displaced Pedestrian Crossing
3.4.3 Lane Continuity

The number of straight-ahead intersection approach and departure lanes for a traffic
stream should be balanced to reduce conflicts caused by traffic merging or diverging
within the intersection intervisibility zone. In exceptional circumstances, where it is
necessary to reduce the number of lanes on the departure, the lane reduction should
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be beyond the intersection intervisibility zone over a distance of at least 100 m for a
single-lane reduction measured from the limit of the intersection intervisibility zone,
as shown on Figure 3.16.
The lane reduction should normally be done from the edge of the right lane, but may
depend on traffic conditions (Department for Transport, 2004). The greater the
distance of the lane reduction, the more drivers will use the lane before merging. The
length required to drop a lane depends on the design speed of the road. See table 2.2
in Section 2.1.4 of this part for taper rate.
At major intersections where a merging acceleration lane for right-turning traffic is

incorporated on the departure, lane reduction shall begin a minimum of stopping sight
distance from the end of acceleration lane taper. Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this manual for stopping sight distance requirements.
The use of lane markings within the intersection intervisibility zone, as shown on
Figure 3.16 may be beneficial to direct traffic streams and reduce conflicts where
intersection approach and departure lane widths vary or the alignment through the
intersection is not a direct path (Department for Transport, 2004).
Figure 3.16 Lane Continuity through Intersection Intervisibility Zone
3.5 Staggered Intersections

3.5.1 Stagger Distances
The stagger distance at an intersection is the distance along the major road between
the centerlines of the two minor roads, as shown on Figure 3.17. Stagger distance has
a major influence on safety and capacity. If the stagger distance is large, the
arrangement may need to be treated as two independent, signalized intersections. If
the stagger distance is small, possibly with a banned turn, the intersection may be
treated as a simple signalized crossroad. The stagger distances will determine the
signal groups, phases, and timing of the traffic signals.
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Figure 3.17 Stagger Distance and Storage Length
Where the stagger distance is greater than 250 m, the intersections shall be
considered two independent, signalized T-intersections.
With a stagger distance between 75 and 250 m, the intersections should generally be
treated as two separate, signalized T-intersections with local linking and coordination
of the traffic signals to favor the following major flows of traffic through the
intersection (refer to Figure 3.17):
• Straight ahead on the major road (approach A to C and approach C to A)

• Flow to and from the two staggered approaches (approach B to D and approach D
to B)
• A combination of these two traffic flows
Where the stagger distance is less than 75 m, the intersections should generally be
considered a single signalized intersection.
3.5.2 Storage Length for Staggered Intersections

The storage length is the distance between the inner stop lines, as shown on
Figure 3.17. The available storage length depends on the stagger distance and
whether pedestrian crossing facilities are provided within the stagger distance.
When the stagger distance is less than 75 m, it becomes more difficult to provide for
inner stop lines, pedestrian crossing facilities, and associated signals. The shortest
effective storage length is 15 m. With a storage length less than 15 m, the intersection
should be a signalized crossroad with special consideration for the longer clearance
distances.
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Queuing and storage of turning vehicles can be designed on the outside approaches
when the stagger distance is small. An analysis using suitable traffic modeling
software can verify the satisfactory operation of the staggered intersections.
3.5.3 Left and Right Staggers

Depending on the volumes and distribution of traffic and the left and right stagger
distance, the inner stop lines are of varying importance. With a stagger distance of
75 m or greater, inner stop lines should be included to eliminate the very long
clearance distances and extended intergreen periods that would otherwise be
necessary.
Where a significant volume of pedestrian movement is anticipated, the staggered

intersections can require pedestrian crossings at each stop line. Where the pedestrian
movement volume is lower or it is not anticipated that pedestrians will desire to cross
the roadway and the stagger distance is not great, a reduced number of pedestrian
crossing facilities may be justified.
3.5.4 Right and Left Staggers

A right and left stagger will usually have difficult traffic conflicts that could have an
adverse effect on safety. Two-phase signaling is not permitted on right and left
staggers; therefore, three-phase signaling is used with separate signal groups for each
staggered approach.
3.6 Turning Lanes and Islands

3.6.1 Right-Turn Lanes with Separation Island (Exclusive Right-Turn Lanes)
Right-turn lanes with a separation island should be considered where:
• Right-turn traffic movement is high

• Delays for right-turn vehicles would otherwise be significant
• Right-turn traffic capacity requirements would extend the green time (circular green
signal indication) required for the straight-ahead traffic movement signal group
A traffic analysis of intersection design options should be conducted to assess the

need for right-turn lanes and to determine a suitable layout, including the provision of
approach lanes and merging acceleration lanes.
Right-turn lanes incorporating islands should be at least 3.65 m wide, where the island
is up to 50 m in length and 5 m wide if the island is longer than 50 m. The lane width
and approach and departure radii should be checked based on the swept path
analysis of the design vehicle and the requirements in Part 6, Design for Priority
Intersections.
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For reconstruction projects where right-of-way constraints exist and space is limited,
subject to agreement with the overseeing organization, right-turn lane widths of
3.2 m for speeds 50 kph or less on urban roads and 3.4 m for 80 kph or less on urban
roads may be used.
When right-turn lanes are used in conjunction with islands, the swept path of the
design vehicle should dictate the turning width through the turn. Use of marginally
lesser widths than 3.65 m has a minor effect on the capacity of the turn and no
adverse effect on the expected safety performance.
3.6.2 Acceleration Merging Lanes at Right-Turn Lanes

The provision of merging acceleration lanes in association with right-turn lanes at
signalized intersections depends on a number of criteria, as summarized in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Provision of Merging Acceleration Lanes
Road Entered Number of

Design Speed Road Entered Turning Signal Control Pedestrian
(kph) Roadway Type Lanes on Departure Priority
Without acceleration 30 to 80 Single or divided 1 or more Permitted High

lane
With acceleration lane 80 Divided only 1 Not permitted Low
When entering a road of design speed 50 kph or less, a simple yield plan should be
provided, not a merging acceleration lane. A signalized right-turn lane may be
incorporated with a pedestrian crossing where there is high pedestrian demand.
Signal control is likely to be required to facilitate operation of two right-turn lanes.
Figure 3.18 shows a right-turn design without acceleration lanes. The right-turn slip
lane should be designed to allow drivers to yield at an angle of 70 degrees before
merging with the intersecting road. Generally, this plan seeks to provide a balance
between vehicles and pedestrians and may be suitable for areas such as central
business districts or tourist districts where there may be a significant pedestrian
demand.
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Figure 3.18 Right-Turn Lane without Acceleration Lanes
Figure 3.19 shows a right-turn design with acceleration lanes that facilitates a high
proportion of right-turning traffic. The provision of and the length of a dedicated
right-turn lane on the intersection approach should be based on the traffic demands
and operational conditions, as described in Section 3.4, Lane Configurations, in this
part, as well as the availability of right-of-way and the ability to develop the design in
three dimensions. Acceleration length design values are given in Table 3.4 and
adjustment factors for grades are given in Table 3.5.
A merging acceleration lane should be provided only when intersecting a multi-lane

road with a design speed of 80 kph or more. This plan should not be signalized and
should be limited to the provision of only a single lane.
The geometric criteria for the turning roadway layout, including details of merge nose,
acceleration lane, and taper lengths, are provided in Part 6, Design for Priority
Intersections, of this manual. The right-turn with acceleration lanes layout generally
favor vehicles rather than pedestrians and other nonmotorized users. The larger
turning radii can accommodate higher vehicle speeds. Because of this, care should be
taken in areas where there may be pedestrian demands. In urban areas, a raised
crossing may be appropriate to reduce vehicle speeds on the approach to the
pedestrian crossing. The crossing, whether raised or not, should be designed in
accordance with Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual.
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Figure 3.19 Right-Turn Lane with Acceleration Lanes
Table 3.4 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat
Grades of Two Percent or Less
Acceleration Length, L (m) for Entrance Curve Design Speed (kph)
Stop
Highway Condition 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Design Speed and Initial Speed, V’a (kph)
Speed, Reached,
V (kph) Va (kph) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 37 60 50 30 — — — — —
60 45 95 80 65 45 — — — —
70 53 150 130 110 90 65 — — —
80 60 200 180 165 145 115 65 — —
90 67 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 —
100 74 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 81 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 88 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
130 98 650 635 605 590 575 550 445 365
140 105 760 745 720 710 695 675 585 500
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).
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Table 3.5 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade

Metric
Design Speed Declaration Lanes
of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level for Design Speed of Turning Curve
(kph) (kph)a
3 to 4% upgrade 0.9 3 to 4% downgrade 1.2
All Speeds
Design Speed Acceleration Lanes
of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length of Level for Design Speed of Turning Curve
(kph) (kph)
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4 % Upgrade 3 to 4 % Downgrade
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 - - 0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 - 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
140 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
60 1.5 1.5 - - - 0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 - - 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 - 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.5
140 2.6 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.8 0.5
Notes:
a Ratio from this table multiplied by the length in Table 3.4 gives length of speed change lane on grade.
3.6.3 Signal Control on Right-Turn Lanes

Segregated right-turn lanes without merging acceleration lanes may be either
signalized or a yield to suit the overall intersection operation.
A consistent approach should be adopted for the layout of the right-turn lane and
their associated pedestrian crossing facilities. Individual intersection designs should
not mix uncontrolled and controlled crossings where they combine to form a single
pedestrian crossing route.
Uncontrolled right-turn lanes may make pedestrians crossings more difficult because
of increased vehicle speeds; therefore, it is important to consider the whole effect of
the geometric layout on pedestrian crossing facilities. The effect of the taper, crossing
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lengths, and pedestrian desire lines should be considered when identifying locations
for pedestrian crossings.
3.6.4 Left-Turn Lanes

Left-turn lanes shall be separated from through traffic by islands. The use of non-
separated left turn lanes requires approval from the Overseeing Organization. Left-
turn lanes may also accommodate U-turn traffic and, in certain circumstances,
dedicated U-turn lanes may be provided. Dedicated left-turn or U-turn lanes shall be
signalized.
Where U-turns are required due to roadway geometry, localized widening similar to
that shown on Figure 3.9 may accommodate the movement, particularly when
turning into a roadway with only two lanes. In addition to providing localized
widening, signs prohibiting certain large vehicles from making U-turns should be
considered, in accordance with the QTCM.
The left-turn lanes should be introduced with a taper of 1:5. Where multiple left-turn
lanes are required, the taper length will increase. A sufficient length (L1), as shown in
Table 3.6 and Figure 3.20, should be provided between the taper and the start of the
island nose to enable left-turning vehicles to enter the left-turn facility.
For reconstruction projects where right-of-way constraints exist and space is limited,
subject to agreement with the Overseeing Organization, left-turn lane widths of 3.3 m
for 50 kph or less and 3.5 m for 80 kph or less may be used.
Table 3.6 Deceleration Length of Segregated Left-Turn Approach Lanes Based on

the Design Speed of the Roadway
Design Speed (kph) Deceleration Length (m)
50 55
60 75
70 100
80 130
100 200
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Figure 3.20 Key Dimensions for Left-Turn Approach Lanes
The storage length is based on the queuing expected at the approach during all-
circular-red signal indication phases. The storage length is a function of the nature of
the arrivals (that is, random versus platoon); signal cycle length and the length of the
circular red signal indication needed for the movement; and the demand volume for
the movement. The left-turn lane should be long enough that it does not cause
queuing of traffic to block the left-most through lane.
Ideally, storage length should be designed in accordance with the guidance in

Section 3.4.2, Storage Lanes, in this part. However, as a general guide for initial plan
development, the 95th percentile queue length can be approximated by dividing the
approach design-hour-volume per lane of the turning movement by three. The
median or 50th percentile queue is about half the length of the 95th percentile
queue. For example, the storage length for a design hour demand per lane of 400 vph
would be 130 to 135 m for the desirable 95th percentile queue and 65 to 70 m for the
50th percentile queue. Where space is limited, this lesser design criterion may be
used. Note: These approximations are based on signal cycle lengths of 90 to
120 seconds and random arrivals.
An initial design plan based on this guidance should be refined using a

microsimulation analysis of the intersection. The analysis should take into account
adjacent traffic signals because these will influence the pattern of arrivals to the
approaches.
The island between the left-turn and through traffic shall be introduced by a nosing
with a 1:5 taper angle, as shown on Figure 3.20. The width of the island should be a
minimum of 1.5 m, with adequate curb offset from traffic lanes provided in
accordance with Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria, of this manual. The minimum
island length upstream from the signal stop line should be 10 m.
Where a single-lane left-turn or U-turn facility is separated from the through lanes,
the minimum pavement width between the island and median should be 6 m.
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3.6.5 Channelizing Islands and Pedestrians

In roadway design, an island is an area between traffic lanes for controlling vehicle
movements and providing a refuge area for pedestrians. Islands are normally
delineated by raised curbs or painted by using thermoplastic marking. Channelization
occurs where islands direct traffic into a definite path. Islands are often used at the
corners of urban intersections and occasionally at rural intersections to direct right-
turning vehicles and to provide a refuge for pedestrians.
In terms of size, islands are generally categorized small, intermediate, or large. A

small-curbed corner island will have a minimum area of 5 square meters (m2) in urban
areas and 7 m2 in rural areas; the desirable minimum area of a small island is 9 m2 for
both urban and rural areas. A large-curbed corner island is one with side dimensions
of at least 30 m. The size of intermediate islands are between these size of small and
large islands.
Curbed corner Islands should be located and designed to offer little obstruction to
vehicles, eliminate confusing traffic movements, and command the attention of
motorists so that they will not drive over them. Most urban intersections are designed
using a simple radius corner island. Where trucks are expected to turn, provision of a
simple radius with tapers or a three-centered radii can be used. See Figure 3.21 for
details regarding curbed corner islands
Rural Turning Road: Figure 3.22 illustrates a typical rural turning roadway layout with
a three-centered curve at the intersection. At rural intersections, where shoulders
normally are available on one or both approach legs, it may be preferable to continue
the paved shoulder throughout the radius of the slip lane. Shoulder widths can be
transitioned as shown on Figure 3.23(A). If for it is necessary to use a curb instead of
shoulder at rural intersections, the shoulder should transition through the slip ramp
return radius to the curb, as shown on Figure 3.23(B).
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Figure 3.21 Details of Corner Islands
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Figure 3.22 Typical Rural Returning Roadway Layout
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Figure 3.23 Shoulder and Curb Radius Return Transition
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Islands and Pedestrians: Separation islands that serve as refuges for pedestrians
should be designed to accommodate pedestrian crossing facilities and associated
equipment. Separation islands can provide safe crossings for pedestrians and other
nonmotorized users and can improve traffic capacity by incorporating pedestrian call
phases into the traffic signal.
All channelizing, separation, and refuge islands shall be appropriately sized for an
acceptable LOS for pedestrians. Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation,
provides details regarding the criteria for a pedestrian LOS.
Section 5.1 provides guidance regarding geometric requirements for pedestrian

refuges.
Width of Turning Roadways: The width of turning roadways at intersections and

interchanges is a function of the design vehicle, design speed, and the radius of the
curvature. Width of turning roadways also depends on the operational purposes of
the roadway and design traffic conditions. Operational purposes of the turning
roadways include the following three cases:
• Case I: One way operation without provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case II: One way operation with provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case III: Two lane one way operation.
Design traffic conditions include:
• Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars with few single unit trucks (SU-9
and SU-12).
• Traffic Condition B: Includes sufficient number of single unit trucks (SU-9 and SU-12)
that govern the design and consideration also is given to intermediate semitrailers
(WB-12 and WB-15).
• Traffic Condition C: Includes sufficient number of intermediate semitrailers (WB-12
and WB-15) and interstate semitrailer (WB-20) that govern the design.
The radius of curvature of the inner edge of pavement depends on the design speed
and the expected design vehicles using the roadway. Table 3.7 shows pavement width
values for various design traffic conditions, operational purposes, and curvature of
the inside edge of pavement. The values are adopted from AASHTO, 2011a. For
additional details refer to Section 3.8, in Part 3.
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Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways

Pavement Width, m
Radius on Case I, One-Lane, One-Way Case II, One-Lane, One-Way Case III, Two-Lane, One-
Inner Edge Operation – no provision Operation – provision for Way or Two-Way
of for passing a stalled vehicle passing a stalled vehicle Operation
Pavement,
R, m Design Traffic Condition
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9
Note: Only use the turning roadway widths in this table as a guide and check with a turning template or
computer-simulated turning template program.
3.7 Signals
3.7.1 Visibility and Positioning
Signal heads and secondary signals should be positioned in accordance with the
QTCM. Care should be taken that street furniture is not located where it would
obstruct the path of pedestrians crossing the intersection or obscure the intersection
intervisibility for drivers.
Where traffic signals on mast arms are being considered, the requirements for the
mast arm foundation, maintenance requirements, and technical approval
requirements should be determined early in the design process.
3.7.2 Signal Head Arrangement

Duplicate primary signals are recommended on all approaches. At some sites, signal
visibility may be improved by installing additional signal heads on tall posts, above the
primary signal head, or on mast arm brackets above the roadway. If mast arm signals
are used, the designer should check route characteristics and associated vertical
clearances. When designing the signal head arrangement, the following two issues
should be addressed:
• Potential maintenance issues

• Signal visibility as drivers travel toward the stop line
It is important that standard height signals are visible to all drivers on the approach
and that the requirements of the QTCM are incorporated into the intersection design.
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4 Signalized Roundabouts
4.1 General
4.1.1 Application of Design
Roundabouts are designed to operate freely, without traffic signals. One solution for
reconstruction projects with a roundabout operating with a v/c ratio greater than 1.0
and an LOS F may be to signalize the roundabout. The guidance in this Section
regarding the provision of traffic signals at roundabouts is applicable only to existing
roundabouts that may require such an improvement. By policy, signalized
roundabouts shall not be a design solution for new intersections.
The issues that may prompt the designer to consider installing traffic signals at a
roundabout are described in Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this manual
and further detailed in the QTCM. These issues include specific traffic concerns
associated with certain roundabouts that may be resolved by installing traffic signals
with or without geometric changes. For a roundabout that may require or benefit
from signals on most or all approaches, traffic microsimulation software is generally
necessary to characterize the level of improvement and enable development of
design details.
When traffic flows exceed the level at which a roundabout can no longer self-regulate,
that is when the v/c ratio is greater than 1.0, the throughput of particular entries can
be restricted. The provision of traffic signals at one or more approaches can provide
capacity for the affected roundabout approach movements in the following manner:
• Where delays are excessive because of imbalanced flows, signals can alter the
natural priority to better address the imbalance.
• Where throughput is inadequate because of high circulating speeds rather than high
flow, signals can achieve an overall improvement in throughput.
• Where significant pedestrian traffic crosses one or more approaches, providing
dedicated pedestrian crossing time through signalization can provide for
pedestrian’s safe crossing.
• Where it is possible to coordinate the roundabout as part of an overall urban traffic
control network, usually fixed-time urban traffic control, traffic signals can reduce
overall delays by eliminating the random element of yield control.
A combination of physical improvements, pavement markings, and signaling can

increase capacity, provide better balance and stability of queues, and reduce traffic
speed. Lane control at signalized roundabouts may be improved by the effective use
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of route indications on the external and internal approaches to direct traffic to the
appropriate departure lane. Where used in this Section, external approach pertains to
approaches into the roundabout and internal approach pertains to approaches within
the circulatory roadway of the roundabout.
Roundabouts are self-regulating under normal priority control at each approach.

However, signalized roundabouts have signal control on one or more of the external
approaches and on one or more of the internal approaches. Signalized roundabouts
may operate in a self-regulating manner, depending on a combination of the extent,
method, and duration of the signal control conditions and the roundabout size.
4.1.2 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities

In urban areas, care should be taken to provide mobility to pedestrians. Where
pedestrian volumes are high, crossing facilities should be designed in accordance with
the guidance in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual.
Signals for traffic on the external approaches give pedestrians a natural point of focus.
Ideally, the pedestrian route across the rest of the circulatory roadway should be
related to pedestrian desire lines and will affect the signal system that is adopted.
Pedestrians may be directed onto the central island of the roundabout or to crossing
facilities provided on the departure lanes of the roundabout. Pedestrian crossings on
departure lanes should be sufficiently far from the circulatory roadway to minimize
the likelihood of queuing vehicles interfering with circulating traffic. This will depend
on traffic flow, overall roadway circulation, and the length of traffic stop time at
pedestrian signals.
Traffic signals at approaches to the roundabout help reduce conflicts between

vehicular and pedestrian movements.
4.1.3 Geometric Design Standards

This Section provides guidance on the application of geometric design standards for
signalized roundabouts.
The geometric design of the key elements described in Part 7, Design for
Roundabouts, of this manual should be applied to external and internal approaches to
a roundabout that always operate in a self-regulating manner; that is, approaches
without signal control or with part-time signal control. The guidance in Part 7 should
also be applied to approaches with indirect signal control. Refer to Section 4.2, Signal
Control, in this part for more information.
The geometric design standards in Section 4.3, Geometric Modifications, in this part
should be applied to external approaches to a roundabout that operate with direct
full-time signal control (refer to Section 4.2, Signal Control, in this part). These
standards should also be considered for external approaches that operate with direct
part-time signal control; however, under these circumstances, the standards in Part 7,
Design for Roundabouts, of this manual take priority.
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For signalized roundabouts, the intersection intervisibility zone on the circulatory

roadway should be measured to a point 2.5 m beyond the secondary signal, as shown
on Figure 4.1.
The requirements for intersection intervisibility apply to internal and external

approaches to a roundabout that operate under signal control at any time.
Figure 4.1 Intersection Control Area
4.1.4 Size
The engineering challenges in designing a signalized roundabout are usually greater
for a small roundabout than a large one. The physical constraints on the internal link
lengths between each signalized approach affect the interaction between the
individual approach signals. Signal control can often not be appropriate on smaller
roundabouts.
4.2 Signal Control

4.2.1 Extent of Signal Control
A roundabout is fully controlled when signal control is provided on all internal and
external approaches.
A roundabout is partially controlled when one or more of the approaches remain

under priority control. Partial control can be used where traffic congestion does not
occur on all external approaches. It can be easier to coordinate the signals of a four-
approach roundabout if one external approach is priority controlled.
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4.2.2 Methods of Signal Control

Direct signal control consists of traffic signals situated on one or more of the external
approaches and the internal approach immediately to the left of each signalized
external approach. Figure 4.2 shows a large, signalized roundabout with partial, direct
signal control where traffic flow on the minor roads is light and continues to operate
in a self-regulating manner under normal priority control.
Figure 4.2 Large, Signalized Roundabout with Partial, Direct Signal Control
Indirect signal control consists of signals situated at such a distance away from the
roundabout approach that the external approach continues to operate in a self-
regulating manner under normal priority control. Figure 4.3 shows an example of a
signalized roundabout with indirect signal control on approaches A, B, and C.
Indirect signal control may be used where an external approach with a very heavy
traffic flow is preceded to the right by an external approach with a very light traffic
flow. Heavy traffic flow into and circulating the roundabout can proceed virtually
uninterrupted, possibly with high circulatory speeds. This situation causes an
unbalanced traffic flow that adversely affects the capacity of the roundabout and can
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lead to excessive queue lengths and substantial delays to other external approaches,
which in turn can result in congestion at preceding intersections or on-ramps.
Figure 4.3 Signalized Roundabout with Indirect Signal Control
Indirect signal control can be introduced to control approach flows on one or more
external approaches and can provide a gap in the circulatory traffic to favor external
approaches where previously there were excessive delays and queues, as shown on
Figure 4.3. The capacity of the external approaches can then be balanced, but
increases in vehicle gap distances can be detrimental to cyclists and pedestrians
crossing the approaches.
4.2.3 Duration of Signal Control

Full-time signal control is provided by permanently operating traffic signals. Under
full-time signal control, the yield pavement marking across signalized entries to the
roundabout should not be provided. Installing traffic signals for full-time signal control
often involves making geometric modifications as an integral part of improving
throughput in ways that might not necessarily be effective or improve safety on a
roundabout with priority control. These modifications are described in Section 4.3,
Geometric Modifications, in this part.
Part-time signal control is provided by traffic signals that are switched on only at set
times, generally peak flow periods, or by queue detectors under certain traffic
conditions. When traffic flow is light, the signals are turned off and the roundabout
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operates under normal priority control. When traffic flow is strongly directional, signal
control can be used on different external approaches at different times of day.
Part-time signal control often causes lower off-peak delays. In addition, part-time
signal control allows limited ability for the designer to make geometric changes as part
of the signal installation because the physical layout suitable for priority control must
be retained. Part-time control can cause confusion because of the need for associated
permanent signing and striping, which can increase crashes when the traffic signals are
not in use. For these reasons, full-time signal control is preferred to part-time control.
Part-time signal control is not suitable where any of the following apply:
• Requirement for pedestrian crossing facilities on the circulatory roadway

• Potential benefit from incorporation in a linked system
• Significant queues form throughout the day, not just during peak periods
The roundabouts shown on Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 could operate under either full-
or part-time signal control.
4.3 Geometric Modifications

4.3.1 General
The following geometric modifications may be required for signalized roundabouts to:
• Increase capacity on external approaches

• Increase capacity on the circulatory roadway
• Accommodate queues at internal stop lines on the circulatory roadway
• Improve forward visibility and intervisibility in the intersection intervisibility zone
• Provide alignment improvements and lane control measures
• Provide specific measures for pedestrians, cyclists, and buses
These modifications may take the form of the following:
• Additional external approach lanes

• Additional internal approach lanes within the circulatory roadway
• Increased size of splitter islands to achieve longer internal approaches
• Segregated facilities or signaled crossing facilities
4.3.2 External Approach Lane on the Outside

The provision of an additional external approach lane on the left, as shown on
Figure 4.4, is appropriate where:
• Sufficient space is available within the central median.

• An approach lane to the right side would result in inadequate internal queuing
capacity on the internal approach.
• The additional external approach lane does not significantly reduce queuing
capacity on the internal approach to the left.
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Figure 4.4 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Outside
4.3.3 External Approach Lane on the Inside

The provision of an additional external approach lane on the inside (right), as shown
on Figure 4.5, is appropriate where:
• Sufficient space is available on the inside.

• An external approach lane on the inside would result in inadequate queuing
capacity on the internal approach on the left side.
• The additional external approach lane does not significantly reduce queuing
capacity on the internal approach to the right.
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Figure 4.5 Provision of Additional External Approach Lane on the Inside
4.3.4 Internal Approach Lanes

As shown on Figure 4.2, the internal queuing capacity on the circulatory roadway to
the right of approach E is limited by the width of the median on the multi-lane
approach. Similarly, internal queuing capacity is severely limited to the right of
approach F by the size of the deflection island. Internal approach lanes less than 15 m
in length may result in the blockage of the departure lane, particularly where large
vehicles are present. The effect of internal queues on circulation should be considered
when assessing the roundabout performance.
Under full-time signal control, the capacity on the internal approaches to

approaches E and F shown on Figure 4.2 could be improved by geometric
modifications such as shown for approach F on Figure 4.6 by significantly reducing the
approach radii.
Under part-time signal control, the scope for geometric modifications is reduced
because the design is required to comply with Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this
manual.
Figure 4.6 shows how the queuing capacity on the internal approach to the left of
approach F may be improved by increasing the size of the splitter island and realigning
the external approach.
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Figure 4.6 Improvement to Internal Queuing Lanes
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5 Other Design Elements

5.1 Pedestrians and Cyclists
5.1.1 General Considerations
When signal control is being considered for an intersection, the extent of pedestrian
crossing movements, cyclist usage, and bus movements should be determined and
specific measures included, unless site-specific considerations warrant their exclusion.
Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual contains guidance
for accommodating pedestrians, cyclists, and buses. Provisions for pedestrians, cyclists,
and buses may require additional signing, in accordance with the QTCM.
5.1.2 Specific Measures for Pedestrians

Signalized facilities should be provided for pedestrians as appropriate.
Pedestrian crossings should normally be located beyond the limits of the intersection
radius (inset crossings) to minimize the road crossing distance. In some circumstances,
it may not be possible to provide an inset pedestrian crossing, and the crossing may
need to be positioned within the limits of the intersection radii (in-line crossing). In
that case, the refuge should be located at a minimum offset of 1.5 m, as measured
from a line extended from the edge of the intersecting roadway, as shown on
Figure 2.2. In-line pedestrian crossings will result in longer pedestrian crossing
distances. Particular consideration should be given to the problems associated with
vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians with disabilities.
Dropped curbs shall be provided where pedestrians are expected to cross the
approaches of an intersection. Tactile paving and tactile devices, audible signals,
dropped curbs, and guardrail are all mobility aids designed to assist and guide
pedestrians with disabilities to access and use the pedestrian crossing.
Pedestrians should be encouraged to use defined points to cross the road. Preferably,
crossings should be located to minimize crossing distances and to avoid excessive
detours. It may be desirable to restrict pedestrian crossings to certain approaches at a
signalized intersection because of limitations on intervisibility or conflicts with private
accesses.
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The following measures can contribute to improved safety and convenience of

pedestrian crossings at signalized intersections:
• Fit crossing routes to the pedestrian desire lines

• Provide pedestrian guardrails
• Provide tactile surfaces to assist pedestrians with impaired vision
• Provide dropped curbs to assist wheelchair users
• Provide pedestrian signal phases
• Provide good intervisibility between pedestrians and drivers
• Provide sufficient crossing width and space on refuge islands for safe and
comfortable use.
Where intersections are being modified, buildings may obstruct intervisibility. Refer to
Section 3.2.2, Intersection Intervisibility Zone, and Section 3.2.3, Intersection
Intervisibility, in this part for guidance on intersection intervisibility. Where buildings
obstruct intervisibility, the designer should consider moving the stop line forward.
Moving the stop line may require that pedestrian crossing routes be diverted away
from the immediate intersection intervisibility zone, or that inset pedestrian crossings
be provided. The effect on pedestrian desire lines should also be considered.
5.1.3 Pedestrian Refuges and Separation Islands

Where a pedestrian crossing phase is timed to permit pedestrians to cross the whole
roadway in one movement, the minimum width of the pedestrian refuge (W on
Figure 5.1) shall be 1.5 m. Where pedestrian flow is expected to be high or cyclists are
anticipated, the minimum width shall be 2 m.
Pedestrian refuges and separation islands shall be appropriately sized for an

acceptable LOS for pedestrians. Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation,
of this manual contains further detail on the criteria for pedestrian LOS.
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Figure 5.1 Pedestrian Refuge
5.1.4 Use of Tactile Paving

Complex patterns or large areas of tactile paving should be avoided because they may
confuse pedestrians with visual impairments. A consistent approach should be
adopted for all separation islands within an individual intersection layout.
Tactile surfacing shall be laid on the sidewalk in an L-shaped pattern at each side of a
pedestrian crossing. Tactile surfacing is not recommended within separation islands,
where signal staging is intended to allow pedestrians to cross the whole width of the
roadway in one movement. However, tactile surfacing should be provided where
pedestrians must cross in two stages, and, therefore, wait on the island.
Dedicated left- or U-turn lanes may create a significantly wider pedestrian crossing. In
such cases, an additional pedestrian refuge should be incorporated into the
separation island, as shown on Figure 5.2.
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Figure 5.2 Pedestrian Refuge at Dedicated Left-Turn Lanes
5.1.5 Crossing Places

Crossing places should be indicated by pavement markings in accordance with the
layout and dimensions provided in the QTCM. The width of a crossing depends on site
conditions but is normally 3.0 m to 5.0 m. Crossings that have heavy pedestrian use
may require a width of up to 10.0 m.
Pedestrian crossings should be perpendicular to the edge of the roadway to assist

intervisibility and to benefit pedestrians with visual impairments. In some situations, it
may be necessary to provide the crossings at a skewed angle. Tactile paving layouts
should be aligned to direct pedestrians with visual impairments safely across the
crossing. To achieve this, the upright of the L-shape is aligned in the direction of the
crossing. Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike, and Public Transportation, of this manual contains
further guidance on the design of tactile paving.
For staggered pedestrian crossing facilities, the preferred orientation is that

pedestrians within the median face oncoming traffic as they approach the crossing.
This may not be achievable in some circumstances because of geometric or capacity
constraints and pedestrian desire lines.
5.1.6 Specific Measures for Cyclists

On multi-lane roads, or heavily traveled two-lane roads, cyclists should be provided
with adjacent facilities and discouraged or prohibited from sharing the roadway with
motorized traffic. Where bicycle facilities are provided adjacent to signalized
intersections, controlled crossings shall be provided across the side roads, with
suitable dimensions to accommodate cyclists and other nonmotorized users.
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Figure 5.3 shows a typical plan to provide facilities for cyclists and pedestrians at an
intersection of multi-lane roads.
Figure 5.3 Shared Pedestrian and Cyclist At-Grade Crossings at Signalized

Intersection
Controlled crossings for cyclists and pedestrians may be combined. Alternatively,

grade-separated crossings may be provided for cyclists and pedestrians.
On roads with a design speed of 50 kph or less, and where no separate bike path is
provided, the designer should consider cyclist movements through the intersection.
Cycle detection should be incorporated in signal control systems where feasible.

Signal timing optimization may also address the needs of cyclists.
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5.2 Transit Facilities at Intersections

The following traffic management methods may be used to assist buses and other
public transportation vehicles at signalized intersections:
• “With-flow” bus lanes that terminate in advance of the stop line, so that the full
width of the stop line is available to all traffic during the circular green signal
indication phase, thereby minimizing delays to other traffic and accommodating
right turns
• Turning exemption, which allows buses to make a turn that is prohibited to other
traffic
• Selective detection, which gives priority to buses
• Separate traffic signals at the termination of a “with-flow” bus lane in advance of
the main intersection intervisibility zone, and providing a bus advance area between
the two sets of signal control
Contraflow bus lanes shall not be provided unless they are physically separated from
the main traffic flow for their full length.
Other vehicle classes may be permitted to use bus lanes in certain circumstances.
These include emergency vehicles, motorcycles, taxis, and heavy trucks.
Further guidance on provisions for buses and transit vehicles are contained in the
QTCM.
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References
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th edition (the Green Book).
States. 2011a.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Layout of Signal‐Controlled Junctions and Signalised
Roundabouts.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6, Section 2, Part 3: TD 50/04.
UK Highways Agency: London, England: November 2004.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Design Manual. Washington, DC, United States.
2010.
Bibliography
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide, 4th edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. 2009
edition. Including Revision 1 dated May 2012 and Revision 2 dated May 2012. U.S. Department of
Transportation: Washington, DC. 2012.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 61
Volume 1
Part 9
Interchanges and Freeway or
Motorway Corridors
VOLUME 1 PART 9
INTERCHANGES AND FREEWAY OR MOTORWAY CORRIDORS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 1
‫‪INTERCHANGES AND FREEWAY OR MOTORWAY CORRIDORS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 1 PART 9
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... vii
1 Qatar Expressway and Freeway System ................................................................................. 1
2 Principles of Freeway and Expressway Planning and Design ................................................... 3

2.1 Background on Principles .................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Maintain Route Continuity .................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Maintain Basic Number of Lanes ......................................................................................... 4
2.3.1 Establishing Basic Lanes ....................................................................................... 4
2.3.2 Application of Auxiliary Lanes .............................................................................. 5
2.4 Provide Lane Balance ........................................................................................................... 5
2.5 Provide All Movements in All Directions ............................................................................. 6
2.6 Provide Appropriate Interchange and Ramp Spacing ......................................................... 6
2.7 Select Appropriate Interchange Types ................................................................................ 8
2.8 Select Appropriate Design Speeds for Ramps ..................................................................... 8
2.9 Design Right-hand Exits and Entrances Only ....................................................................... 9
2.10 Prefer Single-Exit Designs .................................................................................................. 10
2.11 Provide Decision Sight Distance in Advance of Exits ......................................................... 10
2.12 Avoid Designing Weaving Sections .................................................................................... 11
2.13 Develop Designs That Can Be Simply Signed ..................................................................... 11
3 General Design Requirements for Interchanges.................................................................... 13

3.1 Elements of Interchanges .................................................................................................. 13
3.1.1 Mainline ............................................................................................................. 13
3.1.2 Ramps ................................................................................................................. 13
3.1.3 Weaving Sections ............................................................................................... 13
3.1.4 Collector-Distributor Roads ................................................................................ 14
3.1.5 Service Roads ..................................................................................................... 15
3.1.6 Crossroad ........................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Capacity and Level of Service for Freeways and Interchanges .......................................... 15
3.2.1 Overview of Operations and Level of Service for Freeway and Expressway
Elements ............................................................................................................. 16
3.2.2 Guidance for Selection of Level of Service Criteria for Interchange Design ...... 17
3.2.3 Improving the Performance of Interchanges ..................................................... 21
3.3 Basic Freeway and Interchange Design Criteria ................................................................ 22
3.3.1 Mainline Alignment Design ................................................................................ 22
3.3.2 Interchange Types and Functional Classification ............................................... 24
3.3.3 Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps .................................................. 25
3.3.4 Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps .................................................. 26
3.3.5 Design Speeds for Collector-Distributor Roads .................................................. 27
3.3.6 Vertical Relationship of Crossroad to Expressway or Freeway .......................... 27
3.3.7 Vertical Clearance .............................................................................................. 28
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4 Interchange Types and their Geometric Design .................................................................... 29

4.1 Considerations in Interchange Type Selection ................................................................. 29
4.2 Service Interchange Types ................................................................................................ 31
4.2.1 Diamond Forms ................................................................................................. 32
4.2.2 Other Diamond Forms ....................................................................................... 39
4.2.3 Diverging Diamond Interchange ........................................................................ 39
4.2.4 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges ......................................................................... 40
4.2.5 Full Cloverleaf Interchanges .............................................................................. 45
4.2.6 Three-Level Service Interchange Forms ............................................................ 46
4.3 System Interchange Types ................................................................................................ 48
4.3.1 Three-Leg System Interchanges ........................................................................ 49
4.3.2 Four-Leg System Interchanges .......................................................................... 52
4.3.3 Special Design Issues for System Interchanges ................................................. 53
5 Geometric Design Requirements for Interchange Ramps ..................................................... 59

5.1 Elements of Ramps ........................................................................................................... 59
5.1.1 Diverge............................................................................................................... 59
5.1.2 Ramp Proper ...................................................................................................... 64
5.1.3 Merge ................................................................................................................ 69
5.1.4 Ramp Design for High Volumes and Lane Balance ............................................ 73
5.2 Ramp Cross Section Dimensions ....................................................................................... 77
5.2.1 One-Lane Ramps—Typical ................................................................................. 77
5.2.2 Two-Lane Ramps—Typical ................................................................................ 78
5.2.3 Loop Ramp and Sharp Radius Lane Widths ....................................................... 78
5.3 Crossroad Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 79
5.3.1 Access Control and Proximate Intersections ..................................................... 79
5.3.2 Entrance Ramp Location and Advance Notice to Drivers.................................. 79
5.3.3 Wrong-way Driving Mitigation .......................................................................... 80
5.3.4 Pedestrians ........................................................................................................ 81
6 Service Road Interface with Ramps and Crossroad ............................................................... 83
7 Design of Closely Spaced Interchanges and Ramps............................................................... 85

7.1 Effects of Adding Unplanned New Interchanges to the Existing Network ....................... 85
7.2 Operational and Safety Implications of Weaving and Closely Proximate Ramps ............. 86
7.3 Methods for Evaluation of Operations on Freeways with Closely Proximate Ramps ...... 86
7.4 Design Solutions to Elimination or Reduction of Weaving ............................................... 88
8 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges .......................................................................................... 91

8.1 Quadrant Interchanges ..................................................................................................... 91
8.2 Innovative Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges .................................................................... 92
References .................................................................................................................................... 95
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Tables
Table 2.1 Guide Values for Designing the Basic Number of Freeway Lanes for
Design Year Average Daily Traffic and Selected Design Level of Service ............ 4
Table 2.2 Decision Sight Distance Design Criteria for Approach Alignments to
Freeway and Expressway Exit Ramps ................................................................ 11
Table 3.1 Overview of Level of Service Definitions and Factors Influencing Level of
Service for Freeway and Expressway Design Elements..................................... 16
Table 3.2 Recommended Design Levels of Service for Elements of Qatar Freeways,
Expressways, and Interchanges......................................................................... 17
Table 3.3 Design Speeds and Horizontal Curve Design Controls for Qatar Freeways;
Expressways, and Interchange Ramps .............................................................. 23
Table 3.4 Freeway Mainline Grades .................................................................................. 24
Table 3.5 Recommended Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps ........................ 26
Table 3.6 Minimum Curve Radii for Service Interchange Entrance Loop Ramps Only ..... 26
Table 3.7 Recommended Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps ........................ 27
Table 3.8 Vertical Clearance at Structures ........................................................................ 28
Table 5.1 Deceleration Distances for Taper and Parallel Exit Ramps ............................... 63
Table 5.2 Recommended Minimum Design Values for Location of Controlling Horizontal
Curve on Exit Ramps—Painted Gore to Point of Curvature, in meters............. 65
Table 5.3 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves on Ramps at Interchanges .................... 66
Table 5.4 Horizontal Sight Distance and Curvature for Ramps on Structure .................... 66
Table 5.5 Interchange Ramp Grades ................................................................................. 68
of Two Percent or Less ...................................................................................... 71
Table5.7 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade ..................... 72
Figures
Figure 1.1 Qatar Freeway and Expressway System (Existing and Planned) ......................... 2
Figure 2.1 Principle of Lane Balance for Freeway and Expressway Exits and Entrances ..... 5
Figure 2.2 Guide Values for Sequencing and Spacing of Ramps on Freeways and
Expressways ........................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2.3 Appropriate Interchange Types for Range of Contexts ....................................... 9
Figure 3.1 Definitions and Terminology Associated with Weaving and
Weaving Sections .............................................................................................. 14
Figure 3.2 Collector-Distributor Road and Service Road .................................................... 15
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Figure 3.3 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Merging Traffic on
Conventional Entrance Ramps .......................................................................... 19
Figure 3.4 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Diverging Traffic on
Conventional Exit Ramps ................................................................................... 20
Figure 4.1 Interchanges—General Forms and Types ......................................................... 30
Figure 4.2 Basic Diamond Interchange Forms .................................................................... 31
Figure 4.3 Examples of Tight and Single-Point Diamond Interchanges .............................. 32
Figure 4.4 Tight Diamond Interchange ............................................................................... 33
Figure 4.5 Single Point Diamond Interchange .................................................................... 34
Figure 4.6 Elevation View of Single Point Diamond Interchange with
Crossroad under an Expressway........................................................................ 36
Figure 4.7 Diamond with Roundabout Ramp Terminal Intersection ................................. 37
Figure 4.8 Examples of Roundabout Diamond Interchanges (Dumbbells) ........................ 38
Figure 4.9 Split Diamond Interchange ................................................................................ 39
Figure 4.10 Three-point Diamond ........................................................................................ 39
Figure 4.11 Diverging Diamond Interchange ........................................................................ 39
Figure 4.12 Diverging Diamond Interchange ........................................................................ 40
Figure 4.13 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges ......................................................................... 41
Figure 4.14 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A ............................................................................ 42
Figure 4.15 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B ............................................................................ 43
Figure 4.16 Two-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A ................................................... 43
Figure 4.17 Two-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B.................................................... 43
Figure 4.18 One-Quadrant Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) ....................................................... 44
Figure 4.19 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) AB .......................................................................... 44
Figure 4.20 Full Cloverleaf Interchange ................................................................................ 45
Figure 4.21 Example Full Cloverleaf Interchange ................................................................. 46
Figure 4.22 Three-Level Diamonds ....................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.23 Example Three-level Roundabouts .................................................................... 48
Figure 4.24 System Interchange between Two Urban Expressways .................................... 49
Figure 4.25 Directional T- and Y-Interchanges ..................................................................... 50
Figure 4.26 T- and Y-Interchanges—Trumpet Form ............................................................. 51
Figure 4.27 Fully-Directional System Interchanges .............................................................. 52
Figure 4.28 Directional Interchange Types with Two Loops ................................................ 54
Figure 4.29 One Loop System Interchange........................................................................... 55
Figure 4.30 Example of System and Service Interchanging with Full Design
and Operational Separation of Ramps .............................................................. 56
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Figure 4.31 Transposed Ramps (Avoid) ................................................................................ 56

Figure 5.1 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-flow Ramp Exist Terminal .............. 59
Figure 5.2 Alignment Considerations in Location of Exits .................................................. 60
Figure 5.3 Typical Exit Gore Area Detail ............................................................................. 61
Figure 5.4 Guidelines for the location of the Controlling Horizontal Curve on
Exit Ramps Proper ............................................................................................. 64
Figure 5.5 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-Flow Ramp for
Entrance Terminal ............................................................................................. 69
Figure 5.6 Typical Single-lane Entrance Ramp ................................................................... 70
Figure 5.7 Two-lane Exit Design ......................................................................................... 74
Figure 5.8 Two-lane Entrance Design ................................................................................. 75
Figure 5.9 Diagram of Major Fork ...................................................................................... 76
Figure 5.10 Diagram of Major Merge ................................................................................... 77
Figure 5.11 Typical Sections for One and Two-lane Ramps ................................................. 78
Figure 5.12 Access Control along the Crossroad in Proximity to Interchange Ramps ......... 80
Figure 6.1 Exits and Entrances Transposed ........................................................................ 83
Figure 6.2 Frontage Road Design Elements ....................................................................... 84
Figure 7.1 Relative Difference in Crashes........................................................................... 87
Figure 7.2 Operational Analysis and Design Process.......................................................... 87
Figure 7.3 Design Solutions to Weaving ............................................................................. 88
Figure 8.1 Quadrant Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges ...................................................... 92
Figure 8.2 Innovative Interchange: Michigan Urban Diamond .......................................... 93
Figure 8.3 Innovative Interchange: Center Turn Overpass ................................................ 93
Appendixes
Appendix A Tables for Using Weaving Methodology ........................................................... 97

Appendix B Typical Exit and Entrance Ramps..................................................................... 115
Appendix C Requirements for New Access to Existing Highway System ........................... 121
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AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (United

States)
CD collector-distributor
EN entrance ramp
EX exit ramp
DDI diverging diamond interchange
DSD decision site distance
FHWA Federal Highway Administration (United States)
L length of weaving section
m meter(s)
N number of lanes (in a weaving section; on a mainline)
RDI roundabout diamond interchange
PARCLO partial cloverleaf
SPDI single point diamond interchange
TDI tight diamond interchange
TRB Transportation Research Board (United States)
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PAGE VIII VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
1 Qatar Expressway and

Freeway System
Urban expressways and rural freeways are the highest functional classification of
roads in Qatar. These facilities are designed to safely accommodate high volumes of
traffic over long distances at high speeds. The design of such facilities requires
complete control of vehicle access at designated locations referred to as
interchanges.
Figure 1.1 shows the existing and planned Qatar Expressway and Freeway System. The
system is the main arterial network of the roadway system in Qatar. Careful planning,
design, and construction will contribute to safe and efficient traffic flow on the entire
Qatar roadway network.
The planning and design criteria for Qatar’s expressways and freeways are based on
best practices and criteria from core international agencies with experience in
operating high-volume fully access controlled systems. Three primary sources are the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ (AASHTO’s)
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2011), the Institute of
Transportation Engineers’ Geometric Design Handbook for Freeways and Interchanges
(Leisch, 2005), and the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department for
Transport, 2013). Another important source of information is research conducted for
AASHTO to support its Highway Safety Manual (2010). In particular, research
completed in 2011 developed methods for predicting the safety performance of
freeways, interchanges, and their design elements in terms of crash frequency and
severity. In developing technical guidance, and in some cases recommended values
for design, direct reference is made to this research. Design criteria related to the
quality of traffic flow are based on methods and procedures published in the Highway
Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board [TRB], 2010).
VOLUME 1 PAGE 1
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Figure 1.1 Qatar Freeway and Expressway System (Existing and Planned)
PAGE 2 VOLUME 1
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2 Principles of Freeway and

Expressway Planning and
Design
2.1 Background on Principles
The planning and design of high volume expressways should consider certain inherent
characteristics, constraints, and conditions associated with such facilities. These
facilities are intended to serve drivers and vehicles at speeds of 100 kilometers per
hour (kph) or more in relatively dense traffic. The driving task in such conditions is
complex. Even a small number of unfamiliar drivers can greatly influence the quality
and safety of traffic flow.
Traffic flow is most efficient when drivers and their vehicles stay in their lanes. Any
design, operational, or other condition that promotes or requires lane changing can
degrade the quality of flow, reduce the capacity of the facility, and potentially lead to
crashes. The following principles are intended to minimize the chances or frequency
of lane changing along the expressway or freeway.
Expressways and freeways are expensive facilities. They have the greatest right-of-
way needs and potentially adverse effects on surrounding land uses. Great care
should be taken to design the most efficient and safest facility possible, correcting
unforeseen problems that could be highly disruptive to road users in Qatar.
Expressways, freeways, and interchanges are planned for forecast traffic volume and
flow patterns. In a state as dynamic as Qatar, there is uncertainty in future forecasts.
Thus, corridors and interchanges should be designed with built-in flexibility to
facilitate operation under conditions that may differ from those originally forecast.
The planning for the needs of drivers, respecting the significant investment in and
impacts of roads and operational flexibility, are all central to the following basic
principles in expressway and freeway corridor planning and design.
2.2 Maintain Route Continuity

Route names and numbers are assigned to roads to facilitate navigation, primarily for
unfamiliar drivers. They will use the numbering and naming scheme to plan and
complete trips. A fundamental expectation of drivers is that once on a specific route,
they will stay on that route until they choose to leave it, at an interchange for a
controlled access road. The principle of route continuity is based on meeting and
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reinforcing driver expectations. The designation of a route on an expressway or

freeway should be carried forward through the mainline. Should a marked or
designated primary route make a turn through the interchange rather than proceed
straight through, the design of that interchange shall directly incorporate that turn.
This would be done by providing horizontal geometry at the full design speed of the
marked route and maintaining continuity of the basic lanes, as discussed below.
2.3 Maintain Basic Number of Lanes

Expressways and freeways should be designed for a fixed number of basic lanes that
are continuous over very long distances. Every expressway and freeway must be
designed with at least two basic lanes of traffic in each direction. Such facilities are
referred to as a four-lane freeway or expressway. Design traffic volumes may vary
from segment to segment, but the continuity of a basic lane is established through
multiple interchanges over a significant length of the facility.
2.3.1 Establishing Basic Lanes

The Overseeing Organization responsible for long-range planning of the Qatar
Highway Design Manual (QHDM) roadway and freeway network establishes the basic
number of lanes for the roadway system based on the most current and approved
forecasts of land use and vehicular traffic demand. This information should be
referenced and applied in developing all interchange and freeway projects, both new
and reconstructed.
A fundamental planning decision is to establish the basic number of lanes for a

corridor. This decision should be based on the general level of forecast traffic volume
and the selected design level of service (LOS) for the design year. Table 2.1 provides
guide values for ranges of average daily traffic volume and LOS, based on typical peak
hour patterns of traffic.
Table 2.1 Guide Values for Designing the Basic Number of Freeway Lanes for Design
Year Average Daily Traffic and Selected Design Level of Service
Basic Freeway/Expressway Lanes
Both Directions of Travel
Design Year Average Daily Traffic
(vehicles per day) LOS C LOS D
< 25,000 4 4
25,000–50,000 4 4
50,000–75,000 6 4
75,000–100,000 6–8 6
100,000–125,000 8 8
125,000–150,000 8–10 8–10
Based on Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2010.
Assumptions: Free-flow speed of 130 kph, terrain level, design hour traffic is 10% of daily traffic,
directional traffic is 60% of design hour traffic, 5% heavy vehicles.
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2.3.2 Application of Auxiliary Lanes

An auxiliary lane may be provided for a short segment of road to facilitate traffic
operational flow. In the context of expressway planning and design, auxiliary lanes are
used to accommodate brief “bulges” or increases in traffic demand, such as those
between two interchanges. The freeway corridor planning process involves
consideration of such lanes as needed to maintain the intended density and speeds
and to facilitate high volume merging and diverging traffic.
Auxiliary lanes should be added only to the right side of the freeway. Auxiliary lanes
can be designed for short lengths (1 km to 2 km) between closely spaced entrance
and exit ramps, or through an interchange to the next interchange. Best practices for
freeway design include the use of special pavement markings (see Part 6, Qatar Traffic
Control Manual, of this manual) that communicate to the driver that the lane is an
auxiliary lane, and as such it will terminate at some point downstream.
2.4 Provide Lane Balance

The term “lane balance” refers to the arrangement of lanes at the points of exit or
diverge and entrance or merge. Figure 2.1 illustrates the principle of lane balance.
Source: Derived from Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook

(Leisch, 2005)Figure 2.1 Principle of Lane Balance for Freeway
and Expressway Exits and Entrances
The addition and dropping of an auxiliary lane formed within a cloverleaf interchange
is considered by AASHTO to be lane balancing.
At exits, the sum of the number of lanes going away from the exit—that is, the lanes
on the ramp and the lanes on the freeway downstream of the ramp—should be one
more than the number of lanes approaching the exit. At entrances, the sum of the
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number of lanes of the two roadways merging or joining should be equal to, or one
less than the number of lanes on the departing roadway after the merge.
Lane balance serves to minimize lane changing in advance of an exit, and to provide a
better balance of traffic volume and speed distribution across the lanes at both exits
and entrances. Applying the principle of lane balance means some exit ramps with
low to moderate traffic volumes should be designed as two-lane exits. Recent
research has confirmed that lane balance, when properly applied, produces a net
reduction in freeway crashes. Lane-balanced designs can reduce high-speed, multi-
vehicle crashes involving vehicles in the merging lanes by as much as 32 percent
compared with unbalanced designs (AASHTO, 2010).
2.5 Provide All Movements in All Directions

Interchanges should serve and distribute traffic to the arterial network and
surrounding land uses. Appropriate locations for interchanges will reflect sufficient
demand for access in all directions that the local roadway system serves. Interchanges
accordingly should provide for all movements of traffic in all directions.
An important consideration is the use of interchanges by drivers with interim

destinations. Drivers needing to refuel, to stop for a meal, or to rest expect that if
they exit the expressway or freeway at a crossroad, they will be able to reenter and
continue their trip at the same location. This principle provides for meeting these
expectations.
Some interchange forms, such as the split diamonds shown in Figure 4.1 in Chapter 4 in
this Part, provide a ramp pair at one crossroad (exit and complementary entrance), and
another ramp pair for the other direction of freeway at a different crossroad, with the
crossroads connected by service roads. Such designs may be considered complete
interchanges under this principle (see Clause 4.2.2.1 in this Part).
By policy of the Overseeing Organization, all interchanges shall provide movements in

all possible directions of travel.
2.6 Provide Appropriate Interchange and Ramp Spacing

The location and design of entrance and exit ramps have a significant influence on the
operating efficiency and safety of the facility. There is a balance to be struck between
providing access and egress ramps, and maintaining a high quality of traffic flow.
Appropriate interchange and ramp spacing reflects the desired behaviors of drivers
and the operations necessary at interchanges. Drivers desiring to exit at a
downstream ramp will position themselves in the right-hand lane (referred to as “lane
one”) well in advance of the exit. Drivers merging or entering a freeway will do so in
lane one. Some drivers will prefer to remain in lane one, but many will prefer to
change to lanes two or three.
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Sufficient spacing provides length for all drivers to change lanes readily and in a
measured manner. It also produces even distribution of traffic density across the
lanes, which in turn results in lesser speed differentials across the lanes. When ramps
are spaced too close together, lane one will become very congested, with speeds
dropping and braking occurring. This will encourage some through drivers to move
out of the lower speed lane one abruptly into higher speed lane two, creating the
potential for conflicts and crashes.
Figure 2.2 shows guide values for ramp spacing and is intended to serve as
preliminary guidance in interchange planning and design. For any project, the
planning and design process will involve use of site-specific design traffic to evaluate
lane one and two operations. The values are with reference to the physical noses
(points of physical merge and diverge), which are important design controls for the
freeway.
Source: Derived from Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005);
Note: Absolute minimum values according to A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
(AASHTO, 2011).
Figure 2.2 Guide Values for Sequencing and Spacing of Ramps on Freeways and
Expressways
Figure 2.2 lists dimensions for spacing between successive entrances (EN-EN) or exits
(EX-EX), an exit followed by an entrance (EX-EN), and weaving sections (EN-EX). It also
has guidance for turning roadways for which ramps may be combined or split. The basis
for this guidance is the accommodation of the driving tasks of navigation and route
choice (for the ramp split) and merging or joining another road before once again
performing a merging maneuver. Spacing in these cases provides for the human factors
associated with reading and comprehending signs that accompany these decision points
(National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2012).
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Values deemed “desirable” will typically produce reasonable operations. For

reference, the values shown as absolute minimums are as published in A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011). Designers should strive to
provide desirable or adequate spacing, and where this is possible, even more than
desirable values. Designers should accept absolute minimum spacing only under
highly constrained conditions. The values shown in Figure 2.2 are for design guidance,
and so they are not subject to a Departure from Standards. Traffic operational
analyses will be the ultimate basis for establishing ramp locations. Provision of
appropriate density, speed, and LOS is the primary basis for ramp location and
spacing.
2.7 Select Appropriate Interchange Types

Interchanges are the sole means by which drivers access and egress an expressway or
freeway. Interchanges generally require substantial investment in right-of-way,
construction cost, and ongoing maintenance. The wide range of interchange types
appropriate for different conditions are discussed below. An important principle of
expressway and freeway planning and design is the selection of the most appropriate
interchange forms for the context as defined by functional classification and location
(urban vs rural). Figure 2.3 summarizes the designation of appropriate interchange
types.
Chapters 4 and 5 in this Part describe the attributes and design of service and system
interchanges. The selection of an appropriate interchange requires a carefully
performed planning and design study process, as summarized in Part 2, Planning, of
this manual.
In the special case of system interchanges, the Overseeing Organization shall approve
the basic configuration selected for design before initiating detailed design.
2.8 Select Appropriate Design Speeds for Ramps

A unique feature of interchanges is the design of ramps between the interchanging
roadways. Ramps are transition roads, and as such, speed behavior on them is
expected to vary. Although the design process requires the selection of a design
speed to enable alignment design, the characteristics of interchanges and their
operation and feasibility makes such selection a critical success factor.
A basic principle of interchange design is the selection of a design speed appropriate

for the context. This is not necessarily the highest achievable speed. Indeed, in some
cases lower design speeds are preferred, as they allow for the most efficient
interchange type and avoid unnecessary conflicts with adjacent landowners,
conditions that are prevalent at many urban expressway interchanges.
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Ramp design specifics and details, including guidance for selection of design speeds
for all ramp types, is covered in Chapter 3 in this Part. Selected ramp design speeds
outside the ranges specified for service and system interchanges presented in
Chapter 3 in this Part shall require a Departure from Standards.
Adapted from: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).
Figure 2.3 Appropriate Interchange Types for Range of Contexts
2.9 Design Right-hand Exits and Entrances Only

All interchanges must be designed with right-hand exits from and entrances to the
freeway or expressway mainline. The mixing of left- and right-hand ramps forces
multiple lane changing and weaving. International practice since the early 1980s has
discouraged the use of left-hand ramps for these reasons. Many agencies with
freeway systems containing such ramps have invested considerably in reconstructing
and removing left-hand ramps. Recent research on the effects of ramp location on
freeway crash frequencies confirms that left-side exit ramps can be expected to
experience crash frequencies twice that of comparable right-hand exits, and left-side
entrance ramps can be expected to have crash frequencies of almost twice that of
right-hand entrances (AASHTO, 2010).
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By policy, interchanges shall not be designed with left-hand ramps. Any interchange
designed with left-hand exit or entrance ramps submitted for consideration by the
Overseeing Organization must document the specific conditions and reasons for the
design. An analysis of the traffic operational impacts and expected safety
performance impacts shall be provided.
2.10 Prefer Single-Exit Designs

The principle of single-exit design reinforces two positive aspects of freeway
operations. First, the most common interchange forms (diamonds) are single exit.
Drivers unfamiliar with the freeway and not knowing the interchange configuration
will expect a single exit. Single exit design breaks up the complex navigational and
exiting decision tasks. Drivers first recognize and decide to exit at the desired location;
then, once off the high speed mainline in a slower speed environment, they decide
which direction to go on the crossroad.
Single exit design reduces the number of exit ramps along the mainline, facilitating
appropriate ramp spacing. It also facilitates simpler and more readily understood
signing by unfamiliar drivers.
For special cases, typically associated with high volume system interchanges, the
combined exiting traffic demand volumes for both directions of travel may require a
three-lane exit, which can be difficult to design or prove to be impractical. In such cases,
two exits may be the only reasonable solution. This condition should be understood and
fully investigated during the interchange design process.
The preference for single-exit design does not extend to single entrances.
Interchanges may be designed with one or two entrances for each direction of travel.
2.11 Provide Decision Sight Distance in Advance of Exits

The concept of additional sight distance for decision-making reflects the relative
complexity of this driving task. A desirable aspect of alignment design and interchange
exit ramp location is the provision for what is referred to as decision sight distance (DSD).
Table 2.2, derived from guidance in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets (AASHTO, 2011), provides sight distance values as a function of design speed
that are based on a navigational maneuver. DSD is considered a desirable feature that
should be provided wherever possible. Lack of full DSD does not require a Departure
from Standards.
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Table 2.2 Decision Sight Distance Design Criteria for Approach Alignments to
Freeway and Expressway Exit Ramps
Distance for Avoidance Maneuver (m)a
Mainline
Design Speed (kph) Rural Road Suburban Road Urban Road
50 145 170 195
60 170 205 235
79 200 235 275
80 230 270 315
90 270 315 360
100 315 355 400
110 330 380 430
120 360 415 470
130 390 450 510
140 420 490 550
a Speed,path, and direction change.
Source: Table 3-3, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).
2.12 Avoid Designing Weaving Sections

Weaving is the crossing of traffic flows. Weaving traffic produces the single most
adverse influence on traffic operational quality and safety performance on high
volume expressways and freeways. A weaving section is that part of a mainline
roadway segment in which an upstream entrance ramp is followed closely by a
downstream exit ramp. Alignment and interchange design should focus on eliminating
weaving sections to the extent possible.
Traffic operations analyses should be performed for all weaving sections using
Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods or their equivalent. The presence of a
weaving section that does not meet the specified LOS for the mainline roadway or
collector-distributor (CD) road shall require a Departure from Standards. Weaving LOS
is presented in Appendix A.
2.13 Develop Designs That Can Be Simply Signed

Navigational signing is a critical feature of high volume expressways and freeways.
Unfamiliar drivers rely on advance signing and exit signing to place their vehicles in
the appropriate lanes.
Drivers are occupied primarily with the task of driving, which includes paying
attention to vehicles around them, and adjusting speed and location accordingly. They
have limited ability to read and absorb the information conveyed on signs. Traveling at
100 kph or more, their ability to read a sign from a distance may be only a matter of
seconds. Signing is for unfamiliar drivers. Signing requirements stated in the Qatar
Traffic Control Manual should be followed. These are intended to facilitate
information handling.
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The manner in which alignment, crossroad bridges, and interchange ramps are
assembled will dictate the placement of signs and their messages. Designers should
understand signing requirements and strive for designs that limit the number of signs
and messages at any one location. Ideally, no more than two navigational sign panels
should be provided at any one location. Ramp arrangements and design features
contribute directly to the need for such signs. The Qatar Traffic Control Manual
contains guidance and requirements for freeway and expressway navigational signing.
The criteria and rationale described above for ramp spacing, all right-hand exits, and
single exit design all contribute to facilitating signing. The recommended design
process for interchanges includes the development of concept signing plans as part of
the interchange and freeway study to confirm that signing can be accomplished.
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3 General Design Requirements

for Interchanges
3.1 Elements of Interchanges
Freeway and expressway elements include the mainline, ramps, weaving sections, and
collector-distributor (CD) roads. Service roads and crossroads are elements of the
roadway network that interface at interchanges.
3.1.1 Mainline
The mainline is the core or basic expressway or freeway alignment and cross section.
It comprises at least two lanes of traffic in each direction and may comprise both
basic lanes and auxiliary lanes. Basic lanes remain the same both through and on
approaches to the interchange. Basic lane numbers more than six in each direction of
travel may present special concerns, depending on the spacing of interchanges and
the type of trips on the freeway. Some drivers may not be able to take advantage of
the leftmost lane if their trip is short, as reaching that lane from the entrance and
then positioning the vehicle for the exit requires multiple lane changes.
3.1.2 Ramps
A ramp is a roadway that connects two interchanging facilities. Ramps are labeled
based on the highest functional class of roadway being interchanged. An exit ramp
(EX) carries traffic leaving the expressway or freeway mainline to a lower class
crossroad, or to another expressway or freeway. An entrance ramp (EN) carries traffic
from an arterial or collector crossroad to an expressway or freeway mainline. Design
criteria for exit and entrance ramps differ, as discussed in Chapter 5 in this Part.
3.1.3 Weaving Sections

Weaving is the crossing of traffic flows. A weaving section is formed by an entrance
ramp followed by a downstream exit ramp. Weaving sections can occur within or
between interchanges. Weaving operations and safety analyses are based on the
definitions of geometry and traffic in Figure 3.1. The key parameters are the length of
weaving section, number of lanes within the section, and volume of weaving traffic.
The technical definition of a weaving section, as described in Figure 3.1, is that

established in the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010), which contains the accepted
methodology for evaluation of freeway and interchange operations in Qatar. The
length of weaving section (L) is defined by the point at which the inside edge of
entrance ramp is 0.6 m from the outside edge of the right-hand mainline lane, and the
point at which the inside edge of the downstream exit ramp is 0.6 m from the outside
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edge of the right-hand mainline lane. The number of lanes (N) in the weaving section
will include an auxiliary lane if it is part of the cross section.
The volume of weaving traffic is the traffic that is actually crossing or conflicting. It
does not include mainline through traffic, nor traffic that may be entering and then
immediately exiting. In Figure 3.1, the volume of weaving traffic is 1,500 vehicles per
hour (vph).
Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 3.1 Definitions and Terminology Associated with Weaving and Weaving
Sections

A CD road is a one-way road segregated laterally but typically parallel to the freeway
mainline. It is fully access controlled and connected to the mainline by intermediate
transfer roadways. CD roads collect and distribute traffic from multiple closely spaced
entrances and exits. Much of this traffic is typically lower speed weaving traffic. A CD
road provides for physical separation of higher speed through traffic from the lower
speed weaving traffic. A CD road may have one to three lanes; see Figure 3.2.
CD roads are designed to freeway/expressway standards for cross section and

alignment. CD roads may be a part of an overall corridor plan, or they may be used in
specific locations along a freeway. In the former case, continuous CD roads may apply
where freeway traffic volumes is near capacity and too many conflicting movements
and weaving degrades operational level of service and safety of the system. In the
latter case, a CD road may be used in one direction of traffic but not the other.
Incorporating CD roads within an interchange removes weaving from the main
roadway; reduces number of conflicts on the main line; allows for the development of
single exits and entrances; maintains uniform pattern of exits; and simplifies signing.
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3.1.5 Service Roads

A service road is a lower class roadway that runs adjacent to the mainline. It is not
within the designated access control of the freeway. A service road may intersect with
other local roads. Interchange ramps may terminate at service roads. The term service
road is not interchangeable with CD road, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Service
Road
Collector
Distributor
Road
Figure 3.2 Collector-Distributor Road and Service Road
3.1.6 Crossroad
The term crossroad refers to the lower class roadway in the interchange. An
interchange may be designed over the crossroad or under it, depending on the
context. In many cases, design decisions and interchange type selection will depend
on the location of the crossroad.
3.2 Capacity and Level of Service for Freeways and

Interchanges
Design of all elements of freeways and interchanges shall be based on providing the
intended operational quality or LOS. The term “level of service” is a qualitative
descriptor of the quality of traffic service provided by a roadway, reflecting how well
travel demands are met for performance in terms of speed, travel time, freedom to
maneuver, traffic interruptions, and convenience to the driver. Levels of service are
classified A through F, with E representing the capacity of a roadway (TRB, 2010).
The accepted methodologies for evaluating traffic operations and performing LOS
analyses are contained in the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). Interchange
planning and design guidance in this chapter is based on the methods contained in
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the Highway Capacity Manual for freeway segments, ramp exit and entrance ramp
operations, weaving, and ramp terminal intersection operations. Although LOS
pertains to all elements of a freeway and interchange, the operational definition of
LOS and critical factors affecting it vary for each element. The following is a summary
of basic concepts of traffic operations and LOS as related to freeways and
interchanges
3.2.1 Overview of Operations and Level of Service for Freeway and Expressway
Elements
Table 3.1 summarizes the basis for LOS determination for various freeway and
interchange elements.
Table 3.1 Overview of Level of Service Definitions and Factors Influencing Level of
Service for Freeway and Expressway Design Elements
Freeway or
Expressway Design
Element Definition of LOS Factors Influencing LOS Comments
Freeway Segment Based on density Demand volume and Freedom to maneuver/
(Uninterrupted of traffic within composition of traffic; change lanes decreases with
Flow) the freeway number of lanes, width of high densities; at densities
segment. lanes, presence and width approaching the capacity of a
of shoulders, and grade. segment speeds decrease.
Exit Ramp (Diverge) Based on density Demand volume of exiting High densities of traffic in
of traffic in two traffic and total demand right-hand lanes produce
right-hand lanes in volume in segment lower speeds in these lanes;
advance of the upstream of the exit; and potentially significant
exit. composition of traffic. speed differentials between
right-hand lanes and other
lanes with lower densities.
Entrance Ramp Based on density Demand volume of High densities of traffic in
(Merge) of traffic in two entering traffic and total right-hand lanes at the merge
right-hand lanes demand volume in produce lower speeds in
immediately segment downstream of those lanes, and potentially
downstream of the entrance; composition significant speed differentials
the merge. of traffic; number of lanes. between right-hand lanes
and other lanes with lower
densities.
Weaving Sections Based on density Number of vehicles weaving Weaving traffic degrades
of traffic in the and crossing; number of both capacity and safety
weaving section. lanes in weaving section, performance of the freeway.
and length and type of
weaving section.
Signalized Ramp Total delay by all Total demand by In addition to throughput and
Terminal vehicles at the movement, number of delay, queuing and queue
Intersections signal. signal phases and cycle lengths at exit ramp terminal
length; number of lanes approaches to signalized
for each turning and intersections are a design
through movement. control.
Roundabout Ramp Average control Total demand by In addition to LOS, average
Terminal delay per vehicle movement, number of delay, queue length, and
Intersections at the roundabout lanes at ramp terminal. volume/capacity ratio are
yield line. design controls.
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3.2.2 Guidance for Selection of Level of Service Criteria for Interchange Design
Interchange design will be based on provision of a selected of service for the forecast
design year, typically 20 to 30 years hence. According to Highway Capacity Manual
(TRB, 2010) definitions, LOS E represents the ultimate or maximum capacity of a
design element. Demand or arrival traffic volumes that exceed the capacity of a
segment or element will result in significant speed reductions, delay, potential for
conflicts and crashes, and queuing upstream of the segment in which this occurs.
Freeways and interchanges are designed for high-speed traffic and are intended to
provide the highest and most reliable service of all roadways in Qatar. Recognizing the
uncertainty of design year forecasts, the design basis for Qatar freeways and
interchanges should be for levels of service higher than ultimate capacity. The
guidance, summarized in Table 3.2, reflects the tradeoff between providing such
traffic service and the right-of-way, cost, and other disruptive impacts of additional
lanes and capacity to serve traffic demands in urban settings.
Table 3.2 Recommended Design Levels of Service for Elements of Qatar Freeways,
Expressways, and Interchanges
Level of Service
Rural Freeway Mainline Segments Ca
Urban Expressway Mainline Segments C design/D minimum a
Urban Expressway Collector-Distributor (CD) Road Segments Da
Rural Freeway Segments and Ramps (EX and EN) C
Rural Freeway Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C
Urban Expressway Segments and Ramps (EX and EN) C design/D minimum
Urban Expressway Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C design/E minimum
Ramps (EX and EN) Associated with Rural Major Arterials C
Ramps (EX and EN) Associated with Urban Major Arterials C design/D minimum
Rural Major Arterial Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C
Urban Major Arterial Ramp Terminal Intersections and Roundabouts C design/E minimum
Notes:
a Includes both uninterrupted flow and weaving if it occurs within the segment
Level of service is as defined in and determined by procedures and methods published in the Highway
Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010).
With respect to intersection operations at ramp terminals, delay, which is the basis
for intersection operations, is highly sensitive to signal phasing and cycle lengths and
to roundabout capacity, both of which may be influenced by such factors as provision
for pedestrians.
The design LOS is a fundamental design control. Although LOS C is desirable in urban
settings, project-specific constraints may preclude the ability to provide sufficient
capacity or interchange type that produces this LOS. LOS for CD roads reflects the fact
that their operation is primarily based on weaving traffic, which will be lower speed
with greater densities.
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3.2.2.1 Providing Level of Service for Freeway Segments between Interchanges

Table 2.1 lists basic number of lanes for traffic volumes associated with LOS for
uninterrupted flow on freeway segments. These values assume no operational effect
of interchange ramps. They are based on typical traffic peaking and directional
distribution values. They are intended to provide guidance on establishing basic lane
numbers over significant length of freeway or expressway. Where interchanges are
closely spaced such that traffic volumes increase for short distance or where weaving
and lane changing between interchanges is expected, providing the desired LOS may
require the addition of one or more auxiliary lanes. Capacity and operational analyses
of such locations using Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods and site-
specific traffic characteristics should be performed to confirm the intended LOS and
need for auxiliary lanes as appropriate.
3.2.2.2 Ramp Operational Level of Service Guidance

Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 provide planning level guidance for the maximum design
hour volumes associated with conventional merging (Figure 3.3) and diverging
(Figure 3.4) operations on freeways and expressways. The values given are based on
ideal cross section and alignment conditions and on design, traffic peaking, and
distribution characteristics identical to those assumed for Table 2.1. They assume that
the entrance and exit ramps are in isolation; that is, beyond the influence of upstream
or downstream adjacent ramps. They were developed using the Highway Capacity
Manual (TRB, 2010) methods for ramp merging and diverging. Figure 3.3 and
Figure 3.4 can be referred to for general planning and initial design reference in
interchange studies. In Figures 3.3 and 3.4, VF refers to the flow rate of the freeway
immediately upstream on the ramp; VR is the flow rate of the ramp; VFO is the flow
rate on the freeway immediately downstream of the merge/diverge; LA and LD are the
length of acceleration lane and deceleration lane, respectively.
In refining the design of an interchange, the designer should perform Highway

Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) or compatible analyses using site-specific traffic data
and characteristics, and accounting for the effects of closely proximate ramps.
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Figure 3.3 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Merging Traffic on Conventional
Entrance Ramps
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Figure 3.4 Service Volumes for Levels of Service for Diverging Traffic on Conventional Exit
Ramps
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3.2.2.3 Weaving Level of Service Guidance

Weaving and weaving sections typically are the critical, controlling operational
constraint for higher volume freeways. Weaving operations are a function of the
number of lanes on the approach and in the weaving section, the approach freeway
volume, the volume on the entrance ramp, and the exiting volume. Weaving analysis
may apply to a freeway mainline as well as a CD road.
The complexities and interaction of traffic with design elements are such that there is
no one single weaving length dimension that can produce acceptable operations
under all conditions, other than the complete elimination of weaving, which is
desirable but may in some cases be impractical.
Appendix A contains a series of look-up tables that were developed using the
methodology for weaving from the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). The tables
express the weaving LOS as a function of the number of lanes (the tables include from
2 to 4 lanes), the length of the weaving section (as defined in the Highway Capacity
Manual) from 500 to 1,500 m, total one-way approach volumes of 1,500 to 3,000 vph,
and ranges of entrance and exit ramp volumes from 250 to 2,000 vph.
Appendix A can be referred by designers, interpolating as necessary to confirm the

operation of a design or test the effect of changing the design features. Designers are
encouraged to perform, or have performed for them, location-specific analyses using
the project’s design traffic and weaving dimensions to confirm operational
acceptability.
Design for weaving is of sufficient importance to require a Departure from Standards

should acceptable operations per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010) methods not
be met through the design process for a freeway or expressway weaving section.
3.2.3 Improving the Performance of Interchanges
3.2.3.1 Auxiliary Lanes and Two-lane Ramps

Special design solutions may be necessary for situations in which the LOS of a
conventional merge or diverge does not meet the selected design criteria. For
entrance ramps, the entrance may be of an add-lane design forming an auxiliary lane.
In urban contexts, the auxiliary lane may extend to the next downstream exit ramp.
For both exits and entrances, the design hour traffic volume may require
consideration of two-lane ramps. These should be designed to provide lane balance
(see Section 2.4 in this Part).
3.2.3.2 Ramp Relocations and Weaving Sections

Where the presence of a proximate ramp upstream or downstream adversely affects
the operation of a ramp, one ramp may need to be relocated during the design
process to increase spacing, perhaps in combination with one of the above solutions.
The presence of weaving traffic should be fully investigated, with attempts made to
avoid or minimize weaving as the limiting operational condition along the freeway.
Appendix A contains look-up tables with traffic volume and LOS values for
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conventional weaving sections of varying lengths for a range of freeway lanes and
ramp volumes for conventional entrance and exit ramps. Geometric design solutions
to weaving are discussed below.
3.2.3.3 Ramp Metering

One solution to providing a selected LOS to the freeway or expressway is the
implementation of ramp metering. Metering is the placement of traffic signal control
on entrance ramps to limit or meter the volume of traffic entering the facility.
Metering is most effective when multiple entrances along a corridor are all metered,
and when the total unmetered demand volume is such that it would result in LOS E
operation. Ramp metering restricts the flow of traffic such that it can be handled by
downstream sections in a way that maintains reasonable density and speeds.
A metered ramp requires special design solutions. The stop bar must be sufficiently
downstream from the intersection or roundabout so that queuing does not back up
into it. As traffic will be accelerating from a stopped condition when metered, the
ramp proper or acceleration lane may need to be lengthened. For these reasons, best
practice in design is to consider whether the interchange should be designed to be
metered. Metering can be implemented at a later date, but the design when first
developed and constructed needs to account for it.
3.3 Basic Freeway and Interchange Design Criteria

Interchanges are designed in accordance with the basic alignment and cross section
criteria presented in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Part 5, Qatar Roadway
Design Criteria, of this manual. This section provides specific design guidance on
ramps for all types of interchanges.
3.3.1 Mainline Alignment Design

Freeways and expressways will be designed based on the fundamental design criteria
for alignment and cross section discussed in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual.
3.3.1.1 Design Speeds

Freeways and expressways will be designed and posted using the criteria in Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3 Design Speeds and Horizontal Curve Design Controls for Qatar Freeways;
Expressways, and Interchange Ramps
Anticipated Posted Speed Minimum Radius of Curvature
(kph) Design Speed (kph) for Mainline Design Speed (m)
60 80 450
70 90 575
80 100 720
90 110 860
100 120 1,020
110 130 1200
120 140 1,390
Notes:
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure from Standards process
according to Part 25, Departure from Standards Process, of this manual.
3.3.1.2 Horizontal Alignment

The radius of curvature for horizontal alignment of mainline geometry is based on the
maximum superelevation rate of 5 percent; see Table 3.3. Consistent high speeds
through curves should be maintained on these facilities. Spiral transition curves are
encouraged for use on freeway and expressway mainline alignment.
Occasionally the use of horizontal curves for mainline geometry requires up to

7 percent superelevation. Any curve with superelevation greater than 5 percent shall
require a Departure from Standards.
3.3.1.3 Design for Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance (SSD) associated with the selected design speed shall be
provided in three dimensions throughout the length of mainline alignment. Decision
sight distance (DSD) ahead of all exit ramps is encouraged. Alignment and cross
section that does not provide SSD at any point shall require a Departure from
Standards. Designers may choose not to provide full DSD; such choice does not
Provision for horizontal SSD presents a special design challenge along the inside of
horizontal curves. Where raised median barriers are used to separate opposing traffic
flows and such barriers are of sufficient height that, in combination with the
horizontal curve and vertical alignment, the driver’s sight line is obstructed, the design
may not provide for full SSD per design policy. Depending on the SSD required and the
length of the curve, the sight restriction may begin on the approach to the curve.
3.3.1.4 Vertical Alignment

Maximum grade criteria for freeway and expressway mainline alignment is 3 percent.
Minimum grades to enable drainage of pavements are 0.5 percent desirable and
0.3 percent minimum. See Chapter 4 in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Part 5,
Qatar Roadway Design Criteria, of this manual. Design of grades outside these values
shall require a Departure from Standards.
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Table 3.4 Freeway Mainline Grades

Maximum Grade Desirable Minimum Grade Absolute Minimum Grade
3% 0.5% 0.3%
3.3.1.5 Cross Section

Lane widths for the mainline, auxiliary lanes, and CD roads with more than one lane
shall be 3.65 m. However, the width of the turning roadways should be in accordance
with the design values in Chapter 3 of Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria, of this
manual.
Shoulders are the initial and most important part of the roadway’s Clear Zone.
Shoulders may be used by drivers whose cars break down and for law enforcement
activities. The right shoulder is used primarily for recovery from run-off-road events to
prevent them from becoming serious crashes. Shoulders should not be used for
parking except in an emergency, and in such cases the vehicle should be moved as
soon as possible as its presence is a fixed object close to the edge of traveled way.
Shoulder widths for mainline shoulders shall be as shown in Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this manual. Left shoulders may be widened to increase offset along
horizontal curves to provide additional SSD, as discussed above. Minimum shoulder
widths for CD roads shall be 3.0 m for the right shoulder and 1.2 m for the left.
Full width shoulders should have at least 1.5 m of paving, either partial depth or full.
This allows for placement of rumble strips that aid in alerting drivers who may wander
off the road. The paving of the full shoulder including potential full-depth paving may
be considered by the Overseeing Organization. Such a strategy envisions future use of
the shoulder as a temporary lane to help maintain traffic during reconstruction or
major maintenance activities. However, experience in some corridors has been that
paving the shoulder invites unauthorized parking on it, which is discouraged. A full
graded shoulder width with only partial paving may be suitable if illegal parking is a
concern. Where full width paving is incorporated the designer may wish to post no-
parking signs intermittently along the shoulder.
3.3.2 Interchange Types and Functional Classification

The functional classifications of the two interchanging roads influences the selection
of design criteria. There are two types of interchanges: service interchanges and
system interchanges.
3.3.2.1 Service Interchanges

Service interchanges are between a fully access controlled roadway and a lesser
functional class of road with limited access control. Urban service interchanges are
between an expressway and a major or minor arterial. Rural service interchanges are
between a freeway and a major arterial.
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3.3.2.2 System Interchanges

System Interchanges are between two full-access controlled roadways. Per the
functional classification definitions for Qatar, all interchanges between two
expressways, two freeways, or a freeway and an expressway are referred to as system
interchanges.
3.3.2.3 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges

Arterial-to-arterial interchanges are between two major urban arterials. These may be
constructed where traffic demands and physical constraints preclude the ability to
provide an at-grade intersection or roundabout solution that provides the desired
LOS. Arterial-to-arterial interchange design criteria and solutions differ from those for
interchanges serving freeways and expressways.
3.3.2.4 Temporary Roads

Roads designated as temporary roads may never interchange with freeways or
expressways. New roads, for which construction of a new interchange is requested,
shall be designed in accordance with full design criteria contained in the QHDM and
shall not be considered temporary.
3.3.3 Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps

Ramps serve as transition roadways between the two interchanging highways. The
expected and desired speed behavior on a ramp will thus vary depending on the type
of ramp and type of interchange.
For service interchanges, driver speeds will transition from the low speed or stop
condition associated with crossroad to the high speed of the mainline for entrance
ramps, and from the high speed mainline to low speed or stopped condition at the
crossroad for exit ramps.
3.3.3.1 Application of the Design Speed Concept to Ramps

In designing the alignment of service interchange ramps, the selected design speed
applies to the horizontal alignment closest to the high speed mainline. The design
speed does not necessarily apply to the entire alignment, as transitioning speed
behavior is expected, and for some interchange forms drivers either begin from or
end in a stopped (0 kph) condition.
Table 3.5 summarizes recommended service interchange design speeds per the
above. These are based on the design speed of the expressway or freeway mainline.
In general, the lower end of the range may be appropriate for urban conditions and
higher end of the range for rural conditions. Selection of a design speed lower than
the values in Table 3.5 shall require a Departure from Standards.
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Table 3.5 Recommended Design Speeds for Service Interchange Ramps

Mainline Freeway or Expressway Design Speed (kph) Service Ramp Design Speeds (kph)
100 40–70
120 50–80
140 60–90
3.3.3.2 Service Interchange Loop Ramps

Service interchange configurations offer advantages that others do not have. Loop
ramps require substantial right-of-way when designed to maximum superelevation of
5 percent. To facilitate the design of a service interchange using loop ramps, in
addition to the ranges shown above, designers may use a horizontal curve associated
with a superelevation policy of 8 percent for design of service interchange loop
entrance ramps only. This opportunity recognizes that the entrance loop ramp will
carry traffic from the lower speed road to the higher speed road. Table 3.6 shows the
range of curvature for loop ramps based on the lower design speeds in Table 3.5,
which may apply to loop ramps.
Table 3.6 Minimum Curve Radii for Service Interchange Entrance Loop Ramps Only
Design Speed of Entrance Loop Ramp Minimum Radius of Curve (m) with 8-percent
(kph) Superelevation
40 80
50 115
60 160
70 170
3.3.4 Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps

Drivers traversing system interchanges expect and experience different speed
behaviors from service interchanges. On a system interchange, the driver moves from
one high-speed roadway to another. Exiting drivers expect a lowering of speed, and
then to accelerate to the higher speed associated with the roadway they are joining.
The extent of speed reduction and the cost and feasibility of maintaining a high ramp
design speed varies with the context (rural vs. urban).
Another important consideration in speed selection in system interchange design is

the provision for horizontal stopping sight distance. System interchange ramps may
be on second or third level structures. The bridge rail may create a continuous sight
obstruction along a horizontal curve on structure. The expense and design difficulty of
widening structures to provide horizontal sight distance is considerable. Lower design
speeds produce lesser, more manageable horizontal offsets. Because driver comfort is
the basis for horizontal curve design, best practices are to select a design speed for
system interchange ramps that strikes a balance between the desire for higher speed
operation and the resultant sight obstruction required by the design speed.
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Table 3.7 summarizes recommended desirable and minimum system interchange

ramp design speeds. Selection of a design speed lower than the values in Table 3.7
shall require a Departure from Standards.
Table 3.7 Recommended Design Speeds for System Interchange Ramps

Mainline Freeway or Expressway Design Speed (kph) System Ramp Design Speeds (kph)
100 50–80
120 60–100
140 70–110
3.3.5 Design Speeds for Collector-Distributor Roads

CD roads are part of the freeway or expressway. As such, their design speed should be
the same as, or no more than 20 kph less than, the design speed of the mainline. For
example, the minimum design speed for a CD road along a 120-kph mainline should
be 100 kph. Design speeds for CD roads less than this minimum shall require a
3.3.6 Vertical Relationship of Crossroad to Expressway or Freeway

The geometric design of a service interchange will be influenced by the vertical
relationship between the freeway or expressway and the crossroad. In some cases,
this will be fixed or given based on the surrounding land use or an existing crossing. In
other cases, the designer may have the ability to establish the relationship.
All other factors being equal, placing the crossroad over the freeway is preferred for
the following operational and other reasons:
• With the crossroad over the freeway, the designer takes advantage of gravity.
Exiting traffic, which transitions to slower speeds, will be uphill, and entering
traffic, which transitions to higher speeds, will be downhill.
• The crossroad over the freeway provides a strong visual cue to drivers, as it can be
seen in the foreground. Similarly, the exit ramp will be clearly visible and its
alignment in the driver’s field of view. Conversely, with crossroad under, the
crossroad itself will not be visible, and often the exit ramp may be hidden from
view because of the vertical alignment of the mainline.
• In most cases, the spans and costs of the bridge will be less for crossroad over
than for crossroad under. In the latter case, there may be two freeway bridges
over the crossroad, each carrying both lanes and full left and right shoulders.
• The costs and disruption associated with major bridge maintenance and repair
will be borne by the crossroad rather than freeway, which will generally be higher
volume and more critical in terms of maintaining traffic flow during such periods
of maintenance or reconstruction.
• The crossroad will be designed to a lower design speed, allowing shorter vertical
curves and less earthwork than may be required for freeway alignment over the
crossroad.
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For a new interchange to be constructed along a road with existing development and
local access, elevating the crossroad over the freeway may be too disruptive and
costly. In such cases, the freeway alignment should be designed over the crossroad
and the interchange built accordingly.
Establishing the vertical relationships of the freeway and crossroad is an important

early decision. Some interchange forms have design requirements that are heavily
influenced by the relationship between the crossroad and freeway. These are
discussed in Chapter 4 in this Part.
The stated preference of crossroad over freeway is based on the advantages noted
above, the importance of which may vary by location. As the above discussion is
advisory in nature, a Departure from Standards is not required should the interchange
be designed with crossroad under the freeway.
3.3.7 Vertical Clearance

Table 3.8 summarizes the vertical clearance requirements for interchanges. They are
based on the functional classification of the roadways, which roads cross over and
which under, and are consistent with clearance requirements in Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual. The dimensions provide for potential future
pavement overlays for newly constructed roadways or interchanges. The minimum
clearances should be provided across all mainline lanes and shoulders of the
undercrossing roadway. Ramp crossings may occur on horizontal curves with
superelevation. Crossroads or mainline alignments or both may be on curves with
superelevation. Care should be taken in establishing profiles of all roadways to
provide the clearances as required.
Clearances less than those specified in Table 3.8 shall require a Departure from
Standards.
Table 3.8 Vertical Clearance at Structures

Category of Road/Structure Type Clearance Required (m)
High load routes 6.5
Gantries/lightweight structures 6.5
Pedestrian over bridge 6.5
Freeway and expressway bridges 6.5
Camel underpass crossings 6.0
All other road structures 6.0
Pedestrian and cycle underpasses 3.5
Roads over heavy rails/all other rails 7.7a/7.0a
Tunnels 6.5b
Notes:
a Unless otherwise agreed with the Railway Authority
b Tunnels greater than 150 m long – additional clearance of 250 mm shall be provided for lighting and
ventilation plant equipment in accordance to the guidance in DMRB, BD 78/99
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4 Interchange Types and their

Geometric Design
The selection of an interchange type is a critical decision in the development of
expressways and freeways. The appropriate configuration is one that fits the context as
defined by functional classification and location, reflects consideration and respect for
adjacent land use and environmental constraints, and meets the traffic demands as
expressed by the volume and pattern of design year traffic. This section summarizes the
full range of interchange types for all design conditions that may occur in Qatar.
Figure 4.1 depicts the typical interchange forms applicable for the freeway and
expressway system. These and other special forms are discussed in detail below.
4.1 Considerations in Interchange Type Selection

The context of a location will drive the determination of a best fit/best value
interchange solution. The unique characteristics of each location that will influence
the solution can be summarized as follows:
• What is the volume and pattern (interchanging turning movements) of traffic

under design year conditions?
• What is the availability of right-of-way in each quadrant of the proposed
interchange?
• What does the roadway network comprise in all three or four directions at the
location? How close are proximate interchange ramps in both directions along the
freeway? How close are intersections and major driveways along arterial
crossroads
• What is the natural or most likely vertical relationship between the expressway or
freeway and the crossing facility?
• Will pedestrian or bicycle travel require accommodation along the crossroad of
the interchange? If so, what are important origins, destinations, and trip patterns
for these road users?
• What environmental factors, such as presence of cultural or historic features or
sites, noise receptors, and visual impacts, are significant near the interchange?
• What will be the initial costs of construction and the long-term maintenance costs
required for the interchange?
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Figure 4.1 Interchanges—General Forms and Types
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4.2 Service Interchange Types

Clause 3.3.2.1 defined the term service interchange as being an interchange between
a freeway and a lower functionally classed facility. Basic service interchange types
include diamonds and diamond forms, partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchanges, and
full cloverleaf interchanges (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Basic Diamond Interchange Forms
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4.2.1 Diamond Forms

The diamond is the most common interchange globally. The form is simple, cost-
effective, and highly adaptable to a wide range of traffic volumes and context.
Figure 4.2 shows the full range of diamond interchange types.
4.2.1.1 Conventional Diamonds

The diamond has a single exit and single entrance in each direction of travel. The
ramps intersect with the crossroad at either a signal-controlled, or roundabout
intersection. Stop-controlled ramp terminal intersections at diamond interchanges are not
used in Qatar.
Diamonds can be designed with the crossroad over or crossroad under. A

conventional diamond interchange typically used in rural or otherwise unconstrained
locations will have ramp terminal intersections spaced 250 m or more apart or
roundabout intersections with similar spacing.
The conventional diamond interchange requires three-phase signal operation, that is,
exit ramp traffic, left-turning traffic from crossroad entering, and through traffic on
the crossroad. Queuing for left-turning traffic occurs between the ramp terminal
intersections. In many cases, the signaling of two intersections is coordinated.
Diamond interchanges readily accommodate pedestrians along the crossroad,
allowing safe crossing at the signalized approaches.
The safety performance of the roundabout diamond is superior to that of the signal-
controlled diamond. Severity of turning movement conflicts is minimized by the
roundabout configuration. This form generally is preferred where traffic volumes can
be accommodated by the roundabout ramp terminals.
In many urban locations, the right-of-way may be limited or restricted. Special

diamond design solutions reflecting such constraints may apply. These include
compressed or tight diamond interchanges (TDI) and single-point diamond
interchanges (SPDI). Figure 4.3 shows photos of each in their typical settings of
constrained right-of-way.
Figure 4.3 Examples of Tight and Single-Point Diamond Interchanges
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4.2.1.2 Diamonds in Constrained Locations—Tight Diamond Interchanges

A TDI will have spacing between the ramp terminal intersections of 90 to 150 m. With
such short spacing, queuing for left turns occurs on the outside approaches to each
intersection. The TDI must be signalized, and the signals must be coordinated. Signal
timing is set so that left-turn queuing does not occur in the short spacing between the
ramp terminals. Figure 4.4 illustrates a TDI with the crossroad over the expressway.
Crossroad under solutions will have similar geometry and operations.
Figure 4.4 Tight Diamond Interchange
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4.2.1.3 Diamonds in Constrained Locations—Single Point Diamond Interchanges

The other constrained diamond is the SPDI. In this form, the ramp terminals are
brought together to one location along the crossroad, thus combining all turning
traffic into one rather than two intersections. Proper design of this single intersection
is critical. The left-turning movements from the crossroad should be designed to
operate simultaneously to achieve operational efficiency. In high volume locations,
one or both movements may require double or more left turns. Separation of the
swept width paths should be 3 m or more. Figure 4.5 shows an SPDI with the
crossroad over the freeway.
Figure 4.5 Single Point Diamond Interchange
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Single Point Intersection Design Details
The single point intersection configuration and requirement to separate opposing left
turns creates an operational challenge that designers of the SPDI must understand
when developing this interchange form. Opposing left turns should be designed so the
movements are 3 m to 5 m apart for maximum efficiency. In most applications, the
left-turn volumes require double or more left-turn lanes. The details of this design are
similar to what is shown in Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this manual.
With these design constraints, the size of the single point intersection, as measured
from stop bar to stop bar along the crossroad, can be as great as 75 m to 90 m.
The implications of such a large open intersection are that it requires substantial
yellow and all-red times to clear the intersection between signal phases, see Part 8,
Design for Signalized Intersections, and Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria, of this
manual. Long clearance times create inefficiencies in the operation of the
intersection, because for normal signal cycle lengths the percentage of time
unavailable for moving traffic can become significant. To counteract this effect,
agencies that have constructed and operate SPDIs employ cycle lengths of
120 seconds or longer, greater than the optimal lengths for typical three-phase signals
(NCHRP, 1991). Longer cycle lengths produce greater delays, longer queues, and
lower LOS. Because of the unique intersection challenges, the maximum number of
left-turn lanes that can be designed is two in each direction along the crossroad, and
two for left turns from the ramps.
The lengths for left-turn queuing will be substantial given the long cycle lengths
needed. Fully channelized left-turn lane design, including tapers, queue lengths, and
median separations, will require access control for significant lengths along the
crossroad approaches. The acceptability of this design may be based on the extent to
which access can be consolidated, relocated, or closed on the crossroad approaches.
The primary advantage of the SPDI is its space efficiency. Its disadvantages include the
operational issues noted above, and the generally higher cost as typified in large and
unusual bridges and extensive retaining walls. This interchange should only be
considered in urban locations where right-of-way is unavailable or very limited.
Crossroad Over vs. Under
Design execution of the SPDI form is highly influenced by the location of the crossroad
relative to the freeway. The major issue of concern is the structural requirements. For
a crossroad over design (Figure 4.5), the intersection conflict area is on the structure
over the freeway. The geometry of the intersection channelization results in either a
complex structure with special framing, or a very large structure with much wasted
space. The structure depth, however, can be relatively compact, assuming there is
sufficient median dimension in the expressway for bridge piers.
In the case of a crossroad under design, the single intersection is beneath the
mainline (Figure 4.6). Traffic signals must be hung beneath the bridge to meet
location requirements for signal heads in relationship to the stop bar and driver eye
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locations. Most importantly, the single intersection precludes the ability to design the
bridge with a median pier. This results in very long spans of 80 m or more over the
crossroad, and resultant bridge depths typically on the order of 2.4 m to 2.7 m.
The greater bridge depth, along with the additional signal head requirements,
increases the elevation difference between the two crossing roadways, increasing
earthwork and retaining wall costs. Accordingly, a crossroad under SPDI will always
require additional 1 m to 1.5 m difference in elevation between the two crossing
roadways compared with other conventional designs. For these reasons, a crossroad
under SPDI generally should be considered only in cases of new alignment
construction for an elevated mainline for which the vertical alignment can be set to
allow for the extra clearance. In all other cases in which there are existing alignments
for both roadways, the SPDI crossroad under solution will require the costly and
disruptive vertical realignment of one or both roadways.
Figure 4.6 Elevation View of Single Point Diamond Interchange with Crossroad
under an Expressway
Other Design Issues
For crossroad over design conditions, the very large open intersection creates special
profile design requirements. The crest vertical curve will typically be within the
intersection. For higher crossroad design speeds, this may create significant open area
with limited grade or flat spots. Special care is needed to warp pavement edges and
provide sufficient cross slopes so the pavement drains properly.
Another important consideration for the SPDI is the angle of crossing. The geometry,
cost, and operational quality of the SPDI are very sensitive to the angle of skewed
crossing. Designers generally should avoid the use of an SPDI when the angle of skew
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is greater than 5 degrees, that is, outside the range of 85- to 95-degree crossing
(NCHRP, 1991).
The SPDI typically will have complex and costly bridges and significant lengths of
retaining wall. The form itself is not adaptable to upgrading or widening of either
roadway. In planning an SPDI, it is preferable to design the crossroad left turns for
double turning lane operation regardless of the demand volume. The useful life of the
structures should greatly exceed the nominal design life of the interchange; it is likely
that double turn lane operations may be necessary in the future.
4.2.1.4 Summary Comparison of TDI and SPDI

Where a diamond in a constrained location appears appropriate, the TDI and SPDI
both should be studied to determine the best value solution. Designers should not
select one form without performing a design and traffic study of the other form to
determine the best-value solution. The quality of traffic flow and LOS will vary for
each solution. In some cases the TDI is clearly preferred, and in others the SPDI. Just
as important to the decision is the design footprint, which will often be similar but not
identical. The SPDI will usually be the more costly solution to construct. Availability of
right-of-way often will be the critical consideration.
The SPDI does not accommodate through movement to a frontage or service road.
Where this may be desired, other diamond forms should be used.
4.2.1.5 Diamonds with Roundabout Ramp Terminal Intersections (Dumbbells)

Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 shows a
diamond form in which the ramp
terminal intersections are
roundabouts. This form, also known as
a “dumbbell” interchange, is applicable
where traffic volumes are low to
moderate, well within the capacity of
a single- or double-lane roundabout.
The form thus applies for two- and Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
four-lane crossroads with moderate Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
traffic volumes. Its primary advantage Figure 4.7 Diamond with Roundabout
over the others is its safety Ramp Terminal Intersection
performance. All interchange turning
movements proceed through the safer
roundabout intersections. Another major advantage is in construction cost. In the
most common application with the crossroad over the freeway as shown, the
crossroad bridge need only be the width of the crossroad through lanes. By
comparison, in conventional, TDI, and SPDI diamond forms the crossroad bridge will
carry additional width associated with left turn lanes, which may add 7.3 m to 14.6 m
of additional width to the structure.
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Special care is required in selecting this interchange form. The most important concern
is the operation and queuing along the exit ramp approaches to the roundabouts. As
roundabout (also known as dumbbells) operation involves “yield to entry”, it is not
possible to control the approach queue, as would be the case with a signalized ramp
terminal intersection. Given this, designers should perform sensitivity analyses by
varying design traffic flows. They may also choose to lengthen the exit ramp to enable
longer queues that may occur from time to time. Figure 4.8 shows examples of these
interchanges in suburban and rural settings.
Bottom photo courtesy of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation.
Figure 4.8 Examples of Roundabout Diamond Interchanges (Dumbbells)
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4.2.2 Other Diamond Forms

Special diamond forms include split diamonds, three-point diamonds, and diverging
diamonds.
4.2.2.1 Split Diamonds

A split diamond interchange is one in
which one pair of ramps interchanges
with a crossroad connected to one or
more additional crossroads by service
roads (Figure 4.9). The service roads
can be two-way or one-way, but in
Figure 4.9 Split Diamond Interchange
most applications, they are one-way.
Split diamonds are a highly efficient
means of interchanging with a street network and distributing traffic to multiple
arterials with few ramps along the mainline. This form generally is associated with
higher ramp demand volumes. The ramp terminal intersections may be stop
controlled or signalized. Signing for the split diamond should include all major
crossroads accessible by the service road.
4.2.2.2 Three-point Diamonds

For cases in which a crossroad is on a
heavy skew angle, a three-point
diamond may be considered. Ramps
are designed to form three signalized,
coordinated intersections, but cross-
road traffic need only stop for two in
each direction. The configuration is
applicable where the skew presents Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
challenges in acquiring the right-of- Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
way for a conventional diamond. Figure 4.10 Three-point Diamond
Figure 4.10 is a diagrammatic example
of a three-point diamond.
4.2.3 Diverging Diamond Interchange

The diverging diamond interchange
(DDI) is a relatively new form now in
widespread use internationally
(Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12). In the DDI
the crossroad through movements
cross over at skewed signalized inter-
sections, resulting in transposed
operation between the ramp terminal
intersections. The transposing enables
the left-turning movements onto the
freeway or interchange to become free Figure 4.11 Diverging Diamond
from conflicts with opposing crossroad Interchange
through traffic. The form results in the
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elimination of the left-turn conflict with opposing through traffic, which should improve
its safety performance. Because the number of these in place is few, sufficient data do
not yet exist to characterize their safety performance. The other advantage of
transposing the movements is that the traffic signal operates in simple two-phase
manner. The DDI thus has the operational advantages of the PARCLO (see discussion in
Clauses 4.2.4 and 4.2.5) and the spatial and footprint advantages of the diamond.
Figure 4.12 Diverging Diamond Interchange
The first DDIs were constructed in Europe. The DDI underwent substantial testing in
the U.S. before widespread implementation there. Driver acceptance and
understanding of the transposing of traffic movements was laboratory tested and
found to be readily understood by drivers (FHWA, 2007). The interchange form is now
widely used where space is limited and turning volumes high.
The DDI may be constructed with crossroad under, as shown in Figure 4.12, or
crossroad over. Key design issues include the availability of right-of-way and access
control along the crossroad approaches to provide both width and length for
separating the opposing directions of travel, allowing development of two skewed
crossover intersections. This interchange form may be particularly appropriate in a
reconstruction setting where development has precluded the ability to develop loop
ramps, but both ramp and through traffic volumes are higher than can be
accommodated by conventional or constrained diamond forms.
4.2.4 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges

A partial cloverleaf (PARCLO) interchange is one in which there are at least one and no
more than three loop ramps. Figure 4.13 shows the various forms of PARCLO
interchanges.
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In the context of service interchanges, a loop ramp serves to improve the capacity and
operational efficiency of the interchange by eliminating a left-turning movement at a
signalized intersection. For high volume service interchanges with traffic signal control
this has the significant benefit of eliminating the need for one signal phase, resulting
in simple and highly efficient two-phase signal operation. The two basic forms with
this advantage are referred to as PARCLO A and PARCLO B.
Figure 4.13 Partial Cloverleaf Interchanges
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4.2.4.1 PARCLO A
The PARCLO A interchange employs a loop ramp for left-turning traffic from the
crossroad to the freeway or expressway. The ramp terminal intersections thus
operate with only simple, two-phase signals (ramp traffic, and crossroad traffic). With
PARCLO A, the loop serves left-turning traffic from the lower speed to higher speed
highway. There are no left-turn lanes for interchanging traffic. This allows a reduction
in the median dimension that has both right-of-way and structure cost benefits. In the
typical case of a crossroad over freeway PARCLO A, the loop ramp eliminates the need
for left-turn storage on the structure over the freeway, such as would be the case for
a diamond, thus potentially reducing structure width and cost by as much as four lane
widths (assuming double left-turn lanes in both directions of travel). For a crossroad
under freeway PARCLO A, the lengths of the freeway bridges and potentially the span
lengths can be reduced, which presents profile benefits and reduced structure costs
compared with a diamond.
There are no left-turn conflicts with opposing through traffic with the PARCLO A.
The tradeoffs associated with the PARCLO A are its requirement for right-of-way in
the two quadrants in which loops are constructed, and the location of the ramp
terminal intersection, which may be farther along the crossroad than with a diamond
ramp. Loop ramps offer the opportunity for plantings and landscaping or storage of
stormwater. Many agencies with high volume service interchanges employ the
PARCLO A as a standard design solution.
The critical design feature of a

PARCLO A is the loop ramp. The
radius, its relationship to the merge,
and the width of loop ramp all
require careful consideration.
The PARCLO A may be designed with

two entrance ramps, as shown in
Figure 4.14, or with one. In the latter
case, the loop ramp is joined by the
Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
diamond ramp for right turning Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
traffic, which is then merged as one
Figure 4.14 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A
entrance ramp to the expressway.
4.2.4.2 PARCLO B
The PARCLO B interchange employs a loop ramp for left-turning traffic from the freeway
to the crossroad. With this configuration, all exiting traffic can operate as free
(unsignalized) movements. The loop ramp carries traffic from the higher speed to lower
speed roadways. As with the PARCLO A, the ramp terminal intersections operate under
two-phase signalization. The difference is that one phase handles left turns from the
crossroad, and the other the conflicting crossroad traffic. This configuration has the
highest capacity of any two-level interchange form. Crossroad through traffic
encounters only one potential signal in either direction.
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The preferred design for PARCLO B is

a single exit design (Figure 4.15). The
exit splits for right turning traffic and
the loop, with a stem road alignment
serving to help deceleration from the
high-speed expressway to the design
speed of the loop ramp. Because the
loop ramp carries traffic from higher
speeds to lower, PARCLO B is better
suited to crossroad over conditions
for which the loop ramps will be on Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
upgrades rather than downgrades.
Figure 4.15 Partial Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B
The tradeoffs associated with the PARCLO B as compared to the diamond involve its
higher cost and right-of-way requirements. These will exceed cost and right-of-way
for PARCLO A. In the preferred single exit design, the structure over the freeway must
be longer as it crosses over the exit ramps. The structure is the same width as would
be used for a diamond, as it must
carry queued left-turning traffic. As
with PARCLO A, there is right-of-way
needed in two quadrants (the
opposing ones from PARCLO A).
Finally, the design criteria for the
PARCLO B loop ramp call for greater
radii, given that it is serving high
speed to low speed traffic.

4.2.4.3 Two-Quadrant PARCLO A and
Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
PARCLO B
Another variation of the PARCLO Figure 4.16 Two-Quadrant Partial
form is the two-quadrant PARCLO Cloverleaf (PARCLO) A
(both A and B) shown in Figure 4.16
and Figure 4.17. Directional ramps
are not provided. Instead, both the
movements use the loop ramps. For
the two-quadrant PARCLO A, left
turns off the crossroad use the
entering loops. For the two-quadrant
PARCLO B, right turning movements
from the freeway use the loop ramps
and turn left at the ramp terminal
intersection. Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
Figure 4.17 Two-Quadrant Partial

Cloverleaf (PARCLO) B
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The two-quadrant forms should be used only to avoid expensive or otherwise

unavailable right-of-way in the quadrants in which the directional ramps are removed.
They have the disadvantages of increasing traffic volume on the lower capacity loop
ramps and requiring three-phase signalization. These forms may pose greater risk of
wrong-way entry to the freeway, as entering channelization is adjacent to the exit
ramp terminal intersection.
4.2.4.4 One-Quadrant PARCLO

A PARCLO with one loop may be the
best-value solution in certain
contexts. This alternative may be
considered if only one left-turning
movement is particularly critical, or if
right-of-way is available for a loop in
one quadrant but not the
corresponding one. Figure 4.18 shows
an example one-loop interchange.
Operation of the crossroad will
require one ramp terminal Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
intersection to be two-phase and the
other to be three-phase. Figure 4.18 One-Quadrant Partial
Cloverleaf (PARCLO)
In cases where the loop is a B loop (serving left-turning traffic from the freeway), it is
important that sufficient deceleration distance be provided through either single exit
design or placement of the loop ramp exit nose in advance of the structure, with a
stem road of 80 m to 120 m.
4.2.4.5 PARCLO AB
The PARCLO AB form has two loops (Figure 4.19), with one serving crossroad left-
turning entering traffic as in PARCLO A, and the other serving freeway or expressway
left-turning traffic as in PARCLO B. This special form has two basic applications. It may
be appropriate where the
interchanging crossroad has a parallel
constraint, such as a river or rail line,
or if the right-of-way along one side of
the crossroad is unavailable. The other
application is for situations in which a
closely proximate interchange occurs
in one direction along the freeway.
PARCLO AB in effect shifts both the
potentially conflicting ramps away
from the proximate interchange—exit Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
in one direction, entrance in the Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
other—thereby increasing weaving Figure 4.19 Partial Cloverleaf
distance. (PARCLO) AB
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4.2.5 Full Cloverleaf Interchanges

A full cloverleaf interchange
(Figure 4.20) employs loops for all
four left-turning movements. In this
form, all traffic is unstopped. The
loop ramps form weaving sections
that generally are the controlling
traffic operational feature of the
interchange. Where traffic volumes
are even moderate, the full cloverleaf
creates the potential for substantial Source: Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design
speed differentials along the high Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
speed mainline. In such cases, the Figure 4.20 Full Cloverleaf Interchange
use of CD roads is considered a best
practice. Operating experience in many places demonstrates that full cloverleaf
interchanges produce greater frequencies of multi-vehicle crashes along the mainline
weaving sections than other forms that do not have weaving.
Full cloverleaf interchanges require substantial right-of-way in all four quadrants. Full
cloverleaf interchanges are difficult for pedestrians to navigate along the crossroad,
as traffic is unstopped and there are four ramps for them to cross if walking along the
crossroad. Given their space inefficiency and limited capacity associated with
weaving, as well as the difficulties posed to pedestrians, the full cloverleaf
interchange is not recommended for urban expressway service interchanging.
A full cloverleaf may be considered as a service interchange for rural freeways with
moderate volumes, less costly. Where a cloverleaf service interchange is designed,
the use of CD roads for the freeway is required. These provide for both single-exit
design and removal of lower speed weaving traffic from the higher speed freeway
mainline. However, with these design requirements, a rural freeway cloverleaf service
interchange will take considerably more right-of-way and have a much greater
construction cost than other service forms suitable for low to moderate volumes in
rural conditions. Figure 4.21 shows a typical full cloverleaf interchange.
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Source: Salwa Road, Google Earth, 2014
Figure 4.21 Example Full Cloverleaf Interchange
4.2.6 Three-Level Service Interchange Forms

In certain cases where turning movements or major arterial through movements are
particularly high, three-level service interchange designs may be considered.
4.2.6.1 Three-Level Diamonds

Figure 4.22 shows two types of three-level diamond interchanges. In both cases, the
interchange ramps are brought together at the middle level of the interchange with
expressway lanes typically on the lower level and the major arterial through traffic at
the third or top level. In a conventional three-level diamond, the ramps form a box of
four intersections, all signalized and coordinated. Each left-turning movement passes
through three of the four intersections, with the highest volume movements
progressed. Spacing of the intersections will vary but is generally on the order of
100 m to 150 m.
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Figure 4.22 Three-Level Diamonds
The second type of three-level diamond employs the concept of an SPDI. All left-
turning ramp movements come together at a single intersection at the middle level.
The movements are transposed as in a diverging diamond, so opposing left turns
occur simultaneously on one signal phase, and the intersection operates with a highly
efficient, two-phase operation.
The tradeoffs in three-level diamond applications are between the high degree of
traffic service provided—all through movements and right turns are unstopped on
both roadways, and left turns are efficiently managed through simple signalization—
and both the cost of the interchange and the need for considerable access control along
the major arterial for profile development. Access control requirements along the
crossroad may be on the order of 500 m to 1,000 m, depending on the vertical
alignment.
4.2.6.2 Three-level Roundabouts

Three-level roundabouts (Figure 4.23) may be more space efficient three-level
interchanges than the diamonds discussed above. The operation is similar to the three
level diamonds in that the ramp traffic is brought together at the middle level where
movements are completed using the roundabout. The roundabout can be single or
multilane. It carries only ramp traffic and no through traffic, which is on the first or
third levels.
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Figure 4.23 Example Three-level Roundabouts
4.3 System Interchange Types

As defined in Clause 3.3.2.2, a system interchange is one between two fully access
controlled facilities. The types of interchanges applicable for modern freeway to
freeway or expressway interchanging have unique attributes:
• All movements are unstopped.

• All movements are provided in all directions.
• All exits and entrances are on the right.
• Single exits are provided (where possible).
• There is no weaving within the interchange.
• Adjacent or proximate service interchanges are separated from the system ramps.
All the above attributes are considered requirements for system interchanges on the
Qatar network. The Overseeing Organization will approve only interchange concepts
that include these attributes. Detailed design should not proceed until the Overseeing
Organization has fully reviewed and approved the system interchange concept plan.
System interchanges are often the most critical point locations of a roadway network.
They frequently carry substantial volume of turning movements. For this reason, the
desirable design feature of single-exit design may not be possible in every instance.
Where both left and right turning volumes are very high, it may be necessary to
develop separate exit ramps for each movement.
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Figure 4.24 shows a modern system interchange between two high volume
expressways. The basic types of system interchanges are classified as three-leg or
four-leg, depending on the number of approaches.
Figure 4.24 System Interchange between Two Urban Expressways
4.3.1 Three-Leg System Interchanges

A three-leg system interchange will apply where one freeway or expressway
terminates at another. There are two basic forms: T- or Y-type, and trumpets.
4.3.1.1 T- or Y-Type
The T- or Y-type interchange (Figure 4.25) employs directional ramps for all movements.
These are designed to higher speeds. This interchange form generally requires up to
three levels, depending on the ramp arrangements and relationships of the crossing
roadways.
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Figure 4.25 Directional T- and Y-Interchanges
4.3.1.2 Trumpets
The trumpet form (Figure 4.26) employs one loop ramp for one direction of traffic
between the through or continuous freeway and the terminating one. An “A” loop
design carries left-turning traffic from the terminating freeway to the continuous
freeway. A “B” loop design carries left-turning traffic from the continuous freeway to
a terminating or beginning freeway. All other ramps are directional in nature.
The advantages of loop ramps in system interchanging are twofold:
• The interchange need be only one level, which will better facilitate ramp profile
development and reduce the construction cost.
• Traffic and ramps entering or exiting the continuous freeway may be better
located relative to upstream or downstream proximate ramps by use of the loop.
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Figure 4.26 T- and Y-Interchanges—Trumpet Form
The loop ramp will be designed to a lower design speed than a comparable movement
for the T- or Y-type interchange. The following are considerations in selecting an
A loop vs. B loop design:
• Availability of right-of-way
• Relative design traffic volumes, favoring the use a loop ramp for the lower design
traffic
• Traffic composition, favoring higher volumes of truck and bus traffic on directional
rather than loop ramps
• Location of upstream and downstream ramps along the continuous freeway
• Vertical relationship between the two freeways, giving preference to an upgrade
loop ramp alignment rather than downgrade, as the latter condition has increased
risk of truck overturning
4.3.1.3 Design Considerations in Selecting a Three-Leg System Interchange

Selection of the appropriate three-leg interchange generally depends on the availability
of right-of-way and on constraints or conditions created by upstream and downstream
adjacent ramps along the continuous expressway or freeway. Without ramp constraints
and assuming that right-of-way is available, trumpet forms generally produce
reasonable traffic service at a lower construction cost than T- or Y-type forms.
For three-leg intersections with ramp volumes requiring two-lane ramps, the T- or
Y-type form generally is favored because the directional ramps are more readily
designed for two lanes.
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4.3.2 Four-Leg System Interchanges

Four-leg system interchanges are formed where two expressways or freeways cross.
Typical conditions reflected in the existing and planned Qatar freeway and
expressway system are for both crossing facilities to be continuous in terms of route
designation. The interchange forms discussed below are applicable to such typical
conditions. Where a marked or designated route makes a turn through an
interchange, special designs are required to maintain the continuity of the route.
4.3.2.1 Fully Directional Four-Leg Interchanges

Figure 4.27 shows eight fully directional interchanges that are functionally the same
form, as they all embody the characteristics noted above for modern system
interchanges, and in every case all ramps are directional in nature.
Figure 4.27 Fully-Directional System Interchanges
The examples differ in terms of right-of-way footprint and vertical alignment

requirement. Interchange A is a full four-level interchange. The crossing roadways and
left-turning directional ramps all cross at the same location, necessitating four full
levels. This design is the most space efficient of the forms. Interchange H provides left-
turning ramp geometry more spread out, with multiple individual crossing points for
each ramp. This form can be designed to as low as two to two and one-half levels,
saving considerably on structure costs. However, Interchange H requires significantly
more right-of-way.
Configurations A and B are sometimes referred to as a “California Stack” because of

their prevalence in that U.S. state at high-volume system locations. Configuration H is
often referred to as a turbine interchange. The other configurations (C through F)
illustrate that a fully directional interchange can be designed many different ways to
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fit the context. For example, interchanges E and F show ramps offset or asymmetrical.
This solution may be necessary because of location-specific right-of-way constraints
or proximate service interchange ramps. Even with such a design, the basic
functionality of the interchange remains the same.
4.3.2.2 Four-Leg Interchanges Including Loops

Figure 4.28 shows four-leg interchanges in which one or more loops are used. As is
the case with the trumpet interchange, the advantages of loop ramps are they
eliminate one level, and they enable merging traffic farther upstream, which may be
necessary given proximate ramps. Interchanges G and H have the most levels, with as
many as three.
System interchanges may be designed with one, two, or three loops. A three-loop
interchange would require a CD road between the loop ramps in a system application.
Figure 4.29 shows a one-loop system interchange reconstructed from a full cloverleaf
interchange at which traffic operational problems and a history of crashes led to the
need to reconfigure and reconstruct the interchange.
In most cases, system interchange loop ramps will be designed for one lane of traffic.
However, there is successful experience in two-lane loop ramp design and operation.
4.3.2.3 Full Cloverleaf System Interchanges

A full cloverleaf interchange may be considered, but typically only in rural settings
where right-of-way is available. A full cloverleaf system interchange shall be designed
with CD roads along both freeway mainlines in both directions to remove slower
speed weaving traffic from the higher speed mainline.
4.3.2.4 Design Considerations in Selection of Four-Leg System Interchange Types

Design of system interchanges requires great care. These point locations are usually
among the most critical operational points on the overall roadway system. The design
requirements, including number of levels and right-of-way, can result in considerably
high construction costs and long, multi-year construction periods.
4.3.3 Special Design Issues for System Interchanges

Site-specific traffic, design, and environmental studies must be done to determine the
best solution. These generally will need to include and consider the next adjacent
interchange on all approaches. Given the costs and potentially great effects of these
interchanges, such studies should be conducted so as to allow full investigation of
potential different concept alternatives.
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Figure 4.28 Directional Interchange Types with Two Loops
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Source: Ohio Department of Transportation
Figure 4.29 One Loop System Interchange
4.3.3.1 Separation of System and Service Interchanging Ramps

An important aspect of system interchange design is maintaining the quality of traffic
flow associated with all system movements. In urban expressway applications, service
interchanging may be desired or already exist close to the system location. To the
extent possible, designers should strive to separate service and system interchanging
movements. Local congestion and backups associated with the service interchange
should not inhibit traffic flow through the system interchange. This is done by grade
separating the movements using ramp braids and providing completely separate and
appropriate spaced exit ramps (Figure 4.30). The fully directional system interchange is
near but fully separated operationally from the SPDI service interchange to the right.
Separation of exits in particular is important for simple and understandable signing.

System interchanges designed in close proximity or combined with service
interchanges shall separate system and service interchange ramps, with such
separation meeting the minimum criteria for ramp spacing. The Overseeing
Organization will review and approve only plans for freeways that fully separate
system and service movements.
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Figure 4.30 Example of System and Service Interchanging with Full Design and
Operational Separation of Ramps
4.3.3.2 Avoid Transposing Exit Ramps

The arrangement of exit ramp design for T- or Y-type interchanges or where two-exit
designs are employed should meet driver expectations. At the terminating roadway of
a T- or Y-type interchange, the terminating roadway alignment splits into two ramps
that join the continuous roadway in each direction. Driver expectations at any
interchange are that the ramp departing to the right carries traffic movements to the
right, and the ramp departing to the left carries traffic movements to the left. This
expectation applies also to four-leg intersections. For example, in a two-exit cloverleaf
interchange the first exit is for traffic to the right and the second, the loop ramp, for
traffic to the left. Designers should avoid the transposing of ramps (see Figure 4.31)
unless significant right-of-way or other physical constraints exist, as this violates these
basic driver expectations.
Figure 4.31 Transposed Ramps (Avoid)
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4.3.3.3 Principles of Sustainability Applied to System Interchanges

Multi-level system interchanges produce long-term assets to be maintained by the
Overseeing Organization. In selecting a configuration through a design study, the
designer may be establishing numerous bridges (including bridge decks, piers and
related infrastructure), retaining walls, tens of lane-kilometers of pavement and
shoulder, hundreds of meters of barriers and appurtenances, and countless drainage
structures to be maintained in a state of good repair for the long term. Effort should
be made to develop an interchange footprint that serves the intended transportation
needs yet minimizes the resources and potential adverse effects of such a significant
project.
Interchange geometry, placement of lighting and signing, and other features can
minimize guardrail and barrier, thus reducing maintenance costs and improving safety
performance. Loop ramps and infield space provide opportunities for stormwater
management and landscaping.
4.3.3.4 System Interchange Concepts for Non-system Interchanges

The system interchange concepts and configurations discussed above may be applied
to interchanges between freeways and expressways, and also to major arterials that
are not fully access controlled. Such applications may be appropriate where major
arterial forecast traffic volumes are high and there is sufficient distance along the
major arterial for ramp merging and exiting to occur away from signalized
intersections, roundabouts, or major commercial driveways.
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5 Geometric Design
Requirements for Interchange
Ramps
Design for roadway elements is presented in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. As
interchange ramps are special design features, the details of ramps are covered in this
section.
5.1 Elements of Ramps

Ramps consist of three basic elements: the exit or point of diverge, the ramp proper,
and the merge or ramp terminus.
5.1.1 Diverge
The ramp diverge includes the taper, deceleration lane and distance, gore, and
physical nose (see Figure 5.1). The taper and deceleration lane provide for physical
separation of traffic leaving the expressway or freeway, and enable the driver to
decelerate in a manner away from the higher speed through traffic. The gore and
physical nose are specific locations denoting where the geometry of the exit or
diverge taper is controlled.
Appendix B contains additional details for typical exit ramps.
Figure 5.1 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-flow Ramp Exist Terminal
5.1.1.1 Location of the Diverge

Exit ramps may be located at any point along a mainline alignment. The location of an
exit ramp may be influenced by the presence of upstream or downstream ramps. In
locating an exit ramp, care should be taken to avoid situations that may surprise a
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driver or create difficulties in developing ramp superelevation or profiles. For

example, consider Figure 5.2 Case A. For a mainline alignment in which a horizontal
curve is introduced, designers should strive to locate the exit either well in advance of
the initial point of curvature of the curve, or well beyond it. This mitigates the
potential for unfamiliar or fatigued drivers inadvertently follow the exit when it is
designed as an extension of the mainline tangent. For diverge geometry following a
horizontal curve, the designer should locate the exit nose such that appropriate
superelevation and transitions can be designed. In advance of the nose, the right edge
of pavement will continue the mainline superelevation rate. The examples of
preferred location in Cases B and C in Figure 5.2 reflect the need for ramp proper
superelevation to be developed once the alignment is past the nose.
Another consideration in locating an exit is its visibility to the driver. Provision of

decision sight distance is preferred. In particular, for cases in which the crossroad is
under the freeway and the freeway’s vertical alignment is on an upgrade, it is
desirable for the exit nose and diverge geometry to be located on the upgrade so that
it is clearly visible to the driver.
Figure 5.2 Alignment Considerations in Location of Exits
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5.1.1.2 Diverge End Details

The diverge end or physical “nose” is the point where the independent alignment of
the ramp proper begins. Ahead of the nose, the alignment of the diverge, both
horizontally and vertically, is tied to the mainline geometry. Once the exit ramp
alignment reaches the nose, it becomes mathematically independent of the freeway.
The cross section dimensions at the physical nose should be fixed. As measured from
the right edge of mainline traveled way, this dimension should equal the full right
shoulder of the freeway (3.0 m), a nose width of 1.2 m to 2.4 m, and the full left
shoulder. The wider separation should be used on rural freeway exits and other exits
where space is available. In locations where space is limited, such as urban
expressways, the lower dimension may be used. Figure 5.3 shows the details of the
exit ramp diverge.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011)
Figure 5.3 Typical Exit Gore Area Detail
Appropriate vertical geometry and ramp pavement edge elevations are critical
aspects of the design of the exit ramp as it diverges from the mainline. The ramp and
gore should be designed to prevent ponding and to avoid abrupt changes in cross
slope between the mainline, gore area, and ramp. The difference in slope from one
element to the next should be 8 percent or less.
Special care is needed for cases in which the mainline alignment is in sag vertical
curvature at or near the physical nose, or when the mainline geometry is on a
horizontal curve to the left. Ahead of the physical nose, the taper or deceleration lane
may need to carry superelevation in the same direction as the mainline. If the ramp
proper alignment curves to the left near the nose (see Case 2 in Figure 5.2), reversing
the direction of superelevation for the ramp may be difficult. In setting the final
design, it may be necessary to shift the location of the physical nose to enable
reasonable cross slopes and ramp pavement edge profiles. It also may be necessary to
adjust the alignment of the ramp proper to enable its superelevation.
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5.1.1.3 Design for Deceleration

Exit ramps can be designed as either taper-type designs or parallel exit designs. A
taper rate of 3.8 degrees is recommended and thus is preferred. However, taper rates
of 2 degrees through 5 degrees may be used without requiring a Departure from
Standards. For cases in which the diverge occurs on a horizontal curve as in Figure 5.2,
the offsets from the mainline edge of pavement should be based on the desired taper
rate (preferably 3.8 degrees).
Taper-type exits are preferred, because as drivers decelerate, they also move laterally
away from the higher speed mainline traffic. Taper type exits should be used on rural
freeway interchanges and where right-of-way is limited. Parallel-type exits may be
used where right-of-way is available and their use facilitates ramp proper alignment.
Either type of design is acceptable. The use of parallel exit ramp designs does not
The critical design feature of the exit regardless of type is the length of deceleration
provided to drivers. This length is a function of the design speed of the freeway or
expressway and the location of the first controlling alignment element (typically a
horizontal curve) on the ramp proper. Table 5.1 shows minimum design values for
deceleration lengths for both types of exit designs given these conditions. Adjustment
factors for grades are given in Table.
Research confirms that crash frequencies on exit ramps are related to the length of
deceleration provided. Designers are encouraged to lengthen the deceleration
dimension in cases where exiting design volumes are high or the costs of doing so are
minimal. Use of design values less than the minimum values in Table 5.1 shall require
a Departure from Standards.
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Table 5.1 Deceleration Distances for Taper and Parallel Exit Ramps
Deceleration Length, L (m) for Design Speed of Exit Curves, V’ (kph)
Stop
Design Speed
For Average Running Speed on Exit Curve V’a (kph)
Speed, V Reached,
(kph) Va (kph) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 47 75 70 60 45 — — — —
60 55 95 90 80 65 55 — — —
70 63 110 105 95 85 70 55 — —
80 70 130 125 115 100 90 80 55 —
90 77 145 140 135 120 110 100 75 60
100 85 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
110 91 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
120 98 200 195 185 175 170 155 140 120
130 102 220 210 200 190 185 170 160 135
140 110 240 225 215 205 195 185 175 150
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5.1.2 Ramp Proper

The ramp proper is that part of the ramp beginning at the physical nose and ending at
either the merging end (described below) or the ramp terminal intersection. The ramp
proper alignment is independent of the freeway. Design speed criteria are presented
in Table 3.5 for service interchanges and Table 3.6 for system interchanges.
5.1.2.1 Exit Ramp Proper Alignment

Speeds on service exit ramps will transition from the mainline operating speed to the
speed associated with the ramp terminal intersection. This will be 0 kph (stopped
condition) for stop-controlled, signal-controlled, and roundabout ramp terminals with
yield to entry operation.
In addition to selecting an appropriate design speed, the design of the controlling

alignment contributes to desired speed behavior. Controlling curvature shall begin
beyond the physical nose but preferably should be downstream from the nose. The
design assumption is that drivers decelerate from design speed on the ramp before
reaching the painted gore.
Research on safety performance of exit ramps suggests that designing the controlling
curve well beyond the physical nose improves deceleration and contributes to lower
crash frequencies (Texas Transportation Institute, 2012). At a minimum, the
controlling curve shall not begin ahead of the physical nose. Figure 5.4 provides
guidance on locating the controlling curve relative to the painted gore. Recommended
values range from 80 m to 150 m, with the greater dimension associated with higher
speeds and greater speed differentials between the mainline design speed and ramp
design speed. For example, an exit ramp with a design speed of 70 kph leaving a
freeway with a design speed of 120 kph should be designed such that the PC of the
curve begins at least 100 m from the painted gore. Table 5.2 presents good practice to
facilitate comfortable deceleration and speed transition.
Figure 5.4 Guidelines for the location of the Controlling Horizontal Curve on Exit
Ramps Proper
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Table 5.2 Recommended Minimum Design Values for Location of Controlling

Horizontal Curve on Exit Ramps—Painted Gore to Point of Curvature, in
meters
Exit Ramp Design Speeda (kph)
Freeway Design Speed (kph) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
100 130 110 90 80
120 140 120 100 80
140 150 120 100 90 80
Notes:
a Initial curve beyond physical nose.
Source: Adapted from Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook (Leisch, 2005)
In designing exit ramps on urban expressways and higher volume freeway exits in
which queuing is expected at the traffic signal or roundabout approach, the length of
ramp should reflect driver needs associated with lane changing and deceleration to
the back of the queue. A suggested basis for design is a 95th percentile queue for
design traffic, which can be obtained from operational analyses of the crossroad ramp
terminal.
5.1.2.2 Horizontal Curvature

Right-of-way is often limited where interchanges are desired. Certain efficient
interchange types may require relatively sharp curvature. For service interchange
design, the use of horizontal curves for loop ramps with superelevation of up to
8 percent is allowable for entrance ramps only if such use enables a highly efficient
form, such as a PARCLO A.
Because of the unique aspects of ramps, the operational and safety implications of
curves vary significantly and hence should be addressed in selection of controlling
curvature. Entrance ramps from lower speed arterials present different risk profiles
than exit ramps from high-speed freeways or expressways. In addition, given that
ramps generally will have grades of more than 3 percent, the effect of grade on curve
operations should be considered. Exit ramps with curvature on downgrades will
operate differently than those on upgrades.
Table 5.3 lists minimum radii for controlling horizontal curves on exit ramps for
5 percent and 7 percent superelevation. For downgrade exit ramps where the grade
on the approach to the controlling curve is greater than 2 percent (which are typical in
crossroad under freeway designs), curvature using the 5 percent superelevation
values shall control the design. For flatter downgrades and exit ramps on upgrades
where the grade helps decelerate the vehicle, the smaller radius curves associated
with 7 percent superelevation values may be used without the need for a Departure
from Standards. For entrance ramps from lower speed crossroads only,
superelevation rates of 8 percent may be used without a Departure from Standards
for ramp design speeds of 40 to 60 kph. See also Section 3.3 in this Part.
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Table 5.3 Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves on Ramps at Interchanges

Design Minimum Radius for Maximum Superelevation of:
Speed Minimum Radius for Maximum
(kph) 5%a 7%a Superelevation of 8%c
40 115 75 80
50 180 130 115
60 255 185 160
70 360 260
80 455 325
90 575 410
100 720 515
110 860 615
Notes:
a Service Interchange entrance loop ramps only.
5.1.2.3 Stopping Sight Distance on Ramp Horizontal Curves

Provision for SSD is a design requirement for all roadways including ramps. There are
unique design challenges associated with ramps on structure such as may occur with
system interchanges. Horizontal SSD is described in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this manual. Limitations in SSD may occur with an obstruction or design feature
along the inside of the curve. For ramps on structure designed with typical widths
described above for roadway and shoulder, it is generally the case that the offset
provided by half the ramp width plus shoulder width will be insufficient to provide full
SSD per design requirements outlined in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual. The combination of barrier, parapet, and ramp profile may interfere with the
design sightline. Table 5.4 demonstrates the extent of this design problem for
minimum radius curves for the range of ramp design speeds.
Table 5.4 Horizontal Sight Distance and Curvature for Ramps on Structure
Equivalent Speed for SSD
SSD Provided by Typical Provided by Typical Ramp
Design Offset
Ramp Widtha (m) Width (kph)
Speed of Stopping (m) to
Ramp Sight Provide Right
(kph) Distance (m) SSD Left Curve Curve Left Curve Right Curve
40 50 4.00 39.3 54.8 32.3 43.2
50 65 4.47 46.4 67.4 37.8 51.2
60 85 5.53 52.3 79.2 45.2 57.1
70 105 5.24 61.4 100.5 54.5 67.8
80 130 6.43 66.5 112.3 58.6 72.9
90 160 7.74 71.9 126.0 63.6 78.4
100 185 8.25 77.1 141.1 69.2 83.7
110 220 9.77 81.3 154.1 73.1 88.0
Notes:
a For one-lane ramp with lane width of 4.8 m, left shoulder of 1.2 m and right shoulder of 2.4 m.
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Unless special measures are taken, the available SSD may be significantly short of that
required for the design speed of the ramp. In Table 5.4, a deficiency in the available vs
design speed is colored yellow if the deficiency is less than 10 kph, orange if it is from
10 to 20 kph, and red if it is greater than 20 kph.
For controlling curvature and higher design speeds, the required offset to provide full
SSD generally is impractical. For example, a ramp with design speed of 90 kph will
need an offset of 7.74 m. Widening a bridge to provide this dimension will be both
costly and difficult in three dimensions, as the bridge deck will be on full
superelevation. This will significantly affect vertical clearances for undercrossing roads
or require the ramp profile to be raised, with raising of all other elements including
potentially third or fourth level bridges.
Resolution of this design challenge typically will involve a Departure from Standards
for SSD on the ramp. The following guidance is suggested to optimize the design
process:
• Most importantly, designers are encouraged to select design speeds for which an
SSD value close to that required can reasonably be provided, particularly for left
curves. The basis for horizontal curvature is the driver’s comfort. Balancing driver
comfort with available SSD may mean selecting a lower design speed.
• The combination of curve radius and profile can greatly influence the length of
ramp alignment over which the sight restriction will occur. Designers should
develop sight distance profiles to be able to quantify the length of alignment at risk.
• Care should be taken to avoid design of a ramp split along a horizontal curve that
has limited SSD.
• Risk analysis and research on SSD suggests that an SSD deficiency of 10 kph
desirably, and no more than 20 kph may be acceptable from a risk and cost
perspective (Transportation Research Record 923). Designers should strive for the
lesser deficiency (10 kph or less) for higher speed ramps.
• Additional offset and resulting SSD can be provided by widening the inside shoulder of
the curve beyond the typical width dimension. For curves to the left, a designer may
swap or transfer some shoulder width dimension from the wider right shoulder to the
left shoulder, where it will contribute to increased SSD without increasing the
structure width. Some combination of these two solutions may be considered.
• For two-lane ramps with SSD restrictions, some part of the traffic will be in a lane
that provides additional offset and hence additional available SSD. As drivers tend
to distribute themselves in a way that favors the right lane, two-lane right curves
will be have more traffic in the more sight-restricted right lane than left curves.
Depending on the solution designed, a Departure from Standards for SSD, right ramp
shoulder width, or both may be required. This design challenge is common for system
interchanges, and, as such, it is best discussed with the Overseeing Organization at
the outset of the project when design criteria are being established.
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5.1.2.4 Grades
Design criteria for maximum grades of interchange ramps are shown in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Interchange Ramp Grades

Grade
Interchange Type Desirable Maximum
Service Interchange 4 6
System Interchange 4 5
Ramp vertical alignment will include vertical curvature or a spline alignment at

merging end or physical nose, the alignment of which should be coordinated with the
freeway mainline as discussed above. Vertical curvature should be designed for a
speed no less than 20 kph less than the design speed of the mainline, reflecting speed
behavior along the ramp as it exits or enters the freeway. For service interchanges,
there will be vertical curvature connecting the ramp grade to that of the crossroad
intersection. Best practices are for exit ramps to be designed with relatively flat grade
(typically extending the cross slope of the crossroad), which serves as a platform for
queued vehicles and facilitates their discharge into the intersection or roundabout
from a stopped position. Entrance ramps to be metered should be designed so that
the stop bar of the meter is on a relatively level grade, generally no steeper than
2 percent. The design criteria above apply to both upgrade and downgrade ramps for
both exits and entrances.
Minimum grades, established to provide for drainage of the pavement, are

0.5 percent desirable and 0.3 percent minimum.
Grades not meeting the maximum and minimum criteria shall require a Departure
from Standards.
5.1.2.5 Length of Ramps Proper

The controlling factors governing ramp lengths include the grade to effect a change in
levels and traffic operational factors. In lower volume rural service interchanges, the
vertical alignment requirements generally will govern minimum ramp lengths. For
typical conditions and maximum grades, exit ramp lengths will generally be 250 m to
300 m. There is no standard minimum length of ramp.
Exit ramps on high-volume service interchanges will experience queuing during design
hour traffic. Queuing will be based on the type of traffic control at the crossroad ramp
terminal and the channelization (number and allocation of lanes). Ramps that widen
into three or more lanes at a signal-controlled approach require drivers to shift lanes
to make their desired turning movements. Traffic operational analyses to support
ramp design should produce predicted 95th percentile queues for design hour traffic
and lane arrangements. Designers should provide sufficient ramp length to
accommodate deceleration and lane changing to the back of a 95th percentile queue.
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5.1.3 Merge
The ramp merge includes the merging end, known also as “physical nose”, entrance
gore, acceleration distance and lane, and taper (Figure 5.5). The acceleration lane and
taper provide for physical separation of traffic entering the expressway or freeway,
and enable the driver to accelerate safely away from the higher speed through traffic.
The gore and merging end are specific locations denoting where the geometry of the
ramp proper is no longer independent, but rather controlled in three dimensions by
the geometry of the mainline.
Figure 5.5 Basic Configuration and Elements of Free-Flow Ramp for Entrance
Terminal
Appendix B contains greater design details for entrance ramps.
5.1.3.1 Location of Merge

Entrance ramps may be located at any point along a mainline alignment. The location of
an entrance ramp may be influenced by the presence of upstream or downstream
ramps. Separate entrances in many cases are preferred operationally as they better
distribute the traffic volume entering the freeway. The location of the second exit,
however, will be influenced by both the upstream entrance and the next downstream
exit, the combination of which creates a potential weaving section. In locating multiple
separate entrance ramps, designers should study and test the local system of ramps
using the ramp spacing design criteria in Figure 2.2, which addresses both successive
entrances and weaving dimensions.
In locating an entrance ramp, care should be taken to avoid situations that may create
difficulties in development of ramp superelevation or profiles. Entrance ramps should
be located and designed in concert with the vertical alignment of the mainline to the
extent possible. Downgrade alignment facilitates the acceleration of merging vehicles
to the mainline speed. For cases in which the merging end must be designed along an
upgrade because of ramp spacing, bridge, or right-of-way concerns, the acceleration
lane should be lengthened to counteract the adverse effects of the upgrade on
acceleration.
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5.1.3.2 Merging End Details

The merging end is the point where the independent alignment of the ramp proper
ends, with alignment from this point tied directly to the mainline geometry. The
separation between the ramp and mainline at the ramp nose should include the left
shoulder of the ramp, physical nose with a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.6 m (width of 0.6 m
to 1.2 m), and right shoulder of the mainline (Figure 5.5). See also Appendix B. In
cases where the ramp and or mainline shoulder dimensions are narrowed, the
separation is reduced by that amount, but the physical nose dimension itself is not to
be reduced. See Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 Typical Single-lane Entrance Ramp
Appropriate vertical geometry and ramp pavement edge elevations are critical
aspects of the design of the ramp as it merges to the mainline. The ramp and gore
should be designed to prevent ponding and to avoid abrupt changes in slope between
the mainline, gore, and ramp. Special care is needed for cases in which the mainline
alignment is in sag vertical curvature at the merging end, or when the mainline
geometry is on a horizontal curve to the left. In setting the final design, it may be
necessary to shift the location of the merging end to enable reasonable cross slopes
and ramp pavement edge profiles.
5.1.3.3 Design for Acceleration

Entrance ramps can be designed as taper-type or as parallel exit designs. Table 6
shows the plan view for a taper-type design with a merging rate of 50:1 relative to the
mainline. For cases in which the merge occurs on a horizontal curve, the offsets from
the mainline edge of pavement should be based on the desired departure rate of
50:1. The design basis for merging is the assumption that each merging vehicle
operates independently and has sufficient gaps in lane one traffic to enable merging.
The lengths provided for merging reflect the combined effects of passenger car
capabilities and of driver comfort and desires in acceleration.
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of Two Percent or Less
Acceleration Length, L (m) for Entrance Curve Design Speed (kph)
Stop
Design Speed and Initial Speed, V’a (kph)
Speed, Reached,
V (kph) Va (kph) 0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 37 60 50 30 — — — — —
60 45 95 80 65 45 — — — —
70 53 150 130 110 90 65 — — —
80 60 200 180 165 145 115 65 — —
90 67 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 —
100 74 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 81 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 88 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
130 98 650 635 605 590 575 550 445 365
140 105 760 745 720 710 695 675 585 500
Note: Uniform 50:1 to 70:1 tapers are recommended where lengths of acceleration lanes
exceed 400 m.
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Table5.7 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade

Metric
Design Speed Declaration Lanes

of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level for Design Speed of Turning Curve
(kph) (kph)1

All Speeds
Design Speed Acceleration Lanes

of Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length of Level for Design Speed of Turning Curve
(kph) (kph)
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 - - 0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 - 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
140 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
60 1.5 1.5 - - - 0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 - - 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 - 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.5
140 2.6 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.8 0.5
Notes:
1. Ratio from this table multiplied by the length in Table 5.16 gives length of speed change lane on
grade.
According to the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010), the capacity of a merge is
based on the density of traffic in the two rightmost lanes (lanes one and two). As
volume and density increase, through traffic in lane one shifts to lane two upstream
of the entrance to avoid conflict with traffic merging into lane one. Capacity is
reached when gaps are no longer available in lane two for lane changing, and the gaps
for merging in lane one are insufficient for the ramp demand volume. Established
design conditions in the QHDM are intended to enable merging to occur under
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volume and densities well short of the capacity of the merge, which is LOS E (TRB,
2010). When such conditions are anticipated, higher capacity entrance designs are
necessary as discussed below.
Research into human behavior has shown that older drivers are more comfortable
merging at high speed on parallel-type entrances rather than taper-type (NCHRP,
2012). For cases in which merging volume and mainline volumes are relatively high
(for example, at the limits of LOS C), parallel-type exits are considered preferred. Even
at a 50:1 rate, the right edge of pavement represents a forced merge condition,
versus a parallel-type design in which driver can remain in their lane and adjust their
speed while awaiting a gap in the adjacent lane one.
Both taper-type and parallel-type entrances are considered acceptable for any
freeway or expressway interchange. Parallel-type entrances are encouraged on higher
volume expressway entrance ramps.
Research on the safety performance of interchange elements confirms that crash

frequencies on entrance ramps are related to the length of acceleration provided
(Texas Transportation Institute, 2012). Designers are encouraged to lengthen the
acceleration dimension in cases where entering design volumes are high or the costs
of doing so are minimal. Entrance merges on upgrades greater than 2 percent should
be increased to counteract the adverse acceleration effects of grade on vehicles.
Acceleration length design values in Table 6, including appropriate adjustments for
grade, are minimums. Use of values less than these requires a Departure from
Standards. Adjustment factors for grade are given in Table7.
5.1.4 Ramp Design for High Volumes and Lane Balance

Interchange ramps may need to be designed for two lanes of traffic. Two-lane ramps
provide for design traffic demand in excess of the capacity of a single lane merge or
diverge, or to produce a lane-balanced design for the addition or removal of an
auxiliary lane.
5.1.4.1 High Capacity Exit Ramps

Figure 5.7 shows the geometry for a two-lane exit. There are two ways to develop a
properly lane-balanced two-lane. One approach is to drop an auxiliary lane that may
have been added at an upstream entrance ramp. This rightmost lane becomes an exit-
only lane and is marked and signed accordingly. The lane to the left becomes the
optional lane; the driver may either exit or proceed through on the mainline. The
second approach is to develop an auxiliary lane on the approach. The auxiliary lane
should be at least 450 m long to give drivers sufficient distance to shift lanes and
access the lane well in advance of the exit. This dimension also provides for the
necessary advance signing associated with such exits.
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Figure 5.7 Two-lane Exit Design
5.1.4.2 High Capacity Entrance Ramps

Entrance ramps with capacity greater than a conventional merge (see Figure 5.8)
include ramps that add a continuous auxiliary lane, and two-lane ramps. With the
former, the lane adds to the freeway. For a parallel-type entrance, the full lane
continues for additional length, or until the next downstream exit where it is dropped at
a two-lane exit, as described in Clause 5.1.4.1. With a taper-type design, the taper ends
where the outside edge of pavement is a full lane width (3.65 m), at which point the
lane continues as an auxiliary lane. Lane ramps can have capacity approaching that of
freeway lanes (1,800 to 2,200 vph per lane) depending on ramp speed and the capacity
of upstream and downstream freeway segment (TRB, 2010).
A ramp designed for two lanes can be merged to one lane and then added to the
freeway or expressway. Merging of the two lanes can be completed with a 40:1 to
50:1 taper (based on design speed) in advance of the merging end of the single added
lane.
When entering volumes exceed the capacity of an added lane, a two-lane entrance
may be designed (Figure 5.8). The two lanes add to the freeway as auxiliary lanes and
are then dropped downstream. The capacity of the entrance is directly a function of
the length of each auxiliary lane beyond the physical merge.
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Figure 5.8 Two-lane Entrance Design
5.1.4.3 Major Forks and Merges

The design of exits and entrances assumes primacy of one roadway over the other. A
lesser roadway (ramp) exits from or enters onto the major roadway. Where two
roadways are equivalent in importance, their design should reflect such equivalence
when they diverge or merge. A major fork is the splitting of a roadway into two
equivalent and separate roadways (Figure ). Major forks should be located on a tangent
or very mild curve. The diverge angle is less severe than an exit. The geometry should
support operating speeds no less than 20 kph below the design speed of the pre-split
roadway. Decision sight distance should be provided in advance of major forks.
Figure 5.10 shows the merging of two major roadways. The same design principles
apply with respect to the alignment at the point of merge.
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Figure 5.9 Diagram of Major Fork
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Figure 5.10 Diagram of Major Merge
5.2 Ramp Cross Section Dimensions

Ramps may be one-lane or two-lane. Roadway and shoulder width dimensions vary
for each design. The QHDM design basis for ramp widths considers a combination of
operational consistency, maintainability, and quantitative safety. Ramps are one-way
roadways that should be free of obstructions at all times to enable safe entering and
in particular exiting from a freeway or expressway. The combination of ramp lane
widths and shoulder should provide sufficient space for vehicles to pass another
vehicle that is disabled; maintenance vehicles with workers along the ramp; and law
enforcement vehicles.
5.2.1 One-Lane Ramps—Typical

Figure shows a typical section for one-lane ramps. The ramp width shall be 4.6 m. The
paved right shoulder width shall be 2.4 m and the paved left shoulder width 1.2 m.
These dimensions produce a total paved width of 8.2 m. As the freeway mainline right
shoulder typically is 3.0 m, a transition to the 2.4 m right shoulder dimension should
occur ahead of the physical nose.
Where space is limited, the total paved width may be reduced but shall be no less than
7.8 m (1.2-m left shoulder, 4.6-m travel way, and 2.0-m right shoulder). In reducing
total paved width, preference should be given to reducing ramp width and maintaining
the shoulder width, but the width of ramp shall not be less than 3.65 m. Reductions in
total width beyond the 7.8 m dimension shall require a Departure from Standards.
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Figure 5.11 Typical Sections for One and Two-lane Ramps
5.2.2 Two-Lane Ramps—Typical

Where two-lane ramps are required, the cross section dimensions shall be as shown
in Figure 5.12. The width of each lane shall be 3.65 m for a total roadway width of
7.3 m. The paved right shoulder shall be 3.0 m and the paved left shoulder 1.8 m.
These dimensions produce a total paved width for two-lane ramps of 12.1 m.
Where space is limited, the paved shoulder widths may be reduced but shall be no
less than 10.3 m (1.2-m left shoulder, 7.3-m travel way, and 1.8-m right shoulder).
Minimum lane widths of 3.65 m shall be maintained. Reductions in total width beyond
the 10.3 m dimension shall require a Departure from Standards.
5.2.3 Loop Ramp and Sharp Radius Lane Widths

One-lane loop ramps and directional ramps with horizontal curvature associated with
design speeds of 50 kph or less shall be designed with a lane width of 4.8 m. This
greater width accommodates the off-tracking of longer vehicles. Standard shoulder
widths per above apply, resulting in a total paved width of 8.4 m for such cases.
Where space is limited the total paved width may be reduced, but shall be no less
than 7.4 m (1.2-m left shoulder, 4.8-m travel way, and 1.4-m right shoulder).
Reductions in width beyond the 7.4 m dimension shall require a Departure from
Standards.
In special cases, a two-lane loop ramp may be needed for a particular interchange
configuration. A minimum width of 9.6 m (two 4.8-m lanes) is recommended to
achieve maximum operational efficiency. Where the traffic composition is such that
large vehicles are 10 percent or more of the traffic stream, this width may be
increased.
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5.3 Crossroad Design Considerations

Design of the crossroad at service interchanges is critical to the operational quality of
the interchange.
5.3.1 Access Control and Proximate Intersections

Approaches to ramp terminal intersections and roundabout entries should be free of
driveways. Interchange ramp terminals should be designed to provide sufficient
spacing to adjacent public street intersections. In cases where the proximate
intersection is signal-controlled, the operational analyses of design hour traffic
supporting ramp terminal channelization design should include these intersections.
For certain interchange forms, left-turn queuing requirements on the intersection

approaches may control the spacing. Development of left-turn geometry for the
proximate intersection should also be considered. For cases in which the proximate
intersection is too close and cannot be relocated, elimination of left turns in and out
of the intersection (converting to right-in/right out only) may be needed.
Figure 5.12 shows access control guidance expressed in functional or operational

terms. The greater the length of full access control along crossroad approaches the
better. For typical service interchanges in urban areas, at least 100 m is generally
needed.
5.3.2 Entrance Ramp Location and Advance Notice to Drivers

Many major arterials for which interchanging occurs are multi-lane, with some designed
with three or more lanes per direction of travel. The range of service interchange
types that may be applied include diamonds, PARCLOs, and variations thereof. The
Qatar expressway and freeway network will evolve to contain different solutions in
each location. Driver expectations in operating along the crossroad, and specifically
related to left-turning movements, are an important consideration. Diamonds and
PARCLO B interchanges require drivers to enter the freeway through a left turn.
PARCLO A interchanges and roundabouts involve right-turning movements to enter
left onto the freeway. Advance signing for freeway destinations (right and left) on
crossroad approaches should be included, particularly on arterials with six or more
lanes.
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Figure 5.12 Access Control along the Crossroad in Proximity to Interchange Ramps
5.3.3 Wrong-way Driving Mitigation

Certain interchange forms may be susceptible to wrong-way entry (that is, drivers
entering the wrong direction of expressway by mistakenly entering on an exit ramp).
Wrong-way entry maneuvers typically occur at night in low volume conditions. Driver
fatigue and distraction are contributing factors to such behavior.
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PARCLO AB interchanges and SPDIs are interchanges with design characteristics that
pose wrong-way driving risks. Care should be taken to develop channelizing islands for
the PARCLO AB, so that drivers do not turn left into the wrong roadway. Lighting at
such locations can help mitigate the risk.
5.3.4 Pedestrians
The presence of pedestrians along the crossroad should be considered in expressway
design. Where pedestrians may be expected in significant volumes, interchange types
shall be selected to accommodate them. These will include diamond forms and may
preclude roundabout ramp terminals. PARCLO A configurations can be modified to
better accommodate pedestrians by designing the loop ramp as a right-turn, and by
providing protected pedestrian-actuated signal phasing to stop the right turn and
allow crossing of the ramp terminal intersection. Diverging diamond forms effectively
handle pedestrian traffic by focusing such traffic between the barrier-separated
transposed crossroad lanes.
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6 Service Road Interface with

Ramps and Crossroad
For cases in which a service road system runs parallel to the freeway, interchanging
with the service road may occur. The service road should operate as a one-way facility
in such cases. Figure 6.1 shows various design concepts for ramp locations. Exit ramps
would merge or join the service road as slip ramps in advance of the destination
crossroad. The placement of the slip ramp should facilitate deceleration, lane
changing, weaving, and queuing at the crossroad intersection. Ramp locations may
create weaving on the mainline or crossroad. The concept of transposing ramps
shown in Figure 6.2 is intended to favor operations on the mainline by placing
weaving on the lower speed and lower volume service road. Where such designs are
used, parking should be prohibited in the weaving areas on the service roads.
Figure 6.1 Exits and Entrances Transposed
Figure 6.2 shows guidance for dimensions associated with approaches of higher
volume service roads to at-grade ramp terminal intersections. These should can be
confirmed as needed by use of traffic operational simulation of design year traffic.
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Figure 6.2 Frontage Road Design Elements
One-way frontage road systems may have commercial driveways or other

destinations along them. Drivers desiring to access such destinations may need to exit
to the frontage road in one direction of travel, proceed to the next crossroad
intersection, and then make two left turns to reach their destination on the other
frontage road. For cases in which the volume of U-turning frontage road traffic is
significant, design of a U-turn roadway in advance of the crossroad allows U-turning
drivers to avoid having to make two left turns. This reduces travel time and improves
the crossroad intersection operations by removing such traffic from queues at the
signals.
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7 Design of Closely Spaced

Interchanges and Ramps
As development occurs and traffic increases demands for additional interchanging
with freeways and expressways should be expected. The current Qatar network
provides for reasonably spaced interchanges.
7.1 Effects of Adding Unplanned New Interchanges to the

Existing Network
The operational quality of expressways and freeways depends mainly on limitations in
access. Interchange spacing of 3 km or more has the benefits of enabling entering and
exiting traffic to do so without creating weaving, and limits the volume of traffic that
can enter the freeway thereby enabling lower densities and consistently higher
speeds.
Experience elsewhere demonstrates that when interchange spacing is 2 km or less,

significant adverse operational and safety effects arise. Great care should be taken in
evaluating proposals to add interchanges where they do not exist and are not
planned. The following are important considerations:
• Each new access point presents an opportunity for new, additional demand to
reach the freeway. To the extent that the number of basic freeway lanes and
auxiliary lanes were planned and constructed based on the original network and
assuming a high LOS, any unforeseen or unplanned additional demand threatens
the promised operational quality embedded in the freeway corridor.
• Depending on the location and design details, the addition of ramps where they
do not exist can convert an expressway segment from one flowing at 100 kph with
densities reflecting uninterrupted flow, to a weaving section with much lower
throughput. This in effect would create an operational bottleneck.
• The operational effects of bottlenecks can quickly grow well upstream of the
bottleneck. Thus, a new interchange or ramp in one location may adversely affect
traffic flow as much as 5 to 10 km upstream during peak travel conditions.
• Thus, any substantial increase in the number of vehicles accessing the freeway
through one or more additional interchanges has an overall effect on the long-
range needs of the system. New traffic demands may cumulatively require the
addition of one more basic lane for an extended length of corridor, or
alternatively may require acceptance of lower levels of service for all travelers.
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• If additional capacity is deemed necessary, the costs and disruption in providing

that would be significant. Bridges not designed for additional capacity all would
require replacement. Given the Qatar freeway and expressway system is relatively
young and in excellent condition, such an outcome would be clearly undesirable.
Requests for new interchanges other than those currently approved and adopted in
plans of the Overseeing Organization shall require a special study to determine the
suitability of approving such an unplanned interchange. The study shall determine the
expected operational and safety performance effects of the new interchange on the
expressway and freeway system. Appendix C summarizes key issues to be addressed
in such studies. It is adapted for reference to Qatar based on current policies and
procedures used by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration for requests of new
access onto the U.S. Interstate Highway System.
7.2 Operational and Safety Implications of Weaving and

Closely Proximate Ramps
Closely spaced ramps can create problems from both an operations and safety
perspective. When ramps are too close together, lanes one and two along the
freeway can become congested, and speeds may drop. This may encourage drivers
upstream of the congestion to change lanes. Traffic in the left lane may be much less
dense and hence operate at much higher speed. Lane changing from congested, low-
speed lanes to the left lanes creates rear-end conflicts and the potential for multi-
vehicle crashes.
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship between weaving crashes and length of weaving
section for a range of traffic volumes and a typical six-lane freeway section. This figure
is for illustrative purposes. It was derived from the AASHTO Highway Safety Manual
chapter on freeway and interchange crash prediction (AASHTO, 2010).
7.3 Methods for Evaluation of Operations on Freeways with

Closely Proximate Ramps
Chapter 2 in this Part contains guide values for arrangement of closely spaced ramps.
These are based on general knowledge of operations and capacity based on the
Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010). Should designers be faced with a corridor of
some length with multiple exits and entrances and multiple weaving sections, more
sophisticated methods of operational analysis are necessary. The use of micro-
simulation models such as VISSIM provides the means of understanding the complex
interactions of ramps on such corridors. Figure 7.2 illustrates the operational analysis
and design process.
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Figure 7.1 Relative Difference in Crashes
Figure 7.2 Operational Analysis and Design Process
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7.4 Design Solutions to Elimination or Reduction of Weaving

Figure 7.3 illustrates the range of solutions to weaving problems. In general, the cost
and physical feasibility of a solution is related to its effectiveness in mitigating or
eliminating congestion from weaving. A designer may relocate one or both ramps in
the weaving section, thus increasing the length of weave. The ability to do this is
based on the relationship of the ramps to other proximate ramps and to other
roadways to which they connect. Designing a CD road does not eliminate weaving.
Indeed, the geometry to develop the CD road results in the length being reduced. CD
roads are solutions to separate higher speed through traffic on the left from weaving
traffic, thus intending to improve the safety of the weaving section.
Figure 7.3 Design Solutions to Weaving
A ramp braid is formed by relocating the entrance ramp away from exit ramp, so that
one crosses over or braids with the other. This design eliminates weaving completely;
moreover, it prevents traffic from entering and then immediately exiting downstream, a
movement that should be discourage on a facility meant to carry longer distance traffic.
A ramp braid involves substantial realignment. Both ramps should be curved or bowed
to effect a reasonable crossing of one over the other. Skewed crossings produce very
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long structures with long spans and special, generally costly designs. Such design
requires added right-of-way width for the curvature. Finally, in very high volume
conditions, the combination of both CD roads and ramp braids may be needed.
In design of new urban freeway corridors or interchanges, designers should seek to

eliminate weaving sections. Once the road is constructed, the availability of right-of-
way and ability to reconstruct and provide braids, CD roads, or both may be limited or
cost-prohibitive. However, when such solutions are incorporated into a design at the
outset, with right-of-way acquired for them, the incremental costs when measured
over the project life and the operational and safety benefits of no weaving typically
are very affordable.
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8 Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges
For at-grade, signalized intersections or roundabouts that may have exceeded their
practical capacity, the design and construction of arterial-to-arterial interchanges may
be an appropriate measure. Such interchanges can be two- or three-level. Their
design characteristics and operations are tailored to the lower speeds associated with
arterials versus expressways or freeways.
8.1 Quadrant Interchanges

Figure 8.1 shows two variations of quadrant interchanges in which one arterial is
reconstructed over the crossing arterial. In the two-quadrant configuration, the four-
leg, four-phase signal is replaced with one priority intersection and one two-phase
signalized intersection for turning traffic from each roadway. Through traffic conflicts
and delays are removed, and right turns are either free or made indirectly through the
signalized left turns. Which movements are free and which use left-turn lanes
depends on which quadrants are used for the connecting roadways.
This concept can be developed using any or all quadrants. Figure 8.1 also shows how a
one-quadrant form would operate. Through movements are separated as before, but
all turning movements from one arterial to the next use signalized left turns. For each
arterial, traffic now moves through one intersection, but the phasing is only three-
phase and conflicting through traffic is completely eliminated.
If connecting roadways are used in all four quadrants, the interchange can function as
a full cloverleaf, in which all movements are unstopped.
Design of the connecting roads can accommodate access to land uses within each
quadrant as appropriate. The connecting roadways will be located to enable the
development of the vertical alignment for the overcrossing arterial, typically on the
order of 200 m from the crossing point, thus creating intersections about 400 m apart.
Other appropriate arterial-to-arterial forms include the TDI and SPDI discussed above.
Applied to arterials, acceleration and deceleration lane lengths can be shortened
given the lower operating speeds.
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Figure 8.1 Quadrant Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges
8.2 Innovative Arterial-to-Arterial Interchanges

Some agencies have experimented with other innovative arterial interchange forms.
These are documented and discussed in Alternative Intersections/Interchanges
Informational Report (FHWA, 2009). The following 2 figures depict examples of
interchanges that may have application to Qatar. One is the Michigan urban diamond
interchange as shown in Figure 8.2, and the other the center turn overpass as shown
in Figure 8.3. Both configurations vertically separate turning traffic from through
traffic. The Michigan urban diamond interchange is based on the principle that
converting a single four-phase signalized intersection carrying all movements into a
series of properly spaced and coordinated signals carrying only certain movements
and only two phases can reduce delays substantially and improve travel times for all
users.
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Figure 8.2 Innovative Interchange: Michigan Urban Diamond
Figure 8.3 Innovative Interchange: Center Turn Overpass
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References
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th edition (the Green Book).
States. 2011.
England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/. 2013.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Safety Effectiveness of Intersection Left- and Right-Turn
Lanes. Report No. FHWA-RD-02-089. Office of Safety Research and Development; U.S.
Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. July 2002.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Drivers’ Evaluation of the Diverging Diamond

Interchange. Tech Brief. Publication No. FHWA-HRT-07-048. U.S. Department of Transportation:
Washington, DC, United States. 2007.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/07048/07048.pdf.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Alternative Intersections/Interchanges: Informational

Report (AIIR), Report No. FHWA-HRT-09-060. Office of Safety Research and Development; U.S.
Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. April 2009.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. 2009
edition. Including Revision 1 dated May 2012 and Revision 2 dated May 2012. U.S. Department of
Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. 2012.
Leisch, Joel P. Freeway and Interchange: Geometric Design Handbook. Institute of Transportation
Engineers (ITE): Washington, DC, United States. 2005.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Single Point Urban Interchange
Design and Operations Analysis. Report 345. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Human Factors Guidelines for Road
Systems. 2nd edition. Report 600. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United
States. 2012.
National Highway Institute (NTI). Fundamentals of Planning, Design and Approval of Interchange
Improvements to the Interstate System. Course Number FHWA-NHI-380073. Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, United States.
http://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/training/course_search.aspx?sf=0&course_no=380073.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 95
VOLUME 1 PART 9
Neuman T.R., J.C. Glennon, and J.E Leisch. “Functional Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
Requirements.” Transportation Research Record, Volume 923, Transportation Research Board:
Texas Transportation Institute. Enhanced Safety Prediction Methodology and Analysis Tool for
Freeways and Interchanges. Final report. NCHRP Project 17-45. In association with CH2M HILL.
Prepared for National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Transportation Research
Board: Washington, DC, United States. May 2012.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington, DC,
PAGE 96 VOLUME 1
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Appendix A
Tables for Using
Weaving Methodology
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Weaving examples for N = 2 (Lweave = 500 m)

Assumptions:
1. Free-flow speed = 110 kph 6. 5% Trucks on freeway and ramps
2. Minimum segment speed = 24 kph 7. Driver population adjustment = 1.0
3. Freeway max capacity = 2400 8. Interchange density = 0
pc/h/ln 9. VRR = Volume from entrance ramp to exit ramp = 0 (All ramp traffic is
4. Peak-hour factor = 0.94 weaving)
5. Level grade 10. Lweave per Highway Capacity Manual (TRB, 2010)
Vu 1500 vph
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 500 m VRF (vph)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1800 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C D D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C D F F F 750
(vph)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 vph
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D F F 1,500
750 C C C D D F F 1,250
V FR
1000 C C D D F F F 1,000
(vph)
1250 C C D F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 vph
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 C D D E F 2,250
500 C D D E F 2,000
750 C D D E F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D F F 1,500
(vph) 1250 C D D F F 1,250
1500 D D F F F 1,000
1750 D F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 vph
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 V FF
250 D D E F 2,750
500 D E E F 2,500
750 D E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E F F 2,000
(vph) 1250 D E F F 1,750
1500 D F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
PHF 0.94
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 750 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR 750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h) 900 B B C C C F F F 600
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D E F 1,500
750 C C C D D F F 1,250
V FR
1000 C C C D F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 C C C F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E F F 2,000
750 C D D E F F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 V FF
250 D D E F 2,750
500 D D E F 2,500
750 D E E F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E F F 1,750
1500 D E F F 1,500
1750 D F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave = 1,000 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C D D E F 1,750
500 C C C D D E F 1,500
V FR 750 C C C D D F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 C C C D F F F 1,000
1250 C C C F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E E F 2,000
750 C D D E F F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
Lweave =1,000 m VRF (ve/h)
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 D D E E F 2,750
500 D D E F F 2,500
750 D E E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E F F F 1,750
1500 D E F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 1900 V FF
250 B B C C C D D E 1,250
500 B B C C C D F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B C C C F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B C C F F F F 500
1250 B B C F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 850 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 C C C C D D E E 1,750
500 C C C C D D E F 1,500
V FR 750 C C C D D D F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 C C C D D F F F 1,000
1250 C C C D F F F F 750
1500 C C F F F F F F 500
1750 C F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0

V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 V FF
250 C D D E E F 2,250
500 C D D E E F 2,000
750 C D D E E F 1,750
V FR 1000 C D D E F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 C D D F F F 1,250
1500 C D F F F F 1,000
1750 C F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=2
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 L > L max D E E F 2,750
500 D D E E F 2,500
750 D E E F F 2,250
V FR 1000 D E E F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 D E E F F 1,750
1500 D E F F F 1,500
1750 D F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max B B C C C F 2,750
500 L > L max B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B B C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
Lweave = 500 m VRF (veh/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1450 1500 1750 V FF
250 B B B B B B C C 1,250
500 B B B B B C C F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B C F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 B B B B C C C 1,750
500 B B B B C C F 1,500
750 B B B C C F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B C F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C D D F 2,250
500 B B C C C D F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B C C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B C F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D E F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C D F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
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Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D D F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
VOLUME 1 PAGE 105

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B C C C D D D F 2,750
500 C C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
PAGE 106 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B C C C C D F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max C C D D D F 2,750
500 L > L max C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
VOLUME 1 PAGE 107

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Based on Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2010

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B B C F 1,250
500 B B B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 B B B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 B B B B F F F F 500
1250 B B B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 1,750
500 B B B B C C F F 1,500
750 B B B B C F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B C C C C C F 2,250
500 B B C C C C F F 2,000
750 B B C C C F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B C C F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B C F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=3
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max C C D D D F 2,750
500 L > L max C C C D D F F 2,500
750 C C C C D F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 C C C C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 C C C F F F F F 1,750
1500 C C F F F F F F 1,500
1750 C F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
PAGE 108 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
Lweave = 500 m VRF (veh/h)
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 V FF
250 A A B B B 1,250
500 A A B B B 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F 500
1250 A A B F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 V FF
250 A B B B B B B 1,750
500 B B B B B B F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B C C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
VOLUME 1 PAGE 109

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 B B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
PAGE 110 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 B B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
VOLUME 1 PAGE 111

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
V FR 750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
(veh/h) 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 B B B B B C C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B C C C F 2,750
500 B B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B C C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
PAGE 112 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9

Assumptions:
Vu 1500 ve/h
vu 1,376 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 1,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 A A B B B B B F 1,250
500 A A B B B B F F 1,000
V FR
750 A A B B B F F F 750
(veh/h)
1000 A A B B F F F F 500
1250 A A B F F F F F 250
Vu 2000 ve/h
vu 1,834 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B B F 1,750
500 A B B B B B F F 1,500
750 B B B B B F F F 1,250
V FR
1000 B B B B F F F F 1,000
(veh/h)
1250 B B B F F F F F 750
1500 B B F F F F F F 500
1750 B F F F F F F F 250
Vu 2500 ve/h
vu 2,293 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 2,500 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max B B B B B C F 2,250
500 B B B B B C F F 2,000
750 B B B B B F F F 1,750
V FR 1000 B B B B F F F F 1,500
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,250
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,000
1750 B F F F F F F F 750
2000 F F F F F F F F 500
Vu 3000 ve/h
vu 2,751 pc/h V RR = 0
N=4
V u = 3,000 vph 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 V FF
250 L > L max L > L max B B C C C F 2,750
500 L > L max B B B C C F F 2,500
750 B B B B C F F F 2,250
V FR 1000 B B B C F F F F 2,000
(veh/h) 1250 B B B F F F F F 1,750
1500 B B F F F F F F 1,500
1750 B F F F F F F F 1,250
2000 F F F F F F F F 1,000
VOLUME 1 PAGE 113

VOLUME 1 PART 9
PAGE 114 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Appendix B
Typical Exit and Entrance
Ramps
VOLUME 1 PAGE 115

VOLUME 1 PART 9
PAGE 116 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Typical Exit and Entrance Ramps
Figure B.1 One Lane Exit Ramp – Parallel Design
Figure B.2 Two Lane Exit Ramp – Parallel Design
VOLUME 1 PAGE 117

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Figure B.3 One Lane Entrance Ramp – Parallel Design
Figure B.4 Two Lane Entrance Ramp – Parallel Design
PAGE 118 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Figure B.5 One Lane Exit Ramp – Taper Design
Figure B.6 Two Lane Exit Ramp – Taper Design
VOLUME 1 PAGE 119

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Figure B.7 One Lane Entrance Ramp – Taper Design
Figure B.8 Two Lane Entrance Ramp – Taper Design
PAGE 120 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Appendix C
Requirements for New Access
to Existing Highway System
VOLUME 1 PAGE 121

VOLUME 1 PART 9
PAGE 122 VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 9
Requirements for New Access to Existing Highway System

Qatar is developing faster than ever. As a result, there may be a need for additional access to
existing transportation network, including freeways and expressways. Proposals for additional
access may come from the public or private sectors. Before such requests are granted, the need
for access to the system should be thoroughly studied and evaluated in a systematic approach.
The study should define the purpose and need of constructing a new access to an existing system
to include the following:
1. The study must show that neither the nearby existing transportation network, including
interchanges, nor their improvements can satisfactorily address the current transportation
needs. Furthermore, the study should show that the need cannot be addressed adequately by
transportation system management.
2. The study should show that the construction of the new access does not compromise the
safety and operation of the existing facilities using the current and projected traffic volumes.
The study should also show that the proposed interchange provides for all needed
movements.
3. The proposal should show that the new access is consistent with the current transportation
and land use plans. It is coordinated with those plans and has no conflict with them. The study
should also show that the access has no conflict with other proposed changes, modifications,
or improvements along the corridor.
4. Should the need for access be due to new developments or significant changes in current or
planned future development or land use, the proposal must demonstrate that the necessary
coordination has occurred and analysis has been performed to achieve mutual benefits
without adverse impact on the corridor. Furthermore, the study should show that certain
parts of the proposed access can be constructed in stages if required.
5. Finally, the proposal must show that a thorough environmental impact study of the proposed
access has been conducted, and that the project is compliant with regulatory requirements
and is approved by relevant Overseeing Organizations.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 123

Volume 2
Part 10
Drainage
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪DRAINAGE‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Scope ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Scope of Part 10 ........................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Responsibilities............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage ................................................................................... 2
1.4 Drainage Design Philosophy ........................................................................................ 2
1.4.1 Minor System ............................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Major System ............................................................................................... 4
1.5 Climatic and Physical Considerations .......................................................................... 4
1.5.1 Resilience and Urban Creep ......................................................................... 5
1.5.2 Climate Change ............................................................................................ 6
1.6 Policies and Environmental Controls ........................................................................... 6
2 Project Concept Stage .....................................................................................................9

2.1 Design Stage 1 Summary ............................................................................................. 9
2.2 Data Gathering ............................................................................................................ 9
2.3 Catchment Assessment ............................................................................................. 10
2.3.1 Overview .................................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 Flood Risk Assessment ............................................................................... 11
2.4 Consideration of Geometric Design of Road ............................................................. 14
2.5 Determine Viable Outfalls ......................................................................................... 15
2.6 Consideration of Treated Sewage Effluent ................................................................ 15
2.7 Identify Pollution Control Requirements................................................................... 15
2.7.1 Background ................................................................................................ 15
2.7.2 Scope .......................................................................................................... 16
2.8 Stakeholder Engagement .......................................................................................... 16
2.9 Option Development and Drainage Strategy ............................................................ 17
3 Preliminary Design Work .............................................................................................. 19

3.1 Design Stage 2 Summary ........................................................................................... 19
3.2 Design Criteria ........................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1 Flood Return Periods .................................................................................. 19
3.2.2 Acceptable Highway Flood Standards ........................................................ 20
3.2.3 Gully Spacing .............................................................................................. 21
3.2.4 Pipeline Velocities ...................................................................................... 24
3.2.5 Pipline Materials ........................................................................................ 25
3.3 Hydrological Data ...................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Rainfall Characterization ............................................................................ 25
3.3.2 Intensity‐Duration‐Frequency .................................................................... 26
VOLUME 2 PAGE I
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
3.3.3 Hyetographs ............................................................................................... 31

3.3.4 Hydrogeology ............................................................................................. 33
3.3.5 Runoff Curve Number Method................................................................... 33
3.4 Hydraulic Analysis Processes ..................................................................................... 35
3.4.1 Overview..................................................................................................... 35
3.4.2 Rational Method ......................................................................................... 35
3.4.3 Mathematical Models ................................................................................ 41
3.5 Pollution Control Process........................................................................................... 41
3.5.1 Method ....................................................................................................... 41
3.6 Sustainable Drainage Systems ................................................................................... 46
3.6.1 Infiltration Guidance................................................................................... 47
3.6.2 Specification of Suitable Vegetation .......................................................... 48
3.6.3 Pervious Surfaces ....................................................................................... 48
3.6.4 Soakaways .................................................................................................. 51
3.6.5 Swales ......................................................................................................... 54
3.6.6 Filter Trenches and Drains .......................................................................... 57
3.6.7 Bio‐retention Areas .................................................................................... 61
3.6.8 Sand Filters ................................................................................................. 64
3.6.9 Basins .......................................................................................................... 69
3.7 Preliminary Design Strategy ....................................................................................... 74
3.8 Review Process .......................................................................................................... 75
4 Detailed Design Work ................................................................................................... 77

4.1 Design Stage 3 Summary ........................................................................................... 77
4.2 Design in Urban Areas................................................................................................ 77
4.2.1 Urban Catchments ...................................................................................... 78
4.2.2 Drainage of the Roadway ........................................................................... 78
4.2.3 Design of Traditional Drainage Capture Techniques .................................. 79
4.2.4 Drainage of Medians, Pedestrian Paths, and Shoulders ............................ 90
4.2.5 Emergency Flood Areas .............................................................................. 90
4.2.6 Retention of Stormwater ........................................................................... 91
4.3 Design in Rural Areas ................................................................................................. 92
4.3.1 Rural Catchments ....................................................................................... 92
4.3.2 Drainage of the Roadway ........................................................................... 93
4.3.3 Drainage of Medians and Shoulders .......................................................... 93
4.3.4 Natural Surface Drainage ........................................................................... 95
4.4 Intersection Drainage ................................................................................................ 96
4.4.1 Consideration for Drainage at Intersections .............................................. 96
4.4.2 T‐Intersections ............................................................................................ 97
4.4.3 Roundabouts .............................................................................................. 98
4.4.4 At‐Grade Intersections ............................................................................... 99
4.4.5 Interchanges ............................................................................................... 99
4.4.6 Drainage Design of Highway Tunnels and Underpasses .......................... 100
4.4.7 Highway Tunnels and Underpasses Drainage Monitoring ....................... 100
PAGE II VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
4.4.8 Storm Attenuation Tanks and Pumping Stations ..................................... 100

4.5 Maintenance Strategies ........................................................................................... 100
4.5.1 Planned Maintenance .............................................................................. 100
4.5.2 Reactive Maintenance.............................................................................. 101
4.6 Subsurface Drainage ................................................................................................ 101
4.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 101
4.6.2 Groundwater Control ............................................................................... 102
4.6.3 Subsurface Drainage ................................................................................ 102
4.6.4 Subsurface Drainage Methods ................................................................. 103
References ........................................................................................................................... 105
VOLUME 2 PAGE III

VOLUME 2 PART 10
DRAINAGE
Tables
Table 1.1 Rainfall Intensity Percentage Increase to Allow for Urban Creep ....................... 5
Table 2.1 Typical Permeability Values by Soil Type........................................................... 11
Table 2.2 Flood Risk Classification ..................................................................................... 12
Table 3.1 Required Levels of Flood Protection for Each Road Classification .................... 20
Table 3.2 Guidelines for Flood Standards on Qatar Roadways ......................................... 20
Table 3.3 Minimum Design Velocities ............................................................................... 25
Table 3.4 Coordinates, Latitude, and Longitude for Different Rainfall Regions................ 28
Table 3.5 IDF Relation for the Northern Region ................................................................ 29
Table 3.6 IDF Relation for the Central West Region.......................................................... 29
Table 3.7 IDF Relation for the Central East Region ........................................................... 29
Table 3.8 IDF Relation for the Southern Region ................................................................ 30
Table 3.9 Hyetograph Example Computations for Central East Region of Doha .............. 32
Table 3.10 Curve Numbers for the Land Use Description Applicable to Qatar................... 34
Table 3.11 Runoff Coefficient for Various Drainage Areas ................................................. 37
Table 3.12 Software Packages for Mathematical Modeling ............................................... 41
Table 3.13 Pollution and Control Requirements ................................................................. 43
Table 3.14 Levels of Treatment Options for Pollution Control ........................................... 43
Table 3.15 Spillage Rate ...................................................................................................... 44
Table 3.16 Probability of Serious Pollution Occurring as a Result of a Serious Spillage ..... 45
Table 3.17 Spillages and Risks and Reduction Factors (Indicative) ..................................... 46
Table 3.18 Potentially Suitable Locations for Pervious Surfaces ........................................ 48
Table 3.19 Pervious Surface Maintenance Requirements .................................................. 50
Table 3.20 Potentially Suitable Site Locations for Soakaway Installations ......................... 52
Table 3.21 Soakaway Maintenance Requirements ............................................................. 54
Table 3.22 Potentially Suitable Locations for Installing Swales .......................................... 55
Table 3.23 Swale Maintenance Requirements.................................................................... 57
Table 3.24 Potentially Suitable Locations for Filter Trenches and Drains ........................... 58
Table 3.25 Filter Trench or Drain Maintenance Requirements........................................... 60
Table 3.26 Potential Suitable Locations for Bio‐retention Areas ........................................ 62
Table 3.27 Maintenance Requirements for Bioretention Areas ......................................... 64
Table 3.28 Potential Site Locations for Sand Filters ............................................................ 66
Table 3.29 Sand Filter Maintenance Requirements ............................................................ 69
Table 3.30 Potential Suitable Locations for a Basin ............................................................ 70
Table 3.31 Maintenance Requirements for Basins ............................................................. 73
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Table 3.32 Potential Suitability for SuDS Installation on Urban and Rural Roads .............. 76
Table 4.1 Design Hour Volume Widths on Various Road Types (Typical Values of B) ...... 83
Table 4.2 Design Hour Volume Widths for Special Situations (Typical Values of B) ......... 84
Table 4.3 Typical Values of Manning’s n for Various Surfaces.......................................... 84
Table 4.4 Maintenance Factor .......................................................................................... 85
Table 4.5 Grating Type Design Values ............................................................................... 86
Table 4.6 Grating Bar Pattern Coefficient ......................................................................... 87
Table 4.7 Limiting Parameters to Equation for Design of Level or Nearly Level Roads .... 88
Table 4.8 Values for Index  ............................................................................................. 89
Figures
Figure 1.1 Design Stages Process Overview ......................................................................... 1

Figure 1.2 Guide to Key Stakeholders and Approval Bodies at Each Design Stage .............. 2
Figure 1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage ........................................................................... 3
Figure 2.1 Project Concept Process Steps ............................................................................ 9
Figure 2.2 Data Gathering Process Steps ........................................................................... 10
Figure 2.3 Catchment Assessment Process Steps .............................................................. 10
Figure 2.4 Stakeholder Engagement Process Steps ........................................................... 16
Figure 3.1 Preliminary Design Process Steps...................................................................... 19
Figure 3.2 Water Spread and Road Gully Spacing .............................................................. 21
Figure 3.3 Design of Road Gullies along Road Profile ........................................................ 23
Figure 3.4 Division of Qatar into Four Rainfall Regions...................................................... 27
Figure 3.5 Example of a Drainage System Crossing Rainfall Regions ................................. 30
Figure 3.6 Intensity‐Duration‐Frequency Plot for 10‐Year Return
Period for Doha, Qatar ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.7 Hyetograph Plot for 5‐Minute Duration and 10‐Year Return
Period for Doha, Qatar, Using Alternating Block Method ................................. 33
Figure 3.8 Rational Method Process .................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.9 Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation .................................... 40
Figure 3.10 Pollution Control Procedure.............................................................................. 42
Figure 3.11 Consideration of Infiltration .............................................................................. 47
Figure 3.12 Pervious Surface Design Steps .......................................................................... 50
Figure 3.13 Soakaway Design Steps ..................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.14 Diagram of Typical Swale .................................................................................. 57
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Figure 3.15 Filter Trench or Drain Steps ............................................................................... 60

Figure 3.16 Typical Cross Section through a Bioretention Area ........................................... 63
Figure 3.17 Diagram of a Typical Surface Sand Filter ........................................................... 65
Figure 3.18 Diagram of a Typical Underground Sand Filter ................................................. 65
Figure 3.19 Typical Sand Filter Bed Construction ................................................................. 67
Figure 3.20 Sand Filter Design Steps .................................................................................... 68
Figure 3.21 Plan View of a Typical Basin .............................................................................. 70
Figure 3.22 Typical Cross Section of a Detention Basin........................................................ 72
Figure 3.23 Basin Design Steps ............................................................................................. 73
Figure 4.1 Detailed Design Process .................................................................................... 77
Figure 4.2 Typical Road Cross Section ................................................................................ 78
Figure 4.3 Typical Detail of Rolling Crown across a Single Roadway .................................. 79
Figure 4.4 Gully Design Parameters for Intermediate Gully............................................... 83
Figure 4.5 Effective Catchment Width ............................................................................... 85
Figure 4.6 Terminal Gully Design Parameters .................................................................... 87
Figure 4.7 Typical Median Ditch Cross Section ................................................................... 93
Figure 4.8 Permissible Depths of Flows for Unlined Channels ........................................... 94
Figure 4.9 Typical Drainage at T‐Intersections ................................................................... 97
Figure 4.10 Drainage at a Large Signalized Intersection ...................................................... 98
Figure 4.11 Roundabout Drainage........................................................................................ 99
Figure 4.12 Typical Vortex Grit Remover............................................................................ 101
Appendixes
Appendix A Qatar Stakeholders .......................................................................................... 107

Appendix B Intensity‐Duration‐Frequency Design Curves for Future Climatic Conditions
(2070–2099) .................................................................................................... 111
Appendix C Level Pool Routing Technique ......................................................................... 115
Appendix D Example Calculations ....................................................................................... 119
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AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
ABM Alternating Blocking Method
AIA Ashghal Infrastructure Affairs
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
CN Curve Number
EFA Emergency Flood Area
ha hectare (10,000 square meters)
IDF intensity‐duration‐frequency
m meter(s)
m/s meter(s) per second
m2 square meter(s)
m3 cubic meter(s)
m3/s cubic meter(s) per second
mm millimeter(s)
mm/hr millimeter(s) per hour
MoE Ministry of Environment
MWH MWH Consultants
s/m2 second(s) per square meter
SCS Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service)
SuDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
yr year
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1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
This part sets out the approach to identifying and providing surface and subsurface
drainage measures when designing highways in Qatar. The approach consists of three
key design stages. Each stage comprises several process steps that are represented by
flow charts that cross reference the text, as appropriate. The flow charts show a typical
approach to the design of road drainage in Qatar.
1.2 Scope
1.2.1 Scope of Part 10
This section outlines the process for developing an appropriate drainage design and for
gaining approval for new roads within Qatar. Figure 1.1 shows the three key design
stages.
Figure 1.1 Design Stages Process Overview
1.2.2 Responsibilities
The planning of highway projects is the responsibility of the Qatar Ministry of
Municipalities and Urban Planning (MMUP). The drainage of highways is the
responsibility of Ashghal. Figure 1.2 depicts the design procedure.
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Figure 1.2 Guide to Key Stakeholders and Approval Bodies at Each Design Stage
1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage

The requirement for satisfactory road drainage has a direct bearing on the following:
 The ability to use the road during and after a rainfall event
 The long‐term serviceability of the road structure
 The provision of an acceptable urban environment
 Minimizing health risk caused by long‐term surface ponding and stagnant waters
The construction of a highway may increase the risk of flooding to properties. The
highway drainage system should provide four primary functions that, because of land
use constraints, are usually dealt with differently in urban and rural situations. See
Figure 1.3.
1.4 Drainage Design Philosophy

When designing drainage measures, it is important to consider the size and type of
system that will be best suited to the conditions and characteristics of the project area.
To minimize the impact of future road construction, a sustainable approach to drainage

needs to be considered. Such drainage techniques are referred to as sustainable urban
drainage systems (SuDS). SuDS mimic natural drainage processes to improve the quality
and reduce the quantity of surface water runoff from developments and to provide
amenity and biodiversity benefits. With the SuDS approach, early consideration of the
potential multiple benefits and opportunities will help deliver the best results. MMUP’s
recent publication Multi‐Use of Stormwater Management facilities – Guidelines is a
useful text.
Where it is not possible to accommodate drainage using SuDS only, conventional

options may complement SuDS measures or provide standalone solutions. Section 3.6
contains guidance for feasible SuDS options.
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Figure 1.3 Functions of Highway Drainage
1.4.1 Minor System

A minor drainage system generally is suited to storms of 10‐year frequency or less and
has such features as curbs, gutters, gullies (inlets), access holes, pipes, water quality
control facilities, ditches, channels, pumps, and detention basins.
Ashghal Infrastructure Affairs (AIA) is responsible for the approval and adoption of the
minor system, including the road drainage features comprising SuDS, gullies, soakaways,
connecting pipework, and storage areas required for discharges to the drainage network.
AIA provides the following point of discharge and discharge parameters:
 Diameter of connecting trunk sewer

 Allowable discharge volume
 Invert level of trunk sewer
 Location of trunk sewer
 Acceptable method of discharge into the trunk sewer
 Consideration of SuDS features
It is important to consider flow constraints within a minor system. Predominant limiting

factors are likely to include the following:
 Permeability of ground
 Underlying geology (including issues with contamination and saline intrusion)
 Rates of evaporation
 Allowable discharge rate into trunk sewers
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1.4.2 Major System

A major drainage system is suited to infrequent storms, such as 25‐, 50‐, or 100‐year
storms. Major systems relieve flows that exceed the capacity of minor systems. These
systems consist of natural or manmade receiving channels, streams, rivers, canals,
bridges, culverts, and the like.
AIA is responsible for the major system, which comprises all the drainage components
beyond the point of interface with the minor system. It includes:
 Trunk sewers and surface water sewer network

 Surface water pumping stations
 Groundwater control networks
 Surface water storage retention areas and tanks
A positive drainage method is preferred. Should this prove impractical because of the
distance from a suitable discharge point or because of economics, permission from the
Ministry of the Environment is required to discharge water to the ground or adjacent
areas.
1.5 Climatic and Physical Considerations

The Study of Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar (MMUP, 2013) establishes the scale of
change in rainfall intensities likely in Qatar over the next 80 years. This highlights the
need to update design rainfall intensities to be taken into account for drainage
infrastructure for future developments. Moreover, it has highlighted that simply
constructing larger pipes is not a sustainable approach. A change in philosophy is
required. Drainage systems that incorporate SuDS are more easily adaptable and will
be more resilient as climate changes occur in the future.
The topography of Doha is relatively flat but undulating; catchment boundaries and
natural drainage routes are often poorly defined. Recent extensive development has
caused flooding to become more problematic, especially in the Greater Doha area, for
the following reasons:
 Greater public awareness of flooding.

 High groundwater tables that are rising to near ground level in places because of
the impact of irrigation and network losses, thus reducing the ability of surface
water to soak into the ground.
 Increased roofed and paved areas that produce greater and quicker surface water
runoff flows (see Section 1.5.1).
 Reduced permeable areas for surface waters to soak into the ground.
 Interference with natural flood paths by urban development and road construction.
 The provision within the road service hierarchy for surface water or groundwater
drainage systems.
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 Development becoming increasingly distant from natural drainage outlets on the

coast.
 The nature of the groundwater, which is variously saline and formerly treated
sewage effluent.
 High and saline groundwater affecting foundations and the stability of highway
subgrades.
 Development within wadis, or dry valleys, reducing the extent and availability of
natural water courses required during storms. Identifying wadi beds is often difficult
and requires a thorough topographical assessment of the catchment.
 Development of underpasses, over bridges, and large grade‐separated intersections
that interrupt natural water courses.
 Underpasses that require separate drainage arrangements and pumping stations.
Road drainage designers should consider these factors when developing their
proposals. As part of the approvals process, drainage designers must demonstrate how
they have addressed these factors and what the impacts may be in the case of failure
of their design.
In addition, maintenance requirements for proposed systems should be considered in

the design.
1.5.1 Resilience and Urban Creep
1.5.1.1 Background
In Qatar, significant urban expansion is taking place at a rate that is likely to continue
for the foreseeable future. To guard against infrastructure becoming outdated shortly
after construction, resilience needs to be built in to offset the effects of urban creep.
Urban creep is the phenomenon by which developments are constructed and then, at
a later date, additional impermeable area is added to that area, thus increasing surface
water runoff.
1.5.1.2 Scope
This section provides guidance on how to account for the impact of urban creep on
roads projects. Incorporating an allowance for urban creep into the road drainage
design will ensure long‐term resilience for future urban expansions. Table 1.1 lists
rainfall intensity and the percent of increase needed.
Table 1.1 Rainfall Intensity Percentage Increase to Allow for Urban Creep
Design Life of Road
10 Years 25 Years >50 Years
Rainfall intensity percentage increase +10% +20% +30%
Note: Developed with Ashghal guidance.
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1.5.2 Climate Change
1.5.2.1 Background
Climate change in Qatar is likely to result in increased spatial and temporal variability
in weather patterns. This is expected to manifest in more extreme droughts and rainfall
events. It is important to account for these effects to enhance the long‐term
effectiveness of drainage measures.
For this approach, the effects of climate change have been assessed using two climate
scenarios for Qatar—global dry and global wet—according to results from four
emissions scenarios. This approach originates from the Study of Regional Design
Rainfall, Qatar (MMUP, 2013).
1.5.2.2 Scope
This section provides guidance regarding the effects of climate change in the design of
highway drainage. By incorporating an allowance for climate change, the engineer will
provide long‐term resilience for drainage solutions.
1.5.2.3 Method
Climate change should be considered with reference to Chapter 12 in the Study of
Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar—Volume 1 (MMUP, 2013). The chapter states that to
account for climate change, engineers should use corrected intensity‐duration‐
frequency (IDF) relationships for drainage design, which represent changes to rainfall
events over an extended period. This approach is outlined in Section 3.3.1. For a
detailed explanation of the limitations associated with this specific modeling approach,
refer to the Study of Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar (MMUP, 2013).
1.6 Policies and Environmental Controls

Catchments with no natural outlet to the sea or to low‐lying inland areas are difficult
to drain. There are advantages to controlling surface runoff at the source. The following
are policy principles for design of surface water and groundwater control systems:
 Surface water and groundwater systems should use common facilities where
possible.
 Where stormwater discharges above ground level, such as from bridges and
flyovers, runoff control systems should be installed.
 Runoff control systems should be installed at the source to regulate discharges to
the public infrastructure drainage systems.
 Where development is likely to be slow, soakaway systems or retention areas, or
both, should be used as an interim solution.
 The permissible peak flow from a new subcatchment into an existing or planned
stormwater system will be determined. If the calculated peak flow exceeds the flow
rate from the undeveloped area, the difference must be accounted for by a
combination of attenuation tanks and soakaways.
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 The rate of runoff should be attenuated by the use of short‐term flooding of roads,
storage areas, or tanks.
 Soakaways that drain surface waters may be required to attenuate runoff to
positive drainage systems or retention areas.
 Floodplains and routes are to be identified and kept clear of development to
facilitate runoff. Otherwise, provision within the development will be required with
clearly defined pathways and a free discharge.
 Positive drainage systems using pipes and culverts should be constructed where
possible in roadways, in accordance with the agreed services hierarchy. The location
of all drains must be agreed to by the AIA and the owners of the utility corridors.
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2 Project Concept Stage

2.1 Design Stage 1 Summary
This section details the method for calculating and identifying appropriate criteria by
establishing standard methodological requirements for drainage requirements. This
process corresponds to Design Stage 1 of the summary process diagram. The steps
depicted in Figure 2.1 are expanded upon and explained in detail in the following
sections. The purpose of this concept stage is to assemble the raw data required for a
preliminary design, and to produce a strategy that will facilitate design of the drainage
requirements.
Figure 2.1 Project Concept Process Steps
2.2 Data Gathering

It is imperative that the engineer has a comprehensive understanding of the drainage
requirements for each project. To achieve this, it is important to collect high quality
data that can be relied upon to represent the characteristics of the catchment. Figure
2.2 summarizes the data requirements.
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Figure 2.2 Data Gathering Process Steps
2.3 Catchment Assessment

2.3.1 Overview
After data have been gathered, they should be used to identify and assess the
catchments and subcatchments relevant to the area that requires drainage planning.
Figure 2.3 outlines this process.
Figure 2.3 Catchment Assessment Process Steps
The engineer must first determine the overall catchment extent for the entire project.
The catchment can be larger than the project area, depending on the topography of the
region. Adjacent plots may naturally drain into the development. The catchment can be
calculated using the topographic data gathered in the previous step of the initiation
process. The engineer should use the same data to identify high and low points across the
catchment. This information will then be used in conjunction with the locations of outfalls
to define subcatchments appropriate for the project.
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The catchment size will determine the modeling approach required. For catchments of
less than 50 hectares (ha), programs such as MicroDrainage, Bentley, InfoWorks, ISIS,
and AutoCAD Civil 3D Storm package could be used. For larger catchments, ISIS and
InfoWorks would be more appropriate, although MicroDrainage models and AutoCAD
Civil 3D Storm would be acceptable, with prior agreement, for sites up to 100 ha.
After suitable catchments have been identified, the engineer shall calculate runoff rates
(see Section 3.1.1.1), which will be used to calculate provisional drainage volumes
required. In some locations, local flood assessments may have been made and runoff
volumes may be available. If so, these should be reviewed, because outputs may be
suitable for use as part of the design initiation stage.
During project initiation, it may be useful to use preliminary values for permeability,
such as shown in Table 2.1. Designers could refer to AIA records for initial project
scoping. A detailed site investigation is required for all projects.
Table 2.1 Typical Permeability Values by Soil Type

Soil Type Permeability (m/s)
1
Clean gravels 10‐1
10‐2
Clean sands and sand‐gravel mixtures 10‐3
10‐4
10‐5
Very fine sands, silts, and clay‐silt laminates 10‐6
Unfissured clays and clay‐silts (>20% clay)a (unlikely to be encountered 10‐7 to 10‐10
within Qatar)
Notes:
a Special measures are required in this range.
m/s = meters per second

Source: Qatar Highway Design Manual (Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997).
2.3.2 Flood Risk Assessment
2.3.2.1 Background
It has been common practice in Qatar to construct roads without providing a surface
water drainage system. This has led to severe flooding in some instances. Because of
this, consideration of flooding related to new roads both within the design criteria and
beyond the design event is of paramount importance.
2.3.2.2 Purpose
This section focuses on directing those preparing the road design toward minimizing
the risk of flooding to the road user, adjacent landowners, critical infrastructure, and
the surrounding environment.
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2.3.2.3 Scope
Inappropriate road construction within areas that are at risk of flooding is discouraged.
Lower risk areas are favored, but where this is not feasible, the road should be made
safe without worsening flooding elsewhere. Table 2.2 shows flood risk levels relative to
the return periods for flood events.
Table 2.2 Flood Risk Classification

Risk Level Return Periods (years)
High 2–10
Medium 10–25
Low >25
An “area at risk of flooding” is one that is prone to flood during more frequently
experienced storms, such as the 2‐ to 10‐year return period (high‐risk areas) and the 10‐
to 25‐year return period (medium‐risk areas). Areas that have a return period greater
than 25 years have a low risk of flooding.
“Flood risk” means the risk from all sources of flooding including surface water runoff,
surcharged sewers systems, groundwater, and the sea.
The purpose and vulnerability classification of the road should be considered, in

addition to whether the road corridor is in an area at risk of flooding. For example, a
road serving a hospital would have a higher vulnerability classification than a road
serving a supermarket parking lot.
By considering the flood risk area and the flood risk vulnerability together, the design
should be amended or mitigation measures proposed, or both, to manage the residual
risk. A flood risk assessment report should be prepared that clearly defines the existing
flood risk for the land proposed for the road construction and the subsequent risk after
incorporating mitigation measures, exceedance flow routes, and emergency flood areas
(EFAs) for construction of the road.
2.3.2.4 Method
The designer should obtain flood records from AIA for sewerage infrastructure, roads,
groundwater, and the sea, where appropriate, and determine the risk category (high,
medium, or low). Depending on the primary road usage, the designer will determine
the vulnerability classification. Roads that combine a mixture of uses should be placed
into the higher of the relevant classes of flood risk sensitivity. If there is a
demonstratable need to locate installations (1) for bulk storage of materials within
ports or other similar facilities or (2) with energy infrastructure or carbon capture and
storage that require coastal or water‐side locations or that need to be located in other
high‐risk flood areas, those facilities should be classified as “essential infrastructure.”
The designer can use the following list, based on Technical Guidance to the National
Planning Policy Framework, to help determine vulnerability classification (Department
for Communities and Local Government, 2012).
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 Essential Infrastructure
 Essential transport infrastructure (including mass evacuation routes) that must
cross the area at risk
 Essential utility infrastructure that must be located in a flood risk area for
operational reasons, including electricity generating power stations and grid and
primary substations; and water treatment works and desalinisation plants that
need to stay operational in times of flood
 Highly Vulnerable
 Police stations, ambulance stations, fire stations, command centers, and
telecommunications installations required to be operational during flooding
 Emergency dispersal points
 Basement dwellings
 Installations requiring the use, storage, or onward transmission of hazardous
substances
 More Vulnerable
 Hospitals
 Residential institutions such as residential care homes, children’s homes, social
services homes, prisons, and hostels
 Buildings for dwelling houses, students halls of residence, and hotels
 Non residential uses for health services, nurseries, and educational
establishments
 Landfill and sites used for waste management facilities for hazardous waste
 Sites used for camping, subject to a specific warning and evacuation plan
 Less Vulnerable
 Police, ambulance, or fire stations that need not be operational during flooding
 Buildings used for shops; financial, professional, and other services; restaurants
and cafes; offices; general industry, storage, and distribution; nonresidential
institutions not listed as More Vulnerable; assembly; and leisure
 Land and buildings used for agriculture
 Waste treatment, except landfill and hazardous waste facilities
 Mineral working and processing, except for sand and gravel working
 Water treatment works which do not need to remain operational during times
of flood
 Sewage treatment works, if adequate measures to control pollution and manage
sewage during flooding events are in place
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 Water Compatable Development

 Flood control infrastructure
 Water transmission infrastructure and pumping stations
 Sewage transmission infrastructure and pumping stations
 Sand and gravel working
 Docks, marinas, and wharves
 Navigation facilities
 Defence installations
 Ship building, repairing and dismantling; dockside fish processing; and
refrigeration and compatable activities requiring a waterside location
 Water‐based recreation, excluding sleeping accommodations
 Lifeguard and coastguard stations
 Amienity open space, nature conservation and biodiversity, outdoor sports and
recreation, and essential facilities such as changing rooms
 Essential ancillary sleeping or residential accomodation for staff required by uses
in this category, subject to a specific warning and evacuation plan
The designer should propose mitigation measures based on flood risk area,
vulnerability classification, and surrounding land uses and submit them to the
Overseeing Organization for comment and approval. For large‐scale road projects or
for special corridors, the Overseeing Organization may require more comprehensive
hydrological studies and drainage investigations to support the design. This should be
discussed with the overseeing organization at Design Stage 1 project initiation so that
there is enough time to perform the work before Design Stage 2 commences.
2.4 Consideration of Geometric Design of Road

The drainage design depends on the road type and classification. During the project
concept design, the geometry of the roadway and the road type should be considered
so that appropriate drainage measures may be developed. The following are key
considerations:
 Locations of low points coinciding with points of discharge

 Flat areas of road resulting from horizontal or vertical alignment transitions
 Roundabouts
 Underpasses
The design should be an iterative process whereby highway and drainage engineers
work together to develop a robust solution that achieves the correct flood return
period and depth standards (see Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2) by implementing appropriate
pollution control measures.
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2.5 Determine Viable Outfalls

It is important to develop a strategy for placing outfalls where they will limit negative
effects on the local community, highway, or environment. Because of the range of
parties who could be affected by the outfall, stakeholders should agree on the location
of the outfalls. When determining provisional outfall locations, the following range of
factors should be considered:
 Outfall method; to watercourse, sewer, or through infiltration

 High and low points of topography and road geometry
 Access for maintenance
 Safety screens; required if there is a risk of children or animals gaining access to
large‐diameter pipes
 Velocity of water; to be controlled to prevent scour or damage to system
 Pollution risk; buildup of particulates in dry conditions that could be washed
through the system by runoff
2.6 Consideration of Treated Sewage Effluent

Treated sewage effluent is commonly used in Qatar’s cities to irrigate flowerbeds and
other landscaping features. When designing drainage features, it is important to
consider whether spills or runoff of treated sewage effluent could enter SuDS and
either contribute to dry weather flow or leach and potentially contaminate
groundwater supplies. This is of particular importance where groundwater is extracted
for potable use as it can have major implications for the requirements for treatment
prior to use. Considerations should include consultations with Overseeing
Organizations and investigations of local aquifers. If groundwater contamination is
possible, this should be a key design consideration.
2.7 Identify Pollution Control Requirements

2.7.1 Background
Qatar is characterized by an arid climate, with infrequent high‐intensity storms during
the rainy season, from October to May. This, in conjunction with the absence of
watercourses and the high levels of salt in the ground, can lead to serious pollution
from roads if stormwater runoff is not appropriately controlled.
Pollutants build up on the road surface during the long dry periods, and the first storms
of the rainy season are the most severe from a pollution perspective. Thus, it is
important to provide pollution control measures for all roads. The extent and type of
control measures will be selected for the risk posed by the location type and the
numbers of vehicles using the road.
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2.7.2 Scope
Section 3.5 gives guidance on the selection of pollution control measures for the road
location and the risk associated with the number of vehicles. The road location type
relates to the risk level posed by the given location; for example, crashes at
intersections and roundabouts. The number of vehicles criterion is linked to the type
of road, because certain types of road convey higher numbers of vehicles and,
therefore, pose a greater risk than smaller roads.
By providing guidance on the selection and implementation of pollution control

measures for new roads, pollution incidents will be minimized and the frequency of
groundwater pollution from roads sources reduced.
2.8 Stakeholder Engagement

Internal consultation among design teams (e.g., highways, geotechnical, structures,
and utilities) should take place throughout all design stages. On completion of a draft
strategy, it is important to re‐engage stakeholders to determine if the strategy is robust
and meets the necessary requirements. The purpose of stakeholder engagement is to
outline the provisional drainage plan and iteratively refine it based on stakeholder
feedback concerning possible constraints, such as inappropriate discharge rates and
outfall locations, and potential opportunities, such as collaborative work with other
nearby developments or projects. Figure 2.4 depicts the process. This step will achieve
approval of a strategy that will advance to the design work at Design Stage 2.
Figure 2.4 Stakeholder Engagement Process Steps
Stakeholder engagement is included at the end of the Design Stage 1 process to highlight
the necessity to obtain approval from MMUP regarding the strategy. In practice, ongoing
stakeholder engagement throughout the entire process, through regular constructive
dialogue, is likely to be the most efficient and effective method of ensuring the strategy
remains consistent with the expectations of all stakeholders. Appendix A provides a list of
Qatar stakeholders. Section 1.2.2 details the key stakeholders and the relevant parties
responsible for approvals. It is likely that smaller, location‐specific parties will also be
important stakeholders to involve. This should be assessed on a project‐by‐project basis,
and is supplementary to the standard parties required for approval.
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2.9 Option Development and Drainage Strategy

At this point, the consultant responsible for the preliminary concept design should
incorporate the findings described in the previous sections to develop a high‐level
drainage strategy that meets MMUP and Ashghal expectations. Various options for a
concept design solution will have been discussed and a recommended option
promoted by the design consultants for approval by MMUP and Ashghal.
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3 Preliminary Design Work

This section outlines the processes and standards required to develop the preliminary
design information necessary to define detailed design criteria. Preliminary design
work primarily focuses on a detailed and specific determination of catchment
hydrology, hydraulics, and flow, and follows strategy developed during the project
concept design in Design Stage 1. Figure 3.1 depicts the preliminary design process.
Figure 3.1 Preliminary Design Process Steps
3.2 Design Criteria

3.2.1 Flood Return Periods
Table 3.1 lists the levels of flood protection required by MMUP and Ashghal, arranged
by road classification. For a full description of highway classifications, see Part 2 ‐
Planning and Table 3.2 for their related acceptable flood standards. Special corridors,
as characterized in Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, should have their levels
of storm return period resilience agreed to by MMUP. When using this classification,
where an urban road becomes a rural road, the point of transition is defined as the limit
of the settlement or the city boundary. Where urban and rural road types exist in one
drainage catchment, the worst‐case return period should be selected.
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Table 3.1 Required Levels of Flood Protection for Each Road Classification
Location and Road Type
Storm Event Return Period Urban Rural
Local roads
1 in 2 years N/A Collectors
Local roads
1 in 5 years Service roads Arterials
Collectors
Arterials not applicable
1 in 10 years
Expressways
1 in 50 years Tunnels and underpasses not applicable
Note: In some instances, MMUP & Ashghal may require higher return periods for these road types.
This should be discussed at Design Stage 1, project initiation.
Developed with Ashghal guidance.
Because rainfall in Qatar is intense, it is acceptable to temporarily flood highways to

the depths and extents set out in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Guidelines for Flood Standards on Qatar Roadways

Road Location and Type Acceptable Flooding
Urban Areas
Local roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Service roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Collectors Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 30 minutes.
Arterials Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Expressways Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Rural Areas
Local roads Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 2 hours.
Collectors Flood depth of 0.15 m maximum depth and duration of 1 hour.
Arterials Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 30 minutes.
Freeways Flood depth of 0.10 m maximum depth and duration of 10 minutes.
Note: Developed with Ashghal guidance.
m = meter
3.2.2 Acceptable Highway Flood Standards

Ashghal guidelines for acceptable flooding levels are provided in Table 3.2. As with
acceptable flood return periods, where an urban road becomes a rural road, the point
of transition is defined as the limit of the settlement or the city boundary. Where urban
and rural road types exist in one drainage catchment, the lesser level of acceptable
flooding outlined in Table 3.2 should be selected.
Special corridors, as characterized in Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance,

should have their levels of acceptable flooding agreed to by the Overseeing
Organization at Design Stage 1.
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Flood depths and times are acceptable only where they exist as a direct result of
periodic surface water inundation at the return periods specified in Table 3.2. It is not
acceptable for groundwater to collect within the drainage system and contribute to
flooding.
3.2.3 Gully Spacing

Road flooding must be controlled to help maintain the road pavement and reduce the
risk of aquaplaning of vehicles. Road flooding can be controlled by proper planning of
road gullies, with respect to both gully spacing and the size of the gully intake. During
a storm, water accumulates at the roadsides because it cannot be completely
contained by the roadside inlets. This causes water to spread on the road and, if not
controlled, to lead to flooding of the road. Figure 3.2 shows width and depth of water
spread for a part of the road with gully inlets separated by distance.
Figure 3.2 Water Spread and Road Gully Spacing
Inlet locations are determined by using a trial and error procedure to maintain depth
and spread of flow within allowable limits along the curb line. The following guidelines
are to be followed while designing a gully system for roadways, assuming that the
gullies are vertical and placed along the curb stones:
1. Spread of water ( ) should not exceed 1 m for expressways and intersections. For
local roads, bridges and vehicular loading areas, maximum allowable spread is
2.5 m. For sag locations, the spread of water should be such that at least one lane
in each direction of travel is free from ponding of water.
2. Depth (D) of water ponding should not exceed the limits specified or cause the
spread width to exceed the allowable value, whichever is less. Refer to Table 3.2
for the allowable maximum depths and durations for clearance.
3. The capacity of grated curb inlets to intercept the gutter flow is 70 percent for
unpaved areas and 85 percent for paved roadways. The same for a combination
inlet is 90 to 100 percent depending upon road grade conditions, with a
100 percent capacity for an inlet in sag locations.
4. The spread width of gully spacing (L) must remain within allowable limits.
5. Significant amount of discharge coming from behind the curb should be
intercepted before reaching the roadway or gutter.
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6. The last inlet in a series should intercept all of the flow to that point, with a bypass
flow not to exceed 0.003 cubic meter per second (m3/s) for the typical situation.
The Urban Drainage Design Manual, Section 4, provides additional guidance
(National Highway Institute, 2013).
The following equations are applicable for the roadside gullies.
Gutter flow (QG): The water spread on road will follow the open channel flow model
given by Manning for estimating the water flow in gutters:
. . .
where
QG = gutter flow in cubic meters
SL = longitudinal slope of the road (m/m)
Sx = cross slope of the road (m/m)
WS = water spread width (m)
Ku = 0.376
n = Manning’s coefficient
The depth of flow (d) for a given spread width is given by the following:
The amount of discharge generated by the road catchment between two consecutive
curb inlets is given by the Rational Formula as follows:
where
Q = discharge generated (cumecs)
C = coefficient of runoff for the catchment
i = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
L = gully spacing (m)
w = road width (m)
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Amount of discharge intercepted by the grated inlet is decided by the following

equations, depending upon the depth of water flowing in the gutter. If the water level
is below the top of the inlet opening, the inlet is said to be operating as a weir. The
following equation is for discharge capacity of the grate inlets when operating as a weir:
where
P = perimeter of the rectangle grate opening (m)
CW = 1.66
da = average depth of water in gutter at the inlet (m)
If the water level is above the inlet opening—i.e., the inlet is submerged—the inlet is
said to be operating as an orifice. The following equation is for discharge capacity of the
grate inlets when operating as an orifice:
where
Co = orifice coefficient = 0.67
Ag = clear opening area of the grate times 0.70 or 0.85 depending upon the road
conditions and inlet location as explained in the guidelines above
g = 9.81 m/s2
d = depth of allowable water ponding at the curb (m)
No software has been identified for performing the analysis, but the following steps
should be followed in accordance with the guidelines and equations above to design a
gully system for road drainage:
1. Start from the highest point (A) along the road alignment and approach towards
the lowest point (C). Then begin from the next highest point (B) and approach the
same lowest point in the opposite direction, as shown on Figure 3.3. Choose an
initial gully or inlet spacing (L), and place the first inlet at this distance from the
highest point when approaching the lowest point in the forward direction.
Figure 3.3 Design of Road Gullies along Road Profile
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2. Parameters like SL, SX, w, and n will be known from the road design. Using the
Rational Formula, compute the discharge (Q) generated for the chosen gully
spacing and road design parameters.
3. Assuming same sizes from the available inlet types, compute the discharge
intercepted ( ) by using the formula for an orifice for the chosen inlet assuming
the inlet is operating in orifice mode. Using the total runoff generated (Q) and
discharge intercepted ( ) by the inlet, compute the gutter discharge ( ) as
shown:
4. Using Figure 3.2 to compute the spread width, , caused by this gutter discharge,
and check if it is within design allowable limits. Also, compute water depth, d, for
this spread width, and check if it is within design allowable limits.
5. If the spread width and depth are within the allowable limits, then the chosen inlet
spacing is accepted. Otherwise, repeat Steps 1 to 4 for shorter inlet spacing.
6. When an acceptable inlet spacing is determined, move to the second inlet location.
For the second inlet location, the bypass flow from the first inlet will be added to
the gutter flow discharge generated from the road catchment. Using this additional
gutter flow, compute the spread width using the open channel flow model given
by Manning for estimating the water flow in gutters (QG). Also, compute the water
depth for this spread width using the depth of flow calculation (d).
7. If the water spread width and depth are within allowable design limits, then
proceed in the same manner for the next inlet. Otherwise, repeat the procedure
by choosing shorter inlet spacing for the first inlet until the inlet spacing results in
a spread width and depth that is within allowable limits.
8. Continue this procedure until the last inlet is reached. For the last inlet, compute
the bypass flow and check if it is less than 0.003 m3/s. If the bypass flow is less than
0.003 m3/s, then the design is accepted. Otherwise, repeat Steps 1 through 7 with
shorter inlet spacing.
3.2.4 Pipeline Velocities

To ensure minimal settling of particles in the sewers the following set of velocities for
varying pipe sizes is recommended.
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Table 3.3 Minimum Design Velocities

Pipe Size (mm) Approximate Self‐cleansing Velocity (m/s)
300 0.75
400 0.77
500 0.82
600 0.86
700 0.87
800 0.88
900 0.88
1,000 0.92
Source: Ashghal Drainage Manual.
m/s = meters per second
mm = millimeters
The maximum velocity recommended in a sewer is 2.5 meters per second (m/s). In
certain circumstances this may be relaxed to 3 m/s.
3.2.5 Pipline Materials

For diameters up to 1,000 mm, vitrified clay (VC) is recommended. For diameters
greater than 1,000 mm, concrete pipe is recommended. Rising mains are normally
HDPE or ductile iron.
3.3 Hydrological Data

Hydrological data are provided in the Study of Regional Rainfall, Qatar (MMUP, 2013).
References to rainfall should be directed to this report.
3.3.1 Rainfall Characterization

It is important to accurately characterize rainfall events and storm durations to quantify
the drainage capacity required to compensate for runoff.
Qatar is in an arid region, and annual rainfall may vary from 10 to more than 250 mm.
Storms as intense as 136 millimters (mm) within a 24‐hour period (recorded in Umm Al
Faye March 1995) and 54 mm in a 3‐hour period have been recorded (Ministry of
Environment [MoE], 2010). Rainfall in Qatar is highly variable. Thunderstorms can be
severe, but they are of limited geographical extent
For the purpose of highway drainage design, Qatar shall be considered to have different
rainfall characteristics in the different regions. The average of the annual maximum
daily rainfall in the Northern Region is 28 mm; in the Southern Region, it is 20 mm.
For design purposes, reference should be made to the Study of Regional Rainfall, Qatar
(MMUP, 2013). IDF relationships from this study are shown in Section 3.3.2.
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3.3.2 Intensity-Duration-Frequency
It is important to establish the relationship among rainfall event intensity, duration, and
frequency to reliably identify the drainage capacity required for each design. Design IDF
values should be extracted from relevant figures for the location of the proposed road.
Qatar is divided into four regions—Northern, Central East, Central West, and Southern—
each representing different IDF relations to compensate for the regional differences
experienced in Qatar. The four regions are shown on Figure 3.4. The rainfall design
criteria can be expressed by the Rational Formula, with each region having different l1
values, where l1 is the average maximum annual 24‐hour average rainfall at site (in
millimeters per hour [mm/hour]). The discretization adjustment factor is set to 1.16, in
accordance with Dwyer and Reed (1995).
. .
, . .
where
T = return period (years)
t = duration of rainfall event (minutes)
, = rain intensity (mm/hour)
= average maximum annual 24 hour rainfall at site (mm/hour]
Source: Mamoon et al. (2013)
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Figure 3.4 Division of Qatar into Four Rainfall Regions
Table 3.4 provides the coordinates of corners of the four regions and the l1 value for
the center point of the respective regions. The equation will derive the design rainfall
intensity for a particular quadrant, with a given return period T and rainfall duration t.
Appendix B contains the detailed IDF relationships. Table 3.5 to Table 3.8 provide the
actual IDF.
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Table 3.4 Coordinates, Latitude, and Longitude for Different Rainfall Regions
Latitude (Northings) Longitude (Eastings) Qatar National Grid
l1 Value
Region Corner Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min Sec. x (m) y (m) (mm/hr)
Northern Region Top left 26 8 41.73 50 51 59.98 487728.4 165080.2
Top right 26 8 43.53 51 36 25.07 487794.8 239105.3
Bottom left 25 36 33.79 50 48 30.98 428398.5 164921.7
Bottom right 25 36 39.21 51 38 1.95 428576.2 239281.0
1.1124
Central West Region Top left 25 36 12.78 50 44 47.15 427789.4 152842.7
Top right 25 35 49.86 51 23 45.44 427012.2 218088.5
Bottom left 25 0 24.91 50 46 16.25 361687.6 155108.8
Bottom right 25 0 7.02 51 23 51.03 361075.0 218333.0
1.0499
Central East Region (Doha) Top left 25 35 49.86 51 23 45.44 427012.2 218088.5
Top right 25 36 39.21 51 38 1.95 428584.4 241984.1
Bottom left 25 0 7.02 51 23 51.03 361075.0 218333.0
Bottom right 25 0 8.36 51 38 45.24 361172.5 243407.4
1.0150
Southern Region Top left 25 0 24.91 50 46 16.25 361687.6 155108.8
Top right 25 0 8.36 51 38 45.24 361172.5 243407.4
Bottom left 24 31 35.19 50 49 3.77 308450.8 159650.5
Bottom right 24 30 12.53 51 24 12.25 305861.5 219003.0
0.9556
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Deg. = degrees
Min. = minutes
mm/hr = millimeters per hour
Sec. = seconds
m = meters
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Table 3.5 IDF Relation for the Northern Region

Return Period
2 Years 5 Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years
Duration
(minutes) Intensity (mm/hr)
5 53.7 82.6 104.4 133.3 155.2 177.1
10 41.8 64.2 81.3 103.8 120.8 137.8
20 29.8 45.9 58.1 74.2 86.3 98.5
30 23.6 36.3 46.0 58.7 68.3 77.9
40 19.7 30.3 38.4 49.0 57.0 65.1
50 17.0 26.2 33.1 42.3 49.2 56.1
60 15.0 23.1 29.2 37.3 43.4 49.6
90 11.2 17.3 21.9 27.9 32.5 37.1
120 9.1 14.0 17.7 22.5 26.2 29.9
Table 3.6 IDF Relation for the Central West Region

Return Period
Duration
5 50.6 77.9 98.6 125.8 146.5 167.1
10 39.4 60.6 76.7 97.9 114.0 130.1
20 28.2 43.3 54.8 70.0 81.5 92.9
30 22.3 34.3 43.4 55.4 64.5 73.6
40 18.6 28.6 36.2 46.2 53.8 61.4
50 16.1 24.7 31.3 39.9 46.4 53.0
60 14.2 21.8 27.6 35.2 41.0 46.8
90 10.6 16.3 20.6 26.4 30.7 35.0
120 8.6 13.2 16.7 21.3 24.8 28.2
Table 3.7 IDF Relation for the Central East Region

Return Period
Duration
5 49.0 75.3 95.3 121.7 141.6 152.1
10 38.1 58.6 74.2 94.7 110.2 118.4
20 27.2 41.9 53.0 67.7 78.8 84.6
30 21.6 33.2 41.9 53.6 62.3 67.0
40 18.0 27.7 35.0 44.7 52.0 55.9
50 15.5 23.9 30.2 38.6 44.9 48.2
60 13.7 21.1 26.7 34.0 39.6 42.6
90 10.3 15.8 20.0 25.5 29.7 31.9
120 8.3 12.7 16.1 20.6 23.9 25.7
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Table 3.8 IDF Relation for the Southern Region

Return Period
Duration
5 46.1 70.9 89.7 114.5 133.3 152.1
10 35.9 55.2 69.8 89.1 103.8 118.4
20 25.6 39.4 49.9 63.7 74.2 84.6
30 20.3 31.2 39.5 50.4 58.7 67.0
40 16.9 26.1 33.0 42.1 49.0 55.9
50 14.6 22.5 28.4 36.3 42.3 48.2
60 12.9 19.8 25.1 32.1 37.3 42.6
90 9.7 14.9 18.8 24.0 27.9 31.9
120 7.8 12.0 15.2 19.4 22.5 25.7
In case of a drainage system passing through two or more regions, the design criteria
with the worst‐case scenario should be applied. Figure 3.3 illustrates the situation. As
shown, Segment 2 of the drainage system passes through the Central East and Central
West regions. For this segment, the most critical rainfall design criteria are applied, in
this case, Central West. Segment 1 is in the Central West Region only; hence, the design
criteria for Central West only should be applied. If Segments 1 and 2 were connected
by a pump station, they still would be considered separately. However, in this case, the
receiving segment would still need to accommodate the flow based on the design
criteria applied from the supplying segment.
Figure 3.5 Example of a Drainage System Crossing Rainfall Regions
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The figures referenced in this section are from the Study of Regional Design Rainfall,
Qatar (MMUP, 2013). The regional study considered rainfall data from 31 meteorological
stations in Qatar, Bahrain, and United Arab Emirates from 1948 until 2011.
3.3.3 Hyetographs
A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall over time that
is used to understand the rainfall distribution for design storms.
For a single catchment less than 50 ha, a uniform hyetograph can be applied. The
intensity of the uniform hyetograph is defined by determining the design return period
T and considering the duration of the rainfall t being equal to the time of concentration
Tc of the catchment. The intensity derived from the IDF curve is then considered
uniform in time and the Rational Formula is applied.
Large catchments typically are subdivided into subcatchments. Modeling should be

applied, as should the Alternating Blocking Method (ABM). ABM tests the maximum
design rainfall criteria irrespective of the time of concentration of individual
subcatchments, because the rain depth follows the individual IDF curves. The
hyetograph of a design storm of duration t and return period T can be derived by ABM
because it specifies the precipitation depth occurring in n successive time intervals of
duration ∆t over a total duration of t, where t is the time of concentration for the whole
catchment. The steps involved are as follows:
1. Calculate the total storm depth D from the IDF relationship for the catchment for a
certain return period T:
, ,
2. Fix the incremental time interval ∆t as 5 minutes or more for practical reasons, such as
for large catchments. Calculate the average rainfall intensity and total depth of design
storms with a fixed return period T but variable durations: t' = k ∆t, k =1, 2, 3 … n‐1.
where
∆
3. Calculate the total rainfall difference between design storms of consecutive
durations:
∆ , ∆ , ∆ , , , , ,…,
4. Arrange the incremental rainfall depths (∆ , ) calculated in the previous step in

descending order, and obtain a new series of rainfall depths (∆ , ).
5. Assign ∆ , to the most central value, ∆ , and ∆ , to its right (or left) and left
(or right), respectively. Convert the incremental rainfall depths to incremental
rainfall intensity hyetograph values ih(T, t).
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Other remaining incremental rainfalls in the ranked series are sequentially allocated in
a similar alternating manner.
The following example, illustrated in Table 3.9, Figure 3.4, and Figure 3.7, shows the
hyetograph prepared using the following values:
∆t = 5‐minute (time step in hyetograph)

T = 10‐year (return period)
L1 = 1.18 mm/hr (average maximum 24‐hour rainfall for the Central East
Region)
Table 3.9 Hyetograph Example Computations for Central East Region of Doha
Duration
(minutes) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
k 11 9 7 5 3 1 2 4 6 8 10 12
i(10,t) (mm/hr) 95.50 74.31 61.68 53.11 46.85 42.04 38.22 35.09 32.49 30.28 28.38 26.72
ih(10,5) (mm/hr) 9.37 11.65 15.27 21.79 36.42 95.50 53.13 27.40 18.00 13.23 10.39 8.52
Figure 3.6 Intensity‐Duration‐Frequency Plot for 10‐Year Return Period for Doha,
Qatar
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Figure 3.7 Hyetograph Plot for 5‐Minute Duration and 10‐Year Return Period for
Doha, Qatar, Using Alternating Block Method
3.3.4 Hydrogeology
It is important to investigate hydrogeological conditions at each site as part of the
predesign stage. To investigate site hydrogeology, suitable locations should be
identified and consultation should take place with the appropriate stakeholders.
It is necessary to estimate permeability at sites to identify the infiltration and initial

losses. Infiltration is described only for large catchments by establishing the curve
numbers based on land use and soil permeability. For small catchments, only initial
losses will be taken directly into account, whereas infiltration losses are considered part
of deriving the runoff coefficients.
If testing has been undertaken, then hydraulic conductivity across the site can be
established based on the test results. Hydraulic conductivity should be investigated
through permeability testing undertaken at multiple borehole locations, if possible.
At the concept stage or for small catchments for which no test results are available,
Table 3.10 should be applied to determine initial losses, and the Runoff Computation
Using Curve Number should be used to determine curve numbers.
3.3.5 Runoff Curve Number Method

The Runoff Curve Number Method should be applied for larger catchments exceeding
50 ha and typically in connection with modeling. Most software packages include
hydrological modeling based on the Runoff Curve Number Method.
The runoff curve number (CN), also known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve
Number Method, is based on an area’s hydrologic group, land use, treatment, and
hydrologic conditions. CN is used to compute the runoff generated after accounting for
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the infiltration losses, per the following equation from Section 4 of the National
Engineering Handbook (SCS, 1985), where CN represents a convenient representation
of the potential maximum soil retention, S (Ponce and Hawkins, 1996):
where
Q = runoff generated (mm)
P = total precipitation (mm)
S = potential maximum soil moisture retention after runoff begins (mm)
= initial abstraction (mm) or infiltration or rainfall interception by vegetation,
0.2 ∗
CN = curve number can be obtained from Table 3.9
Table 3.10 shows the curve numbers for the land use description applicable to Qatar.
Table 3.10 Curve Numbers for the Land Use Description Applicable to Qatar
Cover Description
Curve Number for
Hydrologic Soil Group
Land Use Impervious
Description Cover Type and Hydrologic Condition Areas (%) A B C D
Commercial Urban districts: commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
High density Residential districts by average lot size:
65 77 85 90 92
residential 1/8 acre = 0.05 hectare or less
Industrial Urban district: industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Low density Residential districts by average lot size: 1/2acre 85
25 54 70 80
residential = 0.2 hectare lot
Open space (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemeter‐
Open spaces 18 49 69 79 84
ies), fair condition (grass cover 50 to 70%)
Parking and Impervious areas (e.g., paved parking lots,
100 98 98 98 98
paved areas roofs, and driveways; excluding right‐of‐way)
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 1/8 92
65 77 85 90
1/8 acre acre = 0.05 hectare or less
Residential Residential districts by average lot size:
38 61 75 83 87
1/4 acre 1/4 acre = 0.1 hectare
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 86
30 57 72 81
Residential Residential districts by average lot size:
25 54 70 80 85
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 1 acre
20 51 68 79 84
1 acre = 0.4 hectare
Residential Residential districts by average lot size: 2 acre 82
12 46 65 77
2 acres = 0.8 hectare
Note: Description and Curve Numbers from TR‐55.
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Hydrological soil groups A, B, C, and D are made based on the runoff generated on these
soil types. Soils in Group A have low runoff potential, and soils in Group B have a
moderate rate of infiltration when thoroughly wet. Group C has a slow rate of
infiltration when wet, and soils in Group D have high runoff potential.
3.4 Hydraulic Analysis Processes

3.4.1 Overview
This section explains the process necessary to undertake hand calculations for hydraulic
analysis and sets out the types of software permissible to use for computerized
calculations. For ease of use, to expedite modifications, and to enable the Overseeing
Organization to build a comprehensive asset database, it is preferred that electronic
hydraulic models rather than hand calculations be prepared and submitted for
approval. The use of hand calculations for Design Stages 2 and 3 should be agreed to
by AIA at Design Stage 1.
3.4.2 Rational Method

The following approach points should be considered when using the rational method
(illustrated in Figure 3.8):
 The method is suitable for catchments up to 50 ha.

 Thorough knowledge of local rainfall characteristics is needed.
 The method requires accurate IDF curves from which rainfall intensities can be
deduced for different storm durations for the design return period.
 The method assumes that, for a given return period, longer storms have lower
intensities and shorter storms have higher intensities.
 The method assumes that rain falls uniformly across the catchment.
 Contributing impermeable areas are required for each pipe length.
 A time of entry must be determined to avoid unrealistically high rainfall intensities.
 Base flows from groundwater can be included in the design.
 There is an iterative process for design.
 Pipe sizes and gradients are adjusted to provide appropriate self‐cleansing
velocities.
 Half pipe flow velocity is numerically equal to full pipe flow velocity.
 The user must be aware of the limitations of this method of design.
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The following aspects need to be considered:
 Pipes should be of sufficient size to carry maximum design hour volumes at depth
D: that is, at pipe full condition.
 Surface water drains require higher velocities than foul sewers for self‐cleansing
purposes because of the higher density of solid material to be transported.
 Surface water drains should not be less than 300 mm in diameter.
 Self‐cleansing velocities increase with pipe size.
 Pipe sizes should not decrease downstream even when the calculations indicate
that this would be hydraulically satisfactory.
 Pipes should be designed to run parallel to the ground surface wherever possible.
3.4.2.1 Runoff Coefficients

Table 3.11 provides the runoff coefficient (C) for each catchment type for various
defined categories of catchments.
3.4.2.2 Catchment Area (A)

Urban and rural catchments will exhibit different constraints and opportunities for
drainage design. As such, it is important to define the catchment area and to treat it
accordingly. To do this, it will be necessary to obtain suitably scaled topographic
mapping of the area.
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Figure 3.8 Rational Method Process
Table 3.11 Runoff Coefficient for Various Drainage Areas

Type of Drainage Area Runoff Coefficient
Business Commercial areas 0.90
Commercial and residential mix 0.70
Residential Urban area with attached houses 0.5
Urban with detached houses 0.3
Lawns, Soil, and Vegetation Cover Sandy soil 0.15
Silty or clayey soil 0.25
Poor to fair, clean cultivated crops 0.15
Landscapes 0.05
Paved areas 0.95
Asphaltic Concrete or other paved areas 0.95
Industrial See below
Light industry (with mild open areas) 0.70
Heavy industry (with no open areas) 0.80
Note: Qatar Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual (Ashghal, 2006) requires new housing development
not to discharge any surface water onto the public roads without attenuation.
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Urban
The area to be considered shall incorporate two parts:
 The area of the road corridor subject to direct precipitation

 The additional adjacent area assessed by reference to the development plans and
topographic mapping for the area
The additional area will be dependent on factors such as the intensity of development,
provision of flood storage areas, and contributions from adjacent roads and developments.
Rural
The area to be considered shall incorporate two parts:
 The area of the road corridor subject to direct precipitation

 The broader natural catchment area within which the road runs; specifically, the
effect the road may have on the natural surface and subsurface drainage of the area
3.4.2.3 Surface Runoff

The Rational Method is used to compute the design discharge (Qd) produced by a
catchment of area (A) less than 50 ha. The following equation gives a mathematical
expression for the Rational Method:
where
C = runoff coefficient
i(T, t) = rainfall intensity for T years return period and t minutes duration storm
event (mm/hr)
A = area of the catchment in square meters
Qd = design discharge in cubic meters per second
For areas larger than 50 ha, which are mostly rural, consideration should be given to
assessment of runoff by a combination of historical observations and the generation of
storm hydrographs. Hydraulic modeling is recommended for catchments greater than
50 ha. The method used shall be agreed to with AIA.
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3.4.2.4 The Colebrook-White Equation

The Colebrook‐White equation should be used in pipeline design to calculate the
velocity of flow (v) in a pipe flowing full under gravity for a given gradient, diameter,
and roughness coefficient, as follows:
.
log .
where
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
D = diameter, (m)
S = slope or head loss per unit length
ks = roughness coefficient, (mm)
V = kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s)
3.4.2.5 Manning’s Equation

Manning’s equation should be used to calculate the velocity of flow (V) in an open
channel, swale, ditch, or other surface conduit:
/ /
where
V = mean velocity of flow (m/s)
n = Manning’s coefficient of roughness
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = slope (percent)
3.4.2.6 Time of Concentration

The time of concentration (tc) of the catchment is defined as the time needed for the
water particles to travel from the hydraulically most distant point of the catchment to
the design point downstream, as indicated on Figure 3.9. Physically, the value of time
of concentration is used to estimate the value of the intensity (I) of rainfall to be used
to compute the peak discharge quantity (Qp).
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Figure 3.9 Longest Stream for Time of Concentration Calculation
Time of concentration in minutes can be measured using Kirpich’s formula:
.
.
.
where
L = distance (m) traveled by water from the farthest point in the catchment
to its outfall or the point of consideration
S = slope of the catchment along the longest path
Kirpich’s formula has been useful for small to moderate catchments (area <50 ha) and
for overland flows in larger catchments up to 80 ha. As discussed by Rossmiller (1980),
there is a multiplier adjustment factor of 2.0 for overland flow over soil or grass and 0.4
for concrete or asphalt surfaces. A factor of 1.0 should be applied for combined surfaces
or other type of surfaces. A modified Kirpich’s formula should be used to apply this
adjustment for the surface type:
.
.
.
where
k = Rossmiller’s multiplication adjustment factor stated above
If time of concentration is determined to be less than 5 minutes by using this formula,

it is preferred to use the value as 5 minutes, because it is unrealistic to have a time of
concentration below 5 minutes. For the rational method, the catchment area is less
than 50 ha, which can be assumed as 2,500 by 200 m. Thus, for a length of about
2,500 m, the time of concentration will be computed as less than 5 minutes for a slope
of more than 3 percent. For all catchments with slope more than 3 percent, the time of
concentration value used shall be 5 minutes.
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3.4.3 Mathematical Models

Sewerage and drainage models use construction record data to build representations
of the system as linked pipes and nodes, with specific modules for ancillaries such as
pumping stations and overflows. Inflows from connected developments and
contributing areas are directed to the nodes, and a computerized hydraulic engine
simulates the hydraulic performance of flows around the system.
Mathematical models used for hydraulic analysis should be agreed to with the
appropriate approving authority. The benefits of using certain modeling software for
the particular project scale and scope should be discussed.
Hydraulic models shall be constructed, verified where possible (see above), and
reported in accordance with the Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer
Systems (Wastewater Planning Users Group, 2002).
Models shall be retained electronically by the designer for a minimum of 12 years from
the date on which the last modifications for which the model was used have been
commissioned and taken over by AIA. AIA proposes to model all trunk mains and to
follow with infill models of local areas in the future.
Table 3.12 lists software packages likely to be suitable for mathematical modeling. The
final selection of which model to use is likely to be dependent on the scale of each
project and the availability of relevant expertise.
Table 3.12 Software Packages for Mathematical Modeling

Software Packagea Likely Scale Best Suited To
>50 ha or by agreement with Overseeing Organization
InfoWorks (sites </> this area may be suitable)
MicroDrainage WinDES
InfoWorks <50 ha or by agreement with Overseeing Organization
StormCAD (sites up to 100 ha may be suitable)
BOSS
aOr similar approved software packages by AIA.
ha = hectares
Table 3.12 suggests several options for hydraulic models and likely project scales for
which they would be suitable. This list is neither exhaustive nor specific, because
modeling software is continually updated and new products made available. When
deciding which model to use, the engineer should evaluate the benefits and limitations
associated with the selection and confirm choices with the overseeing authority (see
Section 1.2.2).
3.5 Pollution Control Process

3.5.1 Method
SuDS should always be the preferred approach unless there are particular reasons for
their exclusion. Justification for the exclusion of SuDS will need to be provided to the
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MMUP and Ministry of Environment at the approvals stage of Design Stage 2 and again
at Design Stage 3. See Section 3.6 with respect to the SuDS management train, SuDS
selection, and SuDS limitations.
Figure 3.10 Pollution Control Procedure shows the process of determining the levels
of treatment required for road projects in Qatar. It also details when guidance should
be sought from the MMUP and Ministry of Environment.
Table 3.13 details the levels of treatment to be provided dependent upon the road type
and annual average daily traffic (AADT). Once the number of levels of treatment has
been derived from Table 3.14 for each subcatchment, Table 3.13 should be used for
identifying potential options for the treatment.
Figure 3.10 Pollution Control Procedure
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Table 3.13 Pollution and Control Requirements

Pollution Control—Levels of Treatment Required
Location and Road Type AADT Traffic Flowa Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Urban
Local Roads <5,000  
Service roads <5,000  
Collector roads (minor) 5,000–20,000  
Collector roads (major) 10,000–50,000   >20,000
Collector roads (distributor) 5,000–50,000   >20,000
Arterials (minor) 20,000–50,000   
Arterials (major) 30,000–60,000   
Arterials (boulevard) 30,000–60,000   
Expressways 50,000–80,000   
Rural
Local roads <1,000  
Collector 1,000–2,000  
Arterial 2,000–8,000  
Freeway >8,000   >20,000
Notes:
aSource part extracted from the earlier QHDM Part 1, Section 3, tables 3.1 and 3.2.
Table 3.14 Levels of Treatment Options for Pollution Control

Levels of Treatment
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Permeable pavement Permeable pavement Detention basin
Filter strip Filter strip Subsurface storage or
Bioretention Bioretention infiltration
Filter drain Filter drain
SuDS Infiltration trench Infiltration trench
Swale Swale
Detention basin
Subsurface storage or infiltration
Soakaway
Modified gully (Funkee Downstream defendera Class 1 bypass separator
Gruppe)a Class 1 bypass separator upflow filter (Hydro
Traditional Downstream defendera International)a
(proprietary Storm treat (Storm Treat
systems)a Systems)a
Storm X4 (Polypipe)a
Notes:
a Or similar approved.
Source: Partly from CIRIA C697.
Once the level of treatment has been established using Table 3.14, adequate control
measures need to be identified using SuDS‐based solutions in preference over
traditional options. Where justified, it is acceptable to use combinations of both
techniques. Features that retain water at the surface should drain within 48 hours to
prevent mosquitoes from breeding. Where proprietary systems are used for a level of
treatment, they should not be used for subsequent levels of treatment.
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The final step in deriving the pollution control required for each catchment is the
consideration of pollution impacts from spillages. The methodology used is based on
that set out in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), Volume 11, Section 3,
Part 10 HD45/09 (Department for Transport, 2009).
Annex I of HD45/09 sets out Method D for determining the pollution impact on
receiving water bodies, which in this case will be groundwater or seawater.
Furthermore, it provides a means of taking into account the pollution control devices
already provided for general pollution control, due to their mitigating effects on any
given spillage. By applying a risk reduction factor, a corrected risk can be calculated; to
be acceptable, the annual probability predicted needs to be less than 1 percent. If the
consequence of such a spillage occurring is severe (i.e., groundwater could be affected),
then a higher standard of protection could be stipulated so the annual probability of
such an occurrence happening reduces to <0.5 percent.
The acceptable level of risk should be approved by AIA at Design Stage 1.
Having determined the number of levels of treatment required from Table 3.14 and
selected the types of treatment for each level from Table 3.14, the probability of
spillage can be calculated, as shown inTable 3.15. To calculate the annual probability of
spillage for each section of road, it is first necessary to gather the following data:
 Length of road for each category in Table 3.14

 AADT two‐way flow for each section of road (other than slip ramps) in Table 3.12
 Percentage of heavy trucks as a proportion of AADT
Table 3.15 Spillage Rate

Intersection Type
Road Type No Intersection Slip Road Roundabout Crossroad Side Road
Urban
Local road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Service road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Collector road 0.31 0.36 5.35 1.46 1.81
Arterial 0.36 0.43 3.09 1.46 1.81
Expressway 0.36 0.43 3.09
Rural
Local road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Collector road 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Arterial 0.29 0.83 3.09 0.88 0.93
Freeway 0.36 0.43 3.09
Source: DMRB Volume 11, Part 10, HD45/09, Annex 1, Method D (Department for Transport, 2009).
When considering the length of road in each category, the risk factor from Table 3.14
applies to all lengths of road within 100 m of these intersection types. To demonstrate
how the designer has determined this, a sketch of the road types in relation to
intersections should be provided to the overseeing organization at Design Stage 2.
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Using the data gathered, the annual probability of spillage for each section of road can
now be calculated using the following formula:
PSPL RL SS AADT 365 10‐9 % HTs/100

where
PSPL = annual probability of a spillage with the potential to cause a
serious pollution event
RL = road length in kilometers
SS = spillage rates from Table 3.15
AADT = annual average daily traffic (based upon design year for a new road)
%HT = percentage of heavy trucks
Having calculated the probability of a spillage event, the probability of that spillage
resulting in a serious pollution incident should be determined by using the following
equation:
PINC PSPL PPOL

where
PINC = probability of spillage event resulting in a serious pollution event
PPOL = probability that, once a spillage has occurred, it will result in a serious
pollution event; this value should be selected from Table 3.16
Source: DMRB Volume 11, Part 10, HD45/09, Annex 1, Method D (Department for Transport, 2009).
Table 3.16 Probability of Serious Pollution Occurring as a Result of a Serious

Spillage
Urban Rural Remote

Receiving Water (response time to site (response time to site (response time to site
Body <20 minutes) <1 hour) >1 hour)
Groundwater 0.3 0.3 0.5
Marine environment 0.3 0.3 0.5
If the proposed levels of treatment determined from Table 3.14 include a system listed
in Table 3.16, then a further risk reduction factor should be applied before determining
the final risk. So, if the risk of a serious pollution event without the mitigation provided
by the pollution control level of treatment is PINC, then the adjusted risk incorporating
the levels of treatment is determined by PINC × RF, where RF is the risk reduction factor
for that system. Table 3.17 lists risk reduction factors.
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Table 3.17 Spillages and Risks and Reduction Factors (Indicative)

Pollution Control Risk Reduction Factor (%)
SuDS
Filter drain 0.6 (40%)
Swale 0.6 (40%)
Detention basin 0.6 (40%)
Infiltration trench 0.6 (40%)
Bio‐retention 0.7 (30%)
Subsurface storage and infiltration 0.6 (40%)
Traditional
Penstock and valve 0.4 (60%)
Bypass separator (Class 1)
Downstream defender (Hydro International)a
Up‐flow filter (Hydro International)a 0.5 (50%)
Storm treat (Storm Treat Systems)a
Storm X4 (Polypipe)a
Innolet‐G (Funkee Gruppe)a 0.6 (40%)
a Or similar approved.
In some situations, a higher factor signifying a lower risk reduction may be more
appropriate because of the limited extent of the given type of pollution control
selected. An example would be where a short length of swale is proposed that serves
only a part of the road under assessment. In such instances, it would be appropriate to
use a lesser reduction factor, say 20 percent or a factor of 0.8.
After calculating the adjusted figure for PINC, add the annual probabilities for each
section of road discharging to an outfall. If this figure is greater than the figure agreed
to by the Overseeing Organization (default value 1 percent), then look at each section
of road to determine the highest risk. Consider whether any factors need amending, or if
an additional form of mitigation can be included to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
Recalculate the risk using this iterative process until an acceptable level is reached.
3.6 Sustainable Drainage Systems

As outlined in 1.4, SuDS can be used to help mimic a more natural drainage process to
minimize the impacts created with regard to quality and quantity and to maximize
biodiversity. The section provides designers with guidance on drainage systems that
should be specified where possible. The devices outlined include:
 Permeable pavements
 Soakaways
 Swales
 Filter trenches and drains
 Bio‐retention areas
 Sand filters
 Basins (infiltration and detention)
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Each subsection includes a brief introduction of each device, locations where they are
likely to be most appropriately specified, potential benefits, and limitations. Key design
considerations and steps to be taken, minimum maintenance requirements, and
general construction advice are also provided. Guidance on where infiltration into the
surrounding soil should be allowed and information about specifying vegetation are
included to help designers give full consideration to these elements.
The designer should strive to reduce runoff from the highway by integrating multiple
stormwater controls throughout a site, recognizing that pretreatment is likely to be
necessary to enhancethe longevity of features.
3.6.1 Infiltration Guidance

Infiltration of stormwater runoff into the surrounding soil is a useful way to help reduce
the volume of runoff at or near its source. It can help promote groundwater restoration,
improve water quality through physical filtration and absorption, and reduce the need
to install additional drainage downstream to convey flows away from the site.
Infiltration is not appropriate in all circumstances, and care must be taken that the
infiltration device is suitable for the specific site location.
As a general guide, infiltration is advisable where:
 Pretreatment and emergency control, such as an oil interceptor, or being situated

off‐line can prevent groundwater from becoming polluted.
 The groundwater table is more than 4 m below the base of the proposed infiltration
device.
 The structure of the soil is suitably stable to support a large volume of runoff
infiltrating into it without the risk of failure.
To aid decision making, it is advisable to consult with a geotechnical engineer to

determine whether infiltration is likely to be appropriate. Figure 3.11 highlights the
main steps to consider when specifying an infiltration device.
Figure 3.11 Consideration of Infiltration
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3.6.2 Specification of Suitable Vegetation

Careful consideration is required where vegetation is to be specified to help stabilize
the soil structure of SuDS features or help improve the biodiversity of the area, or both.
Vegetation typically specified in other parts of the world might not be appropriate for
the climatic and soil conditions in Qatar. A landscape architect or similar professional
should be consulted to investigate potential options at an early stage in cases where
vegetation is likely to be necessary.
Further guidance on vegetation suitable in Qatar is provided in Section 28 of the Qatar

Construction Specifications (MoE, 2010).
3.6.3 Pervious Surfaces

Pervious surfaces allow rainfall to infiltrate into the subbase. This provides a level of
attenuation, water quality treatment, and points of source collection, which reduce the
need for other drainage systems to be constructed. The subbase layers can be drained
by infiltration, a piped drainage system, or both.
Porous asphalt and porous concrete are the most suitable forms of pervious surface for
highways.
3.6.3.1 Location Setting

Careful attention needs to be paid to vehicular loading and road speeds. Because of the
more permeable nature of the subbase, compaction can cause depressions and
damage to the functionality of the system. Where high sedimentation loads are
expected and are unlikely to be regularly dispersed or cleaned, these surfaces may be
less effective and may fail. Table 3.18 provides suitable locations for pervious surfaces.
Table 3.18 Potentially Suitable Locations for Pervious Surfaces

Road Location and Type Potential Suitability
Urban Areas
Local roads No
Service roads No
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areasa
Local roads No
Collectors No
Arterials No
Freeways Yes
Note:
a Rural roads are not suitable. If a road is tagged “yes” but it cannot be swept frequently, it too is not
suitable.
Source: CIRIA SuDS Manual C697.
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3.6.3.2 Benefits and Limitations of Pervious Surfaces

The following benefits and limitations to pervious surfaces are from the SuDS Manual
(CIRIA, 2007).
Benefits
 Aids the removal of rainfall at source.

 Can help to attenuate flows and improve water quality.
 Dual purpose reduces the need for additional installation space. For example,
drainage and road surface in one.
 Reduces surface ponding on the road surface.
Limitations
 Requires regular maintenance where sediment. Loads are likely to be high to

prevent clogging.
 Vehicular loading, volumes, and road speeds need careful consideration to help
maintain the road surface.
 If the geotextile becomes clogged with fine silt, it will adversely affect the infiltration
rate into the subbase.
3.6.3.3 Key Design Elements

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required during design. Advice
from a suitable manufacturer should be sought during the early stages of design:
 The pervious surface and subbase should be structurally designed for the specific
site and the expected vehicular loading. This should be done in compliance with
manufacturer recommendations.
 Guidance should be sought from a qualified geotechnical engineer as to whether
infiltration should be allowed or whether a liner should be installed to provide an
impermeable barrier. If a liner is installed, a continuation pipe is required to drain
the subbase. This will need to be appropriately connected downstream.
 Surface infiltration rates should normally be an order of magnitude greater than the
design rainfall intensity. Manufacturer guidelines should be referenced to clarify
this information.
 The subsurface storage volume should be adequate to ensure that the infiltration,
the discharge rate through the continuation pipe, or both, will not become a limiting
factor and create surface ponding during an event equivalent to its design event.
 Angular, crushed material with high surface friction should be used for subbase
construction. Sand and gravel with rounded particles should not be used to
maintain voids and limit compaction of the material, which would reduce
permeability. Guidance should be sought from a geotechnical engineer about
suitable local materials, when possible.
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 The subbase should usually be laid in 100 mm to 150 mm layers and lightly
compacted to ensure that the required void ratio is achieved for the particular
material used. Guidance should be sought from a geotechnical engineer, a surface
manufacturer, or both about a suitable subbase construction.
 A geotextile may be specified as a filtration treatment component near the top of
the subbase. Where this is done, care should be taken to ensure that the rate of
infiltration is greater than the rate through the pervious road surface.
 Soil and other material must be prevented from contaminating the pavement
surface and substructure. This can be achieved by ensuring that the adjoining land
slopes away from the road surface.
3.6.3.4 Design Stages

Figure 3.12 is an overview of the steps to be taken when considering installing a
permeable pavement.
Figure 3.12 Pervious Surface Design Steps
3.6.3.5 Maintenance Requirements

Table 3.19 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements to maintain the
efficiency of the pavement, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.19 Pervious Surface Maintenance Requirements

Maintenance Type Action Frequency
Regular Inspect pervious surfaces for Quarterly or as the manufacturer
evidence of structural defection or recommends.
reduced infiltration efficiency.
Clean or sweep the pervious As the manufacturer recommends.
surface.
Occasional Remediate surface depressions. As required.
Reconstruct pervious surface and When total failure of the structural
subbase. integrity or ability to absorb runoff
occurs.
Source: SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2007).
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3.6.3.6 Construction Advice

To ensure the pavement is installed to operate effectively, the general advice below
should be communicated to contractors before work starts on site; further advice
should be sought, as appropriate:
 Care must be taken to prepare the formation level in compliance with

manufacturers’ guidelines.
 Noticeable soft spots in the formation level should be excavated and backfilled with
suitable, well‐compacted material before laying the subbase layers.
 Impermeable membranes must be treated with care during installation.
 To maintain permeable properties, the subbase must not be compacted. This will
reduce the void ratio and effectiveness of the system.
 Geotextile should be laid in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions, with
overlaps between adjacent strips and without folds or creases, to ensure full
coverage.
 Contaminants should be prevented from entering the pavement surface and
subbase during and after construction, to ensure that the pavement remains
permeable throughout its design life.
Silt fences and temporary drainage that divert runoff away from the area should be
considered to manage risks during construction. Landscaping should be carefully
designed to prevent deposition of materials from adjacent land; for example, the sides
of the soakaway should slope away from the highway.
3.6.4 Soakaways
Soakaways provide stormwater attenuation, treatment, and groundwater recharge.
Soakaways are excavated pits or perforated storage chambers that are usually filled
with rubble. Brickwork, perforated precast concrete, or polyethylene rings can be used
to line the structures, and they can be grouped or linked together to drain large areas,
including highways.
3.6.4.1 Location Settings

Soakaways can be suitably sized for the road types listed in Table 3.20, provided the
geotechnical conditions are conducive to absorbing the anticipated volume of water.
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Table 3.20 Potentially Suitable Site Locations for Soakaway Installations

Road Location and Type Potentially Suitability
Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.4.2 Benefits and Limitations of Soakaways

The following benefits and limitation of soakaways are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA,
2007).
Benefits
 Minimal land take is needed for installation.

 Can be designed in series or individually for the needs of the site.
 Helps to provide groundwater recharge.
 Provides good volume reduction and peak flow attenuation.
 Easy to construct and operate.
Limitations
 Not suitable for poor‐draining soils.

 Not suitable where infiltration is unacceptable.
 Not appropriate for draining polluted runoff.
 Limited lifespan, before requiring replacement.
 Reduced performance if groundwater table rises.

Field investigations are required at an early stage to confirm infiltration rates and the
acceptability of infiltration to the soil. A geotechnical engineer should be consulted
during this assessment. The guidance below provides an overview of considerations
required during the design of soakaways:
 Soakaways should be investigated during the design phase. This can be through an
inspection well or an opening in the cover.
 A perforated pipe can be incorporated to provide a point of discharge to drain small
soakaways. The pipe should be visible, and access should be provided to allow
debris and sediments to be cleared from the pit.
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 Soakaways can be built as simple excavations backfilled with high‐void media, or

they can be supported perforation precast concrete or plastic chambers that
improve stability and maximize infiltration to the surrounding ground.
 A suitable geotextile lining should separate granular material from the surrounding
soil and prevent migration of fines into the soakaway.
 Soakaways must be of sufficient strength for the loads acting on them, especially
where they must bear traffic. A structural engineer should be consulted.
 Storms exceeding the design return period need to be considered so that
floodwater can safely be conveyed downstream. This may require additional
drainage components, because the infiltration rate will be a limiting factor.
 The soakaway should fully discharge within 48 hours to minimize mosquito breeding
and to provide sufficient capacity for runoff from subsequent storms.

Figure 3.13 is an overview of the steps to be taken when considering the installation of
a soakaway.
Note: * Guidance on modeling software is provided in Table 3.12.
Figure 3.13 Soakaway Design Steps
Hand calculations for design purposes can be used where the drainage catchment is
small and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The volume of
storage required will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time. This can be
determined by using the level pool routing technique when a model is inappropriate.
This is described in detail in Appendix C.

Table 3.21 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements, along with likely
occasional needs.
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Table 3.21 Soakaway Maintenance Requirements

Maintenance
Type Action Frequency
Inspect and identify areas that are not Monthly for the first 3 months,
Regular operating as designed and remediate them. then every 6 months.
Remove debris and blockages. Monthly.
Remove sediment from pretreatment Annually (or as required).
structures.
Remove sediment from soakaway Annually (or as required).
Occasional structures.
Remedial Annually and after large storms.
Conduct detailed inspections of all
structural elements.
Make repairs to structure elements. As required.

The following general points are to be noted during construction. This information, and
further guidance with regard to health and safety, should be communicated to
contractors undertaking the work:
 Untreated drainage from construction sites should not discharge into soakaways
during construction, because it can cause the soakaway to become ineffective.
 Silt fences and temporary drainage that divert runoff away from the area should be
considered to manage risks during construction. Landscaping should be designed to
prevent deposition of materials from adjacent land; for example, sloping sides away
from the highway.
 The exposed surface of the soil should be manually cleaned so that the geotextile
and granular fill surrounding the chamber are installed under optimal conditions.
 Groundwater control measures are required to reduce the groundwater table to
allow a passive system of soakaways to work. Refer to the Qatar Integrated
Drainage Master Plan (MWH Consultants [MWH], 2013) for further advice.
 Selection of proposed plastic structures for storage and soakaways needs careful
consideration to ensure that the structure is appropriate for the proposed
overburden loads. The structures must be suitable for the range of temperatures in
Qatar.
3.6.5 Swales
Swales are wide, shallow, gently sloping channels usually covered by grass or other
suitable vegetation, although reinforced earth or rip‐rap can also be used. They are
designed to intercept flow from the highway and convey runoff slowly along their
surface. Infiltration can be encouraged through the use of check dams or berms
installed across the flow path.
Infiltration can be conducted in standard swales or by using a dry swale. These

incorporate a filter bed and underdrain system under the base of the swale to improve
the capacity of the system.
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Swales are usually located parallel to the highway. They need to be relatively wide so
that shallow depths can be maintained. This usually makes them most suited to areas
where wide shoulders are available, but they can also be considered where there are
only narrow corridors, such as in urban areas. Table 3.22 lists potentially suitable site
locations, but engineering judgment is advisable.
Table 3.22 Potentially Suitable Locations for Installing Swales

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.5.2 Benefits and Limitations of Swales

The following benefits and limitation of swales are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2007).
Benefits
 Helps reduce urban pollutants in runoff.

 Can help reduce runoff rates (and volumes where infiltration is permitted).
 Pollution and blockages are visible and easily dealt with.
Limitations
 Not suitable for poor‐draining soils.

 Requires available land to be set aside and maintained.
 Not suitable where vehicles may park on the swale and damage them.
 Potential risk of blockages when connecting swales with pipe work.
 Not appropriate for draining polluted runoff.
 Vegetation requires regular maintenance.
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The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required during design:
 Vegetation in the flow channel should typically be maintained at a height of

100 mm to 150 mm.
 The swale should be trapezoidal or parabolic in cross section, because these are easy
to construct and maintain and because they provide good hydraulic performance.
 Swale side slopes should be no greater than 1:4 to promote sheet flow and low
velocities and to maximize the wetted perimeter, promote filtration, and minimize
erosion.
 The normal maximum dry swale depth is 400 mm to 600 mm, if all technical and
safety issues have been considered.
 Freeboard of 150 mm should be provided over the design hour volume depth to
allow for blockages.
 Conveyance swales should have a minimum longitudinal slope of 1:300.
 The base width of the swale should be 0.5 m to 2 m.
 The design event runoff volumes should empty by half within 24 hours so that runoff
from subsequent storms can be accommodated.
 The design event runoff volumes should fully empty within 48 hours to reduce
stagnation and mosquito breeding.
 The maximum flow velocity in the swale for events below a 1‐year return period
should be 0.3 m/s to promote settlement.
 Flow velocities for extreme events should be less than 1.0 m/s to prevent erosion.
 Check dams and appropriate pretreatment systems should be used to improve the
hydraulic and water quality performance of the swale system by reducing the flow
velocity, increasing residence time, increasing infiltration, and promoting storage.
 Where required, check dams are typically provided at 10 m to 20 m intervals, and
the water level at the toe of the upstream dam should be the same level as the crest
of the downstream dam.
 Check dams should be constructed into the sides of the swale to ensure that water
does not bypass the structure. A small orifice or pipe at the base of the dam will
allow low flows to be conveyed downstream.
Figure 3.14 depicts a typical swale with the check dam and erosion protection
arrangement.
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Figure 3.14 Diagram of Typical Swale

Table 3.23 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements likely to be required
to maintain the efficiency of the swale, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.23 Swale Maintenance Requirements

Litter and debris removal. As required.
Regular
Water vegetation. Daily.
Check for areas of poor vegetation growth and Twice yearly or as required.
reseed accordingly.
Inspect inlets, outlets, overflows, and check Twice yearly.
Occasional dams for signs of erosion, silting, and
Remedial blockages; also check for areas of ponding.
Repair structure. As required.
Remove pollutants and sediment buildup. As required.
Re‐level uneven surfaces. As required.

Swales should not receive storm runoff until vegetation in the system is fully
established and construction has reached a state at which sediment from the site will
not cause siltation of the swale. Interception pits may be required in the interim to
control the quality of the water.
3.6.6 Filter Trenches and Drains

Filter trenches are shallow excavations lined with a geotextile and are usually backfilled
with stone to create an underground reservoir to drain runoff from small catchment
areas. Runoff can then infiltrate into the surrounding soil. Filter drains are similar but
use a porous or perforated pipe placed at the bottom of the trench that flow to a
drainage system. Infiltration can be permitted, or an impermeable liner can be used to
prevent infiltration. Both systems are designed to provide attenuation by promoting
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slow infiltration through fill material and into the ground where infiltration is allowed.
They also provide storage in the trench.

Filter drains and trenches are suitable for installation at the edges of highways and can
be designed for site characteristics. Table 3.24 lists potential suitable locations.
Care must be taken to restrict vehicle access onto the drain. This can cause stone
scatter, which will be dangerous to other road users, and it can cause heavy loading on
the trench median, which will cause compaction.
Table 3.24 Potentially Suitable Locations for Filter Trenches and Drains
Urban Areas
Local roads No
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads No
Collectors No
Arterials No
Freeways Yes
3.6.6.2 Benefits and Limitations of Filter Trenches and Drains

The following benefits and limitation of filter trenches and drains are from the SuDs
Manual (CIRIA, 2007).
Benefits
 Helps to slow the flow rate and provides attenuation.

 Where infiltration is permitted, runoff volumes will be significantly reduced, which
promotes groundwater recharge.
 Aids treatment of contaminated runoff, leading to improved water quality.
 Can be easily installed close to the highway to reduce the need for further drainage.
 Relatively low land take and cost of installation.
Limitations
 Stable subsurface material is essential to reduce the risk of trench collapse.

 Pipe collapses in filter drains are common due to the nature of the pipe material.
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 Not suitable for sites where filter clogging is likely; for example, clay or silt in the
upstream catchment).
 Failure of the system is difficult to see in the early stages.
 Regular maintenance is required to reduce the risk of failure due to clogging.

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required during design. It should
be used with the requirements outlined in this part:
 To maximize the lifetime effectiveness of these systems, pretreat runoff to remove

heavy solids before arrival at the trench, because it is difficult to restore operation
once trenches become clogged.
 Trenches should not be constructed on steep slopes where there is an increased risk
of stability concerns.
 Where designed to allow for infiltration, the maximum groundwater level should be
greater than 1 m below the bottom of the trench to avoid continued saturation of
the filter media and risk of groundwater infiltration into the drainage network.
 A full geotechnical assessment should be conducted to verify that ground conditions are
suitable for trench excavation and that the infiltration rate is appropriate; see
Section 3.6.1.
 The trench should be designed to be half empty within 24 hours after being full so
that capacity is available for subsequent events and to reduce the risk that the
trench will be waterlogged for long periods.
 Trench depths should normally be between 1 and 2 m.
 Locally available granular stone or rock fill should be specified, where possible.
 The geotextile on trench sides and geotextile wrapping around pipes should have
greater permeability than the surrounding soil where infiltration is allowed so that
the geotextile does not present a barrier to flow. Manufacturers’ guidance should
be used to assess this situation.
 Measures should be implemented to prevent stone scatter by vehicles or humans.
This could mean locating the trench slightly away from the highway or not
constructing this type of system in urban areas or close to settlements.
 Infiltration trenches should be constructed with a high‐level outlet for exceedance
conditions, and appropriate drainage should be designed to convey flows safely
downstream.
 The base of the trench should slope gently to encourage flow movement and to
avoid ponding.
 Adequate access to the trench should be provided for maintenance, which will
include the need for washing and replacement of the top layers regularly.
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Figure 3.15 is an overview of steps to be taken when considering installation of a filter
trench or drain. Hand calculations for design purposes can be used when the drainage
catchment is small and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The
storage required will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be
determined using the level pool routing technique.
Note: * Section 3.4.3 contains guidance on modeling software.

Figure 3.15 Filter Trench or Drain Steps

Table 3.25 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements likely needed to
maintain the efficiency of a filter trench or drain, along with likely occasional needs.
Table 3.25 Filter Trench or Drain Maintenance Requirements

Remove litter and debris from the trench surface. Monthly.
Inspect trench surfaces for evidence of ponding At least quarterly.
Regular
and silt accumulation.
Washing of exposed stone. Annually.
Remediate filter media and geotextile when As required.
clogging occurs. This requires the excavation of the
Occasional trench and reinstalling after cleaning.
Inspect pipe work for evidence of operation and As required or half the
failure. expected asset life.
Reexcavate trench walls. As required.
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To ensure the filter trench or drain is installed for optimal operation, the general advice
below should be communicated to contractors before they start work on‐site; further
advice should be provided as appropriate:
 Trenches should be constructed after highways have been constructed to minimize

compaction of surrounding soil. Where soil has been compacted during previous
construction activity, it needs to be loosened or perforated to maintain the
effectiveness of the infiltration properties of the ground.
 Because of the loose compated nature of the trench fill and the maintenance
requirements to remove and clean the fill to prolong it’s lifespan it is not
recommended that trenches are installed below the roadway at all.
 Stone fill and geotextile around pipes should be clean before installation. Care
should be taken so that the geotextile covers all sides of the trench and is not
damaged during installation.
 Care must be taken during construction to prevent trench collapse during
excavation or installation of fill material. This is of particular importance when the
trench depth is greater than 1.2 m deep or ground conditions are weak. Supports
should be used to stabilize the trench in both cases.
 After installation, an infiltration test is recommended to confirm that the trench is
operating as designed.
3.6.7 Bio-retention Areas

Bio‐retention areas are shallow landscaped depressions composed of several
components that act together to improve water quality. Grass filter strips or channels
help to reduce runoff velocities. A ponding area normally is incorporated to provide
temporary storage; an organic layer and planting are provided to encourage filtration
and pollutant uptake; and a sand bed is provided to promote aerobic conditions. These
measures are aimed at managing and treating runoff from frequent but low‐intensity
rainfall events. Runoff from extreme events must be designed for with additional
measures such as balancing ponds or emergency flood areas.

Vegetation needs to be incorporated, and daily watering is required. As a result, bio‐
retention areas are likely to be suitable only where planting is likely and only with suitable
vegetation as outlined in this part (see Table 3.26).
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Table 3.26 Potential Suitable Locations for Bio‐retention Areas

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.7.2 Benefits and Limitations of Bio-retention Areas

The following benefits and limitation of bio‐retention areas are from the SuDs Manual
(CIRIA, 2007).
Benefits
 Provides aesthetic appeal and can be incorporated as a landscape feature

 Effective in removing urban pollutants
 Can reduce volume and rate of runoff
 Has flexible layout to fit into landscape
Limitations
 Requires landscaping and regular management to maintain vegetation

 Susceptible to clogging if surrounding landscape is poorly managed
 Not suitable for areas with steep slopes
 Particularily suitable for low‐intensity events
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Figure 3.16 is a typical cross section.
Note: Perforated under drain to be surrounded with geotextile membrane.
Figure 3.16 Typical Cross Section through a Bioretention Area
The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required during design; a

suitable manufacturer should be consulted for further guidance, if necessary:
 Typically the system is drained by an underdrain and relies on engineered soils and
enhanced vegetation. Individual units can be supplied to meet site needs, and a
suitable manufacturer should be consulted during the design phase.
 The storage volume of the system should be designed so that it will be half empty
within 24 hours, either by infiltration or through the outlet pipe.
 The shape of a bio‐retention area is not a critical feature in design, but a minimum
width of 3 m and length‐to‐width ratio of 2:1 is recommended to aid in planting.
 The soil bed should have a minimum depth of 1 m. Where trees are planted, the
depth should be 1.2 m to 1.5 m.
 The soil should be a sandy loam mixture with a permeability of at least 12.6 mm/h,
and pH should range between 5.2 and 7.
 The sand filter should have a minimum thickness of 0.3 m and consist of sand with
a grain size of 0.5 mm to 1 mm.
 The gravel around the under drain should consist of 5 mm to 20 mm aggregate.
 Geotextile membrane should be placed around perforated drainage pipes.
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3.6.7.4 Maintenance Requirement

Table 3.27 lists the minimum regular maintenance likely to be required, along with likely
occasional needs.
Table 3.27 Maintenance Requirements for Bioretention Areas

Maintenance
Water vegetation. Daily
Remove litter and debris. Monthly or as required
Regular
Remove weeds. As required
Verify that anaerobic conditions are not present in soil. Monthly or as required
Replace mulch and spiking soil. Annually
Inspect inlets, outlets, and overflows. Twice yearly
Occasional Restore vegetation or eroded areas. As required
Remedial
Clear blockages and remove silt and built‐up vegetation. As required
Repair structures. As required
3.6.7.5 Construction
The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start working
on‐site so that the bio‐retention area operates effectively once constructed. This list is
not extensive, and further advice should be provided, as appropriate:
 Bio‐retention areas should be constructed after construction of the road to

minimize erosion and sediment generation.
 Care should be taken not to compact the soils below the bio‐retention area,
particularly the filter and soil planting bed, because doing so will reduce infiltration
capacities.
 A backhoe should be used to excavate a bio‐retention area. Once formed, personnel
should avoid running over and damaging the bio‐retention area.
 If soil for the filter layer is imported, soil testing should be conducted. The test
should include particle size distribution, pH, and organic matter test for each
retention area.
3.6.8 Sand Filters

Sand filters are designed to treat surface water runoff through filtration and can
significantly improve water quality.
Surface sand filters, shown on Figure 3.17, are structures, usually constructed as off‐
line facilities that incorporate sand filter beds at the base of the excavation. They can
be designed with impervious linings and a drainage system, or they can allow
infiltration into the surrounding soil.
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Figure 3.17 Diagram of a Typical Surface Sand Filter
Underground sand filters, shown on Figure 3.18, can be used where space is limited.
These are essentially chambers that aid water quality treatment before flow passes
through the drainage system.
Figure 3.18 Diagram of a Typical Underground Sand Filter

The design of sand filters is flexible and allows the opportunity for incorporation into
multiple locations. However, care should be taken so there is adequate pretreatment
or emergency controls can be conducted, such as installing them off‐line. Table 3.28
lists the road types for which sand filters could potentially be used.
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Table 3.28 Potential Site Locations for Sand Filters

Urban Areas
Local Roads Yes
Service Roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local Roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
3.6.8.2 Benefits and Limitations of Sand Filters

The following benefits and limitations of sand filters are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA,
2007).
Benefits
 Flexible design.
 Efficient in removing a range of urban runoff pollutants.
 Suitable for retrofits and in tightly constrained urban locations.
Limitations
 Not recommended for areas with high debris content in runoff.

 Waterlogged conditions can support algae growth, filter clogging, and mosquito
breeding.
 Not suitable for large catchment areas.
 High capital cost and maintenance burden.

The guidance below is an overview of considerations required in designing sand filters.
Surface Sand Filter
 Pretreatment is required to remove debris and heavy sediment so that it does not
enter the filter bed.
 Specialized media could be used to remove heavy metals.
 A sedimentation chamber should be incorporated into the design that promotes
settling of heavier solids to help keep the sand filter clear.
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 A flow‐separating device should be used to distribute flow evenly across the filter
bed and keep the bed material in place.
 A series of underdrains should be installed parallel to the direction of flow to
promote flow transfer. The underdrains should be 150 mm perforated PVC pipes
installed in a gravel layer with a minimum slope of 1 percent and spacing not to
exceed 3 m.
 The filter bed should consist of a 0.45 m to 0.6 m layer of washed medium sand or
other specialized media. Topsoil or gravel can be installed on the top to prevent
erosion; this cover layer should be roughly 75 mm deep. Figure 3.19 shows the
typical construction of the bed layers.
Figure 3.19 Typical Sand Filter Bed Construction
 A permeable filter fabric should be placed above and below the sand bed to help
keep the filter and under drain system clear.
 The length‐to‐width ratio of the filter should be at least 2:1.
 The side slopes of the excavation should be at least 1:6.
 The design should allow easy access for maintenance. There may be a need to
remove heavy wet sand from the system. This is usually done by hand, and the
access should be designed to facilitate this.
 Inspection and cleanout wells should be provided to the underdrain.
 Filter areas should be sized to completely drain in 48 hours or less. Filter areas can
be determined by using Darcy’s law and the equation below:
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where
Af = surface area of filter bed, square meters (m2)
Vt = water quality treatment volume, cubic meters (m3)
L = filter bed depth (m) (typically 0.45 m to 0.6 m)
k = coefficient of permeability of filter medium for water (m/s)
= 0.001 (approximately) for 0.5 mm sand
= 0.006 (approximately) for 1.0 mm sand
h = average height of water above filter bed (m) (half maximum height, where hmax is
typically ≤2)
Underdrain Filters
 To prevent backflow of water in the system, the maximum head of water that can
develop in the sediment must be at least twice the average height of water above
the filter device.
 Underdrain filters should be off‐line or an overflow should be provided, or both, to
allow for exceedance conditions.

Figure 3.20 is an overview of steps to be taken when installing a sand filter.
Figure 3.20 Sand Filter Design Steps
small and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The storage
required will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be determined
using the level pool routing technique.
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Table 3.29 lists the minimum regular maintenance requirements for sand filters.
Table 3.29 Sand Filter Maintenance Requirements

Maintenance
Check for odors indicative of anaerobic conditions. Monthly.
Monitor sediment accumulation and vegetation. Monthly.
Remove sediment, litter, and debris from the inlet
As required or after a storm.
and outlet.
As required or at least
Regular Check that the sedimentation chamber is <50% full. annually.
Check that filter bed has surface sediment Quarterly.
accumulation of <15 millimeters.
Check anaerobic digestion. Monthly.
Wash the top layers of the sand to maintain As required or at least
efficiency. annually.
Repaire eroded surfaces. As required or after a storm.
Occasional Realign erosion protection. As required or after a storm.
Repair inlet or outlet. As required.

The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start working
on‐site; further advice should be provided, as appropriate:
 Filters should not receive runoff until vegetation in the system is fully established
and construction at the site has reached a state at which sediment concentrations
in the runoff will not cause clogging.
 The top of the filter bed must be completely level; otherwise, filtration will be
localized, and early failure may occur.
 In areas where groundwater protection is a concern, the completed tank structure
(concrete or membrane) should be filled with water for 24 hours to determine if
there is leakage.
3.6.9 Basins
Detention basins are designed to store runoff when the surface water system is in
surcharge. The basins store surcharged water and have a controlled outflow. Detention
basins are normally dry and are lined to prevent infiltration.
Infiltration basins are designed to take excess flow from the stormwater system and
infiltrate it into the ground. Infiltration basis are unlined to promote infiltration.
Section 4.2.5 provides information about EFAs, which provide a level of water treatment
by settling particulate pollutants. Figure 3.21 shows a layout for a typical basin.
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Figure 3.21 Plan View of a Typical Basin
Rip‐rap or geotextile matting protections could be used to improve the soil structure
and to reduce or replace the need for a fully vegetated system.

The size of the basins depends on the catchment being served. Basins can be designed
to accommodate varying volumes and are suitable for a range of situations.
Incorporating basins in narrow corridors or in dense, urban zones may be challenging.
However, basins benefit water quality and are easy to maintain.
Table 3.30 lists locations where basins are potentially suitable for basins; however the
decision to use basins will depend on site constraints and engineering judgment.
Table 3.30 Potential Suitable Locations for a Basin

Urban Areas
Local roads Yes
Service roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Expressways Yes
Rural Areas
Local roads Yes
Collectors Yes
Arterials Yes
Freeways Yes
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3.6.9.2 Benefits and Limitations of Basins

The following benefits and limitations of basins are from the SuDs Manual (CIRIA, 2007).
Benefits
 Can be used for a wide range of rainfall events.

 Detention basins can be used where infiltration is inappropriate or groundwater
could become polluted as a result of contaminated runoff.
 Infiltration basins can contribute to groundwater recharge and reduce the need for
further drainage.
 Simple to design, construct, and maintain.
 Provide safe and visible capture of accidental spillages.
 They provide attenuation of large flows and/or high intensity events.
Limitations
 Little reduction in runoff volume where detention basins are used.

 Detention depths are limited by the drain down time and health and safety
considerations.
 Likely to be subject to heavy siltation, particularly in rural areas, and they require
regular maintenance.
 Vegetation, where applicable, will require regular watering and maintenance.
 Structural improvement is likely to be required where the soil is loose and not
structurally stable.

The guidance below provides an overview of considerations required to aid design:
 The basin should be sized to delay peak runoff and to drain within 48 hours to avoid
stagnation and minimize the opportunity for mosquitoes to breed.
 Pretreatment should be provided where possible, especially where infiltration is
allowed. Pretreatment promotes the infiltration properties of the soil and facilitates
the capture of pollutants from accidental spills before they infiltrate into the ground.
 Basins should usually be implemented as off‐line systems, but where they are on‐
line, an emergency spillway should be designed to safely convey exceedance flows.
 The maximum depth of water in the basin should not normally exceed 1.5 m
because of health and safety concerns. Adequate protection should be provided
around the basin to prevent accidental entry by motorists or other road users.
 Adequate access must be provided for inspection and maintenance, including
access for equipment.
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 Sideslopes usually should not exceed 1:4 unless site conditions, safety
arrangements, or both allow for steeper slopes.
 The bottom of the basin should gently slope toward the outlet to prevent standing
water; the gradient should be shallower than 1:100.
 A minimum length‐to‐width ratio of 2:1 is recommended.
 A liner may be specified to prevent infiltration in unstable locations (e.g., infiltration
<50 mm/hr or where groundwater could become contaminated by polluted runoff).
 If soil conditions are unsuitable and an embankment is required to impound the
water, the embankment fill material should be inert natural soil that will not leach
contaminants into the stored runoff.
 Rip‐rap or other scour protection should be used to dissipate the energy of incoming
flows. The velocity of incoming flows should be <1 m/s.
 Outlet flows should be controlled by a V‐notch weir, orifice plate, or vortex flow
control device. The device should be built into a dike or berm, with easy access for
maintenance.
 The bottom and side slopes should be structurally stable. Where soil conditions do
not allow this, an embankment from improved material should be constructed.
 If there is adequate space, sufficient volume should be provided in the basin to
accommodate the design event. If there is insufficient space, the flow should bypass
the basin flow safely downstream.
 An emergency overflow should be designed to convey excess flows in emergency
situations. The overflow will need to be designed specifically for the basin.
Figure 3.22 shows the typical cross section for a detention basin.
Figure 3.22 Typical Cross Section of a Detention Basin
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3.6.9.4 Design Steps

Figure 3.23 is an overview of the steps to take to install infiltration or detention basins.
Note: Section 3.4.3 contains guidance on modeling software.

Figure 3.23 Basin Design Steps
small and a model would be inappropriate for the size of the project. The storage
required will be a function of inflow minus outflow over time and can be determined
using the level pool routing technique.

Table 3.31 lists the minimum regular maintenance likely to be required for an
infiltration or detention basin.
Table 3.31 Maintenance Requirements for Basins

Maintenance
Monitor sediment accumulation and vegetation. Monthly.
Regular Remove sediment, litter, and debris from the As required or after a storm.
inlet and outlet.
If vegetated, maintain vegetation (e.g., cutting As required or at least annually.
or pruning).
Repaire eroded surfaces. As required or after a storm.
Remedial Realign erosion protection. As required or after a storm.
Repaire inlet or outlet. As required.
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The advice below should be communicated to contractors before they start work on‐
site; further advice should be provided as appropriate:
 If a liner is used, care should be taken to avoid damaging it during construction.

 To maintain stability of the basin, construction should occur when there is no heavy
rainfall.
 Care should be taken that the slopes remain stable and that slope materials are
unlikely to fall away during storm conditions.
 Side slopes should be shallower than 1:4 while constructing the basin to avoid
collapse during excavation.
 The base of the basin should be carefully prepared to an even grade, without
significant undulation.
 All excavation and leveling should be performed by equipment with tracks that
exert light pressure so that the basin floor is not compacted, which may reduce
infiltration capacity.
Construction of the infiltration basin should take place after the site has been stabilized
to minimize the risk of premature failure of the basin.
3.7 Preliminary Design Strategy

After most of the preliminary design information outlined in the previous subsections
has been determined (e.g., the road geometry and surface runoff quantified), a strategy
for the road drainage should be developed. The strategy should explain the design
decisions, clearly justifying each decision and cross referencing this manual to expedite
the review process.
In Qatar, it is historically conventional to install piped drainage systems with gully inlets
to convey runoff quickly from the highway. However, there have been issues with these
systems in recent years, and drainage systems that mimic a more natural drainage
process are preferred where possible. Systems that mimic natural drainage processes
are referred to as SuDS and are designed to minimize the environmental risks resulting
from urban surface water runoff (e.g., quantity and quality of the runoff) and to
maximize amenity and biodiversity opportunities. SuDS features can be used alone or
with conventional systems to meet the specific needs of the site. Table 3.32 provides
guidances for the suitability of using SuDS on urban and rural roads.
SuDS typically include three main control categories: source, site, and regional.
 Source control systems deal with runoff as close to the source as practical. They can
be used alone or as the first stage in a multi‐stage management system.
 Site control systems are designed to manage water locally and are used either as
the final management stage after runoff is captured by source control systems or as
an interim measure before flows are conveyed for regional control.
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 Regional control systems manage runoff from large or multiple areas and tend to
be larger structures than those used for site control. Regional SuDS are usually the
final stage in the management process.
Most features classified as source, site, or regional control systems can be designed for
multiple purposes and may be classified as more than one system. Guidance about
typical classification is provided in Table 3.10. Section 4 contains further guidance about
each type of feature and the key design elements.
3.8 Review Process

After the design criteria have been established, they should be reviewed by the MMUP
and key stakeholders, as agreed at the project concept design stage. Approval
procedures in Section 1.2.2 should be followed. The designer should continue to
engage internal design team members to ensure that a collaborative approach is
implemented to develop the road design.
To best achieve the required outputs and to facilitate an efficient approval process,
engagement should continue throughout the process.
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Table 3.32 Potential Suitability for SuDS Installation on Urban and Rural Roads
Source Control
Site Control
Regional Control
Pipes,
Pervious Filter Filter Infiltration Bio‐retention Sand Subsurface Detention Infiltration
Technique Surfaces drains Strips Soakaways Swales Trenches Areas Filters Storage Basin Basins
Urban Roads
Expressways N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Major Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Minor Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Boulevard Arterial Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Major Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Minor Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Distributor Collector Roads N Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Service Roads Y Y Y P Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Local Roads Y P Y P Y P Y P Y P P
Rural Roads
Freeway N Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Arterial Roads N Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Collector Roads Y Y Y Y Y Y P Y Y Y Y
Local Roads Y P Y Y Y P Y P Y P P
Key: Y = likely to be appropriate; N = not likely to be suitable; P = potentially suitable. Ponds are not considered suitable for the control of stormwater and hence are not
recommended.
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4 Detailed Design Work

During the detailed design phase, the comprehensive design criteria established in the
two previous stages are used to develop the final working design. Figure 4.1 depicts the
process.
Figure 4.1 Detailed Design Process
Each design will vary according to the location and specific drainage requirements, so
not every step in this stage will necessarily be relevant for all designs. The engineer
should use Figure 4.1 to follow the correct procedure and then reference the relevant
sections within this part of the manual, as appropriate.
4.2 Design in Urban Areas

Early planning of highway drainage in the design process is essential to establish drainage
corridors and rights‐of‐way that will not clash with other planned utility corridors.
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At the planning and design stage, it is important to consider amenity areas such as
parks, footways and car parks that may be used for strategic storage. There is also
potential to incorporate SuDS options, such as runoff collection, at nearby public sites
to alleviate surface water flows.
4.2.1 Urban Catchments

Urban development incorporating roads, amenities, and housing changes the nature of
existing land and the surface water runoff characteristics of the catchment.
When considering new roads for urban development, the engineer should consider the
total catchment area on both sides of the road. Surface water that runs off from the
catchment needs to be assessed to ascertain if runoff will contribute to the overall
highway drainage system. Part of the assessment process is to establish the availability
of discharge points for the collection of water and potential pollution problems caused
by the intake of surface water runoff into the highway drainage system. The designer
should give due consideration to windblown sand entering the drainage system, which
could cause blockages that potentially result in flooding problems. The designer will
need to provide facilities to reduce this potential.
4.2.2 Drainage of the Roadway

Figure 4.2 shows a typical road cross section, but this does not indicate a means of SuDS
collection for surface water. SuDS should be considered in preference to traditional
techniques, such as gullies, where site constraints allow. For a balanced road section, the
road falls away from the center line and crown of the road to the channel and curb line.
This fall is known as the transverse gradient, and a 2 percent transverse gradient is
considered normal for drainage design.
Figure 4.2 Typical Road Cross Section
The longitudinal gradient for the channel line to the discharge point (for SuDS
techniques or traditional techniques, such as a gully pot) is a minimum of 0.3 percent.
This reduces the peaking of the vertical alignment of the road. A desirable minimum
longitudinal gradient of 1 percent is to be provided, where practical.
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Manholes for new roads are to be located in allocated surface water corridors in
accordance with MMUP standard road cross sections. The object is to keep the main
roadway free of manhole covers and to reduce the potential settlement problems
associated with a flexible road surface and a solid manhole construction. This
requirement should be agreed to with MMUP during the preliminary design stage.
For all piped drainage, manholes should be provided at the following locations:
 Changes of direction, gradient, or pipe material

 The upstream end of all pipe runs
 Every junction of two or more pipes (excluding gully connections)
 Each change in pipe diameter
 Spacings of no greater than 100 m or as dictated in the Ashghal Design manual
 To collect gully connections
The road designer needs to ensure that no flat zones are created at road intersections.
Where conflicting longitudinal gradients occur, a “rolling crown” can be used to avoid
a flat zone. The length of the rolling crown is determined using the same formula as
that for applying superelevation (see Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3 Typical Detail of Rolling Crown across a Single Roadway
For the purpose of collecting surface water from road areas at low points, gullies should
be provided along the curb line or gutter.
4.2.3 Design of Traditional Drainage Capture Techniques

This section discusses methods for determining the sizing and spacing of conventional
roadside drainage technique, and it describes the limitations of those techniques.
Conventional techniques can be combined with SuDS techniques (see Section 3.6) or,
with appropriate modification, be considered SuDS.
4.2.3.1 Gully Design

Designers may space road gullies at a distance that best provides adequate drainage
and minimizes the number of gullies required. To maintain gully performance under
the influence of windborne debris and dust and to improve collection during high
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rainfall events, it is preferred that gullies be constructed as pairs. It is also important to

design an appropriate maintenance schedule to prevent the buildup of sand that could
inhibit drainage measures.
The design is based on the equations provided in the Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000). The
maximum preferred gully connection length is 15 m. The absolute maximum length is
30 m, which requires AIA approval.
There are two primary equations. The choice of which equations is most applicable is
based upon whether the gradient of a road is uniform. These equations contain several
variables and require the following input:
 Longitudinal gradient of a road (as a fraction)

 Cross fall of a road (as a fraction)
 Acceptable flow width (in meters), as agreed to by the AIA
 Manning’s roughness coefficient for the surface of the road to be drained (see
Table 4.3 and associated discussion)
 The maintenance factor (see Table 4.4 and associated discussion), which depends
on future road maintenance
 Rainfall intensity (see Section 3.3.1)
 Width of catchment (in meters) for the area that drains to the road curb
 Grating parameter (the calculation of which is outlined further in this section)
 Grating, slot dimensions, and pattern, which may be provided by the manufacturer
All other variables are calculated using these inputs with the equations provided in the
following section.
Limitation of the Design Method
 The slots in the grating should have a total waterway of more than 30 percent of
the grating’s clear area.
 The portion of the total waterway area within 50 mm of the curb face may not be
less than 45 square centimeters.
 Gullies should be rectangular (preferred) or triangular, with one side of the frame
positioned hard against the curb face. Circular gullies and other shapes that cannot
fulfill this requirement are unacceptable.
 A gully nearby must be placed directly upstream to minimize flow and minimize
disturbance to pedestrians.
 On steep sections of road, the maximum allowable spacing between gullies may be
determined by the flow capacity of the gully pot beneath it rather than the
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collection efficiency of the grating. Generally, a gully pot can accept about 15 liters
without surcharging if the outlet pipe has a diameter of 150 mm.
 The design method given in this section is appropriate for the range of longitudinal
gradients between 1/300 (0.33 percent) and 1/15 (6.67 percent) and can reasonably
be extended to a gradient of 1/12.5 (8.00 percent). For gradients flatter than 1:300,
this approach is not applicable, and alternative methods should be applied, such as
described by Whiffin and Young (1973).
 Road gullies have an advantage over surface water channels in that the gradient to
carry the road runoff from the gully to the outfall is not dependent on the gradient
of the road. However, road gullies do not usually provide the best drainage solution
for long, flat gradients. This issue should be considered during design.
Intermediate Gratings and Inlets
For intermediate gratings and inlets where there is a uniform, the maximum allowable
spacing between adjacent gratings (Sp) may be calculated from the following equation:
where
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
= maintenance factor
= flow collection efficiency (%)
= design rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
We = effective catchment width (m)
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000).
Where there is a nonuniform gradient between gullies, the spacings are calculated
(starting with the upstream gully) with the following equation:
where
= maintenance factor
= flow collection efficiency (%)
= design rainfall intensity (mm/h)
We = effective catchment width (m)
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Calculating Flow Rate
The flow rate, Q (in cubic meters per second) approaching the grating is calculated from
Manning’s equation:
where
Af = cross‐sectional area of flow (m2)
= longitudinal gradient (fraction)
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
= Manning’s roughness coefficient
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000)
Hydraulic Radius and Cross‐Sectional Area
To calculate the hydraulic radius and cross‐sectional area, the depth of water against
the curb must first be calculated by using the equation below:
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000).
The cross‐sectional area can then be calculated by using the equation below:
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This now allows for the calculation of the hydraulic radius by using the equation below:
√
where
B = maximum allowable flow width (m)
SC = cross fall (fraction)
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000)
Maximum Allowable Flow Width
The flow of water parallel to the curb should not exceed an allowable width, as shown
on Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 Gully Design Parameters for Intermediate Gully
AIA may designate an allowable width of flow. Table 4.1 provides typical values of B.
Table 4.1 Design Hour Volume Widths on Various Road Types

(Typical Values of B)
Road Type Flow Width (m) Notes
Expressway, freeway 1.0 Where there is a shoulder, the flow width may be
extended to 1.5 m.
Arterial roads 1.5
Collector roads 2.0
Service roads 2.5
Local roads Half the width of This width of flow is acceptable only where there are low
the total road. volumes of traffic that travel slowly.
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000) and Ashghal
guidance.
m = meters
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The actual value for B should be site‐specific and dependent on the speed and volume
of traffic, rainfall intensity, road maintenance, and gradients. The parameters listed in
Table 4.2 should also be considered.
Table 4.2 Design Hour Volume Widths for Special Situations (Typical Values of B)
Situation Flow Width (m) Notes
Pedestrian crossings 0.45 A gully should be placed directly upstream from these
or bus stops points to ensure this width is not exceeded.
Curb returns 1.0
Other As determined by the As determined by the Overseeing Organization.
local authority.
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000) and Ashghal
guidance.
m = meter
Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
Manning’s roughness coefficient or Manning’s n value is related to the roughness of a

surface, and different values need to be applied depending on the surface of the road.
Table 4.3 provides typical values of n for commonly used surface materials for flow in
triangular channels.
Table 4.3 Typical Values of Manning’s n for Various Surfaces

Surface Type n
Concrete gutter (troweled finish) 0.012
Asphalt pavement texture:
Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.016
Concrete pavement finish:
Float 0.014
Broom 0.016
Brick and pavement blocks 0.016
Gutter with vegetation and cracks 0.020
Sprayed seal 0.018
Sources: Various, including CIRIA (2007) and DMRB.
Maintenance Factor
Reduced maintenance and the accumulation of debris will lower the efficiency of an
inlet or grating as the hydraulic area is reduced. The maintenance factor m is introduced
to account for this effect. The higher the level of maintenance and condition of the
road, the closer the value of m tends to 1.0. Table 4.4 lists suggested values for m.
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Table 4.4 Maintenance Factor

Situation Maintenance Factor, m
Well‐maintained urban roads 1.0
Roads subject to less frequent maintenance 0.9
Roads subject to substantial leaf falls or vehicle spillages (e.g., at sharp 0.8
roundabouts)
Sag points on road gradients 0.7
Design Rainfall Intensity
The design rainfall intensity should be given in millimeters.
Effective Catchment Width
The effective catchment width of a gully should be given in meters and represent the
width of the area draining to the grating or inlet. All paved and unpaved areas should
be included. Figure 4.5 shows an effective catchment width.
Figure 4.5 Effective Catchment Width
Flow Collection Efficiency
Curb Inlets
The flow efficiency (as a percent) is calculated by using the equation below:
.
.
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Gully Gratings
The flow efficiency (as a percent) is calculated by using the equation below:
where
H = water depth against curb (m)
Li = length of opening in line of curb provided by the inlet (m)
Gd = grating parameter (value is determined by grating type)
If grating efficiency, η, is less than 80 percent for an intermediate gully, the most
effective solution is likely to be redesign with an improved grating type.
Determining Grating Type
The design value of Gd is based upon the grating type. Table 4.5 lists these values.
Table 4.5 Grating Type Design Values

Grating Type P Q R S T
Range of G (s/m2) ≤30 30.1–45 45.1–60 60.1–80 80.1–110
Design value Gd (s/m2) 30 45 60 80 110
Source: DMRB Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000 and Spaliviero et
al., 2000).
s/m2 = seconds per square meter
Five grating types were created that have specific hydraulic requirements. The grating
types are in accordance with Spacing of Road Gullies (Spaliviero et al., 2000).
The value of G is calculated by using the equation below:
where
Cb = grating bar pattern coefficient
Ag = area of smallest rectangle parallel to the curb that includes all slots (m2)
= waterway area as % of grating area (Ag)
Source: DMRB Vol 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA102/00 (Department for Transport, 2000 and Spaliviero et
al., 2000).
Table 4.6 provides the grating bar pattern coefficient.
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Table 4.6 Grating Bar Pattern Coefficient

Grating Bar Pattern Cb
Transverse bars 1.75
Other bar alignments (i.e., longitudinal, diagonal, and bars in curve plan) 1.5
Terminal Gullies
Terminal gullies are required at the end of drainage runs or low points. They differ from
intermediate gullies, because it is important for them to have a high flow collection
efficiency in order to collect a high percentage of the water, and thus prevent the
accumulation of water interfering with traffic. This is usually done with a double gully.
Curb inlets are not advised for use as terminal gullies unless used in conjunction with a
grating. Figure 4.6 should be used to determine which side of a sag point will provide the
greater flow. (If using a single terminal gully, the flow should be doubled.) Figure 4.6
should also be used to determine the flow collection efficiency η, (for a terminal gully to
be effective, each gully to be used should have a value of η ≥ 95 percent).
Figure 4.6 Terminal Gully Design Parameters
If the grating efficiency of a terminal grating is less than 95 percent, redesign is essential
and an improved grating type should be used. If the required efficiency is still not
achieved, then the permitted width of flow (B) should be reduced. This will decrease
the design hour volume approaching the grating and increase the grating efficiency.
However, it may result in additional intermediate gullies being needed.
4.2.3.2 Design of Surface Water Capture on Flat or Shallow Gradients

The process described in the previous sections is suitable only within the limitations
described. Designers may be faced with scenarios that fall outside these limitations. The
design outlined here is a guide to gully spacing along roads that are level or nearly level.
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This section is based on the design approach set out in Drainage of Level or Nearly Level
Roads (Whiffin and Young, 1973). This report should be referred to for any queries
extending beyond the scope of this section. This study was carried out using the
parameters listed in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Limiting Parameters to Equation for Design of Level or Nearly Level
Roads
Parameter Minimum Maximum
Road width (m) 5.43 14.00
Crossfall (%) 0.5 5.0
Longitudinal gradient (%) 0.00 0.50
Rainfall intensities (mm/hr) 38.1 57.0
Maximum width of flow along the edge of road curb (m) 0.5 3.0
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory, 1973).
m = meters
If this approach is used beyond these parameters, it cannot be guaranteed to provide

a suitable design and the designer may need to consult a highway research organization
for further design considerations and assistance.
where
J = outlet spacing (m)
N = maximum flow width (m)
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
W = roadway and shoulder (m)
C = crossfall (%)
Y = longitudinal gradient (%)
 = index depending on crossfall
B = coefficient depending on crossfall
The index, depending on crossfall, can be found using the values in Table 4.8.
 . .
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory, 1973).
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Table 4.8 Values for Index 

Crossfall %, C Coefficient, B Index, 
0.5 117 2.26
1.0 190 2.19
1.5 265 2.125
2.0 326 2.06
2.5 380 1.995
3.0 416 1.93
3.5 448 1.80
4.0 448 1.67
5.0 395 1.54
Source: LR 602 (Transport Research Laboratory, 1973)
4.2.3.3 Linear Drainage Design

In places, highway geometry may be such that the longitudinal gradient of the roadway
provides minimal or no longitudinal fall, and a linear drainage system may be required.
These systems can be provided in many forms; the most common is a combined curb
drainage unit, where a series of holes or a continuous grating is used as the inlet.
Although linear drainage can be a useful solution to overcoming flat or nearly flat
longitudinal gradients, a higher frequency of maintenance can be required to retain the
self‐cleansing conditions and to ensure the units operate as designed.
This design process is based on Hydraulic Capacity of Drainage Channels with Lateral
Inflow (Escarameia et al., 2001).
. .
. . .
where
Q = hydraulic capacity (m3/s)
L = channel length (m)
A = channel cross‐sectional area (m2)
h = design depth of water (m)
S = longitudinal slope (expressed as a fraction) with
. . for
. for
Source: H Escarameia et al., 2001.
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4.2.4 Drainage of Medians, Pedestrian Paths, and Shoulders
4.2.4.1 Medians
The median of a road system is the middle area of the road, which is usually paved or
landscaped in urban areas. These areas need to be within curbing to contain soil and to
have a crossfall to direct runoff to the drainage system.
4.2.4.2 Pedestrian Paths and Bike Lanes

Pedestrian paths and bike lanes are usually paved areas adjacent to the roadway in
urban areas. These should be designed to have a 2 percent crossfall toward the
roadway. The crossfall will direct runoff onto the roadway where it will enter the
drainage system.
Owners of adjacent properties must be advised it is their responsibility to prevent

runoff from their properties from flowing across pedestrian paths and bike lanes. Such
flows should be directed into collector channels and then to the surface water system.
Large parking areas or forecourt areas of petrol stations need to have oil and petrol
interceptors and grit traps that filter runoff before discharging to the drainage system.
4.2.4.3 Shoulders
Shoulders with hard landscaping shall be sloped to shed water toward the roadway.
Soft landscaping shall be edged and sloped to prevent runoff from depositing soil and
plant debris onto the adjacent pedestrian areas or property thresholds. Areas with
raised planting that have drain holes shall incorporate a filter membrane to prevent soil
erosion onto adjacent areas.
4.2.5 Emergency Flood Areas

EFAs are areas of land either external to the roadway or, where space is available,
within the highway curtilage that are used to store rainwater that has surcharged the
normal drainage system. Hence they are an ideal solution to the problem of surcharged
systems in extreme rainfall events; that is, outside the normal design criteria. These
areas can also be used to catch and store water from the external catchment area to
the roadway to prevent flooding of road areas and damage to properties. The following
are design considerations required for large storage areas:
 Water should not be allowed to pond for extended periods so as to cause a health
hazard. Days rather than weeks are considered acceptable.
 Water should be stored where it can be easily pumped by a tanker or temporary
pumping station.
 Borehole soakaways should be used to aid discharge to the groundwater table,
where investigation has shown this is achievable.
 A permanent surface water pumping station and rising main may be required to
direct flows to the trunk sewer system.
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 Where there is a gravity connection to the main surface water system, some form
of control mechanism is required. Vortex flow control mechanisms are
recommended because they provide a constant discharge flow rate under variable
head conditions and have no moving parts that would create maintenance issues.
To make the best use of land in developed areas, it is normal practice to design EFAs as
sports fields, parks, playing fields, or car parks. EFAs that are not landscaped or used
for other purposes tend to collect rubbish and become unsightly. Section 3.6.9 provides
information on storage basins used in sustainable drainage systems.
EFAs should be considered as potential drowning and disease hazards. Where possible,
they should be shallow and spread over a large area, which helps evaporation and
dissipation and presents a less deep water hazard. Side slopes should be gentle to allow
easy exit. Marker posts should be located around the rim to identify deeper areas
during heavy flooding.
Before designing EFAs, the prevailing groundwater table should be ascertained to

ensure the excavation does not allow standing water to accumulate. Soakaways or
boreholes can be constructed in the base of the EFA to dissipate water. Discharging
runoff water to lower aquifers is subject to approval by the Ministry of Environment.
4.2.6 Retention of Stormwater
4.2.6.1 Minimizing or Elimination Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes lay eggs on fresh or stagnant water, although some species are able to lay
eggs on damp soil and salt water tides. In usual conditions, it typically takes 2 days for
larvae to hatch and 10 days to develop into an airborne adult.
Standing Water
To minimize the presence of mosquitoes, constructed temporary sources of surface

water shall not be left to stand for longer than 48 hours. This includes, but is not limited
to, subsurface storage, temporary wetlands, detention basins, conveyance swales, wet
swales, and rainwater harvesters.
Water Conveyance
Water conveyance systems must be designed to minimize the potential for allowing
mosquitoes to hatch. Conveyance structure gradients must be such that water is not
allowed to stand for more than 48 hours. Routine maintenance should occur to ensure
that the gradient is maintained throughout the life of the structure. Conveyance
structures should be designed to ensure that any unintended scour does not create
depressions that may hold standing water.
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Access
Sealed manhole covers should be used where possible to prevent mosquitoes from
accessing below‐ground structures. This is especially important in places where a sump
or basin may be used, because these are ideal areas for mosquitoes to lay eggs.
Where the sump or basin is sealed, it is important to remember that female mosquitoes
can fly through pipes. Therefore, where it is possible, the inlet and outlet should be
submerged to avoid infestation.
Where possible, belowground sumps should be designed to be dewatered

automatically.
Inspections
Drainage systems must be kept clear of debris and vegetation. Channels, gutters,
ditches, and drainage facilities should be inspected regularly to ensure they remain
clear. Inspections should also be carried out to ensure there is no standing water or
mosquitoes. Maintenance access be considered during the design.
4.3 Design in Rural Areas

The designer of highway drainage needs to consider the following:
 Precipitation in hardened areas of the road and reservation areas

 Drainage flows from the full drainage catchment area
 Potential erosion due to the velocity of the flowing water
Surface water runoff from rural roads is normally achieved by dispersion to road
shoulders.
4.3.1 Rural Catchments

The highway drainage for rural roads does not normally require the storage of runoff
water during high‐intensity rainfall events, as is required in urban situations. The
general principle is to allow runoff to flow from the road areas to the shoulder areas
and into natural drainage paths. However, rural catchments can cover large areas and
generate large areas of surface water during high‐intensity storms. The highway
drainage designer needs to ensure that overland flooding does not impede traffic flow.
It may be appropriate to install culverts under rural roads to link natural drainage paths.
The designer shall assess the flow paths to consider if the identified design velocities
have the potential to erode the proposed profile. The designer should consider
protection to embankments, footings, and abutments to avoid washouts. Inlet and
discharge locations should also be carefully detailed to mitigate against potential
erosion.
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 Velocities greater than 1.5 m/s will need stone protection.

 Velocities greater than 2.0 m/s will need grouted rip rap.
 Velocities greater than 2.5 m/s will need gabian mattress protection.
 Velocities greater than 3.0 m/s will need concrete protection.
4.3.2 Drainage of the Roadway

Drainage of rural roadways amounts to basic vertical alignment of finished road levels,
allowing runoff to drain to natural shoulder areas. There are two requirements for this
provision:
 Transverse gradients of 2 percent are provided as normal for draining the road.
 Longitudinal gradients are not considered for drainage purposes on uncurbed
roads. However, care must be taken during the design of superelevated sections to
avoid flat zones in the roadway.
For rural roads where surface water could damage embankments, curbing and positive
drainage may be required.
4.3.3 Drainage of Medians and Shoulders
4.3.3.1 Medians
Medians in rural areas will normally be open land with no paving. They should slope
away from the roadway so that soil will not erode onto the roadway. Where runoff is
collected from long sections of gradient, median outlets should be provided at wadi
and valley points to prevent ponding and flooding onto the roadway. Alternatively, the
median may be divided into individual catchment segments and surface water allowed
to percolate into the ground or evaporate. Median ditches, if required, should have a
maximum side slope of 1:6 and be designed such that water in the ditch cannot
percolate into the roadbed (see Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Typical Median Ditch Cross Section
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4.3.3.2 Shoulders and Ditches

Shoulders adjacent to rural roads are sloped to direct surface water away from the
roadway. At the back of the shoulder, a shallow ditch may be provided to collect and
transport roadway runoff and to catch minor area runoff for discharge to natural
drainage paths along the road.
The highway drainage designer shall ensure that ditches are located such that surface
water is introduced into the pavement construction. Normal practice is to provide a
ditch at the edge of the roadway with an invert 0.3 m below roadway formation.
Rural ditches generally will be unlined. The shape depends on highway safety issues
and the following hydraulic considerations:
 Contributing catchment area

 Appropriate storm duration
 Gradient
 Roughness coefficient of the lining and surface
Figure 4.8 gives permissible depths of flow for unlined channels. Shallow side ditches
normally are not graded to provide a fall but instead follow the road profile.
Ditch slopes should not present a significant hazard to vehicles that leave the road
during a crash. Slide slopes of 1:6 or shallower should suffice. In areas of steep cutting,
ditches should be located so they are not filled with loose debris from the cutting. In
areas where natural surface runoff is high, it may be necessary to install a ditch setback
from the top of the cuttings so rainfall does not damage the cutting face.
Figure 4.8 Permissible Depths of Flows for Unlined Channels
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4.3.4 Natural Surface Drainage

Where a highway crosses a wadi, the wadi catchment characteristics, design storm, and
the class of the road will determine the type of road crossing required. It is normal
practice to allow runoff from small catchments to cross under the road to minimize
disruption to the natural surface flow.
4.3.4.1 Culverts
A culvert is a covered channel or pipeline used to convey a watercourse under the road.
Culverts consist of an inlet, one or more barrels, and an outlet.
Typically, culvert barrels will be constructed from concrete or steel pipes or boxes.
Inlets and outlets may be constructed with gabions, mattresses, stone pitching, or
concrete.
The hydraulic characteristics of a culvert are complex because of the number of flow
conditions that can occur. The highway engineer shall consult specialist literature in the
design of culverts and choose the most appropriate culvert for the specific purpose,
considering the following general constraints:
 Preferred minimum pipe culvert diameter of 900 mm.

 Minimum pipe culvert diameter 600 mm.
 Flooding against embankments may be acceptable for the short term, depending
on the embankment protection. Freeboard to the edge of the roadway for the
design storm should be a minimum of 0.5 m.
 Embankment slopes of 1:6 or greater normally do not require protection against
washout due to short‐term ponding. Long‐term ponding may require embankment
slopes of 1:10 if and where deemed acceptable.
The engineer shall balance embankment height with culvert height to provide a
satisfactory technical and economic solution.
Consideration should be given that these culverts could have a dual purpose and be
used as camel underpasses for instance.
4.3.4.2 Fords
Culverts may be impractical where wadi flows are exceptionally high or where the road
requires a low storm design return period and is lightly trafficked. In these cases, a dry
ford or vented dry ford may be considered. In designing a dry ford, care must be
exercised to ensure driver awareness of the potential hazard. Guideposts should be
positioned adjacent to the roadway to assist traffic positioning, and advance signing
should indicate the dry ford to approaching drivers. The use of such design solutions is
highly discouraged and is only envisaged in very rare circumstances.
Specific attention must be given to minimizing scour and preventing roadway surfacing
and edge loss. Impervious layers or rock should be used to protect shoulders, medians,
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and embankment slopes. Washout of embankment fines should be prevented by the

use of filter layers or impermeable membranes.
4.4 Intersection Drainage

4.4.1 Consideration for Drainage at Intersections
Effective drainage of intersections is necessary for two reasons:
 The need to retain surface grip to enable the safe stopping, starting, and turning
maneuvers by vehicles
 The need to maintain the traffic system capacity, particularly at major intersections,
so that flooding of lanes and a reduction in intersection capacity are avoided
The following criteria must be considered:
 Satisfactory transverse gradients must be maintained, particularly on the approach

to stop or yield lines.
 Longitudinal gradients must keep slack sections of channel to a minimum.
 Where slack gradients are unavoidable, the transverse gradient should be at least
2 percent.
 Collection points must be carefully sited to avoid ponding or runoff across roadways
from one channel to another.
 Collection points must link to an easily maintainable disposal system with adequate
capacity.
Junctions should preferably be situated away from valley points for large catchments
to prevent flood concentration at these points. Locating intersections adjacent to trunk
sewers or EFAs to provide additional drainage facilities should also be considered.
Urban intersections should always be curbed and drained by gullies that discharge to
the disposal system.
Rural intersections would normally be curbed. However, flush curbs at collection points
with shallow lined channels to remove the water to the adjacent ground is an
economical collection and disposal method.
Lightweight glass‐reinforced concrete embankment channels are easily installed to

prevent washout of embankment slopes where runoff collects, such as at curb ends.
Roadway crossfalls and longitudinal gradients at intersections channel water to

collection points. The following sections describe examples of satisfactory crossfall
layouts with typical collection points.
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4.4.2 T-Intersections
The following features are required for effective drainage design at T‐intersections (see
Figure 4.9):
 Constant crossfall maintained on major road

 Longitudinal gradient on major road maintained across minor road throat
 Longitudinal gradient maintained on minor road to major road channel line
 Constant transverse gradient on minor road maintained to radius tangent points
 Gully positions chosen to prevent flow crossing the minor road entry or exit
It is preferred that the major roadway transverse gradients be maintained through

cross roads or small signalized intersections.
Figure 4.9 Typical Drainage at T‐Intersections
4.4.2.1 Large Signalized Intersections

The following features are required for effective drainage design at large signalized
intersections (see Figure 4.10):
 Transverse gradients will be maintained at approaches to “stop” lines and

pedestrian crossings.
 Longitudinal gradients will be satisfactory to prevent a large flat area being created
at the intersection point.
 Transverse gradients will be on right‐turn slips to provide superelevation.
 Valleys created in slips will have adequate collection and disposal points.
 Additional gullies will be placed at collection points serving a large surface area.
 Gully positions will be chosen to prevent flow crossing roadways.
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Figure 4.10 Drainage at a Large Signalized Intersection
4.4.3 Roundabouts
The following features are required for effective drainage of roundabouts (see Figure
4.11):
 Transverse gradients maintained at approaches to yield lines

 Longitudinal gradients to continue to be maintained on approaches and departures
 Channel of central island to fall to one collection point
 Transverse gradients to provide superelevation for right turners or those circulating
 Gullies positioned to prevent cross roadway runoff
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Figure 4.11 Roundabout Drainage
4.4.4 At-Grade Intersections

Various features are required for effective design of at‐grade intersections, depending
on the angle of convergence of the side road, or slip ramp, to the main roadway. Such
features include:
 Constant crossfall maintained on major road

 Longitudinal gradient on major road maintained across minor road interface line
 Longitudinal gradient maintained on minor road to major road channel line
 Constant transverse gradient on minor road maintained to radius tangent points
 Gully positions chosen to prevent flow crossing the minor road entry or exit
4.4.5 Interchanges
Interchanges will involve combinations of roads on embankments, on bridges, in
cuttings, or within retaining structures. Drainage systems will change to accommodate
changing road layouts and circumstances. Within loops there may be extensive open
areas that can be used for locating suitable sustainable drainage systems. Roads in
cuttings may require stormwater pumping stations located adjacent to roadways,
provided with suitable lay‐bys for access by maintenance personnel. Depending on the
steepness of the side slope, drainage from roads on embankments may need collection
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channels at the roadway edges leading to channels down the slopes, with energy
dissipation features to prevent erosion of the embankment. Roadways on bridges
require drainage using channels and down‐pipes to the lower levels.
4.4.6 Drainage Design of Highway Tunnels and Underpasses

Drainage of highway tunnels and underpasses designs should consider the following:
 Drainage collection systems shall contain spills of hazardous or flammable liquids

and prevent flame propagation.
 The minimum design hour volume rate shall include the design spill rate for fuel or
other hazardous liquids, the stand pipe system discharge rate, rainfall, tunnel
washing, and fixed firefighting systems.
 Where possible, stormwater collection ahead of tunnels or underpasses shall
incorporate grated channels rather than gullies.
 Tunnel and underpass drainage should be design for a 1‐in‐50‐year storm protection
event.
4.4.7 Highway Tunnels and Underpasses Drainage Monitoring

Tunnels and underpasses should be designed so that flooding events can be monitored.
Refer to Tunnel and Underpass Drainage (Ashghal, 2013). The designs need to have the
capacity to be standalone if the centralised ICT system is not in place.
4.4.8 Storm Attenuation Tanks and Pumping Stations

For the 1‐in‐50‐year storm design event, stormwater must be captured in an
attenuation tank for 24 hours. That period can be reduced to 2 hours if the tunnel can
be closed and traffic is diverted. The stored water should be conveyed by a submersible
pumping station, which is an integral part of the attenuation structure.
There should be adequate safe access and off‐street parking for maintenance of the
pumping station. Refer to Tunnel and Underpass Drainage (Ashghal, 2013) for further
details.
The designs of any drainage systems for tunnels and underpasses should have the
capacity for future connections to a centralised control room for monitoring water
levels and alarms.
4.5 Maintenance Strategies

All drainage systems require planned and reactive maintenance to perform efficiently.
The following sections outline the required steps to develop an effective maintenance
strategy that takes into account planned and reactive maintenance requirements.
4.5.1 Planned Maintenance

Planned maintenance for highway drainage takes into account activities that will
ensure the drainage system is operating when it is needed. In Qatar, rains are
infrequent and usually not severe. However, the highway designer needs to consider
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worst‐case events. One major maintenance problem is sand in the drainage system.
Catch pits and vertical vortex spinners should be employed to remove grit from the
highway drainage system (see Figure 4.12). Maintenance activities should be increased
before the onset of the rainy period, from October to May. Catch pits and pipe systems
should be desilted to ensure the free passage of disposable water.
Figure 4.12 Typical Vortex Grit Remover
4.5.2 Reactive Maintenance

Reactive maintenance involves nonplanned activities, which are usually associated with
blockages in highway drainage systems. To help maintain a balanced budget, it is
important to minimize this type of activity. Some reactive maintenance will always be
necessary, especially during the rainy season, from October to May. Other forms of
pollution control, such as SmartSponge® or Inolet®, can help reduce reactive
maintenance activities.
Asset Affairs department of Ashghal is the responsible authority for the maintenance
of drainage systems including networks, pumping stations, EFAs, and storage areas.
4.6 Subsurface Drainage

4.6.1 Introduction
Subsurface drainage historically was not an issue in Qatar, because it was not
considered a problem. Low‐lying areas were filled prior to construction to raise them
above the groundwater table. With the rapid urbanization in Qatar in recent years,
groundwater levels have been rising significantly. Groundwater studies (Schlumberger
Water Services, 2009) indicate that, because of the nature of the subsoil conditions,
there are many areas in Doha where columns of groundwater are near the ground level.
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4.6.2 Groundwater Control

The Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH, 2013) has developed a drainage
strategy to reduce groundwater levels and to recycle the collected water. In Doha,
dewatering and overpumping are necessary, particularly where there are construction
works. Overpump water, which is basically groundwater, is discharged to an approved
discharge location. MWH’s concept is to lower the groundwater to 4 m below existing
ground levels. In a typical road construction project, deep porous land drainage would
be installed, and groundwater would be piped to a suitable deep storage tank. The tank
would drain by gravity flow to a deep intercept tunnel or be pumped to a wetland area
for treatment. The treatment process would remove salt and treat to a standard that
allows the water to be used for irrigation. The control strategy developed by MWH has
yet to be implemented, and interim strategies, such as deep well boreholes, may have
to be considered until a groundwater/surface water system is implemented.
4.6.3 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage allows the removal of water that permeates the pavement layers
and controls groundwater levels where it is high enough to adversely affect the design
life of the pavement.
Subsurface drainage can take a number of forms. Typically it consists of longitudinal

drains at the low edges of the road pavement. These drain the pavement layers and
foundation and control the ingress of water from road shoulders. Adequate drainage
of these layers and of formations and subformations can be achieved by shaping each
to direct flows to the subsurface drainage in the shoulder or median and to prevent the
creation of low points where water could collect.
There are five primary types of subsurface drainage: fin drains, narrow filter drains,
filter drains (essentially a large narrow filter drain), combined carrier filter drains, and
drainage blankets. This section focuses on the first four types.
The design of drainage blankets should be undertaken in close consultation with a

geotechnical engineer, and approval should be sought from the Overseeing
Organization. It is likely that drainage blankets will be required in locations that have
high groundwater levels or are in deep cuttings, or both.
The following measures are key factors in developing the design of subsurface drainage:
 Slope the formation to drain away from the roadway to the shoulder or median.
 Avoid steps in the formation that could create water concentration points.
 Separate planting areas from the pavement construction to prevent moisture
transfer.
 Ensure planting area watering is effectively controlled to prevent overwatering.
 Use surface water drainage features that reduce the chance of accidental damage
and maintenance problems.
 Ensure soakaways do not introduce water to the pavement construction.
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4.6.4 Subsurface Drainage Methods
4.6.4.1 General Design Considerations

To develop suitable subsurface drainage, it is essential to understand ground conditions
by undertaking thorough ground investigations. If ground conditions are not
established to inform the design, the road structure could fail before the design life is
reached. It is likely that corrective actions will be more costly, because full
reconstruction would be required.
Groundwater levels vary over time in relation to rainfall, underlying strata permeability,
gravity, capillary action, and proximity to the coast. The buildup of water in the
pavement layers, formation, and subformation will increase pore water pressure and
can result in the pavement being weakened by:
 Washout of fines by movement of pore water

 Increased salt content in pavement layers, resulting in swelling because of the
capillary rise when there is a significant concentration of salt in the underlying
material
 Swelling of susceptible material followed by shrinkage or drying out
Pavement engineers will base their calculations on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values
for the subgrade. These values will be affected by any increase in groundwater levels.
Where groundwater is allowed to rise unchecked by subsurface drainage, the bearing
capacity of the formation and subformation will be diminished.
4.6.4.2 Considerations for Fin Drains and Narrow Filter Drains

Fin drains and narrow filter drains should be installed at a minimum depth determined
by the nominal pipe diameter plus 50 mm to invert beneath the subformation level, or
600 mm to invert below the formation level. If no capping layer is present, drains should
be installed to the greater of the two depths. If groundwater is within 300 mm of the
subformation level, the minimum depths will be insufficient, and the fin or narrow filter
drain should be installed at a greater depth. A geotechnical engineer should be
consulted regarding the design depth of the drainage. Where large quantities of
groundwater are encountered, a filter drain is likely to provide a better solution than
the fin or narrow filter drain options.
Because the topography of Qatar typically is gently undulating, a further consideration

is to ensure that subsurface drainage can discharge from all low points to a suitable
outfall.
4.6.4.3 Considerations for Combined Carrier Filter Drains

It is normal practice to separate surface water drainage from subsurface drainage to
prevent large volumes of water from entering the road foundation and pavement
layers. When this approach is not feasible, such as in cuttings, an alternative approach
of using combined carrier filter drains is acceptable. The use of combined filter drains
offers a number of benefits:
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 Removal of groundwater to a greater depth than possible using fin or narrow filter
drains due to their comparatively large hydraulic capacity
 Simpler construction than laying both a carrier drain and fin or narrow filter drains
 Easier access for inspection and maintenance than is possible with either fin and
narrow filter drains
Combined carrier filter drains should consist of half‐perforated or slotted pipes laid
with their perforations or slots face up, with sealed joints to minimize water loss
through the trench base. The base of the trench should be lined with an impermeable
membrane up to the pipe soffit to reduce water loss to the soil below, which is likely to
be dry otherwise. The trench is backfilled with permeable material wrapped in a
geotextile to prevent the ingress of fines.
As previously noted, it is best practice to separate surface and subsurface drainages

because of potential problems in performance with the combined approach. Issues
with stone scatter, pavement failure, earthworks failure, and maintenance problems
have occurred where the combined approach has been adopted. However, these issues
can be mitigated by appropriate maintenance of the system and by implementing the
following design measures to control stone scatter:
 Either spraying the exposed filter medium with bitumen or using bitumen‐bonded
filter material for the top 200 mm of the trench
 Using geogrids to reinforce the top layer of filter medium
 Using lightweight aggregate for filter material in the top 200 mm of the trench
Another concern with the combined approach is the required attenuation at the
downstream end of the system to meet discharge rate constraints. The attenuation can
result in surcharging of the surface water drainage network, and surcharging of the
carrier pipe can cause backflow into the filter medium. Therefore, where combined
systems are proposed, the designer must demonstrate that downstream flow controls
will not surcharge the carrier pipe.
4.6.4.4 Social Considerations for Coastal Areas

In tidal coastal areas, sabkha is likely to be present as an indication of a high
groundwater table. In these situations, a capillary rise of up to 1.0 m can draw saline
water up to the road formation level, depositing salt lenses and increasing pore
pressure. This generally is prevented by:
 Constructing high embankments

 Installing a granular capillary break layer below the formation
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References
Ashghal. Qatar Sewerage and Drainage Design Manual. Public Works Authority. Drainage Affairs.
Doha Qatar. December 2006.
Ashghal. Tunnel and Underpass Drainage. Interim Advice Note No. 023. Rev. No. A1.
September 2013.
Butler, D. and W. John. Urban Drainage. Second edition. 2004.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). SuDS Manual. Report number
C697. Errata 2007.
Department for Communities and Local Government. Technical Guidance to the National
Planning Policy Framework. London, UK. March 2012.
Department for Transport. “Spacing of Road Gullies.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 4, Section 2, Part 3, HA 102/00. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol4/section2/ha10200.pdf. November 2000.
Department for Transport. “Road Drainage and the Water Environment.” Design Manual for Roads
& Bridges. Volume 11, Section 3, Part 10, Chapter 8, HD 45/09. UK Highways Agency: London,
England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol11/section3/hd4509.pdf. 2009.
Dwyer, I. J. and D. W. Reed. Allowance for Discretization in Hydrological and Environmental Risk
Estimation. Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford, UK. 1995.
Escarameia, M., Y. Gasowski, R. W. P. May, and A. Lo Cascio. Hydraulic Capacity of Drainage

Channels with Lateral Inflow. Report SR581. HR Wallingford. 2001.
Mamoon A. A., N. J. Joergensen, A. Rahman, and H. Qasem. “Estimation of Design Rainfall in Arid
Region: A Case Study for Qatar Using L Moments.” Proceedings of the 35th IAHR World Congress.
2013.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar Construction Specifications. 2010.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning. Study of Regional Design Rainfall, Qatar. April 2013.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning. Multi‐Use of Stormwater Management facilities –

Guidelines. March 2014.
MWH Consultants (MWH). Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan, Volume 1. Document No.
QAT/D110001/13/019/01). Prepared on behalf of Ashghal. May 2013.
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National Highway Institute. Urban Drainage Design Manual. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
22, Third Edition. Publication No. FHWA‐NHI‐10‐009. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal
Highway Administration. Revised August 2013.
Ponce, V. M. and R. H. Hawkins. “Runoff Curve Number: Has It Reached Maturity?” Journal of
Hydrologic Engineering 1, No. 1, pp. 11–19. 1996.
Rossmiller, R. L. “The Rational Formula Revisited.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Urban Storm Runoff, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. 1980.
Schlumberger Water Services. Studying and Developing the Natural and Artificial Recharge of the
Groundwater Aquifer in the State of Qatar. Project final report, in three volumes. 2009.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS). National Engineering Handbook. Section 4, Hydrology. U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 1985.
Spaliviero, F., R. W. P. May, and M. Escarameia. Spacing of Road Gullies hydraulic performance of
BS EN 124 gully gratings and kerb inlets. Report SR533. HR Wallingford. 2000.
Transport Research Laboratory. Drainage of level of nearly level roads. Laboratory Report LR 602.
Wokingham, UK. 1973.
Wastewater Planning Users Group. Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer
Systems. Version 3.001. Amended December 2002.
Whiffin, A. C. and C. P. Young. Drainage of Level or Nearly Level Roads. TRRL Report LR 602. 1973.
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Appendix A
Qatar Stakeholders
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Appendix A—Qatar Stakeholders
Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, Stakeholders, and Consultations

The permit and approvals process in Qatar requires the involvement of governing bodies and utility
and regulatory bodies. The Municipal and Departmental Bodies include, but are not limited to:
Ministry of Municipalities and Urban Planning (MMUP)

 Ministry of Environment
 Civil Defense Department (CDD)
 Qatar Municipalities
 Qatar Rail
 Central Planning Office (CPO)—responsible for programming of transportation projects
 Qatar 2022 Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy —responsible for oversight for all
projects required to be delivered for or affecting the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup
 Ministry of the Interior
Utilities and Regulatory Bodies
 KAHRAMAA (KM)—Qatar General Electricity & Water Company
 Ashghal (Highways and Public Works Authority) Inc.—Stormwater drainage
 Qatar Telecom—Qtel
 Qatar Petroleum (QP)—Oil pipelines and infrastructure
 Qatar Armed Forces (QAF)—including telecommunications infrastructure
 Private Engineering Office (PEO)—responsible for the projects associated with the Royal Family
 Qatar Museum—Heritage
 Mowsalat—Public transportation
Key Stakeholders
 Lusail Real Estate Development Company—Lusail LRT; Lusail Marina/The Pearl Station
 Hamad Hospital & Supreme Council of Health (Al Rayyan/C‐Ring Station)
 Qatar Foundation (QF)—Education City
 United Development Company (UDC)—Lusail Marina/The Pearl Station
 Qatar Sustainable Assessment System (QSAS)—an external body that does not require
permitting
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Appendix B
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Design Curves for Future
Climatic Conditions (2070–2099)
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Appendix B— Intensity-Duration-Frequency Design Curves for

Future Climatic Conditions (2070–2099)
Northern Region
200
180
160
140
Intensity [mm/hr]
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Duration [ minutes]
Source: Study of Regional Rainfall, Qatar, 2013.
Central West Region
180
160
140
Intensity [mm/hr]
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Duration [minutes]
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Central East Region
160
140
120
Intensity [mm/hr]
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Duration [minutes]
Southern Region
160
140
120
Intensity [mm/hr]
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Duration [min]
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Appendix C
Level Pool Routing Technique
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Appendix C—Level Pool Routing Technique

Storage is a function of inflow minus outflow over time, as outlined in the equation below; the level
pool routing technique can be used to calculate the volume of storage required where a model is
inappropriate:
∆
where
S = storage
= inflow volume
= outfall volume
, , = storage, inflow, and outfall at the start of a time step
, , = storage, inflow, and outfall at the end of a time step
∆ = time step
Source: Butler and John, 2004
When using this method, an outlet control, such as a weir or orifice, must be assumed so that the
relationship between the outflow discharge and height in the storage can be identified.
An appropriate time step must be determined over a defined period so that the storage can be
more accurately determined.
The inflow volume into the storage area can be determined by multiplying the runoff flow
(calculated using guidance provided in Section 3.4) and the time step duration. The outfall volume
will need to be calculated by the discharge rate multiplied by the time step duration.
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Appendix D
Example Calculations
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PAGE 120 VOLUME 2

Hydraulic calculation as per Qatar Drainage Manual (Stormwater)
Project: Example Road / System: Highway Drainage 05-Sep-09
Option 3 Calculation Parameters Tr: 10 C: kb:
Location Pipe Road Len Width Road Area Plot Area Rainfall Charac. Calculation
Imper Imper Imper total
Manhole v L J D Qp ARoad
Coeff.
Ared A1
Coeff.
A1 red A2 a
Coeff.
Ared 6$red
6Ared
tA t i QM (l/s) Qd Qd / Qp Results
From CL IL Depth To CL IL Depth Grad m/s m %o mm l/s ha <S ha ha <S ha ha <S ha ha ha sec min l/s ha var (l/s) Const l/s % of the Pipe
Junction 9 0.00 10.00 0
PS1 19.17 D6 17.8 16.20 1.60 280 400 0
PS2 19.00 D6 17.8 16.20 1.60 230 400
D500 19.80 16.00 3.8 D504 12.00 10.00 2.00 40.00 2.87 240 25.0 375 316.90 240 34 0.82 0.90 0.73 0.73 0.73 83.6 11.4 164 121 121 38 Dia. OK.
D504 12.00 10.00 2 PS1 19.00 9.80 9.20 200.00 1.27 40 5.0 375 140.72 40 34 0.14 0.90 0.12 0.12 0.86 31.4 11.9 161 138 138 98 Dia. OK.
D512 19.00 16.80 2.2 D509 18.80 16.00 2.80 225.00 1.20 180 4.4 375 132.57 180 34 0.61 0.90 0.55 0.55 0.55 150.0 12.5 158 87 87 66 Dia. OK.
D509 18.80 16.00 2.8 D506 17.00 15.20 1.80 225.00 1.35 180 4.4 450 214.35 180 34 0.61 0.90 0.55 0.55 1.10 133.5 14.7 147 162 162 75 Dia. OK.
D506 17.00 15.20 1.8 PS1 19.00 14.90 4.10 300.00 1.25 90 3.3 500 244.55 90 34 0.31 0.90 0.28 0.28 1.38 72.3 15.9 141 195 195 80 Dia. OK.
Junction 9 to 8
D6 17.80 16.20 1.60 D7 17.08 15.40 1.68 75.00 2.35 60 13.3 450 373.17 60 40 0.24 0.90 0.22 0.22 0.22 25.6 10.4 170 37 37 10 Dia. OK.
D7 17.08 15.40 1.68 D8 16.82 15.00 1.82 150.00 1.77 60 6.7 500 347.16 60 40 0.24 0.90 0.22 0.22 0.43 33.9 11.0 167 72 72 21 Dia. OK.
D8 16.82 15.00 1.82 MBTSW/35/18 16.82 14.90 1.92 50.00 3.07 5 20.0 500 603.69 5 40 0.02 0.90 0.02 0.02 0.45 1.6 11.0 167 75 75 12 Dia. OK.
D9 15.69 14.00 1.69 D12 15.54 13.40 2.14 300.00 1.04 180 3.3 375 114.58 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 0.65 173.5 12.9 156 101 101 88 Dia. OK.
D12 15.54 13.40 2.14 D14 15.38 12.80 2.58 300.00 1.17 180 3.3 450 185.30 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 1.30 154.5 15.5 143 186 186 100 Dia. OK.
D14 15.38 12.80 2.58 PS4 15.38 12.70 2.68 100.00 2.03 10 10.0 450 322.82 10 40 0.04 0.90 0.04 0.04 1.33 4.9 15.5 143 190 190 59 Dia. OK.
Junction 8
PS3 D16 15.40 13.80 1.60 140 400
PS4 D16 15.40 13.80 1.60 100 400
PS6 D17 15.40 13.80 1.60 60 300
Junction 8 to 7
D16 15.40 13.80 1.60 D19 14.10 12.50 1.60 138.46 1.53 180 7.2 375 169.48 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 0.65 117.3 12.0 161 104 104 62 Dia. OK.
D19 14.10 12.50 1.60 D22 13.43 11.80 1.63 257.14 1.26 180 3.9 450 200.35 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 1.30 142.9 14.3 149 193 193 96 Dia. OK.
D22 13.43 11.80 1.63 D25 14.00 11.35 2.65 400.00 1.21 180 2.5 600 341.54 120 40 0.48 0.90 0.43 0.43 1.73 149.0 16.8 138 238 238 70 Dia. OK.
D25 14.00 11.35 2.65 PS5 14.00 11.30 2.70 500.00 1.08 25 2.0 600 305.01 5 40 0.02 0.90 0.02 0.02 1.75 23.2 17.2 136 238 238 78 Dia. OK.
Junction 7
PS5 D31 9.80 7.80 350 400
D25 14.00 10.70 3.30 D27 10.80 9.00 1.80 70.59 2.16 120 14.2 375 238.09 120 40 0.48 0.90 0.43 0.43 0.43 55.7 10.9 167 72 72 30 Dia. OK.
D27 10.80 9.00 1.80 MBTSW/35 10.80 8.85 1.95 233.33 1.18 35 4.3 375 130.15 35 40 0.14 0.90 0.13 0.13 0.56 29.7 11.4 164 92 92 70 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 7
D34 10.42 8.80 1.62 D30 9.65 8.00 1.65 300.00 1.04 240 3.3 375 114.58 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 0.65 231.3 13.9 151 98 98 85 Dia. OK.
D30 9.65 8.00 1.65 MBTSW/32 10.88 7.60 3.28 75.00 2.43 30 13.3 475 430.20 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 1.30 12.4 14.1 150 194 194 45 Dia. OK.
Junction 7 to 6
D35 10.32 8.50 1.82 D38 9.40 7.60 1.80 200.00 1.27 180 5.0 375 140.72 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 0.65 141.3 12.4 159 103 103 73 Dia. OK.
D38 9.40 7.60 1.80 D41 8.90 7.00 1.90 300.00 1.21 180 3.3 475 213.66 180 40 0.72 0.90 0.65 0.65 1.30 149.3 14.8 146 189 189 89 Dia. OK.
D41 8.90 7.00 1.90 MBTSW/17 8.48 6.45 2.03 290.91 1.42 160 3.4 600 401.26 160 40 0.64 0.90 0.58 0.58 1.87 112.7 16.7 138 258 258 64 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 7
D51 12.18 9.65 2.53 D47 10.08 8.00 2.08 175.76 1.58 290 5.7 475 280.01 290 45 1.31 0.90 1.17 1.17 #REF! 183.5 #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF!
D47 10.08 8.00 2.08 D44 8.48 6.80 1.68 175.00 1.83 210 5.7 600 518.68 210 45 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.85 #REF! 114.5 #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF!
D44 8.48 6.80 1.68 MBTSW/17 8.48 6.75 1.73 300.00 1.40 15 3.3 600 395.07 15 45 0.07 0.90 0.06 0.06 #REF! 10.7 #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF! #REF!
Junction 6 to 5
D55 12.00 10.00 2.00 D58 11.18 9.40 1.78 300.00 1.08 180 3.3 400 135.84 180 50 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81 0.81 166.5 12.8 156 127 127 93 Dia. OK.
D58 11.18 9.40 1.78 MBTSW/11 11.18 9.35 1.83 300.00 1.25 15 3.3 500 244.55 15 50 0.08 0.90 0.07 0.07 0.88 12.0 13.0 155 136 136 56 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 5
D59 11.00 9.00 2.00 D62 9.40 7.50 1.90 120.00 1.65 180 8.3 375 182.19 180 50 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81 0.81 109.1 11.8 162 131 131 72 Dia. OK.
D62 9.40 7.50 1.90 MBTSW/9 9.36 7.30 2.06 150.00 1.47 30 6.7 375 162.76 30 50 0.15 0.90 0.14 0.14 0.95 20.4 12.2 160 151 151 93 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 5
D63 9.30 7.30 2.00 D66 8.75 6.70 2.05 300.00 1.08 180 3.3 400 135.84 180 50 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81 0.81 166.5 12.8 156 127 127 93 Dia. OK.
D66 8.75 6.70 2.05 MBTSW/7 8.75 6.64 2.12 307.69 1.23 20 3.3 500 241.44 20 50 0.10 0.90 0.09 0.09 0.90 16.3 13.0 155 140 140 58 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 5
D67 8.70 6.70 2.00 D70 8.84 6.10 2.74 291.67 1.10 175 3.4 400 137.80 175 50 0.88 0.90 0.79 0.79 0.79 159.6 12.7 157 124 124 90 Dia. OK.
D70 8.84 6.10 2.74 MBTSW/5 8.84 6.00 2.84 150.00 1.54 15 6.7 400 192.94 15 50 0.08 0.90 0.07 0.07 0.86 9.8 12.8 156 134 134 69 Dia. OK.
Junction 6 to 5
D71 8.80 6.80 2.00 D73 9.16 6.39 2.77 292.68 1.05 120 3.4 375 116.02 120 50 0.60 0.90 0.54 0.54 0.54 114.2 11.9 161 87 87 75 Dia. OK.
D73 9.16 6.39 2.77 MBTSW/4 9.16 6.29 2.87 300.00 1.04 30 3.3 375 114.58 30 50 0.15 0.90 0.14 0.14 0.68 28.9 12.4 159 107 107 93 Dia. OK.
Hydraulic calculation as per Qatar Drainage Manual (Stormwater)
Project: Example Road / System: Highway Drainage 05-Sep-09
Option 3 Calculation Parameters Tr: 10 C: kb:
Location Pipe Road Len Width Road Area Plot Area Rainfall Charac. Calculation
Imper Imper Imper total
Manhole v L J D Qp ARoad
Coeff.
Ared A1
Coeff.
A1 red A2 a
Coeff.
Ared 6$red
6Ared
tA t i QM (l/s) Qd Qd / Qp Results
From CL IL Depth To CL IL Depth Grad m/s m %o mm l/s ha <S ha ha <S ha ha <S ha ha ha sec min l/s ha var (l/s) Const l/s % of the Pipe
Junction 4 to 5
D91 11.94 10.00 1.94 D86 12.24 9.23 3.01 305.19 1.20 235 3.3 475 211.81 235 50 1.18 0.90 1.06 1.06 1.06 196.6 13.3 154 163 163 77 Dia. OK.
D86 12.24 9.23 3.01 D82 11.97 8.56 3.41 313.43 1.37 210 3.2 600 386.41 210 50 1.05 0.90 0.95 0.95 2.00 153.7 15.8 142 284 284 73 Dia. OK.
D82 11.97 8.56 3.41 D79 9.84 8.00 1.84 312.50 1.37 175 3.2 600 387.00 175 50 0.88 0.90 0.79 0.79 2.79 127.9 18.0 133 371 371 96 Dia. OK.
D79 9.84 8.00 1.84 D74 7.86 5.80 2.06 122.73 2.19 270 8.1 600 620.27 270 50 1.35 0.90 1.22 1.22 4.01 123.1 20.0 126 504 504 81 Dia. OK.
D74 7.86 5.80 2.06 MBTSW/2 8.13 5.55 2.58 240.00 1.72 60 4.2 700 662.99 60 50 0.30 0.90 0.27 0.27 4.28 34.8 20.6 124 530 530 80 Dia. OK.
Junction 4 to 3 Diversion of Existing 1600mm dia sewer
D600 11.00 7.00 4.00 D607 9.25 5.70 3.55 292.31 2.60 380 3.4 1600 5230.46 380 60 2.28 0.90 2.05 2.05 2.05 146.1 12.4 158 325 325 6 Dia. OK.
D607 9.25 5.70 3.55 D611 8.90 4.90 4.00 300.00 2.57 240 3.3 1600 5162.53 240 60 1.44 0.90 1.30 1.30 3.35 93.5 14.0 150 503 503 10 Dia. OK.
D611 8.90 4.90 4.00 D615 8.90 4.05 4.85 305.88 2.54 260 3.3 1600 5112.33 260 60 1.56 0.90 1.40 1.40 4.75 102.3 15.7 142 676 676 13 Dia. OK.
D615 8.90 4.05 4.85 D619 8.00 3.26 4.74 303.80 2.55 240 3.3 1600 5129.96 240 60 1.44 0.90 1.30 1.30 6.05 94.1 17.3 136 822 822 16 Dia. OK.
D619 8.00 3.26 4.74 AS/63 8.00 3.19 4.81 285.71 2.63 20 3.5 1600 5290.85 20 60 0.12 0.90 0.11 0.11 6.16 7.6 17.4 135 833 833 16 Dia. OK.
Junction 2
PS8 AS/63 50 250
D625 7.90 3.80 4.10 D620 7.80 2.70 5.10 300.00 2.57 330 3.3 1600 5162.53 330 60 1.98 0.90 1.78 1.78 1.78 128.5 12.1 160 285 285 6 Dia. OK.
D620 7.80 2.70 5.10 AS/63 7.70 2.54 5.16 312.50 2.52 50 3.2 1600 5057.55 50 60 0.30 0.90 0.27 0.27 2.05 19.9 12.5 158 325 325 6 Dia. OK.
Junction 1 to 3
D121 7.23 5.70 1.53 AS/50/7 7.30 3.41 3.89 78.71 2.04 180 12.7 375 225.39 180 50 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81 0.81 88.2 11.5 164 133 133 59 Dia. OK.
Junction 3
D700 10.20 8.00 2.20 D705 7.10 5.00 2.10 110.00 1.72 330 9.1 375 190.37 330 35 1.16 0.90 1.04 1.04 1.04 191.5 13.2 154 160 160 84 Dia. OK.
D705 7.10 5.00 2.10 D709 3.30 1.00 2.30 60.00 2.34 240 16.7 375 258.41 240 35 0.84 0.90 0.76 0.76 0.76 102.6 14.9 146 110 110 43 Dia. OK.
D709 3.30 1.00 2.30 PS7 3.20 0.30 2.90 300.00 1.04 210 3.3 375 114.58 210 35 0.74 0.90 0.66 0.66 0.66 202.4 14.8 147 97 97 85 Dia. OK.
D716 9.70 7.00 2.70 PS7 3.20 0.30 2.90 35.82 3.03 240 27.9 375 334.98 240 35 0.84 0.90 0.76 0.76 0.76 79.1 11.3 165 125 125 37 Dia. OK.
2
Legende: Qd / Qp = / Capacity of the pipe ARoad = Catchment area (Roads) ha = hectar (10000m )
m n
i = / (t+d) * 2.78 i = is the average intensity of Rainfall over the time t
C , m, n , d = ermine the rain intensity A1 = Catchment area within ROW

t = uration in minutes A2 = Catchment area outside the ROW limit
T = n period in years a = Redcuction coefficient to A2
i = intensity in l/s.ha Ared = Reduced Catchment Area with Surface coefficient
Data to be filled
formulae
Volume 2
Part 11
Utilities
VOLUME 2 PART 11
UTILITIES
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪UTILITIES‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 11
UTILITIES
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Key Design Stages and Responsibilities ....................................................................... 1
1.3 Overall Management of Utilities and Utility Corridors ................................................ 2
1.3.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Background Information .............................................................................. 3
1.3.3 Utility Vision Based on Global Best Practices ............................................... 4
1.4 Information Sources .................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety .............................................................................. 5
2 Key Reference Documents and Manuals .........................................................................7
3 Consultation and Approvals: No Objection Certificates ...................................................9

3.1 Service Utility Providers Consultation ......................................................................... 9
3.2 Design Phase Stages .................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation ............................................................................. 9
3.2.2 Stage 2: Concept Design ............................................................................. 10
3.2.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design........................................................................ 11
3.2.4 Stage 4: Final Design .................................................................................. 11
3.2.5 Stage 5: Construction ................................................................................. 13
3.3 Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, and Stakeholders .................................................... 13
3.4 Conflict Resolution Process ....................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Consultant’s Role ....................................................................................... 13
3.4.2 Service Authority’s Role ............................................................................. 13
3.4.3 Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Role as Impartial Adjudicator
.................................................................................................................... 13
3.5 Design Standards ....................................................................................................... 15
3.6 Planning Role ............................................................................................................. 15
4 Project Initiation – Data Acquisition ..............................................................................17

4.1 Data Responsibilities ................................................................................................. 17
4.2 Obtaining Utility Data and Service Drawings............................................................. 17
4.3 Project Boundaries .................................................................................................... 17
4.4 Validation of Received Asset Data ............................................................................. 18
4.5 Discrepancy Reporting ............................................................................................... 18
5 Concept Design .............................................................................................................19

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 19
5.2 Deliverables ............................................................................................................... 19
5.3 Project Definition ....................................................................................................... 20
5.4 New Developments ................................................................................................... 20
5.5 Classification of the Road .......................................................................................... 21
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UTILITIES
5.6 Country-wide Utility Transmission Corridors ............................................................ 21

5.7 General Principles of Providing a Utility Corridor ...................................................... 23
5.8 Establishing Present and Future Utility Requirements .............................................. 23
5.9 Prioritization and Optimization of Utilities ................................................................ 23
5.10 Utility Impact Assessment ......................................................................................... 24
5.11 Basic Utility Corridor Development ........................................................................... 27
5.12 General Utility Corridor Width Considerations ......................................................... 27
5.13 Utility Corridor Design Guidelines ............................................................................. 29
5.14 Road Utility Corridor Placement Considerations ....................................................... 31
5.14.1 Establishing Proposed Road Widths Horizontal Considerations ................ 31
5.14.2 Proposed Vertical Utility Layout Considerations........................................ 32
5.14.3 Routing of Utility Corridors at intersections and Junctions ....................... 34
5.14.4 Corridor Configuration ............................................................................... 34
5.14.5 Proposed Intersection Utility Layout Considerations ................................ 35
5.15 Dealing with Utility Congestion in Narrow Corridors ................................................ 38
5.15.1 Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Standard Highway and Utility
Sections ...................................................................................................... 39
5.15.2 Telecommunications .................................................................................. 39
5.15.3 Combined Trenches.................................................................................... 40
5.15.4 Stacking Utilities ......................................................................................... 40
5.15.5 Electrical Utility Corridors .......................................................................... 41
5.15.6 Electrical Duct Bank System ....................................................................... 42
5.15.7 Utility Gallery .............................................................................................. 43
5.15.8 Utility Tunnels ............................................................................................ 46
5.15.9 Deep Sewers and Metro Tunnels ............................................................... 48
5.15.10 Impact on Utility Corridors for Metro Stations and Tunnels...................... 48
5.16 Street Furniture, Landscaping, and Other Considerations ........................................ 50
5.17 Land Acquisition......................................................................................................... 52
5.17.1 Easements .................................................................................................. 53
5.18 Buffer Areas ............................................................................................................... 54
5.19 Utilities in Private Developments .............................................................................. 54
5.20 Temporary Construction of Utility Corridors ............................................................. 54
5.21 Operation and Maintenance Considerations ............................................................ 54
6 Preliminary Design ....................................................................................................... 55

6.1 Deliverables ............................................................................................................... 55
6.2 Service Connections ................................................................................................... 55
6.2.1 Existing Service Connections ...................................................................... 55
6.2.2 Future Connections and Empty Plots ......................................................... 55
6.3 Location and Design Considerations for Electrical and Telecom Chambers and Draw
Pits ............................................................................................................................. 56
7 Detailed Design Deliverables ........................................................................................ 57
References ............................................................................................................................. 59
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VOLUME 2 PART 11
UTILITIES
Table
Table 3.1 Service Authorities and Regulatory Bodies ....................................................... 14
Figures
Figure 1.1 Key Stakeholders and Approval Authorities at Each Design Stage ..................... 2
Figure 3.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation—Request for Information Notice of the
NOC Process ...................................................................................................... 10
Figure 3.2 Stage 2: Concept Design of the NOC Process .................................................... 11
Figure 3.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design of the NOC Process ............................................... 12
Figure 3.4 Stage 4: Final Design of the NOC Process.......................................................... 12
Figure 5.1 Qatar Utility Corridors ....................................................................................... 22
Figure 5.2 Utility Impact Assessment (Urban).................................................................... 25
Figure 5.4 Color-coded Legend for Combined Service Drawings ....................................... 28
Figure 5.5 Color-coded Combined Services for a Straight Section of Road ....................... 29
Figure 5.6 Designing Utility Corridors ................................................................................ 30
Figure 5.7 Utility Corridor Placement................................................................................. 33
Figure 5.8 Color-coded Combined Services for a Simple T-Junction.................................. 35
Figure 5.9 Typical Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major
Collector Intersection ........................................................................................ 36
Figure 5.10 Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major Collector
Roundabout ....................................................................................................... 37
Figure 5.11 Overlapping Utility Corridors ............................................................................ 39
Figure 5.12 Typical Combined Trenches .............................................................................. 40
Figure 5.13 Example of Stacked Pressure Mains for Treated Sewage Effluent ................... 41
Figure 5.14 Dry Cable Stacking ............................................................................................. 42
Figure 5.15 Typical Electrical Gallery .................................................................................... 44
Figure 5.16 Cross Section Showing Typical Electrical Gallery Provisions ............................. 44
Figure 5.17 Typical Circular Electrical Gallery ...................................................................... 45
Figure 5.18 Utility Tunnel under Construction ..................................................................... 47
Figure 5.19 Utility Tunnel with Services Installed ................................................................ 47
Figure 5.20 Utility Crossover Tunnel .................................................................................... 48
Figure 5.21 Typical Cross Section of a Utility Corridor and Transit Station ......................... 49
Figure 5.22 Qatar Rail Metro Protection Zones ................................................................... 49
Figure 5.23 Tree Planters Above and Below Ground ........................................................... 51
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UTILITIES
Figure 5.24 Typical Tree Plantings with Cables and Street Lighting ..................................... 52
Figure 5.25 Example Clip File from the MMUP Property Section System
showing Doha Zones ......................................................................................... 53
Figure 5.26 Typical Easement Strip and Buffer .................................................................... 53
Appendixes
Appendix A Data Verification ................................................................................................ 61

Appendix B Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Sections ..................................... 69
Appendix C Checklists ........................................................................................................... 81
Appendix D Statutory Authority Requirements .................................................................... 87
Appendix E Construction Issues to be Considered during the Design Phase ................... 117
Appendix F Risk Control Form ............................................................................................ 137
Appendix G Road Opening Requirements .......................................................................... 141
Appendix H Highway Reinstatement .................................................................................. 147
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UTILITIES
2D Two-Dimensional
3D Three-Dimensional
Ashghal Public Works Authority of Qatar
CAD Computer-Aided Drafting
CIPP Cured-In-Place Pipe
EHS Environmental, Health, and Safety
EPBM Earth Pressure Balancing Machine
GIS Geographic Information System
GPR Ground-Penetrating Radar
ictQATAR Ministry of Information and Communications Technology
ITS Intelligent Transportation System
KAHRAMAA Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation
km Kilometers
m Meters
m2 Square Meters
MOE Ministry of Environment
mm millimeters
NOC No Objection Certificate
PDF Portable Document Format
QP Qatar Petroleum
Q-PRO Qatar Permit of Road Opening Software System
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UTILITIES
RFI Request for Information
ROW Right-of-Way
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine
TSE Treated Sewage Effluent
W Watts
PAGE VI VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 11
UTILITIES
1 Introduction
1.1 General
The purpose of this part of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) is to efficiently
coordinate the design and location of utility services within rights-of-way (ROWs) to
meet regional and international standards. In the context of this discussion, two
terms are defined:
• ROW: typically an area of land between building plot limits, reserved as an

infrastructure corridor for roads, a public sidewalk, a canal, railway, utility
transmission/distribution, or landscaping.
• Utility corridor: an area of land, usually but not always within a ROW, in which a
utility service is provided a nonexclusive land corridor for routing a particular utility.
1.2 Key Design Stages and Responsibilities

The planning of highway projects is the responsibility of the Ministry of Municipality
and Urban Planning (MMUP). The follow-on design stages are the responsibility of the
Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal). Various statutory authorities have
responsibilities for their individual utilities. Figure 1.1 shows the key stakeholders and
approval authorities at each design stage of a transportation project.
The No Objection Certificate (NOC) process operates in parallel with the design
process. Without NOC approvals at the identified key stages, the design and then
construction cannot proceed. Section 3 provides details regarding the procedures and
requirements for obtaining NOCs from the highway authorities, utility stakeholders,
and the MMUP.
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UTILITIES
Figure 1.1 Key Stakeholders and Approval Authorities at Each Design Stage
1.3 Overall Management of Utilities and Utility Corridors

1.3.1 Objectives
This part provides guidance regarding the procedures and objectives relevant to the
provision of utilities in new and existing highways. It outlines various guidelines and
criteria for utility stakeholders. The procedures described herein meet the following
objectives:
• Provide a philosophy for utility corridors and the highways in the State of Qatar.
• Provide technical guidance and details for highway designers, utility designers, and
landscape designers to coordinate utilities within ROWs.
• Provide procedures for relocating utilities during road construction so that the
work can be performed with minimum delay or interference with other activities
related to the utility corridors and associated services.
• Develop and implement standards that accomplish the following:
− Minimize service disruption and damage to utilities.
− Minimize development of hazardous conditions.
− Comply with specification and environment considerations.
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UTILITIES
− Provide a flexible approach to the allocation of utility zones to suit individual

current circumstances.
− Provide flexibility for future installation needs.
− Coordinate utility work between the relevant parties, such as the highway
authority, the service authority, the designer, and the developer.
− Allow uncompromised operation and maintenance of the utility in an efficient
manner.
• Allow efficient installation of utilities.
1.3.2 Background Information

To accommodate future needs, service providers generally request corridor widths
greater than needed for immediate use. The assumption is that utility provision is
likely to increase in the future and, therefore, needs to be accommodated in the
design process as early as possible. This approach affects current and future needs for
highways and service providers. Because of current congestion issues, designers must
use greater flexibility to resolve issues of utility provision along highways.
A key element for the success of the new approach is for utility companies to identify
their current and future requirements. At the macro scale, the Qatar National Vision
2030 (General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2009) provides projections to
2030. Other planning efforts have been projected to 2032. It is logical for service
providers to have similar plans on how their transmission networks will grow to
supply the projections. Transmission systems and potential routes within highway
corridors need to be identified so that they can be planned for specifically rather than
generally.
At the micro scale, that is, within blocks or particular developments, the final
locations of distribution networks need a structured approach for the designer to
follow. A key element in providing utility corridors is flexibility in finding suitable
space for current and future utility needs. The utility designer needs to analyze the
data to identify the necessary allocation of utility corridors for each section of
highway.
Utility corridors typically contain various utilities, as well as landscape areas. The
different widths are discussed in this QHDM. The approach for utility corridor spacing
recognizes that the utility designer needs flexibility to place services in the utility
corridor. Deep utilities, such as gravitational sewers and district cooling, need to allow
other service providers to use the corridor so that greater flexibility is allowed in
spacing those services.
There is a Ministerial request to resolve the problem of flexible road-surface road

creep or settlement around utility structures situated in highways. Although this part
provides guidance on reducing utility structures in main highways, the request is not
an absolute requirement; rather it is a good practice provision. The MMUP needs to
be consulted during the early stages of a project to identify issues with utility
structures in a highway.
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UTILITIES
It is important that the landscape designer assist in the early stages of the design
process, because tree roots can be significant issue for the utility designer. There are
also likely to be differences in the positioning of utility corridors, depending on
whether a new road (greenfield site) is being constructed or an existing road
(brownfield site) is being extended or widened.
The general approach is to use the standard MMUP road sections for identifying
spatial needs and available land. (See Appendix B for additional information.) If
insufficient land is available, a staged assessment to determine a solution needs to be
performed.
1.3.3 Utility Vision Based on Global Best Practices

To develop a utility vision for infrastructure, research was undertaken to identify the
best practices used by other countries that have similar circumstances (such as
climate, population, and culture). The factors relevant to Qatar and of significant
importance for the vision are the rate of population growth and the availability of
space for the provision of utilities.
1.4 Information Sources

Information sources for this part include the following design standards and regional
and international organizations:
• National Joint Utilities Group, Guidelines on the Positioning and Colour Coding of
Underground Utilities’ Apparatus—United Kingdom
• American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)—
United States
• Austroads—Australia
• Department of Transport, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges—United Kingdom
• Florida Department of Transportation—United States
• Highway Design Standards 2010—Oman
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Road Planning and Design
Manual—Australia
• Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council, Abu Dhabi Utility Corridors Design Manual—
United Arab Emirates
• Typical roadway cross sections for Dubai—United Arab Emirates
It is important to follow regional and international best practices during design and
construction of a utility corridor in a highway in order to promote the health, safety,
and welfare of the people installing, connecting, and maintaining the utilities; the end
users; and those who will decommission the services.
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1.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety

The environment, health, and safety (EHS) are important considerations. To comply
with the aims of this QHDM, it is expected that these aspects will be considered at
each stage of the design works.
All design stages are to comply with the EHS aspects of the Qatar National
Construction Standards 2010 (Ministry of Environment [MOE], 2011). A general
overview of key aspects relating EHS to utilities work in the construction of highway
infrastructure is provided in the Qatar Work Zone Traffic Management Guide
(Ashghal, 2013). The following are general considerations regarding utilities:
• To avoid potential damage to utilities, loss of supply to users, risks of effluent spills
and water impacts on the environment, and risk to contractors’ staff if high-
voltage power cables are damaged, all utilities need to be designed and installed
in accordance with the recommendations and guidelines of the statutory
authorities and manufacturers. This especially refers to depths and protection
measures for those services.
• Only in exceptional circumstances should utilities be designed or installed
shallower than recommended in the guidelines. In these circumstances, special
protection and warnings must be put in place to protect the public, future
contractors, and the environment.
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2 Key Reference Documents and

Manuals
The following documents and guidance are referenced and need to be considered
when developing utility corridors:
• Qatar Work Zone Traffic Management Guide (Ashghal, 2013)

• Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (MOE, 2011)
• Qatar Survey Manual (Urban Planning and Development Authority, 2009)
• Doha Interim Zoning Maps and Regulations, Zones 1 through 68 (April 2008)
• British Standard (BS) EN 124: Gully Tops and Manhole Tops for Vehicular and
Pedestrian Areas (1994)
• Impact Assessment Guidance Information (MMUP, 2011)
• Road opening notices from Ashghal
• Qatar Permit of Road Opening (Q-Pro) software system
• Typical cross sections from MMUP
• Proposed typical cross sections for greenfield sites from MMUP
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3 Consultation and Approvals:

No Objection Certificates
3.1 Service Utility Providers Consultation
The NOC is a mandatory document that must be obtained from the relevant service
provider or service authority. Throughout the design life of a project, it is necessary to
coordinate with the relevant statutory authorities through the NOC process. In
addition, an NOC allows follow-on design or construction work to be carried out. Each
service provider is obligated to liaise with consultants and contractors regarding their
project requirements. Consultants and contractors need to follow the guidelines and
checklists in Appendix C.
The long-term aim is to create a centralized database of project NOC submissions that
can be accessed by all service providers. The database would be a computerized,
online submission system. The object is to improve the efficiency of approval
processing and to provide an NOC process that is simple to apply and track where
consultants enter design-stage information into the database. The designer would
then be electronically informed of the submission and the NOC.
3.2 Design Phase Stages

The following subsections summarize the five stages in the design life of a project:
1. Project initiation
2. Concept design
3. Preliminary design
4. Final design
5. Construction
Except for the preliminary design stage, each stage requires an NOC from appropriate
service providers.
If the project has a long duration, a subsequent request may be required to address
utility network changes. At the construction stage, it is the responsibility of the
contractors to request the information again so that they have the most current
information before starting work at the site.
3.2.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation

In Stage 1, the utility designer sends a Request for Information (RFI) to service
providers affected by the proposed project to inform them of the scope (Figure 3.1).
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Figure 3.1 Stage 1: Project Initiation—Request for Information Notice of the NOC
Process
The following information is required with the RFI:
• Appointment letter from the client confirming the utility designer’s scope of work
• Location plan with grid coordinates relative to the Qatar National Datum
3.2.2 Stage 2: Concept Design

In Stage 2, the scope of work is used to develop options for consideration. The level of
work is roughly 30 to 40 percent of the total design phase. During Stage 2, it is
important to consult with the appropriate authorities to understand their issues and
obtain their agreement in principle before submitting the NOC application. This will
help avoid conflicts and the need for resubmissions that could delay the project.
Evaluation of the various options will indicate a preferred option. The preferred
option is then submitted to all affected service providers and the overseeing
organization for approval. The utility designer must obtain a concept design NOC
approval from each of the service providers and the overseeing organization.
Figure 3.2 shows the NOC process for the concept design.
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Figure 3.2 Stage 2: Concept Design of the NOC Process
The following documents are required for the concept design NOC application:
• Appointment letter from the client that confirms the scope of work of the utility
designer
• Preferred option designs
• ROW cross sections that indicate the highway boundaries and the relative position
of the utilities within the corridor
• Outline of combined services “rainbow” layout drawings, as explained in Section 5
of this Part
• The Asset Data, Investigation and Discrepancy Reports are to be submitted to
MMUP
3.2.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design

Stage 3 develops the concept design to roughly 70 percent of the final design. At this
stage, topographical surveys are completed, geotechnical data are collected, and the
alignment of the services is established. Typically, an NOC is not obtained at this
stage; however, an approval in principle letter is, it is important to keep the service
authorities apprised of the design development at this stage. Figure 3.3 shows the
NOC process for the preliminary design.
3.2.4 Stage 4: Final Design

Stage 4 is the completion of the design process, with a full set of contract drawings
and specifications and an NOC from each service provider. Figure 3.4 is a flowchart for
the final design.
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Figure 3.3 Stage 3: Preliminary Design of the NOC Process
Figure 3.4 Stage 4: Final Design of the NOC Process
The following documents are required for the final design NOC:
• Appointment letter from the client that confirms the scope of work of the utility
designer
• Detailed design layouts, long sections, and specific details
• ROW cross sections that indicate the highway boundaries and the relative position
of the utilities within the corridor
• Final combined services rainbow layout drawings
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3.2.5 Stage 5: Construction

Approvals at Stage 5 are for road openings, traffic control, groundwater licenses, site
access and egress and similar items. Utility corridor approvals at this stage need to be
fully developed. These approvals are applied for by the contractor that prepared the
shop drawings and are called construction NOCs.
Road Opening requirements are explained further in Appendix G.
3.3 Authorities, Regulatory Bodies, and Stakeholders

The designer is required to consult with, liaise, and get approval from a large number
of service providers and government authorities. Table 3.1 lists the authorities with
whom the designer must consult regarding the highway project.
3.4 Conflict Resolution Process

The MMUP is responsible for coordinating the overall requirements for utility
corridors. Service providers need to provide the MMUP with clear requirements for
their services. The liaison and dialog between MMUP and service providers are based
on a close relationship. The MMUP has the role of independent reviewer and has the
authority to make decisions and resolve conflicts. The Central Planning Office or other
bodies may aid the process.
3.4.1 Consultant’s Role

Consultants can work on behalf of a service provider, a private developer, or a service
authority. The consultant’s responsibility is to work with the client and provide
technical knowledge and advice to implement projects.
3.4.2 Service Authority’s Role

The service authority is the owner of a particular service, a project, or projects. The
service authority is responsible for managing the project’s cycle of work. Authorities
will often out-source project management to a separate organization.
3.4.3 Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Role as Impartial Adjudicator

The MMUP is involved with all aspects of infrastructure planning for urban and rural
development in the State of Qatar. Although the MMUP is fully involved with the
concept design of projects, it can also act as an impartial adjudicator during the
preliminary and final design stages, if necessary.
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Table 3.1 Service Authorities and Regulatory Bodies

Item
No. Authority Abbreviation Responsibilities
1 Ministry of Municipality & Urban MMUP Planning (land allocation)
Planning
2 Ministry of Environment MOE Environment
3 Civil Defense Department Fire and life safety
4 Qatar Municipalities Municipalities
5 Qatar Railways Company Qatar Rail Metro and rail
6 Ministry of Municipality & Urban MMUP Central Transportation projects to deliver Qatar National
Planning, Central Planning Office Planning Office Vision 2030
7 Supreme Committee for Delivery Oversight of the projects to be delivered for or
and Legacy affecting the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup
8 Ministry of Information & MICT
Communications & Technology (ictQATAR)
9 Kharamaa Cool District cooling
10 Ministry of Interior MOI Internal affairs, civil defense
Utility Service Authorities
11 Qatar General Electricity & Water KAHRAMAA Water and electricity
Corporation
13 Ooredoo (formerly QTEL) Telecommunications
Qatar National Broadband Qnbn Telecommunications
Network
Vodafone Telecommunications
Ministry of Interior, Security MOI-SSD Closed-circuit television (CCTV) telecommunications
Systems Department
Gulf Networks Security systems (barriers and bollards; x-ray and metal
detection; under vehicle surveillance; explosives trace
detection; electronic frequency jamming)
Ministry of Interior, Traffic Dept
Qatargas Gas transmission systems
Qatar Fuel WOQOD Gas
14 Qatar Petroleum QP Oil pipelines and gas
15 Qatar Armed Forces Telecommunications
16 Private Engineering Office PEO Projects associated with the Royal Family
17 Public Works Authority of Qatar Ashghal Stormwater, groundwater, treated sewage effluent,
and foul water
Highways, signs, intelligent transportation system,
street lighting, and operations and maintenance
18 Qatar Cool District cooling
19 Marafeq Qatar District cooling operator for Lusail
Key Stakeholders
18 Qatar Museums QM Heritage
19 Mowasalat Public transport
20 Lusail Real Estate Development LREDC Lusail Light Rail Transit
Company
21 Supreme Council of Health and Health
Hamad Medical Corporation
22 Qatar Foundation Education City
23 United Development Company UDC Lusail Marina
24 Barwa Group Real estate
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3.5 Design Standards

Each service provider sets out the design standards for their service; usually a
combination of European Union and United States standards. Some data on the
individual utility placement within an overall utility corridor are included in the
following sections and the appendixes in this Part. Designers, contractors, and service
providers need to use the latest version of the Qatar National Construction Standards
2010 (MOE, 2011) for design work. It is the designers responsibility to ensure that
they have the up to date service authority requirements for their relevant work at
that time.
3.6 Planning Role

Each service provider undertakes its own master planning in consultation with the
MMUP. It is important that all service providers be in agreement with the MMUP
regarding the parameters for the growth, in accordance with the Qatar National
Vision 2030 (General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2009).
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4 Project Initiation – Data

Acquisition
One of the most important issues for the design of a project is to understand the site
constraints. Data acquisition, which is key to the accurate identification of existing
and proposed utility services, is addressed in this section.
4.1 Data Responsibilities

Service authorities maintain records of their assets, and the utility designer obtains
these data through the RFI during Stage 1 of the NOC process.
4.2 Obtaining Utility Data and Service Drawings

The service provider needs to respond to RFIs with a hard copy or electronic copy, or
both, within 2 weeks. Hard copies can be Portable Document Format (PDF) printouts
or two-dimensional (2D) computer-aided drafting (CAD) output prints. Electronic
copies are geographical information system (GIS) data in the form of shape files that
will require manipulation by the utility designer. Soft copies can also be 2D CAD files
(with a .DWG extension) or from AutoCAD (with a .DGN extension) for the
MicroStation platform.
Ashghal requires that consultants convert the data received from the service
authorities to a three-dimensional (3D) record. If no depth data are provided, it is
normal to assume the standard minimum depths for utilities. It should also be
assumed that drainage would normally be available. The utility designer verifies and
checks the data from the service provider. The utility designer provides a database for
all data collected and minutes of meetings with service providers. Appendix A
provides the methods for verifying data received from service authorities. These data
are compiled in to three reports:
• Asset Data Report

• Investigation Report
• Discrepancy Report
4.3 Project Boundaries

The project boundaries need to be established and agreed upon by stakeholders. The
utility designer is required to coordinate with any relevant surrounding projects.
Agreements must be reached on utility alignments at the interface of these projects.
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The designer must consider the nearby surroundings and its potential impact. Metro
stations, sewerage pumping stations, or treatment plants are likely to have significant
infrastructure coming to and from the facilities, which may have to be accommodated
as part of the works.
4.4 Validation of Received Asset Data

During the validation process, an escalation of investigations should be carried out to
confirm the location, depth material, and size of each service:
• Obtain RFI data from the authorities.

• Perform a site walk survey.
• Perform a topographic survey
• Perform a ground-penetrating survey.
• Perform radio detection surveys.
• Establish trial pits.
This order is defined to avoid wherever possible disturbance to the traffic, the public,
and the site.
4.5 Discrepancy Reporting

A Discrepancy Report must be prepared if the survey data are found during the
process of collecting and verifying data not to correlate with the data received. The
report will include a drawing showing the service provider’s records and the new
information received from the survey work. The drawing needs to be annotated such
that it is clear where the discrepancy has occurred. The report will require a table that
lists the errors and coordinate points that precisely define the location of the
discrepancy. The Discrepancy Report is submitted to the MMUP (at the concept stage)
and the relevant service providers. The service provider should then amend their
records. The designer will use the survey data during the design stages because they
are the most up to date, accurate data available.
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5 Concept Design
5.1 Introduction
This section provides general design considerations to assist in addressing any spatial
restrictions regarding utility corridors in roadways.
At the concept design stage, options shall be considered for potential solutions to
issues regarding utility corridors in roadways. The options need to illustrate the
proposed works in sufficient detail to select a preferred option to progress to the
preliminary design stage.
The consultant needs to consider several options and identify the associated
advantages and disadvantages for each. The proposed options need to consider
short-, medium-, and long-term issues that could result from their implementation.
For each proposed option, the consultant shall assess the availability of the ROW and
the feasibility of providing options to the ROW requirements.
The consultant shall recommend the preferred option and the reasoning for the
selection. Cost comparisons may be outlined to assist the selection process.
5.2 Deliverables
Information prepared at this stage should include the following:
• Basis of design report—sets out the design parameters

• Existing services drawings
• Proposed individual service layouts
• Typical ROW cross sections indicating the utility corridors
• Indicative combined services rainbow layout drawings for the preferred option
During the concept design stage, the following reports are required by the MMUP:
• Geological
• Hydrological
• Environmental
• Land impact and acquisition assessment
• Landscaping concept
• Utility investigation
• Impact assessment of existing utilities
• Traffic modeling
• Concept options road
• Concept options utility
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• Final road concept design

• Final utility concept design
• Handover presentation
5.3 Project Definition

In order to identify the option to be developed, it is necessary to understand the
nature of the roadway project and how it will affect the existing environment. The
following issues are to be considered in identifying site constraints:
• Is it a greenfield site or will it affect existing infrastructure? Is it a brownfield site?

Currently, 70 to 80 percent of roadway projects in Qatar involve brownfield sites.
• If it is a greenfield site, the typical MMUP ROW cross sections and the associated
utilities corridor for that type of ROW need to be adhered to when possible.
• If it is a brownfield site, after existing infrastructure has been identified and
incorporated into a combined site constraints drawing, the next step is to
understand the fixed infrastructure that cannot be changed and the issues
involved in changing the rest. These issues include land-take issues, and an
understanding how the utility plant operates and when it can be disconnected,
diverted, or abandoned. Outages during the summer months are often difficult to
obtain because of high demands at that time of year.
Utilities can be categorized as (1) transmission systems, which transfer supplies over
distances and do not normally have any direct connections; and (2) distribution
systems, which feed from a local supply point to the individual consumer. The
following are general recommendations for transmission and distribution systems:
• Transmissions systems need to follow major infrastructure corridors such as

expressways and major and minor arterial highways. The design for such
transmission systems is normally carried out under the control of the service
authority.
• Distribution systems need to avoid major infrastructure corridors and instead
follow local collectors and local roads.
• By separating corridors for transmission and distribution systems, there is
potential for reduced spatial requirements within a particular road.
• Properties fronting major highways need to be fed from the rear side of the
distribution system to avoid the need to supply utilities from the highway corridor.
• The nature of the project to be designed needs to be considered. For example, is it
a highway project, major or local roads, or a development scheme?
5.4 New Developments

New developments create significant new utility supply issues and introduce
additional steps into the design stage of a roadway project. After a master plan has
been developed, analysis of the utility demands and the sizing of supply and
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distribution networks should be carried out. This manual does not define how the
network analysis is to be conducted, because the analysis must comply with the
relevant service authority requirements. This analysis requires close coordination with
the service authorities to confirm their agreement with the proposed analysis
methodologies.
5.5 Classification of the Road

A comprehensive classification of roads is given in Part 2, Planning, of this manual.
The following are urban road classifications:
• Expressway
• Major arterial
• Minor arterial
• Boulevard
• Collector distributor
• Major collector
• Minor collector
• Service road
• Local road
The following are rural road classifications:
• Rural freeway
• Rural arterial
• Rural collector
• Rural local road
This road hierarchy is a major factor in developing utility corridors for service
providers because it defines the highway width and the availability of space for
developing the utility corridor. The utility design has to balance basic functionality
with the requirements for each road classification.
5.6 Country-wide Utility Transmission Corridors

There are several wide utility corridors in Qatar (Figure 5.1), originally established for
oil and gas transmission pipelines. In some instances, the corridors are 1,300 meters
(m) wide. Additional utilities have been incorporated within the utility corridors,
primarily power and water transmission. In some cases, the individual allocation of
width for services is 100 m. The utility corridors allow more flexibility for the exact
location and depth of pipelines. However, the Qatar Petroleum (QP) requirements
restrict the location of structures near its pipelines. Crossings on the oil pipelines have
to be approved by QP, and it will impose restrictions on the clearance of its pipelines.
It is noted that where crossing QP networks, significant protection systems must be
discussed and agreed upon with QP. Direction drilling beneath the QP apparatus or
major in situ box culverts over the QP apparatus will be required. The methods of
installation of these designs will also have to go through a construction methodology
approval system with QP by the contractor.
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Figure 5.1 Qatar Utility Corridors
QP does not allow any permanent structure within 50 m of its pipelines.
In most cases, the individual service authority will carry out the design of transmission
systems. In these instances, the utility designer’s role will be to coordinate the
authorities’ proposals within the overall utility corridors. The utility designer will need
to discuss the service provider’s requirements at a stakeholder meeting early in the
design process.
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5.7 General Principles of Providing a Utility Corridor

A system of utility corridors should be provided that allows service providers to locate
their services in highway ROWs and countrywide, designated utility corridors. The
designated utility corridors help facilitate the location of services for present and
future needs.
For new roads and upgrades of existing roads, the utility designer has flexibility in
providing the utility corridors required for each service provider. However, the utility
designer needs to adhere to the service provider’s requirements in the design data
sheets (provided in Appendix D). Where an existing corridor needs to be altered, the
service provider and the MMUP need to agree to the change. The utility designer will
need an NOC from the both the service provider and the MMUP for the final utility
corridor provision. The utility designer should in his considerations minimize the
impact on existing utilities (a blanket assumption to relocate all utilities is not
acceptable). Figure 3.4 shows the NOC process.
5.8 Establishing Present and Future Utility Requirements

A fundamental responsibility of the utility designer is to establish the present and
future requirements of the individual service providers. The utility designer needs to
establish a database of service authority utility data and request their individual
requirements for the proposed roadway project. Information regarding future
abandonments and possible upgrades near the project corridor are also required. Land
use considerations are required so that greater use can be made of the utility corridor.
The utility designer will need to arrange meetings and liaise with the service providers
to formalize their requirements. Appendix C contains a checklist to assist the utility
designer in these meetings.
5.9 Prioritization and Optimization of Utilities

There is no requirement to provide a corridor for all utilities in every road; therefore,
it is essential to establish which utilities will require a corridor in the road. Due to
restricted space constraints, the utility designer must use the available space
according to each utility’s minimum requirements. See Section 5.14 in this Part for
utility corridor placement considerations.
For open-cut trenches, priority must be given to the deepest and largest-diameter
utilities. Access for the maintenance of these utilities must be a key consideration.
In the new MMUP proposed roadway corridor cross sections, it has been
recommended that transmission systems are located nearer the roadway and away
from properties. Distribution systems that feed the individual properties should be
nearer the plots, thereby reducing the need for crossings.
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5.10 Utility Impact Assessment

A utility impact assessment determines the impact of road improvement projects on
existing services. Usually, road improvements widen the highway corridor, which can
be problematic for existing services. For example, an electrical service in the verge
area for the existing highway may end up in the proposed new highway. Figure 5.2
and Figure 5.3 are flowcharts for assessing urban and rural utility impacts.
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Figure 5.2 Utility Impact Assessment (Urban)
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Figure 5.3 Utility Impact Assessment (Rural)
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5.11 Basic Utility Corridor Development

Utility corridors are separate land areas, usually within the ROW of a roadway. The
development of a utility corridor cross section depends on the following
considerations:
• Functionality of the road and the road hierarchy

• Types of utilities and demand
• Geometric design standards for road elements, such as furniture, medians, and
pavements
Routing of utilities must include the following considerations:
• Network optimization so that the shortest and most appropriate route is selected
to serve existing and future developments
• Identification of major utilities, including access shaft locations and potential
conflicts
• Analysis of the feasibility and constructability of the route in relation to current
and future roadway and infrastructure projects
• Selection of a route that least impacts traffic, including necessary traffic diversions
• A sensitivity study, so that schools, hospitals, government buildings, and other
sensitive sites are avoided where possible
• An overall master planning impact study of all future projects, including the
Metro, local roads, drainage, expressway program, and agency proposals for
future developments along the route to reduce the possibility of conflict
• Environmental aspects of utility routing and a high-level risk assessment for
options considered
• Land acquisition; this is a last resort and is to be done only in special
circumstances
5.12 General Utility Corridor Width Considerations

The identification of the final locations of utility corridors is considered to be an
iterative process. For any road type, the first pass must consider the standard corridor
locations, as defined in the MMUP typical cross sections, which are included in
Appendix B. The main product in considering width requirements for utility corridors
is the combined services layout drawings, also known as rainbow layout drawings.
These drawings indicate the space in the corridor for individual services. The drawings
are prepared as a first draft in confirming whether there is sufficient space in any
particular highway for the services. Drawings must be color-coded in accordance with
Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4 is an example of a color-coded combined services drawing for a
straight section of road.
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These standard sections have been developed to minimize the overall land take and
indicate that, wherever possible, the corridors should be located outside of the main
roadway. If it is necessary to locate corridors within the roadway, priority should be
given to locate transmission corridors inside and distribution corridors closer to the
plot boundaries.
Once the first pass has been generated, the next stage will be to compare the
locations of existing utilities and how these positions comply or conflict with the
standard locations.
Figure 5.4 Color-coded Legend for Combined Service Drawings
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Figure 5.5 Color-coded Combined Services for a Straight Section of Road
By defining the basic road functions, utility corridors can be determined by

considering the following road elements:
• Median width: Lighting poles and pipes for treated sewage effluent (TSE) used for
irrigation are normally placed in the median. The median can vary from 3 to 8 m wide.
• Roadway width: Determined by the number of vehicle lanes that are required.
• Utility corridor width: Depends on the types of utilities and the depth and size of
utilities to be placed. Each stakeholder utility provider has its own requirements,
as detailed in Appendix D.
• Service road width.
• Parking and pavement area widths.
• Rail corridor width.
See Part 2, Planning, for additional information about roadway project planning.
5.13 Utility Corridor Design Guidelines

The utility designer must follow the design flowchart shown in Figure 5.6. The designer
also should use the standard MMUP cross sections as guidance for the placement of
utilities. See Appendix B. The cross sections are not a prescriptive right of access for the
service provider. In situations where the corridor space is severely restricted, service
providers must share the available space. The object is to facilitate provision of
designated utility corridors for all utilities for all roads types. The corridors must
delineate the locations of existing and planned utilities, and if there is any spare capacity.
Suggestions for sharing and optimizing corridors are discussed in Section 5.15.
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Figure 5.6 Designing Utility Corridors
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5.14 Road Utility Corridor Placement Considerations

The utility designer needs to use a systematic approach to place utility corridors in
existing roads. This section provides guidance for the placement of utility corridors for
existing and proposed utilities. Figure 5.6 provides guidance on the design of utility
corridors. Compliance with service provider technical requirements is a prerequisite.
For example, potable water cannot be adjacent to or below foul water sewers
(including TSE water) for health reasons. Certain supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) and telecommunications systems that have copper cable cannot
be adjacent to high-voltage power systems because of interference and other issues.
In addition the utility designer needs to consider in the vicinity of any key utility
infrastructure such as a substation or a pumping station that there may well be an
increased demand for utility corridor space. The exact requirements will vary on a
case by case hence some flexibility in the designers approach will be required.
5.14.1 Establishing Proposed Road Widths Horizontal Considerations

When designing a proposed new layout for existing roads, the utility designer needs
to follow the initial horizontal layout procedure:
1. Produce an outline plan of proposed road and junctions.

2. Refer to the technical data sheets and produce a color-coded draft layout
(rainbow layout drawings) showing the proposed combined utility corridors. See
Appendix D for the utility provider requirements. For data collection of existing
highway and service assets, is there an existing rainbow layout drawing for the
area in question?
3. Perform a utilities impact assessment; check if existing services fit into the
identified utility corridors by overlaying service provider information onto the
proposed rainbow layout drawing to determine if the existing services are located
in the proposed utility corridors.
4. Determine if the utility corridors can be adjusted to avoid any conflicts.
5. Determine if the road alignment can be adjusted to avoid identified conflicts.
6. Discuss with the relevant service provider where they wish to move or what they
wish to protect during construction if the service requires a diversion.
7. Repeat the Steps 1 through 5 for all utilities.
8. Amend the draft utility corridor plan and record all proposed changes.
9. Determine if there is a suitable alternative corridor for diversion and the potential
cost if a diversion is required.
Other aspects to take into consideration include:
• The priority is where possible to comply with the MMUP typical cross sections (see
Appendix B).
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• If not possible, the aim should be to keep the utility corridors outside the
roadway.
• If this is not possible, transmission services should be kept in the middle of the
roadway. Distribution systems should remain with their branches off to connect to
plots and should be nearer to the roadway edge/plot boundaries. This approach
reduces the number of utilities crossings.
• Utilities placed in roadway covers and frames must be placed away from the
normal wheel path.
• Oil-filled cables cannot be placed in the roadway.
5.14.2 Proposed Vertical Utility Layout Considerations

By drafting existing and the proposed utilities in 3D, it is relatively easy to identify
potential conflicts. If a new road is to be excavated to formation level and the existing
service now has less cover than the service provider requires, does the service need
to be diverted or provided extra protection? The utility designer must consult with
the service provider to resolve potential issues.
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Figure 5.7 Utility Corridor Placement
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5.14.2.1 Utility Clearances

For construction purposes and safety, service providers require a certain minimum
distance from other service apparatus. For example, in the case of electricity
transmission cables, Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA)
requires 0.5 m of separation from other services and 1 m from structures. Table D1
and the data sheets in Appendix D contains third-party clearances for service
providers.
5.14.2.2 Utility Protection

To provide safe operating areas, service providers require certain construction depths
for their apparatus. For example, KAHRAMAA requires a minimum cover of 0.9 m over
potable water mains. The dissipation of loads on the soil above the pipe at that depth
will protect the pipe. If the depth is decreased, protection measures are required to
be implemented. Protection measures are provided in the data sheets for each utility
in Appendix D and the Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (MOE, 2011).
5.14.3 Routing of Utility Corridors at intersections and Junctions

The configuration of utility corridors at road junctions and intersections requires
special considerations to avoid clashes with utilities at crossover positions. New
junction layouts tend to be large to accommodate underpasses and fly-over
structures. Utility corridors tend to have splayed corridors at crossover locations
within junctions.
5.14.4 Corridor Configuration
5.14.4.1 General
Typically, road junctions include T-junctions, crossings, and roundabouts. For utilities
that are pressurized, there is more opportunity to bend in the horizontal and vertical
positions. However, a pressurized pipeline that has a bend will have a resultant thrust
at the bend that could require a thrust block, depending on the construction material.
Parallel pressure pipelines may require a combined thrust block or the use of restraint
joints. A concrete thrust block will form a restriction in the utility corridor, whereas a
restraining joint will minimize the space requirement. Pressurized utilities and
telecommunications and electrical cables need to be splayed across the intersecting
corners of the various junction layouts. Gravity pipelines, such as foul water and
stormwater sewers, have less flexibility to maneuver around splayed corners. Where
the junction layout is at-grade, it is likely that gravity pipelines could continue across
the junction. Figure 5.7 is a color-coded combined services drawing for a simple
T-junction.
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Figure 5.8 Color-coded Combined Services for a Simple T-Junction
5.14.5 Proposed Intersection Utility Layout Considerations

Proposed intersection utility layouts need to consider and include the following:
• Pressurized services and electrical cables can be diverted around the interchange
(Figure 5.8).
• Gravity-dependent services, such as foul water and stormwater sewers, must be
on straight alignments between manholes.
• If the intersection is at ground level, the ROWs for gravity pipelines can pass
straight through the intersection.
• If there is an underpass at the intersection, it may not be possible to place the
utility corridors or gravity pipelines through the intersection; a splayed utility
corridor may have to be provided. Figure 5.7 shows a typical combined services
utility corridor at a road junction.
• The utility designer should seek design NOCs from the relevant service provider
for alterations to existing services.
• An impact assessment should be conducted.
• An NOC should be obtained from the MMUP for all services.
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Figure 5.9 Typical Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major
Collector Intersection
Where a below-grade structure is required, such as an underpass, gravity systems

may require routing around the structure. The details shown in Figure 5.9 are purely
indicative and provide guidance; each junction layout must be considered individually.
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Figure 5.10 Color-coded Combined Services Utility Corridor for a Major Collector
Roundabout
5.14.5.1 Road Bridges

Road bridges are usually aboveground structures with an approach ramp at both
ends. The support system allows the weight of the bridge to be dissipated to the
ground; a mechanical joint allows the bridge to expand and contract due to changes
in ambient temperature. Often a bridge will have some form of void within the deck
structure. Telecomms, low- and medium-voltage power networks, and some service
providers may be allowed to place their apparatus. within the void (pressure services)
or on top of the deck within the sidewalk. Pressure mains and cables typically can be
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accommodated through a bridge deck, but gravitational systems typically cannot.

Issues that will need to be developed with the service authority and the bridge
designers include:
• Access chambers at both ends of the bridge (in the approaches) must be carefully
located to assist in providing access and to allow for the withdrawal for
replacement of the utility.
• For pressure networks, high points require air valves to avoid accumulation of air
within the pipe. These require quite a bit of space above the crown of the pipe,
which can be difficult to accommodate, depending on the bridge design.
• Bridges have thermal expansion movement joints to accommodate the expansion
and contraction that occurs within. The utilities have different rates of expansion
and contraction and must be able to move independently of the bridge structure;
therefore, support systems must be carefully considered. The manner in which the
utilities pass through the bridge abutments must be carefully detailed to allow for
differential movement.
• Dry services are often placed within the sidewalks of the bridges within protective
steel ducts.
5.14.5.2 Road Overpasses

A road overpass is very similar to a road bridge except the end supports are usually
embedded in a constructed embankment. The depth of the overpass allows routing of
pressurized and non-gravity services across the overpass.
5.14.5.3 Road Underpasses

A road underpass is a belowground structure that allows traffic to pass beneath an at-
grade road. The typical depth is about 7.5 m. There is limited opportunity for routing
utility services thorough an underpass.
It should be noted that underpasses require drainage, electricity, and water for
lighting and life services.
5.14.5.4 Road Junctions and Roundabouts

In all road junctions and roundabouts, the available splayed areas depend on such
variables as width and splay angle. The utility designer needs to route the utility
corridor efficiently around such obstructions as bridges or underpasses. Figure 5.8
and Figure 5.10 show suggested road layouts for utility corridors.
5.15 Dealing with Utility Congestion in Narrow Corridors

Where road ROW widths are restricted, the services might not follow logical utility
corridors. This section describes alternative methods for reducing utility impacts in
narrow roads.
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5.15.1 Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Standard Highway and Utility
Sections
Where possible, the standard MMUP cross sections should be followed (see
Appendix B). When they cannot, the list of potential solutions discussed in
Section 5.15.1 through Section 5.15.11 provides the order of priorities to be followed
wherever possible. The checklist provided in Appendix C provides a logical path of the
process the designer needs to follow.
Tools are available to help the utility designer overcome spatial constraints.
A utility corridor is normally has two key features:
• Transmission system, such as pipes, ducts, or cables, typically take up one-fourth

to one-third of the utility corridor.
• Structures such as manholes, connection chambers, and the related plant typically
take up significantly more of the corridor but spaced at regular intervals that vary
depending on the type of structure. Typically, they are 40 to 80 m apart.
With careful planning, it is possible to stagger the adjacent utility structures and to
overlap adjacent corridors to take up less space in the ROW. Figure 5.10 shows an
example of overlapping utility corridors.
The consequence of overlapping utility corridors is that the rainbow drawings start to
overlap. For these overlaps, a different CAD line style will help the reader visualize the
layout. The lower image in Figure 5.10 is an example of combined line styles.
Figure 5.11 Overlapping Utility Corridors
5.15.2 Telecommunications
The Ministry of Information, Communications and Technology (ictQATAR), which
regulates telecommunications, is due to publish, in the near future, a telecoms
manual which includes a combined trench arrangement for the various telecoms
providers. This guidance document should be used for spatial considerations in new
highway design.
It is recommended that all telecoms be installed at the same time. This is especially
important with the new configuration of the ducts and chambers, which are much
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closer together. By installing telecoms simultaneously, it minimizes the risks of

potential damage to infrastructure.
5.15.3 Combined Trenches

Combined trenches can reduce utility corridor congestion. Several utilities are
compatible and ideally suited for a combined trench, including the following:
• Foul water and stormwater sewers.

• Water and TSE mains. Potable mains must be located above TSE mains, as shown
in Figure 5.11, to avoid contaminating the potable water supply.
• Low-voltage electric and telecommunications cables.
• ITS cables and appurtenances should be located in the same corridor as street
lighting.
Figure 5.12 Typical Combined Trenches
Combined trenches have the following are advantages:
• Lower costs because of reduced excavation

• Reduced size of the utility corridor
• Lower installation costs
Combined trenches have the following are disadvantages:
• More difficult maintenance because of proximity of services

• Greater risk of damage to multiple services during excavation work
• Greater need to coordinate construction work at the site
5.15.4 Stacking Utilities

Trench widths can be reduced if utilities are stacked, but this method must be
acceptable to the service provider. Unlike combined trenches where different utilities
are placed together, stacking places multiples of the same utility one upon another
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within the same corridor. This technique involves planning and installing the utilities
at the same time. Typically, transmission services could be placed below distribution
services. Normally, the distribution systems need to be accessed for maintenance
more frequently than the transmission systems. An example of stacking is a deep
service, such as a foul water gravity main, where the space above the pipe could be
used for cables and similar shallow services or trees. This technique may be used
where pressure transmission pipes are deep, such as district cooling pipes. Trees need
to have short roots (or be in a root containment device) so the root ball does not
develop around or break into the service lines.
Distribution systems normally supply a small area. To access the distribution system,
it needs to be possible to either temporarily divert or take the service out of
commission for a short period. With most utilities, often an alternative source can be
used to supply customers, thereby limiting impacts on end users. For example, looped
systems for potable water allow feeds from either side of the loop; power systems
similarly have an alternate supply down to the feeder pillar level.
Figure 5.12 shows small local distribution mains stacked above a large TSE main. For
water transmission mains, the larger transmission main is laid at the lower depth, and
a protection slab is laid on the bedding followed by smaller rising mains.
Figure 5.13 Example of Stacked Pressure Mains for Treated Sewage Effluent
Figure 5.13 shows another example of stacking where lower voltage distribution
power cables overlying transmission HV cables.
5.15.5 Electrical Utility Corridors

The design of electrical utility corridors take into account issues associated with heat
dissipation for the rating of the cables. In general, for buried cables, the higher the
amperage or power rating, the greater the spacing requirement between cables. In
Qatar, where ground surface temperatures are high, power cables can become
derated if heat dissipation is not managed. However, spreading the cables
horizontally has created wide corridors for electric service. Cables could be stacked to
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use the available space most efficiently. Figure 5.14 shows an example of electrical
stacking.
Figure 5.14 Dry Cable Stacking
There are several solutions to dissipate heat from electrical cables. The following
suggestions could help to reduce the space requirement; however, they all have a
cost implication that needs to be assessed as part of the decision-making process:
• Surround the cables with a suitable heat-dissipating soil.

• Duct the cables, and inject a suitable heat-dissipation grout to surround the cables.
• Increase the diameter of the cables.
• Provide a utility gallery. This is considered a last-case option. See the checklist in
Appendix C for gallery considerations.
• Review options for different geometrics such as the use of single-core and
multicore trefoil configurations with an aim to reduce spatial requirements.
5.15.6 Electrical Duct Bank System

Where electrical cables cross roads, the normal requirement for short distances is to
provide an electrical duct bank system. See the service provider data sheets provided
in Appendix D. A duct bank system can also be used in situations other than road
crossings, if heat dissipation can be controlled. One possibility is running the district
cooling feed through the bottom of the duct system and cooling the surrounding duct
bank. This solution might be more expensive than the existing system of cabling, but it
may alleviate utility congestion issues.
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5.15.7 Utility Gallery

Utility galleries are normally smaller structures than utility tunnels and can form a
solution for restricted utility corridors where space is an issue. Because of the cost,
utility galleries are one of the last options to be considered.
A utility gallery is usually a circular or rectangular conduit through which various

utilities can be routed. Although the gallery is a confined space, it allows access to
install different services. A circular gallery can be micro-tunneled, avoiding disruption
to surface features.
It is normal practice to split services into wet and dry galleries. Wet galleries are for
services such as potable water, irrigation TSE, and district cooling. Dry galleries are for
electric cables and telecommunications. Services are placed on racks bolted to the
gallery walls or on cantilevered shelves. Gravity pipe systems like foul water and
stormwater sewers are not normally placed in galleries, because the gradient of those
systems would dictate the profile of the gallery.
The galleries are confined spaces and require lighting and ventilation to comply with
the Ministry of Interior’s civil defense requirements. Dry section cables generate heat
in the conduction process, and forced ventilation is another design consideration.
5.15.7.1 Utility Gallery Strategy

A utility gallery has the advantage of compressing services into a smaller area by
stacking them inside a structure. A utility gallery should be considered depending on
the available space, costs, and the present and future requirements of services
required in that location. The MMUP checklist guidelines need to be followed for
inclusion of a gallery.
Underpasses pose a particular restriction in space, and a gallery structure resolves the
spacing issue. However, cooperation between the various service providers is
required for underpasses, and there is a relatively higher cost in providing the gallery
structure. The higher cost is slightly offset by the reduced excavation costs for each
individual service. Figure 5.13 through Figure 5.15 show typical electric utility
galleries.
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Figure 5.15 Typical Electrical Gallery
Figure 5.16 Cross Section Showing Typical Electrical Gallery Provisions
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Figure 5.17 Typical Circular Electrical Gallery
5.15.7.2 Utility Gallery Design

Electrical galleries provided solely for power cables can decrease the space required
between cables because the gallery can be air-conditioned. The cables are laid out on
stacked shelves to use space most efficiently. A wet gallery is possible if the pipes are
small and fittings can be accommodated inside the gallery. The size of the pipe work
might require construction of a larger utility tunnel.
The shape of the utility gallery unit can be circular or rectangular to suit construction
needs. If the construction is to be open-cut trenching, a rectangular chamber can be
used (Figure 5.16). If the ground conditions are unfavorable for shuttering and in situ
concreting works, a circular tunnel that is pipe-jacked may be an alternative method
(Figure 5.17).
The main design considerations for a utility gallery are as follows:
• Utility galleries need to be watertight; groundwater cannot penetrate inside.

• Gallery wall materials need to be durable, such as concrete.
• Utility galleries require an automatic fire protection system. Because of the closer
proximity of the services, there is a greater risk of damage to other services in the
event of a fire.
• Segmentation of the gallery is required so that a fire can be confined.
• Utility galleries must resist external loadings.
• There needs to be access for maintenance.
• Air conditioning, ventilation, or both is required for each compartmentalized
section. Careful consideration must be made for the location of ventilation shafts,
especially if these are to protrude above the ground level.
• There must be space for existing and future utility provisions.
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• A backdrop chamber is required to bend the cables from a shallow level to a

deeper level. A critical issue that needs careful planning with EHV cables are the
minimum bending radii of the proposed cables (both in the vertical and horizontal
directions).
• Cable support systems will need to be selected to suit the types of cables to be
supported.
• Lighting, earthing, and bonding are required.
• Emergency planning and associated risks need to be evaluated and mitigated for.
• An operational and maintenance manual needs to be prepared at the construction

stage.
5.15.8 Utility Tunnels

Utility tunnels are circular or rectangular underground structures that allow
maintenance entry and allow utilities to be stacked inside the structure. Due to their
construction methods, utility tunnels are often deeper than galleries, which are
normally constructed down from the surface. Utility tunnels are larger and usually
deeper than utility galleries. They incorporate a wet side for potable water, district
cooling, and irrigation TSE and a dry side for electrical cables. Large utility tunnels
with infrequent access points require forced ventilation. Fire detection and fire
suppression systems need to be incorporated.
On the wet side of the utility tunnel, a floor drainage system is usually provided.
Dismantling of wet services may involve accidental discharges of water into the
tunnel, so a drainage system to collect this water is incorporated into the structure.
Utility tunnels have the following advantages:
• Utilities combined below ground are contained in a waterproof compartment.

• Utilities are relatively easy to install.
• Tunnels provide good access for maintenance.
• There are no problems with location of services.
Utility tunnels have the following disadvantages:
• They are expensive to construct compared to other options.

• Confined space needs ventilation.
• Fire and safety protection are required.
• Tunnel facilities require maintenance.
Figure 5.16 shows a utility tunnel under construction, and Figure 5.17 shows a tunnel
with utilities installed.
Utility tunnels and utility galleries need proper maintenance to function efficiently.
Lighting, ventilation, and fire suppression systems need to be maintained. At first, the
maintenance of these structures and services must be the responsibility of a specialist
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consultant or contractor. After an agreed-upon period, Ashghal will assume

responsibility for the maintenance.
Figure 5.18 Utility Tunnel under Construction
Figure 5.19 Utility Tunnel with Services Installed
The utility designer needs to give special consideration for crossover tunnels
(Figure 5.18). Where there are wet and dry tunnels and one of the services changes
direction, one tunnel must be elevated above the other to change direction. This is
particularly important at multilevel junctions. More depth is needed near the
underpass structures for crossover tunnels.
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Figure 5.20 Utility Crossover Tunnel
5.15.9 Deep Sewers and Metro Tunnels

Deep sewers and Metro tunnels run 10 to 60 m below ground level and will not affect
most shallower services. The main impact is the “land take” for construction and
permanent access to the tunnels.
Sewers up to 3 m in internal diameter tend to be constructed using micro-tunneling

or pipe-jacking techniques. Sewer runs are straight lines, and access shafts must be
large enough to allow passage of the hydraulic jacking equipment and one length of
pipe. This arrangement typically requires a shaft roughly 5 to 7 m in diameter. The
final completed shaft (roughly 1.5 m in diameter) does not take up much land, which
would effectively sterilize sections of utility corridors at the shallower depths. Access
shafts are normally spaced 100 to 200 m apart, although various factors can influence
spacing.
The internal diameter of Metro tunnels is 7.5 m. The normal method of construction is a
tunnel boring machine (TBM) or an earth pressure balance machine (EPBM). These are
long machines that require a large shaft (about 25 m in diameter) to drop the TBM into
place. The segments can be altered slightly, and can incorporate gradual curves into the
tunnel to provide more flexibility in alignment. The shafts can be as long as
1.7 kilometers (km). After construction, the final access can be greatly reduced.
5.15.10 Impact on Utility Corridors for Metro Stations and Tunnels

Mass transit stations are designed for a large number of passenger movements.
Typically, a station concourse can be 200 to 300 m long, depending on the number of
passenger movements. Underground stations have a wide footprint that usually
allows two 7.5 m tunnels. Transit tunnels are below most utilities, except deep
utilities such as deep interceptor sewers. Escalators bring passengers to the ground
level. Passenger exit and entry structures, air vents, and station blocks all restrict the
available space for utility crossings (Figure 5.21).
Appendix D contains Qatar Rail’s guidelines for the protection of its tunnels. The
protection zones, particularly above the Metro tunnels, restrict the vertical space in
the highway corridor (Figure 5.22). Discussions and workshops with Qatar Rail early in
the roadway design process will identify areas of conflict in vertical and horizontal
alignments.
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Figure 5.21 Typical Cross Section of a Utility Corridor and Transit Station
Figure 5.22 Qatar Rail Metro Protection Zones
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The white area around the tunnel is identified as an exclusion zone where no
construction or utilities should be located.
The shaded area outside the exclusion zone is known as an adjustment zone, which
provides an allowance in the geometry of the line and level of the Metro tunnel
during the design and construction phases. If it becomes necessary to locate a utility
corridor within the adjustment zone, negotiations will be required with the
Overseeing Organization. Once the Metro has been constructed, this zone will no
longer be required by the Metro authority.
5.16 Street Furniture, Landscaping, and Other Considerations

Street furniture and landscaping are important aspects of highway design and provide
an interface between the hard concrete and tarmac elements of road construction
and the natural surroundings. The landscape designer should provide comfortable
surroundings for the road user, making road usage as pleasant as possible. Trees and
vegetation provide a valuable ecosystem for wildlife and help to mitigate carbon
dioxide emissions. Street furniture includes gantries, street-lighting columns, road
signs, benching, seats, rubbish bins, and other fixtures and fittings located in the
roadway ROW. Landscaping is covered in detail in Part 22, Landscape and Planting
Design. Those items requiring foundations interact with the utilities corridors spatial
requirements. Typically, streetlight columns, gantries, and road signs are located close
to the curb line. Because of their regular spacing, these items are often combined
within the same corridor with tree pits to minimize the spatial requirements outside
the roadway corridor.
The landscape designer and the utility designer are both concerned with the
belowground elements of plants and trees. For this reason, landscape, utility, and
road designers must liaise with each other at an early stage of a project to develop a
coordinated concept design.
The chief problems the utility designer faces are the positioning of trees, tree root
depth, and the risk of penetration or ground movement. Service providers generally
do not allow trees directly over their apparatus and require that trees be sited at
specified distances from the service to avoid tree root issues. This is particularly
important where tree roots are deep and aggressive. In Qatar, landscaped trees tend
to be shorter and have limited root systems.
Trees can be placed in planters so the roots are contained and the planter can be
placed either on the ground surface or below the surface, as shown in Figure 5.23.
The trees can be easily moved when access to services is required, and roots are
contained so there is no damage to services below the planter.
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Figure 5.23 Tree Planters Above and Below Ground
Grasses and shrubs typically have minor root balls and are generally considered
acceptable over all services.
Consideration may be given to locating deeper services under the tree corridors.
These might include district cooling or sewers and would need to be more than 2.5 m
deep. Typical tree plantings with cables and street lighting provided in Figure 5.24.
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Figure 5.24 Typical Tree Plantings with Cables and Street Lighting
5.17 Land Acquisition

Acquiring land to extend the overall highway ROW for utilities is no longer an
accepted practice. Alternative ways of fitting utilities into the available space need to
be considered before acquiring more land. Land owned by the government could be
reassigned to utilities. Using the Qatar land use document, it is possible to establish
the boundary details for different land uses. For additional information, refer to the
Doha Interim Zoning Maps and Regulations (2008).
Acquisitions of private land may involve long negotiations with the landowners.
Government land may have a shorter period of acquisition. Early discussions with the
MMUP Property Section will indicate the availability of land. Figure 5.25 is an example
clip file from the MMUP Property Section system. The MMUP Property Section
initiates a formal process when land is to be procured by MMUP Engineering Section.
The land acquisition process can be protracted and should be avoided if time
constraints are critical to the project.
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Figure 5.25 Example Clip File from the MMUP Property Section System showing
Doha Zones
5.17.1 Easements
A utility easement is a contractual agreement with a landowner to accommodate
utilities components, apparatus, pipes, and cables that are laid either in the ground
or, in the case of power cables, aboveground. This effectively locates the utility
outside the highway ROW, often on private land, as shown on Figure 5.26. The
easement provides the utility service provider access to perform future maintenance
or replacement work. The utility provider will also seek assurances that there is an
element of “sterilization” of the land immediately surrounding the service. Usually
this means no building over the service. The landowner is compensated for the loss of
land use. Easements are commonly used in the United Kingdom, the United States,
and Australia. While easements are not currently used in Qatar, it is considered that
their use will become an option in the near future.
A buffer is an area of land that can vary in width and that serves as a demarcation
between the main highway and service roads and footways, as shown on Figure 5.26.
Figure 5.26 Typical Easement Strip and Buffer
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5.18 Buffer Areas

A buffer area could be an area of land next to the highway or a strip of land between
highways and service roads (refer to Figure 5.26). Services can be located in buffer
areas; however, the services will need to be protected against vehicle wheel loading.
Any encroachment into the buffer areas should place the first corridor as close to the
existing RoW as possible and to move out from there with subsequent corridors.
Thereby minimizing any impact on the surrounding land.
5.19 Utilities in Private Developments

Qatar has several autonomous private developments. Usually these developments
build to Qatar standards so that highways and utilities can be returned to the various
service providers for their adoption (to take over the ownership, and hence operation
and maintenance responsibilities). After the fact, retroactive adoption is difficult if the
service provider has not been involved in the design approval process and
subsequently inspected the installation of the service.
If the developer intends to have an apparatus adopted, it is important that the

standard guidelines be followed. It is also important that there be no conflicts at tie-in
points.
5.20 Temporary Construction of Utility Corridors

During construction, it may be necessary to provide a temporary service or temporary
diversion in a certain location to maintain the network integrity. For example, a water
main may need to be temporarily relocated until the project is complete. Relocation
might last for weeks or years. A temporary corridor allocation is required.
5.21 Operation and Maintenance Considerations

Operational works involving a service provider’s apparatus and corridors include the
daily routine work required for that service to function. For example, irrigation system
valves need to be operated regularly, and valve chambers must be sited so that
operators are not at risk. Each service provider has a set of operational requirements
to maintain their service.
The other type of operational work is planned or reactive maintenance when a system
unexpectedly breaks down. Temporary diversions might need to be implemented and
safe areas created to facilitate repair work. Larger pipeline systems require safe
access to their apparatus, and the location of shaft access is very important.
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6 Preliminary Design
After the concept design is approved, the consultant shall prepare a preliminary
design for all of the works, in accordance with the Project Brief. In general, the
preliminary design shall provide sufficient information to accurately define the utility
requirements.
6.1 Deliverables
The following are recommended preliminary design deliverables and required
consultations and reports for utilities and services:
• Plans and cross sections showing the existing and proposed utilities
• Status report of consultations with utilities and other affected parties
• Cost estimates
• Diversions, upgrades, and new utilities required by the service authorities and
service providers
• Detailed model of the existing utilities and proposals for the utility diversions; 3D
is recommended
• Line and level data for relevant diversions
6.2 Service Connections

6.2.1 Existing Service Connections
Property owners will require connections to diverted distribution utilities, such as
water, gas, sewage, electricity, and telecommunications. It is anticipated that
shallower services (telecommunications and electric cables) could pass over the main
cable ducts and placed in a duct system for future maintenance. Deeper services,
water lines, and sewers need to pass under cable duct systems. For new roads, it is
proposed that the main service and duct crossings for connections be placed on
opposite sides of the road.
6.2.2 Future Connections and Empty Plots

A key consideration when working on a greenfield site is to avoid the re-excavation of
newly laid surfacing; therefore, it is recommended that utilities are laid up to the plot
boundaries prior to surfacing works. The installation of ducts can be one way of
avoiding the installation of expensive services until they are actually required. Where
utility interfacing precedes plot development, stub pipes with marker posts are
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required to avoid re-digging highway and verge spaces. The normal practice is to
provide the service connections 1 m inside the plot boundary.
6.3 Location and Design Considerations for Electrical and

Telecom Chambers and Draw Pits
Chambers are usually larger than the cables and ducts they serve; however, many
corridors are not wide enough. To minimize the spatial requirements, chambers can
be staggered with other utilities to reduce the footprint of the overall utility corridor.
In addition, cables are relatively flexible and can be curved around a structure if
necessary. Manufacturers’ recommendations for bending radii need to be followed at
all times.
International best practice suggests that electric transmission cable chambers can be
laid in the highway, especially in parking bays and service roads where future repair
works will not obstruct vehicle movements on the main highway. Distribution
mains/cables need to be laid in the verges close to plot boundaries. Chambers and
covers in service roads and parking bays need to have traffic load covers, and
chambers need to be robust enough to receive traffic loading. Refer to Standard
BS EN 124 (1994) for cover ratings in traffic areas.
During the preliminary design stage, the following reports are required by Ashghal,
with the utility inputs in bold:
• Startup and hand-over details

• Program methodology
• Revised hydrological
• Updated land acquisition
• Revised environmental
• Revised landscaping
• Revised utility impact assessment
• Revised utility design
• Preliminary highway design
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7 Detailed Design Deliverables

The consultant shall prepare a detailed design in accordance with the Project Brief. In
general, the detailed design shall provide details and specifications necessary to fully
define the whole of the works to be carried out for the project.
The following are detailed design deliverables for utilities and services, including the
required consultations, tender documents, and a report recommending the design:
• Sufficient detail regarding the development of the design, the considerations and
recommendations made, and the actions taken in response to comments and
requirements transmitted during the whole design study process
• Updated cost estimates
• Detailed Design Report that addresses all aspects of the design, including the
updated drawings, specifications, and any other necessary documentation
• Updated plans and cross sections showing the existing and proposed utilities
• Combined utility plans and drawings showing all infrastructure (for example,
bridges, retaining walls, substations, and pumping stations) and stormwater
detention and storage elements
• Detailed 3D model of the existing utilities and proposals for the utility diversions
• Proposals that accurately define the line and level of all diversions and a full clash
analysis
• Tender documents comprising the project drawings, Form of Tender including
appendixes, Instruction to Tenderers, Conditions of Contract, Specifications, Bills
of Quantities including Preambles, and any accompanying reports and contractual
forms
• Updated and approved Status of Land Acquisition
• Written confirmation and approval from the MMUP Land Information Centre that
all land within the proposed road corridor is available for expropriation and that all
encroachments are cleared
• Written approvals of the service authority's design departments, KAHRAMAA,
Qatar Petroleum, Qatar Gas, MOE, Ooredoo, other telecommunications networks,
and any other concerned authorities
Upon completion of the service and utilities drawings and associated documentation
that show all requirements specified by each utility provider, the consultant shall
obtain from each utility provider a stamped copy of the combined utility drawings,
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with a letter stating that the works specified on the drawings comply with
requirements and that the scheme is approved.
In the final detailed design stage, the following reports require approval of the
Overseeing Organization:
• Final design
• Land acquisition
• Program
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References
Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. Abu Dhabi Utility Corridors Design Manual, Version 1. United
Arab Emirates. 2012.
Ashghal. Qatar Work Zone Traffic Management Guide, Version 1.0. Principal of Temporary Traffic
Management. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha Qatar. March 2013.
Doha Interim Zoning Maps and Regulations, Zones 1 through 68. April 2008.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (QCS 2010). 2011.
BS EN 124. Gully Tops and Manhole Tops for Vehicular and Pedestrian Areas. British Standard
Institution: London, England. 1994.
England. Various dates.
General Secretariat for Development Planning. Qatar National Vision 2030: Advancing
Sustainable Development. Doha, State of Qatar. http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/
gsdp_en/qatar_national_vision/qnv_2030_document/QNV2030_English_v2.pdf. July 2009.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). Impact Assessment Guidance Information.
State of Qatar. May 2011.
National Joint Utilities Group (NJUG) Guidelines on the Positioning and Colour Coding of
Underground Utilities’ Apparatus. London, England. April 2003.
Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards. Ministry of Communications—Directorate

General of Roads. Prepared by Dar Al-Handasah; Shair and Partners. 2010.
Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads. Road Planning and Design Manual
(RPDM). 2nd edition. State of Queensland, Australia. at http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/business-
industry/Technical-standards-publications/Road-planning-and-design-manual-2nd-edition.aspx.
2013.
Urban Planning and Development Authority. Qatar Survey Manual. Ministry of Municipal and
Urban Planning. State of Qatar. 2009.
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Appendix A
Data Verification
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Data Verification
Topographical Surveys
The topographical survey must follow the 2009 Qatar Survey Manual (Urban Planning &
Development Authority, 2009) available from the Ministry of Municipality & Urban Planning
(MMUP). For the design of utility corridors, it is important to establish accurate details of the
total highway corridor and prescribed utility corridors. To facilitate this requirement, a
topographical survey must be carried out. The survey must precisely define all the highway
boundaries and surface features, which will influence the utility corridor design in particular and
utility structures in general. The survey must be based on the Qatar National Datum with
temporary level stations established along the route of the proposed highway improvement
project. The data produced must be checked with data received from the service provider. Any
errors found in matching data must be reported in a Discrepancy Report and issued to both
MMUP and the relevant service provider. The service provider will then be asked to investigate
the errors and provide updated information regarding their particular assets.
Site Walk-Over Survey and Marker Posts

The utility designer is responsible for a site walk-over survey to verify data provided by the
service provider and note any other features that are not apparent from information already
received. Photographs and video recordings of this walk will form a historical data set for
reference in any claims dispute by contractors. Utility marker posts give physical evidence of
utility location and depth, and this information needs to be captured during this walk-over
survey. Photographic and video records of the initial site visited need to be taken for future
reference.
Lift and Look Surveys

“Lift and look” surveys are normally conducted at the concept stage of design, if required. Such
surveys require a fully trained team of operators to gather data on underground assets. The
service providers must be consulted. Their formal permission to conduct the survey is required to
lift manhole covers. Typical information required is invert level, diameter, and valve chamber
configuration, all of which is recorded in a report format. Date-stamped photographs must be
taken as a formal historical record of the survey.
The lifting of manholes requires fully trained personnel. One the main concerns of lifting heavy
objects, such as manhole covers, is the strain on the human vertebra and possible long-term
damage. The maximum lifting load for a human being is 30 kilograms (kg). This weight should be
lifted using bent knees and a straight back. Employers need to avoid using employees to lift
manhole covers and use either mechanical or hydraulic manhole-lifting equipment. See
Figures A.1 and A.2.
A confined space is another health and safety issue that needs to be addressed with skilled and
trained personnel. No contractor should to be allowed to enter a confined space such as a
manhole or valve chamber without full confined space training, suitable personal protection, gas
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detection, escape apparatus, and permission from Ashghal. Contractors will be criminally liable
for damages arising from negligence.
Figure A.1 Hydraulic Manhole Lifting Equipment
Figure A.2 Mechanical Manhole Lifting Equipment
Trial Holes
Trial holes will help accomplish the following:
• Confirm the locations of particular services.

• Establish the accuracy of data provided by the various authorities.
• Confirm where there is spare space.
• Clarify what the situation is at difficult utility crossing points.
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The utility designer must specify the size of the trial hole and locate the pit using northing and
easting coordinates. The trial hole will normally be a trench running perpendicular to the
roadway and the utilities (assuming they are running parallel to the roadway). It will be typically
0.8 to 1.0 m wide (depending on depths and need for shoring protection), and depths are
dependent upon the services being located. These pits will typically be from the ROW boundary
up to the roadway limits. Trial pits in the roadway are discouraged except in exceptional
circumstances. Trial holes are normally excavated by hand. The excavations establish data such as
depth, size, and location of utility services. The coordinates of the trial hole and the apparatus
found in the hole need to be recorded. Permission is required from the relevant service authority,
and the service provider may require its site staff to oversee the excavation work. A record of the
findings of the trial holes needs to be added to the project historical database, as well as
photographs taken as evidence.
Trial pits must be reinstated to the existing conditions and in compliance with the QCS and
Ashghal’s requirements.
Tracing Utility Apparatus

Electronic metal detectors and signal generators have become the standard equipment for
noninvasive detection of cables and metallic underground pipe work. Where it is deemed
necessary to collect data on nonferrous materials (for example, concrete and clay sewers), an
ultrasonic probe may need to be introduced into the sewer on rods. The probe can be detected
at ground level using a scanning device. Another technique for collecting data on buried services
is ground-penetrating radar (GPR).
The data collected from the tracing of underground utilities are normally shown on a plan
drawing as a series of points with coordinates. Where the detector has been used to estimate the
depth of a utility, the information is also given as a text value.
Ground-penetrating Radar
Most Ashghal contracts require a GPR survey. GPR is useful in predicting underlying ground
conditions and in locating services in certain situations. Figure A.3 shows typical ground scanning
equipment. However, the results of GPR can be difficult to interpret and are open to operator
interpretation. Groundwater water can affect the readings.
The technology of GPR is gradually changing. However, any tool that gives an indication of
changes in underground structure and utility location can be regarded as useful collaborative
information, but it should be used with discretion.
Ground in areas where there is uncertainly of underlying services and ground make-up should be
scanned. The results of scanning will look similar to the diagram in Figure A.4. The colored, arch-
shaped objects are the results of radar energy being reflected off underground objects. The lower
half of Figure A.4 shows the various pipes and subjects detected in the ground.
The operator should then produce an interpretation report indicating the approximate position
of the services found. A GPR survey should be performed before trial holes are excavated, and
may act as another requirement for the necessity of a trial hole.
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Figure A.3 Ground-penetrating Radar Equipment
Figure A.4 Results of GPR Scanning
Metal Detectors
Metal detectors are useful in locating buried manhole covers and metallic services.
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Utility Location Equipment and Method of Location

Electronic devices (often referred to as a cable avoidance tool or Cat & Genny) are available to
detect underground utilities. The general location detector and signal generator shown in
Figure A.5 provide a high level of detection rate for certain utility services. Unfortunately,
concrete, asbestos cement, plastic pipe such as polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene, do not
transmit signals and are not readily located using this type of equipment. To counter this, many
service providers lay detector tape over their services to assist in locating them.
Location Technique 1
The first technique used to locate metal pipes uses a generator that transmits a pulse of energy
into the ground. Any metallic structure in the ground bounces the transmitted signal back to the
detector. By turning the detector and checking the received signal, the line of the pipe can be
ascertained, as shown in Figure A.6. This technique is also useful if the pipe joints are not metal-
to-metal.
Location Detector Signal Generator
Figure A.5 Location Detector for Underground Utilities
Figure A.6 Signal Generator over Metal Pipe
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Another technique used to locate metal pipes also uses a signal generator, which is a powerful
standalone generator of energy that in this case is connected directly to the metallic pipe. A pulse
of energy is transmitted along the pipe and the detector picks up the transmitted signal, as
shown in Figure A.7. This is an efficient way of detecting pipes. Unfortunately, if the pipe joints
are not metal-to-metal, the signal does not transfer across the joint and the signal does not
progress very far up the pipeline.
To locate other pipes that cannot transfer signals along themselves such as plastic pipes, a sonde,
which is a cylindrical transmitter, is passed through the pipe by using a rod. The transmitter is
detected from the surface by using the location detector. The sonde is pushed in 1- to 5-meter
steps and traced during each step.
Signal on
Detector
Detector
Burried
Pipe
Direction of
movement of
detector
Figure A.7 Handheld Detector over Buried Pipe
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Appendix B
Ministry of Municipality and
Urban Planning Sections
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Appendix C
Checklists
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MMUP UTILITY IMPACT ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
EXPRESSWAY
Item Description Yes No Comments
1.0 Data Collection
1.1 Data collected of all the existing and proposed utilities from
utility agencies? Information must be current (not older than 4
months.) The agencies are:
a. MMUP
b. Ashghal (Drainage, TSE and Foul Sewer)
c. Ashghal – Road Projects
d. Qatar Petroleum
e. Kahramaa Electricity
f. Kahramaa Water
g. ictQatar
h. Qtel
i. Vodafone
j. QNBN
k. DSSS
l. Qatar Cool
m. District Cooling – Kahramaa
n. Qatar Arm Forces (QAF)
o. Qatar Rail Company (QRail)
p. Others (Specify)
Attributes of utilities should also be requested i.e. size, type, age,

material, class and any other relevant information such as
voltage, operating pressure etc…
1.2 Coordinated with adjacent as well as Large Projects?
a. Mega Reservoirs
b. IDRIS
c. Metro
d. Q2022
e. QIDMP
f. Local Road & Drainage Program
g. Others
1.3 Coordinated with Utility agencies regarding existing and future

abandonments as well possible upgrades within the vicinity of
the project corridor?
Conducted topographic survey and geophysics survey (GPR,
1.4
Radio detection & Trial Pits)?
1.5 Assessed all the discrepancies between the survey and the ‘As
Built’ and forwarded to relevant agencies?
Version 01 C:\Users\m9440\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Windows\Tempora ry Internet

Files\Content.Outlook\69OVD881\Utility checklist ‐ Expressway Program‐final.docx
P a g e |1 Prepared by: mhamidy; June 13
EXPRESSWAY
2.0 Study of the Roads and Surrounding Area
2.1 Identified the location of the project?
a. Rural
b. Urban
c. Inner Urban
2.2 Type of Roads
a. Expressway
b. Arterial
c. Local Urban Collector
d. Local Urban Access
e. Others (please specify)
2.3 Studied the Land Use Plan, future adjacent developments
(shopping centers, industries, hospitals, institutions etc…), and
major utilities along the corridor e.g. substation, pump stations,
water tanks etc.?
3.0 Road Design and Layout
3.1 Completed the Road layout design including all the Junctions,
Access, Ramps, Walls, Bridges etc.?
3.2 Proposed Land acquisition required for road design has been
developed?
4.0 Assessment of each impacted existing utility
4.1 Studied the proposed road configuration including;
a. A comparison of the existing profile vs. the proposed
profile?
b. Proposed Landscape treatments (hard & soft)?
c. Surface as well as sub‐surface appurtenances and
features e.g. structural foundations?
4.2 Identified possible measures/changes that can be adopted to
minimize the impact on existing utilities?
a. Geometric (profile and alignment)
b. Road Drainage & Curb
c. Slope/Retaining Walls/Barriers
d. Structure/Bridges/Footing
e. Other design departures for maintaining the existing
utilities.
4.3 Arrived at a decision hierarchy for utility adjustment with A being
the most preferred?
A. Keep As Is
B. Protect (including unde the service and carriageway)
C. Relocate
D. Install in a duct system
E. Install in shared trench
F. Reroute

EXPRESSWAY
G. Install in Gallery
H. Land Acquisition, difficulty rating with (i) being the
easiest to acquire.
i. Government unallocated
ii. Government allocated
iii. Private Undeveloped (no structures)
iv. Private Developed‐ old
v. Private Developed‐ new
vi. Protected Environment
vii. Protected Sensitive (PEO)
viii. Protected Heritage
4.4 Considered the following factors when adjusting the impacted
existing utilities?
a. The type of utility e.g. VC/Asbestos or AC/ DICL or Oil Fill
vs. XLPE
b. The size of the utility (distribution or transmissi n)
c. The Age of the utility and assessment for potential
upgrade.
d. The size and frequencies of the chambers
e. The frequency of maintenance
f. The proposed location of the utility within the
carriageway and the impact on traffic i.e. Lane Closures
during maintenance or breakage.
g. The hierarchy cost of relocating utilities, i.e. cost of
relocating a smaller cable/pipe vs. bigger cable/pipe
h. Identification of Primary Substations, Pump Stations etc.
i. Potential risks in case of breakage
5.0 Gallery
Generally the Gallery should be used for the transmission
network and not for the distribution network.
Consideration should be given to have a Gallery on either both
sides or one side of the carriageway. If one side ‐ select the side
that least disturbs the existing utilities, is easily constructible and
interferes less with the road geometry.
5.1 Evaluated if there is space available for distribution utilities on
top of the Gallery at grade level? (Corridors for non‐gravity
dependant utilities to be allocated on top of the Gallery.)
5.2 Confirmed that the Gallery is sized and configured to meet the
utility demand at each of the corridors?
5.3 Considered the lighting, ventilation, drainage, groundwater,
structural components, operation & maintenance of the Gallery?
6.0 Conflict Analysis
6.1 Considered utility conflicts arisi g from;

EXPRESSWAY
a. Road configuration?
b. Between different utilities?
c. Major projects e.g. Metro?
d. Adjacent projects?
7.0 Documentation & Submittals
7.1 The following documents should be provided for the full length of
the Road project in readable scale (not less than 1:500 @ A1 size):
a. Presentation of change in the road levels i.e. existing vs.
proposed in profile and cross‐section.
b. Presentation of the road layout including other projects
within the corridor e.g. Metro, IDRIS etc.
c. Presentation of existing and proposed utilities, where the
utilities shown to be "protected", "abandoned",
"removed", "kept as is", "relocated" and proposed new
utilities.
d. Presentation of Utility Corridor in plan and cross‐section.
These corridors should be based on:
i. MMUP typical cross‐section
ii. Existing utility to be maintained at their current
location (i.e. "Keep As Is" or "Protect")
iii. Planned future utilities (provided by utility
provider)
iv. Estimation of future utility needs considering the
sensitivity of corridor as per item 2.3.
e. Presentation of Cross‐sections showing MMUP allocated
utility corridors, proposed utility corridors as well as the
existing and proposed utilities.
f. Presentation of Layout Plan indicating the Land to be
acquired for Utility purposes.
7.2 It is encouraged to separate the "dry" utilities from "wet" utilities
in the layout plans for ease of documentation.
Review Engineer
Signature Name
Engineer Approve
(Project Director) Signature Name

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Appendix D
Statutory Authority
Requirements
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Utility General Data

Key Utilities Description and Constraints
Public and private utilities include telecommunications, water (potable, foul, surface, irrigation,
and chilled), electricity (transmission, distribution, lighting, intelligent transportation system, and
gas surveillance), and gas and oil lines. When utilities need to be placed within the highway
boundaries, they need to be within a prescribed utility corridor. This appendix describes the
individual utilities in Qatar, considerations that designers needs to give to the placement of these
and any other utilities, and constraints set by individual utility companies.
Materials for pipe and cable bedding are as specified in the Qatar National Construction
Standards 2010 (QCS 2010) (MOE, 2010) or in project-specific specifications
Stacking of telecommunications and electrical ducts is to be in accordance with QCS 2010 or

project-specific specifications, which needs to take into account the requirements of utility
companies, particularly if design approval is required.
Flexibility of location is key to the success of placement of utilities. Service providers will need to
work together to achieve good utility designs.
General Data for Utility Placement in Utility Corridors

The following data are provided as general guidance material for the utility designer and do not
constitute a definitive right of corridor access. All utility corridors ultimately need to be agreed
upon with the service provider and the Overseeing Organization.
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Table D.1 Summary of Horizontal and Vertical Utility Spacing
Minimum Vertical Spacing Minimum Horizontal Spacing

(mm) (mm)
Qatar Armed Forces (QAF) 400 300
Tel-Communication 400 300
500 from centre line of cables & 1000

Kahramma Electrict Distribution 500
from structures
500 from centre line of cables & 1000

Kahramma Electrict Transmission 500
from structures
Ashghal Street Lighting 300 300
Intelligent Transport Surveillance (ITS) 400 300
250 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is greater 500 & no service laid parallel to gas
Woqod - Gas
& no crossing above Gas Main main
Ashghal - Foul Drainage 300 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is greater 500
Ashghal - Foul Drainage (Deep 1500 or 1.5x dia. Which ever is the
500
Tunnels) greater spacing
Ashghal - Surface Water Drainage 300 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is greater 500
Ashghal - Irrigation TSE 300 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is greater 500
3000 from TSE, waste water

750 from TSE, waste water structure,
structures, storm drains & culverts.
Kahramma Potable Water storm drains & culverts. 500 from
1500 from electric cables,Qtel &
Electricity & Qtel, District Cooling
District Cooling. 2000 from QP oil/gas
1000 or 1.5 x Dia. Which ever is

District Cooling 1500
greater
Qrail 6000 above tunnel & 3000 below 5000
Doha Security Systems (DSS) 400 300
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Telecommunications—Qatar Armed Forces
Service Telecommunications
Width 0.5 meter (m)
Maximum Utility Size 3-way, 100-millimeter (mm) ducts (theoretical bank size based on 2-way drawing way
Feasible in Corridor duct)
Authority Ministry of Defence, Qatar Armed Forces
Address
Telephone
Laying Depth (cover) 600 mm minimum
Trench Widths 2-way (2 watt [W]) = 400 mm
Third-Party Clearance Unknown
Other Considerations Unknown
Design and Construction Unknown
Operations and Unknown

Maintenance
Alignment at property boundaries may be subject to interference into corridor of wall
footings, etc.
General Observations Although requested in all corridors, it is unlikely to be required in residential and smaller
corridors.
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Telecommunications—Ministry of Information Environment

Service Telecommunication
Width 1 m to 1.5 m depending on available space.
Maximum Utility Size 9-way, 100-mm ducts
Feasible in Corridor
Address P.O. Box 217, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44400400

Laying Depth (cover) 0.60 m minimum
Trench Widths Varies dependent on the number of ducts required
Third-party Not specified
Clearance
Design and Cable and chambers are often laid after completion of the highway construction
Construction Require space for draw pits.
Operations and Digging is not normally required for maintenance, because cables are laid between draw pits
Maintenance in ducts.
The flexible nature of ducts means that they can often be moved out of the way or
General supported when maintenance is required on other services below.
Observations It is preferable to keep ducts out of areas that may be subject to significant stormwater
runoff or standing water to reduce risk of chambers filling with water.
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Electricity—Distribution
Service Electricity—distribution
Width Varies depending on the number of cables
Authority Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA)
Telephone +974-44845555
Laying Depth (cover) Low-voltage (LV) = 0.60 m, medium-voltage (MV) = 0.80 m
Trench Widths Varies dependent on number of cables
0.50 m from centerline of cable to nearest edge of utility. 1.00 m from structures (excluding
Third-party Clearance manholes, street lights, street furniture, and trees)
Cable are often laid after completion of the highway construction which would require
Design and Construction
closing the path and parking bay and removal or reinstatement of the finishing layer.
For cable maintenance or repair if long section has to be exposed, requiring the closure of
Operation and extended stretches of the path and parking bay, and the removal or reinstatement of the
Maintenance finishing layer.
Minimum separation from other services of 0.5 m will restrict use of adjacent corridors.
General Observations According to KAHRAMAA standard drawings, cables can be laid within 150 mm of each of
corridor. Cable failure often occurs at joints.
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Electricity—Transmission
Service Electricity—transmission
Width 0.9 m for 3 cables, 1.2 m for 4 cables, and 1.8 m for 6 cables.
Maximum Utility Size Type G for extra-high-voltage (EHV) cables; see typical details.
Anticipated Maximum See typical details.
Utility Size
Authority Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA)
Tel: +974-44845555
Laying Depth (cover) High-voltage (HV) = 0.8 m, EHV=1.10 m minimum
Trench Widths Varies depending on the number of cables.
0.50 m from centerline of cable to nearest edge of utility; 1.00 m from structures (excluding
Third-party Clearance manholes, streetlights, street furniture, and trees).
Cable are often laid after completion of the highway construction, which would require
Design and Construction closing the path and parking bay and removal or reinstatement of the finishing layer. Because
of rapid urban growth, new cables and modifications to existing cables are often required.
Operation and For cable maintenance or repair if long section has to be exposed.
Maintenance
The minimum separation from other services of 0.5 m will restrict use of adjacent corridors
as according to KAHRAMAA standard drawings cables can be laid within 150 mm of each of
General Observations corridor.
Cable failure often occurs at joints.
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Electricity—Lighting
Service Electricity—lighting
Width 0.60 m
Direct buried single cable = 500 mm
Maximum Utility Size Feasible in 1-way Ducts: 150 mm unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) duct = 350 mm
Corridor 2-way Ducts: 150 mm uPVC duct = 650 mm
Authority Ashghal
Address Al Faisal Tower, P.O. Box 22188, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Between cables = 450 mm, ducts = 600 mm
Direct bury single cable = 500 mm
Trench Widths 1-way 150-mm uPVC duct = 350 mm
2-way 150-mm uPVC duct = 650 mm
Design and Construction Need to follow street light locations
Operations and Maintenance Per telecommunications.
Per telecommunications, consideration needs to be given to changing bulbs and
General Observations light emitting diodes.
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Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
Service Intelligent transportation system (ITS)

Width 0.60 m
Maximum Utility Size Feasible in 6-way (2 W) = 550 mm
Corridor
Anticipated Maximum Utility If required in residential road, 6-way (2 W × 3 H) = 550 mm
Size
Authority Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal)
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) 600 mm minimum
6-way (2 W) = 550 mm
Trench Widths Chambers 1,200 mm wide
Third-party Clearance Not specified
Other Considerations —
Per telecommunications.
Design and Construction Need to follow traffic signal locations.
Location of feeder pillars poles needs consideration.
Per telecommunications.
Operations and Maintenance Access to cabinets needs to be facing traffic
General Observations Per telecommunications
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Gas
Service Gas
Width 1.20 m
Depth 0.80 m to 1.00 m minimum
Maximum Utility Size 500 mm (based on Ashghal wet service bedding detail)
Anticipated Maximum Up to 100 mm
Utility Size
Authority Qatar Fuel (WOQOD)
Address PO Box 7777, Woqod Tower, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 4021 7777
<7-bar 600 mm in highway, 750 mm in verges, 1,100 mm uncultivated land (United
Laying Depth (cover) Kingdom [UK] National Joint Utilities Group specifications)
>7-bar 1,100 mm in verges (UK National Joint Utilities Group specifications)
Trench Widths Assumed, per sewerage pipes based on high-density polyethylene mains for all classes.
UK recommendations: No apparatus is to be laid directly above and along the line of
existing gas pipes, irrespective of clearance. Where a new plant crosses over or is laid
Third-party Clearance alongside an existing gas pipe, a minimum clearance of 250 mm (or 1.5 times the external
diameter of the gas pipe, if this is greater) between the gas pipe and the new plant needs
to be provided to allow future repair or maintenance (UK recommendations)
Other considerations —
Should be kept away from other service to reduce the risk of striking a gas pipe whilst
excavating to maintain other utility.
Design and Construction Pressurized so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.
Service pipes tapped into mains to feed properties.
Operations and Periodic maintenance of valves, flow and pressure loggers, and other equipment.
Maintenance
Ideally, not laid near other services due to risk of striking pipes during excavations.
General Observations Should not be laid near electrical cables.
Risk of gas leaking into bedding of gas and other services and migrating to voids.
Note: A bar is a unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals.
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Local Foul Sewers
Service Foul sewerage

Maximum Width Depends on depth and diameter
Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design
Authority Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Minimum unpaved = 0.90 m; minimum paved = 1.20 m; maximum depth = 5.0 m to
9.0 m
Third-party Clearance 200 mm high minimum, 500 mm high preferred, 300 mm high for twin rising mains
Minimum diameter = 300 mm
Manholes required every 80 m to 120 m on gravity lines.
Other Considerations Air valves at high points and every 800 m on rising mains
Washouts at low points and every 800 m on rising mains
Gravity sewers must be laid at a falling gradient.

Must be laid lower than existing laterals connections from properties.
Design and Construction As laterals must be laid on a falling gradient distances to main sewer needs to be kept
to minimum
Lateral connections required for new properties to manhole.
Gravity sewers are periodically jetted if solids build up. Inspection is not common
Operations and unless a problem is reported.
Maintenance Rising mains are rarely maintained unless there is a blockage or failure. Maintenance
usually carried out by jetting or pigging.
Trench bedding widths would allow approximately three 600 mm pipes to be laid in
4.00 m wide corridor.
Positioning centrally in corridor minimizes depth requirements to pick up laterals from
both sides of highway.
Positioning in highway acceptable as maintenance requirements are infrequent on
both gravity and pressure systems.
General Observations If there is blockage in the system leading to flooding at the manholes, it is desirable to
have the manholes away from pedestrian areas (paths) and the flooding would be
partially contained by the highway.
Drainage is usually the deepest service and lateral connections may be able to pass
under other services.
Settlement of highway around chambers and manholes.
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Deep Foul Sewerage (Micro Tunnels/Main Tunnels)
Service Foul sewage

Width Depends on tunnel size.
Anticipated Maximum 4,500 mm
Utility Size
Telephone +974 44950000
Third-party Clearance 1 × diameter
Minimum diameter = 3,000 mm

Other Considerations Manholes required every 1,750 m on micro-tunnel gravity lines.
Design and Construction Gravity sewers must be laid at a falling gradient.
Operations and Entry for robot maintenance for large main tunnels.
Maintenance
Main conveyance tunnel pipe size ranging from 3 m to 4.5 m in diameter at depths
10 m to 60 m below ground level.
General Observations A separate foul-water system with no provision for stormwater connections.
Main tunnel can be located under any service because of the depth of the conveyance.
Shafts positions must be in agreed-upon locations.
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Stormwater and Land Drainage
Service Stormwater
Diameter Varies
Authority Public Works Authority of Qatar (Ashghal) Roads and Drainage Network Design Department
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (Cover) Varies

Other Considerations Robot entry manholes required every 90 m on gravity lines.
Man entry manholes required every 200 m on gravity lines.
Gravity stormwater sewers must be laid at a falling gradient, and lower than existing gulley
Design and Construction connections.
Gravity stormwater sewers are jetted if solids build up. Inspection is not common unless a
Operations and problem is reported.
Maintenance Rising mains are rarely maintained unless there is a blockage or failure. Maintenance usually
carried out by jetting or pigging.
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Irrigation/Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE)
Service Treated sewage effluent (TSE)

Diameter Varies
Telephone +974 44950000
Laying Depth (cover) Assumed as sewerage
Isolation valves every 500 m to 1,000 m
Other Considerations Washouts in pipes at low points
Air valves at high points
Pressurized, so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.
Design and Construction Needs to connect into irrigation areas that can be at sides of highways or in central
reservations.
Require periodic flushing at washouts to removed sediment.

Operations and Valves exercised regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst. Some valves may be
Maintenance used to control irrigation and, therefore, are used daily.
Regular access to operate valves as preventive maintenance or part of irrigation would be

General Observations suited by valves chambers; for example, in paths and roundabouts.
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Potable Water
Service Water
Varies distribution mains typically 150 mm to 300 mm
Diameter Trunk mains can be 1,600 mm and greater in certain circumstances
Authority Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA)
Tel: +974 4845989
Laying Depth 900 mm unprotected (minimum)
(cover)
Trench Widths External pipe diameter plus 175 mm on either side.
Design and Pressurized, so can be laid at falling or rising gradients.
Construction Service pipes tapped into mains to feed properties.
Gravity sewer mains and service connections, TSE pressure mains, wastewater structures,
storm drains and culverts = 0.75 m vertical, 3.00 m horizontal
Electricity = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Third-party Ooredoo =0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Clearance Qatar Petroleum (QP) oil/gas = 0.60 m vertical, 2.00 m horizontal
Qatar Cool = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Water mains = 0.50 m vertical, 1.50 m horizontal
Tertiary main = <100 mm in diameter
Secondary main = 100 to 200 mm in diameter
Primary main = >400 mm in diameter
Isolation valves every 300 m to 2,000 m
Other Fire hydrants—residential = 300 m (150 mm diameter line)
Considerations Fire hydrants—commercial = 100 m (150 mm diameter line)
Access manholes in pipes = >400 mm
Washouts in pipes = >400 mm at low points
Air valves at high points = >400 mm
Require occasional flushing at washouts to removed sediment.

Operations and Valves operated regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst. Occasional maintenance of
Maintenance flow and pressure loggers, pressure reduction valves, and telemetry equipment.
Regular access to operate valves as preventive maintenance and to inspect flowmeters,

pressure-reducing valves, etc., would be sited by chambers in the paths, roundabouts, etc.
General The minimum 1.50 m horizontal separation from electrical services will severely restrict the
Observations use of the adjacent electrical (distribution and lighting plus ITS) corridors.
Consideration needs to be given to the position of fire hydrants and 150 mm feed pipes that
could be located on both sides of the highway.
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Chilled Water (District Cooling)

Service District cooling
Diameter Varies
Anticipated Utility Size 150 mm to 1,200 mm in diameter
Authority/Agency Qatar Cool
Address P.O. Box 24979, West Bay, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44960555
Authority/Agency Marafeq Qatar
Address P.O. Box: 5651 Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 40120120
Laying Depth (cover) 1.2 m to 4 m
Trench Widths Pipe diameter outside = +500 mm
Two-pipe system feed and return, usually a duel trench with pipes 0.5 to 1 m apart. Pipe
Other Considerations has an insulation jacket usually 150-mm thick.
Design and Construction High-pressurize pipework up to 23 bara laid at falling or rising gradients.
Require periodic flushing at washouts to removed sediment. Washouts and air vents
Operations and required within the network system.
Maintenance Valves exercised regularly to check serviceability in case of a burst.
Currently, district cooling is limited to West Bay, The Pearl, and Lusail with two service
General Observations providers. Further installations are expected for developing areas of Doha.
Notes:
a Unit of pressure equal to 100,000 pascals.
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Metro and Rail
Service Metro and rail

Width Nominal size of tunnel = 8.5 m outside diameter.
Above ground, on piers 6.5 m high in the central median,
Corridor Location Below ground, no specific corridor because of the depth but, in general, under the verge
areas,
Anticipated Utility Size Two 8.5 m tunnels below ground.
Authority Qatar Railways Company (Qatar Rail)
Qatar Rail Tower, 231 Suhaim Bin Hamad Str., C-Ring Road, Al Sadd Area, P.O. Box 29988,
Address Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 44331111
Laying Depth (cover) Varies with track profile
Third-party Clearance Protection zone to tunnels (see fig 5.21)
Qatar Rail will also run on a track elevated 6.5 m above ground level. The support for the
Other Considerations track will be located in the central median and require 8 m width for pier foundations.
Tunnel boring machine or earth pressure balancing matching construction for under-
Design and Construction ground tunnels.
Overhead sections are 6.5 m above ground.
Operations and Venting and cooling shafts rising to ground level are required at all station locations.
Maintenance
At station locations, there will be a number of escalators and passageways to enable
General Observations passengers to enter and exit the station concourse from different roads. These passage
ways will cut across existing services.
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Security Systems
Security systems (barriers and bollards; x-ray and metal detection; under vehicle
Service surveillance; explosives trace detection; and electronic frequency jamming)
Width 0.6 m
Authority Gulf Networks
Address P.O. Box 23658, Wholesale Market, Gate 1-Office 3, Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 4697424
Laying Depth (cover) 0.6 m
Design and Chambers 1.3 m × 0.9 m every 250 m and crossings every 500 m
Construction
Operations and Cables are in ducts with draw chambers every 500 m
Maintenance
General Observations Security systems are not to be installed under the highway
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Appendix E
Construction Issues
to be Considered during
the Design Phase
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Special Design Considerations

Open Trenching
Open trenching is the normally preferred construction method for most utilities that are to be
installed less than 6 m below surface level. The width of the construction trench is primarily
dependent on the size of the service to be installed. Figure E.1 shows a typical open trench
construction.
Open trenching can be used for most soil conditions; however, whenever soil is removed it
changes the forces in the soil and there is always a high risk of trench walls collapsing. Open
trenches should always be protected with either trench sheeting and trench props or trench
boxes.
Groundwater is another factor that affects the stability of open trench work. Groundwater that is
at a high level in the trench may require dewatering during the excavation period. A simple pump
in the excavation may be sufficient to drop the groundwater level enough to allow excavation
work. There are risks involved in dewatering from inside the trench due to fines migration, so
dewatering should not be used for long periods or in loose, non-cohesive ground conditions. If
the groundwater is excessive in terms of inflow into an excavation, then full dewatering
techniques may be required. Dewatering usually requires drilling a series of small-diameter
boreholes around the excavation and drawing the water out using a single pump or a series of
pumps.
During the installation of the utility service in the trench, it may be necessary to have a small
land-drain incorporated into the trench to assist in the pipe laying process.
Once the service has been laid, it may be necessary to provide a cut-off drain to control the
groundwater level. In some areas of Qatar, groundwater levels are high and are highly saline;
protecting tree roots and vegetation from saline water is ecologically important.
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Figure E.1 Typical Open Trench Construction
Combined Trench
This style of trenching is usually one open trench that combines two services. A combined trench
is normally constructed where two services are in close proximity to each other.
Shared or Dual Trench

Similar to a combined trench, a shared or dual trench indicates a trench that has been
constructed for one service has another service sharing the same trench line. The deeper service
is constructed first, and then later another trench is constructed in the same trench line. This
practice is used when available space for a utility corridor is restricted. Usually the second service
is of a smaller diameter than the first. Figure E.2 shows an example of a dual trench utility
installation.
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Figure E.2 Dual Trench
Parallel Trench Excavations in Solid Ground

For local conditions where the ground contains limestone deposits that have to be removed by
using a rock breaker, the stability of the trenches is less of a problem. However, where utility
corridors are close together and a column of limestone is created between the two services,
there is the potential for the column to shear off. The utility designer should address this problem
by allowing a reasonable thickness of column to resist tension forces. In such instances, the utility
designer should also consider using dual trenches. Where possible, deeper services should always
be laid first to minimize the potential risk of rock shearing. Figure E.3 shows parallel trenches in
hard ground conditions the potential of shearing.
Figure E.3 Parallel Trenches in Hard Ground Conditions and Shearing Potential
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Dual Trench Lines, Pressure Pipe, and Thrust Blocks

When two pressure pipes are to be placed parallel to each other and there is a change in
direction, then the inner pipe is at risk of not having sufficient bearing area in which to resist the
resultant pipe forces. In this situation, a cantilevered reinforced thrust block is required. As an
alternative to the cantilever, thrust block restraining joints could be used, reducing the excavation
area. Figure E.4 shows a typical cantilevered thrust block arrangement for parallel pipes.
Figure E.4 Typical Cantilevered Thrust Block Arrangement
No-dig Technologies
The traditional open trenching technique for installing utilities is still the preferred method of
construction. However, as the demand for utilities increases and there is a need to install utilities
in existing highways without causing traffic disruption, then trenchless technology becomes a
good alternative technology. The use of trenchless technology should only be used when a cost-
benefit analysis has been carried out or if a specific need is identified such as safety, or ease of
construction. Usually the benefit is realized for the deeper installations of utilities. No-dig
technologies are also used for renovating existing services including upsizing and renovation. The
following conditions should be considered before using a no-dig technology to install utilities:
• Location of the utility; for example, inner urban, urban, or rural areas
• Availability (in country) of specialist machinery required
• Depth and size of the utility
• Existing services in the same area
• Traffic impact
• Accessibility
• Timescales
• Future projects
• Ground conditions
• Crossing of major utilities and roadways
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Aspects of trenchless techniques are discussed further in the following subsections.
Trenchless Techniques
There are numerous trenchless technologies available to date and they generally fall into two
groups:
• Trenchless construction
• Trenchless replacement/renovation methods
Trenchless Construction
Trenchless construction is a term used to cover the installation of new utilities below ground
without performing extensive open cut excavations. Some excavation work is required to transfer
the cutting tool below ground.
Tunnel Boring Machines

Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) are used for large-diameter utilities such as the Metro and
interceptor sewers and are typically 3 m to 15 m in diameter (Figure E.5). Usually a TBM is
specially made for a project. The actual TBM will have a rail track following behind it with a range
of facilities traveling with the TBM, including pipe linings and conveyors to take the excavated soil
to the surface (Figure E.6). Linings are bolted together as the cutting progresses.
This type of construction has some flexibility in that the bolted segments can be altered in shape
so that horizontal or vertical bends can be introduced into the pipeline. Grouting slurry with a
mixture of bentonite is used to seal the slight void the TBM makes between the cut face and the
segment liners. This a man entry system, usually with the tunnel operator located near the TBM’s
rear cutting head.
TBM boring is ideal when long lengths of tunneling are to be undertaken. The start cost to
produce a machine is expensive, but the cost per project lessens the more work for which the
TBM is used. This technique will be used on large projects like the Inner Doha Re-sewerage
Implementation Strategy (IDRIS) and the Metro.
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Figure E.5 Cutting Face of a Tunnel Boring Machine
Figure E.6 Tunnel Boring Machine Train
Earth Pressure Balancing Machines

Earth pressure balancing machines (EPBMs) are shielded machines specially designed for
operation in soft ground conditions and areas where there is high hydrostatic pressure due to
groundwater (Figure E.7). EPBMs have an articulated shield that is sealed against the pressure of
water inflows up to 10 bar. EPBMs have the ability to control the stability of the tunnel face and
subsidence of the ground surface by monitoring and adjusting the pressure inside the cutting-
head chamber to achieve a balance with the pressure in front of the cutting-head, hence the
term “earth pressure balance.”
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Figure E.7 Typical Earth Pressure Balancing Machine
The working area inside the EPBM is completely sealed against the fluid pressure of the ground
outside the machine. A screw conveyor removes the fluidized spoil behind the cutting-head and
in front of the pressure bulkhead. The screw conveyor speed and discharge rate is controlled by
the operator and is used to control the pressure at the working face and match the muck
discharge rate to the advance rate of the EPBM.
The articulated joint between the forward shield and tail shield is equipped with a high-pressure
seal that allows angular movement between the shields and prevents water from seeping into
the interior of the EPBM.
The EPBM erects the segmented tunnel lining sequentially after each push. Specially designed
high-pressure seals in the tail shield effectively seal the machine to the outside of the tunnel
lining and create a barrier against ground pressure.
When it becomes necessary to enter the cutting-head chamber to inspect the cutting head or
change cutting tools, the workers can safely enter through a man-lock while compressed air is
used to maintain earth pressure balance to support the working face.
The EPBM technology is used for large tunneling projects, and has one district advantage over
other tunneling technologies: it can operate in ground conditions where there are issues with
high groundwater.
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Microtunneling
Microtunneling is a technique for constructing pipeline tunnels using a cutting head similar to a
TBM, but the machine is operated from the surface. The tunnels tend to be too small for entry by
a person. A void in the ground is cut with a rotary cutting head in a protective shield, and then a
pipe is hydraulically pushed, or pipe-jacked, in place behind the cutting head. This method of
tunneling is ideal for the small-diameter pipe work and does not require the same working spaces
as a TBM installation. Typically, microtunneling will be used for deep interceptor sewers in the
urban areas.
Directional Drilling
Directional drilling is a technique that can be used to install pipelines and ducts of varying
diameters over short or long distances. Advances in drilling rig design and steering techniques
have made this method of construction extremely flexible. Diameters of 100 millimeters (mm)
and greater can be installed by directional drilling; lengths of 2,000 m and greater are possible in
one drilling. Figure E.8 shows a typical small-diameter directional drilling rig.
Figure E.8 Typical Small-diameter Directional Drilling Rig
A pilot bore is installed by pushing a line of steel rods through the ground. A “shoe” at the leading
end of the rods allows the line of rods to be steered as it bores. A sonde within the shoe
transmits a signal that is received by a tracker at ground level. The line of pilot rods follows a
predetermined course until the boring between the launch and receiving pits is complete. The
pilot rods are then pulled back to the launch pit with a reamer attached. Several reaming passes
may be required until the hole is large enough for the final product pipeline. A drilling mud,
usually bentonite based, is used to prevent collapse of the hole. Finally, the product pipe is pulled
in behind the last reamer to form the complete installation.
Directional drilling is applicable for ducts and pipelines beneath roads, rivers, and railways, and
often forms an economical alternative to open trench pipe laying techniques under roads. It is
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being used extensively in Qatar to install telecommunication cables. Directional drilling is not
considered suitable for drainage systems or where tight tolerances on alignments are necessary.
Auger Boring
For many years, trenchless crossings or roads and railways were developed by using auger-boring
techniques. Typically, a steel-sleeve pipe is pushed forward into the ground by hydraulic jacks
while the spoils are excavated by a cutter head (Figure E.9). Spoil is removed using a continuous
auger flight within the steel pipeline. This method, now referred to as conventional auger boring,
relies on the rigidity of the steel pipes for dimensional stability. Auger boring offers an
economical way of constructing short trenchless crossings in dry soils (Figure E.10).
Guided auger boring is a development of the conventional technique that offers a high degree of
accuracy for line and grade. This accuracy makes the technique suitable for gravity sewers. The
alignment is maintained by the use of a theodolite set to line and grade. A camera mounted to
the instrument allows the operator to see the illuminated target at the front of the bore.
Figure E.9 Typical Auger Boring Machine
Figure E.10 Diagram Showing the Launch Shaft for Augured Pipe under a Main Road
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Guided auger boring is generally carried out in a three-step process:
1. First, the pilot bore is installed by jacking a steel tube through the ground to line and grade.
The front of the tube has a steering head inside which is an illuminated target array. No
excavation takes place when the tube is installed. The ground is compacted by the action of
installation.
2. Once the pilot tube has been installed between the drive and reception shafts, a reamer head
follows it. The reamer head and auger casings are fixed to the pilot tube and driven forward
from the drive shaft. A full line of auger casings is eventually installed between both shafts as
the pilot tube is gradually removed from the reception shaft.
3. The final step is to push out the auger casings with the product pipe. Typically, the pipe
installed will be a purpose made jacking pipe from either precast concrete or clay.
Guided auger boring offers one of the most cost effective ways of installing small-diameter
trenchless pipes to a high degree of accuracy.
Trenchless Replacement Methods

Cured-in-place Pipe
Cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) can be used to rehabilitate sanitary sewers, storm drains, and pressure
pipelines for water, gas, and process effluents. Circular pipe 100 mm to 2,700 mm in diameter
and noncircular pipe such as egg shapes, ovoids, and box culverts can be lined with CIPP. Lining
with CIPP removes the pipe from service during the installation and reinstatement process, so
over-pumping or provision of an alternate source of supply may be necessary.
Prior to lining, the pipe must be cleaned by jetting to remove corrosion debris and detritus.
Protruding lateral connections also must be removed. Local repairs may be required where the
existing pipe is substantially deformed or damaged. After lining, the service connections or
laterals are reinstated and the pipe is returned to service, usually within the same day. Lined
water mains must be disinfected before being returned to service.
CIPP liners of nonwoven polyester felt or fiber-reinforced fabric are manufactured to fit the host
pipe. The liners are impregnated with a polymer resin, which when cured forms a close-fitting
liner pipe within the host pipe. The liner may be designed with sufficient thickness when cured to
sustain the loads imposed by external groundwater and internal service pressure, and by soil and
traffic acting on the pipe.
The liner is thoroughly saturated with polyester, vinyl ester epoxy, or silicate resin using vacuum,
gravity, or other applied pressure. The resin includes a chemical catalyst or hardener to facilitate
curing. The outermost layer of the liner tube is coated with a polymer film to protect the liner
during handling and installation. The impregnated liner may be chilled for transportation to
maintain stability until installed.
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CIPP liners may be installed using the inversion method, as shown in Figure E.11. The inversion
method employs a scaffold tower or pressure vessel to apply air or water pressure to turn the
liner inside out and push it along the host pipe.
Figure E.11 CIPP Liner Being Introduced into a Sewer Using the Inversion Method
CIPP liners also may be installed by winching into place through a manhole or specially prepared
access point and inflated to come into close contact with the circumference of the existing pipe.
The liner is restrained in any intermediate manhole.
CIPP liners may be inflated or inverted with air or water pressure. The liner lengths installed may
vary from short sections over a joint or defect, to full length linings typically 30 m to 150 m.
Lengths of up to 900 m have been installed at a time.
The resin-impregnated liner may cure at ambient temperature but the cure is more usually
accelerated by application of heat by circulating inversion water through a boiler, blending steam
with inflation air, or by pulling through an ultraviolet light train (Figure E.12). After the pipe has
been cured, the liner is cooled and the ends removed flush with the pipe ends, and then sealed
where necessary. The curing water or steam condensate and the trimmings cut from the liner are
removed for safe disposal. A sample of the CIPP may be taken from pipe ends or from a mold
cured under the conditions of manufacture for testing and verification that the liner met
performance specifications.
Lining with CIPP is used to repair sewers and is particular useful where the integrity of the sewer
is intact and the shell of the pipe can be used as a former to cast the liner. This method is very
effective for repairing damaged sewers.
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Figure E.12 Lining Insertion Head for Ultraviolet Light–Cured CIPP Liner
Pipe Bursting
Pipe bursting is a trenchless replacement method in which a pipe is broken by brittle fracture or by
splitting using an internal, mechanically applied force applied by a bursting tool. At the same time, a
new pipe of the same or larger diameter is pulled in, replacing the existing pipe. The back end of
the bursting head is connected to the new pipe and the front end is connected to a cable or pulling
rod. The new pipe and bursting head are launched from the insertion pit (Figure E.13) and the cable
or pulling rod is pulled from the receiving pit. The energy, or power source, that moves the bursting
tool forward to break the existing pipe comes from pulling cable or rods, hydraulic power to the
head, or pneumatic power to the head, depending on the bursting system design. This energy, or
power, is converted to a fracturing force on the pipe, breaking it and temporarily expanding the
diameter of the cavity. The bursting head is pulled through the pipe debris, creating a temporary
cavity and pulling behind it the new pipe from the insertion pit.
Figure E.13 Setup Shaft for Pipe Bursting Machine

The leading or nose part of the bursting head is often smaller in diameter than the pipe to
maintain alignment and result in a uniform burst (Figure E.14). The base of the bursting head is
larger than the inside diameter of the existing pipe to fracture it. The base is also slightly larger
than the outside diameter of the replacement pipe, to reduce friction on the new pipe and to
provide space for maneuvering the pipe.
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Figure E.14 Pipe Bursting Machine in Operation
Dealing with Signage and Street

Furniture
One of the concerns for utilities is the foundations for street signage and furniture. Where
foundations are relatively small, they can easily be accommodated in the respected median and
verge areas. However, where there is large overhead, cantilevered signage, there must be no
conflicts with existing services.
Health and Safety Data

Working in a roadway is place of potential conflicts with pedestrians and motorists. Such work
requires careful planning and management of the highway environment to reduce potential
damage to the environment and to mitigate health and safety issues. The main areas of concern
from an environment prospective are as follows:
• Noise pollution: During construction works, heavy civil engineering machinery will lift the
normal background noise level, and this will cause problems for local residents and users of
the road. It is important to monitor the normal background noise level before construction
begins to use as a base to compare the increase in noise. Increases in noise levels should be
restricted to daylight working hours. Some off-hours (nighttime) work may be required, such
as pouring or placing concrete when the temperature is cooler. Meetings need to be
conducted with the affected residents to inform them of the construction work that will be
conducted and any noise issues that could arise. Schools, mosques, and hospitals need to be
given special consideration concerning noise pollution. Near these facilities, the construction
work may need to provide protective measures to contain the noise levels, such as erecting
noise barriers.
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• Air pollution: Dust is common at construction sites, especially in windy conditions. The
ground surface should be sprayed with water to wet the soil and reduce the effect of dust
clouds.
• Vibration: One of the civil engineering machines frequently used in Qatar is a pneumatic rock
hammer because the limestone subsoil is particularly difficult to break up. Not only does this
cause noise, but it also creates vibrations in the limestone formation. The use of rock
hammers should be limited to daylight working hours.
Safety must also be carefully managed. The working area needs to be a dedicated area for
construction vehicles and separated from the public. Vehicle movements need to be reduced in
speed, with adequate control by banksmen. Safety barriers guide traffic through work zones and
help define the working area. Appropriate traffic signage and traffic control are a prerequisite for
good, safe traffic management.
Pedestrians
For construction projects on new or existing roads and alterations, pedestrians need to be
provided with suitable diverted sidewalks. These temporary diversions need to consider access
for prams, pushchairs, and wheelchairs. Appropriate signage is necessary to guide pedestrians to
the diverted sidewalks.
Water in Roadway Excavations

Qatar has a significant high groundwater presence. Although levels vary across the country,
excavations in roadways often encounter groundwater. The environmental considerations
regarding water in roadway excavations are as follows:
• Water is normally disposed to a gully and then into an existing stormwater system. This
disposal requires permission from Ashghal, as well as permission from MOE if the disposal is
to the sea.
• Removal and suitable disposal of any suspended particles from the dewatering liquid.
• Where there are established trees, a check is required as to the drawdown effect of
dewatering to existing plant life.
The following safety aspects are associated with dewatering:
• Ensure that the surrounding ground does not deteriorate or settle during drawdown of the
groundwater.
• Refrain from laying large flexible pipes along sidewalks where they can be a trip hazard to
pedestrians.
• Properly and clearly identify a discharge point in a road area with road cones to reduce its
potential as a road hazard.
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Excavations
Trench excavations are another area of potential environmental and health and safety risk. The
environmental considerations are noise pollution, air pollution, and vibration as described
previously.
Qatar’s hard limestone geology provides good support to open trench excavations. However,
limestone begins to deteriorate the longer a trench is left open and care should be taken against
the possibility of rock falls into the trench. Netting should be used to stabilize the cut faces.
Where the road has been previously dug and backfilled, more support is required to avoid trench
shearing and subsequent trench collapses. Possible extra trench precautions include the
following:
• Trench sheeting: Corrugated, mild-steel interlocking sheeting is forced down the sides of the
excavation and braced across the excavation using Acrow props (adjustable metal struts), as
shown in Figure E.15. Trench sheeting is generally considered the most reliable solution. If
carried out in controlled manner, it causes minimal settlement of the surrounding land.
Figure E.15 Trench Sheeting Support
• Shotcrete: A mixture of wet concrete is sprayed onto the face of the excavated trench walls
(Figure E.16). Shotcrete is a very robust solution. However, it takes up a lot of space in the
utility corridor and, therefore, it is a less viable option.
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Figure E.16 Sprayed Reinforced Concrete Trench Wall Protection
• Drag box: A steel box section with hydraulic arms inside the structure to act as struts and
allowing the sidewalls to be expanded or contracted (Figure E.17). The structure allows the
safe working conditions inside the drag box. When work on a section is completed, the box
can be retracted and dragged to the next location. This solution is good for the nonurban,
open areas where settlement of the surrounding ground is not a significant issue.
Figure E.17 Drag Box
Working Close to Trees and Structures

Landscaped trees in the Middle East are not noted for having deep-penetrating root structures.
Trees tend to have small root systems that when cut destabilize the tree, creating the potential
for it to collapse. It is important that a full environment study and risk assessment be conducted
before any excavation work on a roadway project is begun. If there is a perceived risk of tree
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instability, the tree must be supported during excavation work or removed. If a tree is removed, a
new tree should be placed after the excavation is completed.
Spills and Pollutions

Transporting environmentally unfriendly or hazardous substances on roadways creates the
potential for spills to occur. In that occurs, it is important to identify the spilled substance.
Identification will easier if a chemical display or label is required on individual tankers.
Containment is another key tool in dealing with chemical spills on roadways. Risk assessments of
all roads for potential spills are required, with an action plan to mitigate the risk. Such action
allows civil defense or a rapid response team to be deployed to be able to contain the spillage.
Installation of Force Main Pipelines

Pipelines for potable water, TSE, district cooling, potable water, and sewage are pressurized to
convey their contents to another location. There is some flexibility in terms of location and
placement of such pipelines. Flexibility is a function of the pipe material. For example, ductile iron
pipe can be flexible in location because of the jointing method and yet strong in tensile strength
to resist the imposed pressure.
All pressure pipelines have a risk of failure. Thus, the pipeline designer must identify the risk and
provide some mitigation measure to reduce the risk of failure and mitigate the consequences of
failure for the environment and health and safety considerations.
Installation of Pressurized Cables

Some of the older high-voltage power cables in Qatar are pressurized oil-filled cables. As with the
non-electric pressurized pipelines mentioned above, if the outer casing is damaged, there is risk
of oil escaping to the surrounding ground, causing potential environmental damage to plants and
wildlife. The oil-filled cables are now being replaced with a non-oil substitute that will hence
eliminate the risk of environmental damage.
Power cables are given a measure of protection from excavation damage with a layer of a plastic
tracer marker tape then at a lower depth, a clay, or concrete tile.
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Appendix F
Risk Control Form
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RISK CONTROL FORM
Further Risk Controls Residual Risk
Work Activity & Required Description of
No Existing Risk Controls Probable Likelihood Potential
Risk Level Monitoring Required
Level x Consequence Level = New Risk Level
1 Potable Water thrust No existing control 1) Geotechnical data obtained
blocks 1)
2) Site Inspection of existing

9 ground conditions 3 2 6
3) Ensuring correct depth of
cover
2 Potable Water Wall Wrapping pipe with plastic 1) Ensuring pipe wall is
Material sheeting properly protected
2) Site Inspection of pipes
9 before laying 2 2 4
3) Carry out Ultra Sound
Inspection using pig device.
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Appendix G
Road Opening Requirements
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Excavation Permit
Before any work can be authorized in a roadway, an Excavation Permit is required from the
Ministry of Municipality & Urban Planning (MMUP). Obtaining an excavation permit requires
obtaining the service provider’s information and No Objection Certificates (NOCs). One
requirement of the permit is that a Road Opening Notice be obtained from the Public Works
Authority of Qatar (Ashghal).
Road Opening Notice

Ashghal uses the Qatar Permit of Road Opening (Q-PRO) software system to facilitate the
permitting process. Q-PRO allows information to be shared with all mandatory approving
agencies for Qatar. Ashghal should be consulted when a roadway needs to be opened for reactive
or nonreactive work. In both cases, the service provider will be expected to interact with the
Ashghal’s Q-PRO software management program. This system allows service providers and
government agencies to review and provide NOCs to proposed projects in relation to their
existing assets.
The consultant needs to determine the following information before accessing the system:
• Definable polygon with coordinates of the working area

• Description of the works
• Project title
• Duration, start and stop dates
• Contractor details
• Geotechnical information
• Contact person and details
To access Q-PRO users require an identification and password approved by Ashghal. If there is
any overrun of work, the notice can be extended. If the notice is out of date, however, a new
application is required. Figure G.1 illustrates the road opening process.
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Road Opening Process
Figure G.1
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Traffic Management
For traffic management guidance, contractors should follow the guidance in the Work Zone
Traffic Management Guide (Ashghal, 2013), which describes the following processes:
• Planning
• Approval
• Implementation
• Inspection and enforcement
• Clearance and reopening
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Appendix H
Highway Reinstatement
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General
Part 1, Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, states “There is a Ministerial request to resolve the
problem of flexible road surface road differential settlement around utility structures situated in
the roadway.” This is a key issue to be considered when locating and designing infrastructure in
or near the highway.
The Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) sets out to give general guidance for highway
reinstatements and a future view for the control of reinstatement based on worldwide experience.
The future view is that once a road is completed, there should be a period where no other works
can occur in the highway that would lead to the replacement of all or part of the roadway. There
should be a period of stability for the road and only under exceptional circumstance, such as an
unplanned repair, should that road be excavated. The object of reinstatement is to return the
construction site to condition a similar to that as the beginning of the project.
Road Categories for Reinstatement

Works
Road categories are based on the amount of traffic movements and the anticipate weights of the
heaviest road vehicles. Heaviest vehicles and wheel loading, tends to be commercial vehicles.
Refer to Tables 3.5 and 3.6 in Part 2, Planning, of this manual for definitions of road categories.
Different road types will require different levels of reinstatement works. The objective is to
complete the reinstate to a high standard such that when the road user passes over the
reinstatement there is no sudden vertical movement.
Sidewalks and Bike Paths

Surface treatment and construction are addressed in Part 12, Pavement Design, and Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management. Generally, sidewalks and bike paths need much less construction
than roadways. The degree of reinstatement is a matter of matching the new materials to
existing and employing similar construction techniques. One goal is that the reinstatement be
level with the existing footway and that there are no obstructions to pedestrians or cyclists.
Trench Reinstatements
Trench excavations are categorized as follows:
• Small openings with an area less than 2 square meters (m2)

• Narrow trench—trenches with a surface width less than 500 millimeters (mm)
• Deep openings—all excavations where the depth of cover over a buried apparatus is greater
than 1.5 meters (m)
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• Other openings—all excavations and trenches with a surface area greater than 2 m2
• With all trench excavations around utilities, use selected granular materials mechanically
compacted in 150-mm layers to achieve the required level of compaction so there is no
settlement around the service
Surface As-Laid Profile

The reinstatement of any surface shall be completed so that it is as flat and flush as possible with
the surrounding adjacent surfaces. There should be no significant depression or crowning in the
surface. Construction tolerance at the edges of the reinstatement should not exceed 6 mm.
Edge Depression
An edge depression is a vertical step or trip interface between the reinstatement and the existing
surface. Intervention shall be required if any edge depression exceeds 10 mm over a continuous
length of more than 100 mm in any direction.
A Surface Depression
A surface depression is a depressed area within a reinstatement having generally smooth and
gently sloping sides, forming a shallow dish. Table H.1 lists the surface depression limits for
reinstatements. Figure H.1 illustrates the relationship between the reinstatement width and the
intervention limit for depressions.
Table H.1 Surface Depression Limits

Combined Defect
Reinstatement Width Intervention Limit Intervention Limit
(W on Figure H.1) (mm) (X on Figure H.1) (mm) (mm)
<400 10 10
≥400–599 12 10
≥500–600 14 12
≥600–700 17 14
≥700–800 19 16
≥800–900 22 18
>900 25 20
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Figure H.1 Reinstatement Surface Depression Limits
Surface Crowning
Surface crowning is the condition where the reinstatement is above the mean level of the
existing adjacent surfaces. Intervention is required where the height of any area of surface
crowning spanning more than 100 mm in any plan dimension exceeds the intervention limit.
Table H.2 lists the surface crown limits for reinstatements. Figure H.2 illustrates the relationship
between the reinstatement width and the intervention limit for surface crowns.
Table H.2 Surface Crown Limits

Combined Defect
Reinstatement Width Intervention Limit Intervention Limit
(W on Figure H.2) (mm) (Z on Figure H.2) (mm) (mm)
<400 10 10
≥400–499 12 10
≥500–599 14 12
≥600–699 17 14
≥700–799 19 16
≥800–899 22 18
>900 25 20
Figure H.2 Reinstatement Surface Crown Limits
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Excavation in Existing Roadways

Care must be taken when cutting through the surface layers of the roadway to avoid undue
damage to the running surface or to the bond between the surface course and binder course.
Cutting should be done using a road saw or planer.
Excavations should be carried out so as to avoid undue damage or settlement of the surrounding
ground. Excavations should also be protected from the ingress of groundwater. Groundwater
pumping and disposal are subject to the approval of the MOE.
Reinstatement Methods and Treatments

Road reinstatement should be undertaken as described in the Qatar National Construction
Standards 2010 (MOE, 2011) and in accordance Ashghal’s road reinstatement specifications.
Data Repository and Acquisition

Qatar has a central repository, or database, of utility data that the Central Planning Office created
as a planning tool. The office’s Planning Portal tracks all the major projects being undertaken in
Qatar and graphically displays all the existing utility information. The database dramatically
increases the efficiency of data acquisition for roadway project delivery.
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Part 12
Pavement Design
VOLUME 2 PART 12
PAVEMENT DESIGN
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪PAVEMENT DESIGN‬‬
‫تنويه‬
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VOLUME 2 PART 12
PAVEMENT DESIGN
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure .................................................................. 2
1.1.1 Analysis of Traffic Data ................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Ground Investigation.................................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Additional Factors ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.4 Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load ... 3
1.2 Empirical Design Method ............................................................................................ 4
1.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method ........................................................................ 4
1.4 Difference between the AASHTO Empirical and Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Methods....................................................................................................................... 4
2 Types of Pavement .........................................................................................................7

2.1 Flexible ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Rigid ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Flexible Composite ...................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Concrete Block and Modular Paving ........................................................................... 8
3 Pavement Structure Basics ..............................................................................................9

3.1 Introduction to Layered System .................................................................................. 9
3.2 Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements ...................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Wearing Course and Surface Course ............................................................ 9
3.2.2 Intermediate or Binder Course .................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Base Course .................................................................................................. 9
3.2.4 Subbase ........................................................................................................ 9
3.3 Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................ 10
3.4 Structural Layers in Composite Pavements ............................................................... 10
4 Subgrades .....................................................................................................................11
4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 11
4.1.1 Role of Foundation during Construction .................................................... 11
4.1.2 Role of Base and Subbase in Service .......................................................... 12
4.2 Types of Subgrade ..................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Subgrade Strength Determination ............................................................................ 12
4.3.1 Geotechnical Investigation ......................................................................... 12
4.3.2 Subgrade Design Using California Bearing Ratio ........................................ 14
4.4 Parameters and Correlations ..................................................................................... 15
4.5 Drainage of Subgrade ................................................................................................ 17
4.6 Stabilization of Subgrade ........................................................................................... 17
4.7 Improvement of Subgrade......................................................................................... 17
4.8 Protection of Subgrade .............................................................................................. 18
4.9 Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design .............................................. 18
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5 Aggregate Bases and Subbases ..................................................................................... 21

5.1 Selection of Materials ................................................................................................ 21
5.2 Aggregate Subbase .................................................................................................... 21
5.3 Aggregate Base Course .............................................................................................. 21
6 Stabilized Base Courses ................................................................................................ 23

6.1 Selection of Materials ................................................................................................ 23
6.2 Asphalt Concrete Base Course ................................................................................... 23
6.3 Asphalt Treated Permeable Base............................................................................... 23
6.4 Cement Treated Base ................................................................................................ 24
6.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete Base .............................................................................. 24
7 Surface Courses ............................................................................................................ 25

7.1 Asphalt Concrete ....................................................................................................... 25
7.1.1 Materials and Mix Design Selection ........................................................... 25
7.1.2 Surface Courses .......................................................................................... 25
7.1.3 Intermediate Courses ................................................................................. 26
7.2 Portland Cement Concrete ........................................................................................ 26
8 Design Elements and Construction Considerations ....................................................... 27

8.1 Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms ...................................................................... 27
8.1.1 Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base ....................................................... 28
8.1.2 Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base.................................................... 28
8.1.3 Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base ........................................... 29
8.1.4 Rigid Pavements ......................................................................................... 29
8.2 Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide...................................................................... 31
8.2.1 Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide ............................................................. 31
8.2.2 Pavement Performance.............................................................................. 31
8.2.3 Reliability .................................................................................................... 32
8.2.4 Standard Deviation ..................................................................................... 32
8.2.5 Serviceability .............................................................................................. 32
8.2.6 Material Properties: Flexible Design .......................................................... 33
8.2.7 Material Properties: Rigid Design ............................................................... 33
8.2.8 Drainage Coefficient ................................................................................... 34
8.2.9 Environmental Conditions .......................................................................... 34
8.2.10 Traffic.......................................................................................................... 35
8.3 Construction Considerations ..................................................................................... 35
8.3.1 Asphalt Concrete ........................................................................................ 35
8.3.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete ............................................................ 35
8.3.3 Joints in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................... 36
8.3.4 Smoothness of Pavement Surface.............................................................. 37
9 Traffic Analysis ............................................................................................................. 39

9.1 Estimation of Annual Average Daily Traffic ............................................................... 39
9.1.1 Traffic Counts ............................................................................................. 39
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9.2 Estimating Equivalent Standard Axle Loads .............................................................. 42

9.2.1 Standard Axle Load..................................................................................... 44
9.2.2 Axle Load Limits.......................................................................................... 44
9.2.3 Design Life .................................................................................................. 44
9.2.4 Growth Rate ............................................................................................... 45
9.2.5 Directional and Lane Distribution Factors .................................................. 46
9.3 Determination of Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Loads ................................ 47
10 Design of New Pavements ............................................................................................57

10.1 Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide ........................................................... 57
10.1.1 Example Flexible Pavement Design ............................................................ 59
10.2 Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide .............................................. 67
10.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method .................................................... 72
10.3.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process ...................................... 73
10.3.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters ......................... 73
10.3.3 Traffic Input Parameters ............................................................................ 74
10.3.4 Climate ....................................................................................................... 78
10.3.5 Subgrade .................................................................................................... 78
10.3.6 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for
Flexible Pavement ...................................................................................... 80
10.3.7 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Rigid
Pavement ................................................................................................... 85
10.3.8 Run Analysis and Report ............................................................................ 88
10.4 Ramp and Shoulder Pavements................................................................................. 89
10.5 Design for Special Pavements.................................................................................... 89
10.6 Selection of Pavement Design Method ..................................................................... 91
11 Design for Rehabilitation of Existing Pavements ...........................................................93

11.1 Rehabilitation Design Process ................................................................................... 93
11.1.1 Basis of Rehabilitation Design .................................................................... 94
11.1.2 Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide ............................... 95
11.2 Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation ................................................. 96
11.3 Methods of Rehabilitation ......................................................................................... 96
11.3.1 Bituminous Overlays .................................................................................. 96
11.3.2 Mill and Overlay ......................................................................................... 97
11.3.3 Concrete Overlays ...................................................................................... 97
11.3.4 In-Place Recycling ....................................................................................... 97
11.4 Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms ....................................................................... 97
11.5 Pavement Survey and Investigation .......................................................................... 98
11.6 Network-Level Surveys .............................................................................................. 99
11.7 Project-Level Investigation and Assessment ............................................................. 99
11.7.1 Review existing information..................................................................... 100
11.7.2 Visual Survey ............................................................................................ 100
11.7.3 Coring ....................................................................................................... 100
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11.7.4 Test Pits .................................................................................................... 101

11.7.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar ....................................................................... 101
11.7.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ................................................................... 102
11.8 Pavement Strength .................................................................................................. 102
11.8.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer ................................................................... 103
11.8.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer .................................................................. 103
11.8.3 Data Handling of FWD Results ................................................................. 104
11.8.4 Interpretation of FWD Data ..................................................................... 104
12 Evaluation of Pavement Alternatives .......................................................................... 107

12.1 Engineering and Design ........................................................................................... 107
12.2 Economic Analysis and Value Engineering .............................................................. 107
12.2.1 Life Cycle Cost........................................................................................... 107
12.2.2 Value Engineering..................................................................................... 109
13 Sustainable Pavement Practices ................................................................................. 111

13.1 Overview .................................................................................................................. 111
13.2 Recycled Aggregates ................................................................................................ 111
13.3 Warm-Mix Asphalt ................................................................................................... 112
13.4 Two-lift Concrete Construction ............................................................................... 112
13.5 Noise Reducing Pavements ..................................................................................... 113
13.6 Porous Pavement ..................................................................................................... 114
References ........................................................................................................................... 115
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Tables
Table 4.1 Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations ........................... 16

Table 8.1 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement Types and
Conditions ......................................................................................................... 34
Table 9.1 Qatar Standard Vehicle Classes ......................................................................... 40
Table 9.2 Damage Factors for Light Vehicles .................................................................... 43
Table 9.3 Damage Factors for Heavy Trucks ..................................................................... 43
Table 9.4 Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar .......... 46
Table 9.5 Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design
Lane for Qatar ................................................................................................... 47
Table 9.6 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Single Axle,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 50
Table 9.7 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 51
Table 9.8 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Single Axle,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 52
Table 9.9 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5 ...................................................................................................... 53
Table 9.10 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks on
Flexible Pavements with an SN=5 and a Terminal Serviceability of 2.5 ............ 54
Table 9.11 Computation of Truck Load Factor for Five-Axle or Greater Trucks
on Rigid Pavements ........................................................................................... 55
Table 9.12 Worksheet for Calculating 18-kip ESAL Applications ........................................ 56
Table 10.1 Summary of Design Traffic Calculations ............................................................ 60
Table 10.2 Summary of Pavement Options ........................................................................ 67
Table 10.3 Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of Materials ....... 68
Table 10.4 Design Parameters and Input Levels ................................................................. 74
Table 10.5 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG ................ 76
Table 10.6 Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values (psi) for Level 3
Input .................................................................................................................. 79
Table 10.7 Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-Empirical
Design Method .................................................................................................. 80
Table 10.8 Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements) .......................................... 81
Table 10.9 Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements............................................ 86
Table 13.1 Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces ....................................... 113
Table 13.2 Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces ......................................... 113
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Figures
Figure 3.1 Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements .............. 10
Figure 8.1 Designing for Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers ..................... 27
Figure 10.1 Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered Analysis
Approach ........................................................................................................... 58
Figure 10.2 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded Asphalt
Concrete Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus ................................................. 62
Figure 10.3 Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base Strength
Parameters ........................................................................................................ 62
Figure 10.4 Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various Base
Strength Parameters ......................................................................................... 63
Figure 10.5 Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for Each
Input .................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 10.6 Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction .................. 68
Figure 10.7 Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of Support ... 69
Figure 10.8 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input Variable............................................................................................ 71
Figure 10.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process ................................................ 73
Figure 10.10 Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method .............................. 74
Figure 10.11 Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Method .............................................................................................................. 77
Figure 11.1 Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure) .............................................................. 98
Figure 11.2 Structural Rutting .............................................................................................. 98
Figure 11.3 Sample of DCP Test.......................................................................................... 102
Figure 11.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer ......................................................................... 103
Figure 11.5 Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus ......... 105
Appendixes
Appendix A Parameters Appropriate for Use in Qatar ....................................................... 119

Appendix B Layer Coefficient Graphs from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures ....................................................................................... 123
Appendix C Effective k-value Charts from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures ....................................................................................... 131
Appendix D Design Charts from the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement
Structures......................................................................................................... 135
Appendix E Mechanistic-Empirical Design Examples ......................................................... 141
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1993 AASHTO Guide Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO, 1993)
AADF annual average daily flow
AC asphalt concrete
ai structural layer coefficient
ALEF axle load equivalency factor
Ashghal State of Qatar Public Works Authority
ASTM ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing Materials)
ATPB asphalt treated permeable base
°C degrees Celsius
CBM cement-bound material
CBR California bearing ratio
cm centimetre(s)
CRCB continuously reinforced concrete base
CRCP continuously reinforced concrete pavement
CTB cement treated base
dBA decibels (A-weighted scale)
DCP dynamic cone penetrometer
EAL equivalent axle load
EICM Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (software)
ESAL equivalent single-axle load
FWD falling weight deflectometer
GF growth factor
GPR ground-penetrating radar
HMA hot mix asphalt
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP jointed plain concrete pavement
JRC jointed reinforced concrete
kip 1,000 pounds-force
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kg kilogram
km kilometer
kN kilonewton
LS loss of support
LWD lightweight deflectometer
MR resilient modulus
MEPDG Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual
of Practice (United States)
m meter(s)
mi drainage coefficient
m/km meters per kilometer
mm millimeter(s)
MPa megapascal
Nmm2 Newtons per square millimeter
pi initial serviceability index
pt terminal serviceability index
PCC portland cement concrete
pci pounds per cubic inch
PMB polymer-modified bitumen
psi pounds per square inch
PSI present serviceability index
QCS Qatar National Construction Standards
RAP recycled asphalt pavement
RCC roller-compacted concrete
SBS styrene-butadiene-styrene
SMA stone matrix asphalt
SN structural number
t metric tons
UC unconfined compressive strength
URC unreinforced concrete
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1 Introduction
This Part describes the fundamentals of pavement design that are relevant to any
design method and any class of road. The design method in Qatar is based on the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide
for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993). The
State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal) has produced the following
documents to provide the groundwork for mechanistic-empirical pavement design:
• Interim Advice Note 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a): This
document provides guidance for materials characterization for mechanistic-
empirical design, a range of values for various paving materials, and an
explanation of the mechanistic-empirical model and performance criteria.
• Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers (Ashghal, 2013a):
This document provides guidance on testing of materials to aid in determining
material characteristics that can be used in design.
Insufficient data existed within Qatar for the full implementation of the mechanistic-
empirical design method at the time the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) was
prepared. Therefore, this Part of the QHDM is a transition document that will lead to
a final version that provides information on appropriate designs for multiple
pavement types and will include full implementation of the mechanistic-empirical
design method. This manual discusses the pavement design methods described in the
1993 AASHTO Guide and the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim
Edition: A Manual of Practice (MEPDG) (AASHTO, 2008), the parameters for their use,
and their differences.
It is expected that the materials and workmanship used in the construction of

pavements will be in accordance with the latest edition of the Qatar National
Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2011) at the time
of construction, including any applicable amendments published by Ashghal in the
form of Interim Advice Notices or other guides. Adhering to these publications for
materials, testing, quality control, and acceptance are needed for the pavement to
perform as designed. Consult the Civil Engineering Department laboratory during the
design and construction stages of any project to verify that current material
specifications are being used. The use of alternative or improved materials will be
considered in the design procedure described in this Part of the manual.
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1.1 Objectives and Basis of Design Procedure

The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavements is to
reduce to acceptable levels the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated
traffic loads so that they can be resisted by various pavement layers.
Structural pavement design involves three primary elements: subgrade strength,

traffic loading, and materials behavior. The design of the pavement layer thicknesses
depends on such parameters as traffic, geotechnical information, material
characteristics, reliability, safety, and serviceability. Traffic loading is a mix of vehicles,
with different axle configurations, loads, and distributions that vary daily, seasonally,
and over the design life of the pavement. The pavement’s response to these loads is
affected by the magnitude of the load and corresponding stress, temperature,
moisture, time, and loading rate. Exposure to extreme environmental conditions—
large variances in temperature and moisture states—adds to design complexity.
Unless these parameters can be accurately identified, caution is needed when
adopting pavement designs or design methods. The process of designing a reliable
performance of a pavement structure includes evaluation of these elements, as well
as construction practices and effective quality control.
Many countries have databases for traffic, climate conditions, material properties,
and historical performances of in-service pavement sections that can be applied to
site-specific designs. These and other assets provided the technical infrastructure that
led to the development of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim
Edition: A Manual of Practice (MEPDG) (AASHTO, 2008), hereinafter referred to as the
mechanistic-empirical design method.
Because it can accommodate the appropriate input parameters needed to reflect

local conditions and available resources, the mechanistic-empirical design method is
considered an appropriate method for future pavements in Qatar. Empirical methods
and, especially, the mechanistic-empirical design method, use many input parameters
for specific data with respect to different climate conditions, nonstandard materials,
and traffic loading. The mechanistic-empirical design method provides the flexibility
to consider elements in specific designs for Qatar based on available materials, traffic,
and climate conditions. Therefore, the key to adapting the mechanistic-empirical
design method is to use the correct input data for pavement design.
This Part discusses input parameters for empirical and mechanistic-empirical design
methods to enable designers to choose the appropriate method. Examples for
pavement design with a basic range of input parameters are also provided.
The differences between these two methods are discussed, and the use of design
software such as AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design is explained.
Regardless of the design method, a number of basic steps are involved in any
pavement design. Some of these steps are described in the following clauses.
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1.1.1 Analysis of Traffic Data

As with any structure, the accurate prediction of load is important. For pavement, the
load is proportional to the number of vehicles and their axle types and weights. It is
routine to predict the number of “standard” axles likely to use the pavement.
Typically, all axles are converted to equivalent numbers of single axles loaded with
8 or 12 tons. The 1993 AASHTO Guide considers only 80 kilonewtons (kN, or
18,000 pounds) on a single axle with dual tires. A similar load on a single-wheeled axle
is more damaging because of the increased tire pressure. The pavement designer uses
traffic surveys from which the number and weight of each axle type can be predicted.
If doubt exists about the traffic data, a conservative approach is adopted. Traffic
analysis is discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part.
Traffic data will be provided from on-site vehicle counts, transportation studies, or a
combination thereof. The designer will convert traffic flows and vehicle types into a
number of standard axles for the appropriate design period, usually 20 or 40 years. If
traffic counts are not available, a default hierarchical list of average traffic flows will
be prepared for the Qatar Road Classification.
1.1.2 Ground Investigation

The assessment of ground conditions, often in terms of California Bearing Ratio (CBR),
is undertaken by examining the results of field investigations. It will be necessary to
design a subbase to cope with construction conditions and long-term loading. For
some design methods, the foundation design is a discrete exercise; for others, the
foundation is considered with the structural layers as part of the overall structure. For
analytical methods, each layer is considered separately.
Loads on the pavement eventually will be transmitted through the subbase into the
natural ground, or subgrade. By developing pavement structural layers to adequately
reduce the vertical strain at the top of the subgrade, the pavement design will keep
the foundation from being overloaded. Depending on the road geometry and profile,
the subgrade is the existing ground in cut sections, and top layer of earthworks in
embankment or fill sections.
1.1.3 Additional Factors

The thickness of various layers for structural capacity is not the only consideration in
pavement design. The following are also important considerations:
• The continuing strength and durability of the various layers

• Thermal or block cracking
• Resistance to rutting or plastic/shear deformation
1.1.4 Choice of Materials and Thicknesses to Meet the Predicted Traffic Load
Any design method will include knowledge of the properties of the materials to be
used. It is typical to adopt materials from local specifications; otherwise, there can be
difficulties with the supply of materials. In some circumstances, it can be
advantageous to use special or nonstandard materials.
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1.2 Empirical Design Method

Designs will be based to some extent on past performance of known designs, such as
the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method. It is important to understand the
conditions under which the data have been collected. This method is likely to use a
form of look-up tables, in which case there can be different tables for different
materials. The most effective combination of material types and thicknesses can be
chosen. The properties of the materials to be used, including stiffness modulus, need
to be accurate if the method is to be effective.
1.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method

The mechanistic-empirical design method uses analytical techniques that have been
calibrated by comparison with known performance. Analytical designs evaluate a
permissible level of strain or stress against which to assess the design adequacy.
Permissible stresses and strains are often empirically based and are derived from
experimental fatigue lines. From experience, a designer will assume a pavement type
and thickness, or a first iteration could be determined using empirical methods. A
stress and strain analysis is carried out for the assumed design. If the maximum
stresses and strains are exceeded, or the actual stresses and strains are much less
than permissible, the layer strengths and thicknesses can be amended and
reanalyzed. The process is repeated until an effective design is achieved.
A benefit of analytical design is that the known properties of materials can be

considered to maximize their effectiveness. If the properties are not known to the
right degree of confidence, a sensitivity analysis is needed. This method involves the
knowledge of the load/strain or stress behavior of the materials used. If too many
assumptions are necessary, there is no advantage in using a mechanistic-empirical
design method over empirical methods. At the time of publication of the QHDM,
there are insufficient data and information in Qatar for the parameters needed to use
the mechanistic-empirical design method.
1.4 Difference between the AASHTO Empirical and

Mechanistic-Empirical Design Methods
The advent of mechanistic-empirical pavement performance modeling allows for
more detailed input and analysis using site-specific and regional characteristics.
Detailed traffic and materials characterization are among the more important of
these detailed inputs. The benefit of the mechanistic-empirical design method is that
it allows engineers to enhance the design process in several key areas ranging from
data collection to interpretation of results. Additional effort and resources are needed
to characterize materials, improve traffic data quality, and effectively use
environmental conditions to make the mechanistic-empirical design method effective.
Comparing the empirical method described in the 1993 AASHTO Guide to the
mechanistic-empirical design method described in the MEPDG is an important step in
understanding the differences between the two approaches:
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The AASHTO empirical method designs pavements to a single performance criterion,

the present serviceability index (PSI). The mechanistic-empirical design method
simultaneously considers multiple performance criteria, such as rutting, cracking, and
roughness for flexible pavements.
The AASHTO empirical method directly computes the layer thicknesses. The
mechanistic-empirical design method uses an iterative process. A specific pavement
section is evaluated against predicted performance and design criteria. If the
pavement section does not meet the performance criteria, the section is modified
and reanalyzed until the criteria are met.
The mechanistic-empirical design method uses additional input parameters, especially

environmental and material properties. This designer chooses a quality level of input
parameter, depending on the level of information and resources available, the
technical issues, and the importance of the project.
The empirical method was developed in the 1950s for road design, vehicle taxation,
and costing and was based on limited field test data from only one location: Ottawa,
Illinois, United States. The seasonally adjusted subgrade resilient modulus (MR) and
the layer drainage coefficients are the only variables that can be adjusted for
environmental conditions. The mechanistic-empirical design method adjusts material
properties for temperature and moisture influences by using a set of project-specific
climate data that include air temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and relative
humidity.
The empirical method uses the concept of equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) to
define traffic levels. The mechanistic-empirical design method uses more detailed
load spectra. Pavement materials respond differently to the magnitude, variance,
frequency, and locations of traffic loads. Loading at different times of the year in
different environmental conditions will also have different effects on the response of
the pavement structure. These factors can be considered most effectively using the
load spectra concept.
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2 Types of Pavement
2.1 Flexible
A typical flexible pavement usually consists of two or three asphalt layers of wearing
course, an intermediate or binder course, a base course, and a subbase over the
subgrade. On less-trafficked roads, the base course could consist partly or wholly of
granular materials. Where the base course is also in asphalt, the pavement is
considered a full depth asphalt pavement.
2.2 Rigid
A rigid pavement consists of portland cement concrete (PCC) with granular or
cement-bound subbase layers over the subgrade, or a combination of both. The
concrete layer can be jointed plain unreinforced concrete (URC), jointed reinforced
concrete (JRC), or continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP). Higher
performing concrete pavements include a base layer of asphalt concrete (AC) or
asphalt-treated base to (1) improve stiffness, (2) act as a moisture barrier to prevent
surface water infiltration to the subgrade, (3) act as a barrier to groundwater pumping
through pavement joints and cracks under loading, and (4) act as a construction
platform to improve grade control. For areas with truck traffic, providing dowels at
pavement joints is encouraged to transfer loads and prevent faulting across joints.
Pavements with very high traffic levels are commonly constructed with CRCP.
2.3 Flexible Composite

A flexible composite pavement is one with a flexible surface and rigid base. An
example of this is a cement-bound base with asphalt surfacing. The cement-bound
materials usually have a lower compressive strength than pavement-quality concrete
and crack because of thermal movements. Cracks will propagate through the flexible
surface as a result of traffic movement. This process is called reflection cracking.
Reflection cracking can be controlled by adopting a thick asphalt layer for thermal
protection, precracking the cement-bound material, or a combination thereof.
A stress absorbing membrane interlayer is sometimes used, particularly in the
rehabilitation of existing pavements.
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2.4 Concrete Block and Modular Paving

Concrete block paving consists of concrete blocks on a laying course of sand, on top of
a granular or bound base. Bound bases are used for heavier traffic.
Other modular paving materials include quarry stone or cut concrete slabs. These
materials need special consideration on roads used by heavy vehicles because a single
overload can be catastrophic.
Concrete block pavement can be used in heavily trafficked areas. Modular paving
materials, including blocks, can be used in various colors and patterns to delineate
areas with contrasting appearance.
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3 Pavement Structure Basics

3.1 Introduction to Layered System
A pavement is a multilayered structure. The purpose of the design is to adequately
transfer the load, or traffic, on top of the pavement through the layers to the natural
subgrade. The pavement is designed to carry the load during its design life or
performance period without cracking, rutting, or developing defects that would need
rehabilitation or repair. A pavement carries the expected loads over its design life by
controlling the repeated bending and compression of the pavement layers. All layers
of a flexible pavement, including asphalt surfacing, intermediate and base courses,
and aggregate base and subbase courses, are structural layers and will be compressed
and flexed as the traffic load passes. Repeated flexing will eventually fatigue the
structural layers.
3.2 Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements are constructed in several layers. Stiffer layers spread the load
over a wider area than do flexible layers; a thin, stiff layer is equivalent to a thick,
weak layer of the same material. For flexible pavement, the layers usually consist of
those described in the following clauses.
3.2.1 Wearing Course and Surface Course

A thin, rut-resistant layer is laid to relatively tight level tolerances to provide good ride
quality. Surfacing is usually a more waterproof layer and can sometimes be specified
with spray-reducing or noise-reducing properties.
3.2.2 Intermediate or Binder Course

The intermediate course often has higher binder content and a smaller aggregate size
than the layer beneath it to provide durability. It can be laid to a relatively tight level
to provide good ride quality. It is often called the binder course or leveling course, and
is sometimes included with the asphalt base course.
3.2.3 Base Course

The base course is the main structural layer, although materials used for the base and
intermediate courses can be interchangeable. The base layer can be granular, asphalt,
or cement-bound. A pavement with a cement-bound base is said to be “flexible-
composite.”
3.2.4 Subbase
The subbase layer immediately over the natural ground supports the base course,
allowing construction activities to progress without damaging the subgrade. It is the
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final load-spreading layer in the structure. Subbases are often granular materials, but
they can consist of other materials, including cement-bound materials.
Figure 3.1 is a general presentation of the structural layers in flexible pavements, and
how loads typically spread through the layers. The load is spread wider and at a
greater angle in stiffer materials, which reduces strain and stress at the base of the
layers.
Figure 3.1 Load Spreading through the Structural Layers in Flexible Pavements
The asphalt and base layers in flexible pavements each are contributing structural
layers but can be cement-bound materials. In unbound bases with variable aggregate
sizes, the base layer will often have larger sizes of coarse aggregate.
3.3 Structural Layers in Rigid Pavements

In rigid pavements, the structural elements will always be in PCC, usually with
compressive strengths exceeding 30 newtons per square millimeter (Nmm2) and
flexural strengths exceeding 4.5 Nmm2. The PCC can be in unreinforced slabs,
individual jointed reinforced slabs, or continuously reinforced slabs without joints. A
wearing or surface course can sometimes be used to improve ride quality or noise
reduction.
3.4 Structural Layers in Composite Pavements

The structural layers in composite pavements are cement-bound, but with lower
compressive strength than in PCC and usually no more than 20 Nmm2. The cement-
bound layers will crack naturally depending on the strength of the concrete used,
often at about 5-meter (m) centers. Cracking occurs primarily because of thermal
movements in the cement-bound materials. Cracking can be avoided by precracking
the materials at the construction stage and by overlaying them with HMA, which
provides thermal protection and load-spreading qualities.
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4 Subgrades
4.1 General
The main purpose of the pavement structure is to protect the subgrade from vertical
strain caused by vehicle loads by distributing the load through the pavement layers.
This distribution is needed during construction and during the service life of the
pavement.
The pavement design method includes a fundamental consideration of the underlying

subgrade soil conditions. The subgrade soil properties and the physical and chemical
characteristics determine, to a critical degree, the thickness of pavement structure
that can resist the expected design traffic-loading.
Sampling, testing, and reporting need to follow the recommended protocols in the
most recent QCS and any amendments.
4.1.1 Role of Foundation during Construction

Consider the following factors in foundation design when relating to construction:
• Strains in the base and subbase are higher from construction equipment, although
the number of repetitions from construction traffic is much lower and is not as
channelized as during the in-service life of the pavement.
• During construction, it is expected that loads will be applied to the base and
subbase by construction vehicles and equipment. Where such loading is applied,
the strength and material thickness is sufficient to withstand these loads without
damage occurring that might adversely affect future pavement performance.
• Base and subbase layers need to be of sufficient durability to withstand
environmental effects.
• Damage may occur from rutting, deformation, cracking of stabilized soils and
bases, or material-specific degradation.
• The base and subbase need to be stiff enough to allow the overlying pavement
layers to be placed and adequately compacted.
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4.1.2 Role of Base and Subbase in Service

Consider the following factors relating to the in-service condition in the base and
subbase design:
• Ability to withstand repeated traffic loads during the life of a pavement. If the
upper pavement materials begin to deteriorate toward the end of the pavement’s
design life, the pavement can also experience some ingress of water into the
pavement may occur, particularly if the upper pavement materials begin to
deteriorate toward the end of the pavement’s design life.
• The MR use in the design is maintained throughout the life of the pavement. If the
MR is not maintained, deterioration of the upper layers can occur more rapidly
than assumed during design.
• Deformation does not accumulate within the base and subbase under repeated
traffic loading.
• The performance of the base and subbase is also affected by the design,
construction, and maintenance of the earthworks and associated drainage system.
• A loss of concrete slab support can be caused by softening of the subgrade from
due to excess moisture, or from fine-grained material being forced to the surface
under heavy loads.
4.2 Types of Subgrade

In general, Qatar has high-strength natural soils consisting of weathered limestone
and sands. Historically, it was possible to construct earthworks, or at least the upper
layers, using material with a minimum soaked CBR of 25 percent. It is becoming
impractical and expensive to always achieve a CBR of 25. In some locations, such as
cuts, a significantly higher strength of in situ subgrade is possible; therefore, the in
situ subgrade CBR or MR must be determined.
Superficial deposits and sabkha (extensive salt flats underlain by sand, silt, and clay)
are often encrusted with salt (halite), which can have an effect on pavements. Sabkha
can be soft and loose, with high salt and chemical contents, which are damaging to
concrete and steel products and fittings. See Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual for more discussion on sabkha
and the superficial geology of Qatar.
4.3 Subgrade Strength Determination

4.3.1 Geotechnical Investigation
The first step in assessing subgrade strength will be to carry out a ground
investigation. Details related to scoping and execution of ground investigation works
are covered in Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design
Guide, of this manual.
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To facilitate pavement design, the geotechnical investigation includes collecting

detailed data and information about the following:
• Material types
• Material composition
• Subgrade layers
• Subgrade strengths and physical properties including the possibility of having karst
formation and gypsum that can lead to potential sinkhole activities
• Water table and groundwater level
• Physical/chemical properties of groundwater
Field tests include the following. Tests marked with an asterisk (*) are optional,
depending on the circumstances:
• Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)

• Soil electrical resistivity test
• In situ density test
• In situ CBR test
• Infiltration test: permeability*
• Falling head test: permeability*
The object of the investigation is to provide information on the existing soil and
groundwater conditions. These will be used to derive recommendations for a suitable
foundation for the design of pavement and other road structures.
Laboratory tests carried out on samples extracted from the site include the following:
• Sieve analysis and Atterberg limits

• Unconfined compressive strength
• Specific gravity
• Chemical tests that include:
− Sulfate content: soil and water
− Chloride content: soil and water
− Determination of pH value: soil and water
− Carbonate content: soil and water
• Moisture content-dry density relationship
• CBR or MR
• Direct shear strength
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A pavement design report, with respect to subgrade characterization, including brief

descriptions of the following:
• Subsurface profile with long section and cross sections showing groundwater
levels
• Material classification
• Sieve analysis results
• Atterberg limits analysis
• In situ density and moisture content
• Determination of MR value from test results or correlation from CBR test values
• Chemical analysis
• Subgrade pH
4.3.2 Subgrade Design Using California Bearing Ratio

In situ tests in granular soil provide a good indication of performance in service. In
looser soils, field tests can underestimate strength because the soils do not have the
confining effect of the overlying pavement. Field tests are compared with laboratory
CBRs, carried out at a series of densities; most importantly, the density and moisture
condition expected on site. Where groundwater is expected to be high, 4-day soaked
CBR tests are performed in the laboratory.
During construction, the CBR will be checked to confirm that it is in conformance with
the design assumptions for that pavement section. The subgrade will be checked in
situ to verify the CBR is not lower than the value used for design. If the in situ CBR is
higher than the design value, maintain the subbase thickness because the design will
have taken long-term conditions into consideration.
Deterioration can be the result of the effects of both construction traffic and
inclement weather. Final grading to the subgrade level is carried out in conjunction
with construction of subsequent layers to minimize deterioration of the subgrade due
to construction traffic or inclement weather. If the subgrade has deteriorated, a
capping layer might be used to help protect the subgrade from damage imposed by
construction traffic.
CBR values are assessed using remolded soaked samples statically compacted to
95 percent of the maximum dry density. The specified subgrade strengths need to be
sustained for a depth of at least 300 millimeters (mm), with the material below this
having a CBR at the in situ density of at least 10 percent.
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The 1993 AASHTO Guide does not specifically consider construction traffic. Where the
subbase is likely to be used by vehicles other than those needed to construct the
overlying layers, for example, as a haul road or construction platform, check the
subbase thickness to verify such traffic will not affect the future life of the pavement.
If the subgrade soil strength in terms of CBR value is less than 15 percent, thicker
subbases will be needed. For lower CBRs, soil stabilization or removal and
replacement of a portion of the subgrade with higher quality material is needed.
4.4 Parameters and Correlations

To design the pavement structure by the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method, the
mean CBR value of the subgrade is used to calculate the MR. In the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, the design MR for each subgrade area is computed as the average values of the
soil strength. The MR is a measure of the elastic property of the soil, recognizing
certain nonlinear characteristics. The MR can be used directly for the design of flexible
pavement, but is converted to an effective modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) for
the design of rigid or composite pavements, using Figures 3.3 through 3.6 in the 1993
AASHTO Guide. This process is explained in detail in Section 10.2 in this Part.
Because not all road agencies have the equipment to perform MR testing, several
approximate correlations have been developed to correlate other soil indicators to
MR. These relationships are approximate at best and need to be applied carefully.
Practice caution when selecting a design MR. Conduct an analysis of all the soils data
prior to selecting a value. If MR results are not available, the designer can use any of
the empirical equations developed for this purpose.
For the purpose of correlating the CBR values to the MR of subgrade, many empirical
equations have been developed, as shown in Table 4.1. Each equation has some
limitations.
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Table 4.1 Selected Subgrade Strength/Stiffness Correlation Equations
Equation Reference Limitations
MR (psi) = (1,500)(CBR) “Dynamic Testing as a Means of Only for fine-grained, nonexpansive

Controlling Pavements During and soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
After Construction” (Heukelom
and Klomp, 1962)
MR (MPa)= 10 × CBR Pavement Design—A Guide to the For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
Structural Design of Road with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Pavements (Austroads, 1992)
MR (MPa) = 17.6 × CBR 0.64 Mechanistic-Empirical Design of For fine-grained, nonexpansive soils
New and Rehabilitated Pavement with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
MR = 1,000 + (555)(R-value) 1993 AASHTO Guide Only for fine-grained, nonexpansive

soils with R-values of 20 or less.
Notes:
psi = pounds per square inch
MPa = megapascals
The best estimate for the MR of the fine-grained materials can be obtained using the
following equation (National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP], 2004):
MR = 2555 × CBR 0.64
where:
MR = resilient modulus in pounds per square inch (psi)
CBR = California bearing ratio
Another method of determining resilient modulus is by correlating to unconfined

compressive strength from the following equation (Thompson and Robnett, 1979):
MR = 0.307 UC + 0.86
where:
MR = resilient modulus in kip per square inch
UC = unconfined compressive strength in psi
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method for pavement design uses the mean value
of subgrade strength modulus, back-calculated from deflection when falling weight
deflectometer (FWD) testing is conducted and the back-calculated MR is determined,
then:
design MR = 0.33 × back-calculated MR
If CBR and back-calculated MR results are available, use the smaller design MR for
pavement design purposes.
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For partially saturated soils, the stiffness is mainly dependent on the negative pore-
water pressure or soil moisture suction. Therefore, the laboratory-prepared specimen
exhibits have essentially the same stiffness as undisturbed specimens for comparable
suction values.
The modulus of subgrade reaction, or k-value, to be used for rigid pavement design
can be determined from plate load tests in the field by using established testing
protocols. In the absence of field testing, the k-value can be approximated from the
American Concrete Pavement Association k-value calculator tool, based on the
Evaluation of AASHTO Interim Guides for Design of Pavement Structures (NCHRP,
1972).
4.5 Drainage of Subgrade

High groundwater, surface drainage, or even landscape watering, combined with
poorly drainable, fine-grained soils, can cause a reduction in the strength of the
natural subgrade. This can lead to permanent deformation or loss of support (LS).
Unless subgrades are granular and self-draining, it will be necessary to provide

subgrade drainage. The capillary action of the groundwater rising to the surface in
soils with high salt and chemical contents can damage concrete pavement. The low
rainfall levels in Qatar result in subgrade drainage being needed only in locations with
a likelihood of high groundwater or in areas where irrigation activities are expected
on the sides of roads. According to the QCS 2010, at least 300 mm must be
maintained between the groundwater level and subgrade. Additional information
regarding surface and subdrainage is included in Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.
4.6 Stabilization of Subgrade

Under normal circumstances, the stabilization of sands and granular materials will not
be necessary. However, cement stabilization is a useful technique to provide a bound
subbase for concrete pavements.
4.7 Improvement of Subgrade

Where weak subgrades occur, several improvement methods can be used:
In situations where subgrades are soft, it can be economically advantageous to

excavate the soft material and replace it with soils of better quality, especially if the
excavated material can be used elsewhere on-site for nonstructural uses such as
landscaping.
Geogrids and geotextiles can be used in two ways: (1) to separate subbase materials
from soft plastic subgrades where they can “punch-in” to subgrades of lower strength
and become contaminated or (2) to reinforce subgrades and subbases. In some cases,
a geogrid combined with a bonded geotextile can be used.
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When used for reinforcement, geogrids “stiffen” the layers above and below by the
action of aggregate locking into the grid interstices. Geogrids can also provide an
element of separation over a softer subgrade where aggregate from the overlying
subbase locks into the grid.
A geogrid can assist with placing subbases over soft ground, in which case the grid can
be laid directly on the soft subgrade (for example, sabkha). Where significant
thicknesses of subbase are needed, an extra grid can be placed, usually at the center
of the subbase layer. When used in well-graded aggregates, grids will generally
influence a thickness ranging from 100 to 150 mm above and below the grid. Grids
will rarely be beneficial in subbases when the CBR is above 5 to 10 percent, which is
the case in most of Qatar subgrade, or the thicknesses of granular material is less than
300 mm.
4.8 Protection of Subgrade

The subgrade needs be protected from wet weather and construction traffic. Heavy
rainfall, which is not a significant risk in Qatar, can damage subgrades, particularly in
the short term. In granular soils, the subgrade strength is likely to be reestablished if
the subgrade is allowed to dry out; however, this condition can cause delays. Granular
subbase is usually designed to have a close-knit surface, which, if properly compacted
and shaped, will help protect the subgrade under normal circumstances.
Construction traffic can overstrain the subgrade, leaving it weaker than allowed for at
the design stage and resulting in ruts and deformation. If the subgrade/subbase is to
be used as a haul road, design the subbase layers accordingly to account for
construction loads. Alternatively, a capping or a sacrificial granular material can be
used as a temporary running surface to provide protection.
4.9 Practical Guidelines for Subbase in Pavement Design

In situ CBR measurements are valid only for prevailing conditions at a specific time.
Consider environmental factors that could reduce the subgrade strength during its
service life or during construction.
For subgrades with CBR values of 15 percent and greater, it is likely that the subbase
will have a compacted thickness of about 150 mm. This thickness is considered the
minimum needed for spreading and compaction.
For subgrades with CBR values in excess of 30 percent and a low water table or hard
rock subgrades, the subbase can be omitted. If a rock layer is encountered, the layer
is maintained and its surface scarified by digging roughly 10 centimeters (cm) into the
layer. If there is variability in stiffness or level, a subbase can help provide an
adequate structural platform.
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When determining the pavement section for a project, it is not advisable to vary the
subbase thickness over distances of less than 150 m. Instead, select an appropriate
value for each significant change in the subgrade properties and traffic levels.
During construction, check the CBR to confirm that it is in conformance with the
design assumptions for that pavement section. Check the subgrade in situ to verify
the CBR is not lower than that used in design. If the in situ CBR is greater than the
design value, the thickness of the designed subbase must be maintained, because the
design will have taken long-term conditions into consideration. Before construction of
the subbase or base course, proofroll the subgrade with a loaded vehicle to check for
localized areas of soft or weakened soil. Improve weakened soil, as described in
Section 4.7 in this Part. Compact subgrade foundations for pavement to a minimum
95 percent density, as determined by the Standard Method of Test for Moisture-
Density Relations of Soils Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop
(AASHTO T-180-10-UL). Densities greater than 95 percent are difficult to achieve in
the field, but can be warranted for roadways with concentrated heavy loads, such as
loading stations, toll plazas, port entry ways, and industrial areas.
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5 Aggregate Bases and

Subbases
5.1 Selection of Materials
Aggregates for base and subbase materials come from multiple sources both inside
and outside Qatar. To incorporate these materials into the pavement section, verify
that they are certified to meet the physical and quality specifications of the latest
edition of the QCS, including amendments. Take extra caution in selecting design
parameters to match the materials available at the time of the project. Additional
specifications for base and subbase are presented in Specifications and Quality
Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses, Sub-bases, and Subgrades (Ashghal,
2013b).
5.2 Aggregate Subbase

Aggregate or unbound subbase is usually constructed from well-graded crushed rock.
Select a dense gradation to provide good load-bearing capacity and a close-knit
surface. The minimum CBR for subbase is usually about 60 percent. The subbase is
nonplastic or has a plasticity of less than 6 percent to reduce rutting and deformation,
particularly if the subbase is wetted. The aggregate will have minimum crushing or
abrasion values. It can also be specified for soundness. Provided they meet the
subbase specification, recycled materials can often be used.
5.3 Aggregate Base Course

Aggregate base will generally have the same features as subbase. The materials will
have gradings with tighter tolerances than subbase, and they will have improved
physical properties. The CBR would be expected to be at least 50 to 80 percent.
Provided they meet the specifications for base course, recycled materials can be used.
The use of recycled materials is discussed in Chapter 13 in this Part. Full details of
materials to be used for the pavement construction and subgrade are given in the
latest edition of the QCS, together with applicable test methods.
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6 Stabilized Base Courses

6.1 Selection of Materials
Aggregates, bitumen, and cement have an effect on the quality, strength, and
endurance of stabilized bases. To incorporate these materials into the pavement
section, verify that they will meet the specifications of the applicable sections of the
latest edition of the QCS, including amendments.
6.2 Asphalt Concrete Base Course

AC materials are characterized by an aggregate skeleton, in which the individual
particles are mechanically interlocked; that is, usually bound with 60/70 penetration
grade bitumen. The aggregate skeleton provides deformation resistance, provided
that in situ air voids are in the range of 6 to 8 percent, and contributes to stiffness.
The binder content is such that binder films are thick enough on the aggregate to
resist fatigue and provide durability. Generally, lower penetration binders are used
for increased stiffness and deformation resistance.
Polymer-modified bitumens (PMBs) in asphalt increase rut resistance and result in a

slightly stiffer material without making it more brittle; flexibility is retained. PMBs are
most often used in wearing courses and are used only in binder courses/bases where
there is a higher than usual risk of rutting in the lower material. The effect of
introducing PMBs varies according to the type and percentage used. PMBs such as
styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) and ethylene-vinyl acetate can have a similar
performance in increasing fatigue and rutting resistance.
In Qatar, the specified aggregate for asphaltic concrete is gabbro, which is imported.
6.3 Asphalt Treated Permeable Base

Asphalt treated permeable base (ATPB) is a material consisting of open-graded
aggregate, stabilized with AC. The layer is typically 100 mm to 150 mm thick and is
placed over an unbound granular aggregate subbase or base. It can be used under
rigid pavement types where excessive watering may result in higher groundwater,
and includes a subdrainage system for drainage collection. Additional information
regarding the use of subdrainage systems in included in Part 10, Drainage, of this
manual. The benefit of using ATPB is that it quickly removes groundwater from the
pavement system to prevent damage from weakening of the subgrade and loss of
support in rigid pavements.
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ATPB does not have the same strength and stability as dense-graded asphalt, and is
not used as a surface course. When using the 1993 AASHTO Guide, for rigid
pavements, the resilient modulus of this material is not greater than 2,070 MPa
(300,000 psi) when determining an effective k-value. The use of ATPB is a good
practice and is warranted in areas of very high truck traffic and high groundwater
levels.
6.4 Cement Treated Base

Cement treated base (CTB) is an aggregate base course in which cement has been
added for stabilization. Strength values of CTB vary with the gradation of the
aggregate and the amount of cement to be added. Before using CTB in a pavement
section, trial mix designs need to be performed to determine the unconfined
compressive strength. AASHTO layer coefficients and corresponding resilient modulus
values for this material can be determined by using Figure 2.8 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide. Typical CTB mixes contain approximately 3 percent cement and have a 7-day
compressive strength of 4 MPa to 6.2 MPa (575 psi to 900 psi).
6.5 Roller-Compacted Concrete Base

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump concrete that uses conventional
asphalt paving equipment and compaction equipment. RCC can achieve compressive
strengths equal to or greater than conventional concrete mixes. RCC has a different
mix design than conventional pavement quality concrete and does not include
reinforcing, jointing, or load transfer. Because of the specific mix design and
construction methods, RCC is not as common in roadway construction but can be
used as a rigid base in composite pavements. If used, measures are needed to prevent
bonding of PCC pavements and reflective cracking in flexible pavement surfaces.
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7 Surface Courses
7.1 Asphalt Concrete
7.1.1 Materials and Mix Design Selection
The technology of asphalt mixes and materials is continually developing. It is
important to use the latest QCS specifications and amendments when specifying
materials. For mix design specifications, mix design development, and binder
specifications, use the Guide for Superpave Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt
Mixtures (Ashghal, 2012b). The Guide for Marshall Mix Design and Quality Control of
Asphalt Mixtures (Ashghal, 2013c) can be applied where Superpave is not used.
7.1.2 Surface Courses

Surface courses for AC pavements can consist of dense-graded, open-graded, or stone
matrix AC. AC behavior is dependent on the quality and proportions of the aggregate
and binder in the mix.
Dense-graded AC is made with a polymer-modified binder. Practices in Qatar also

include the use of scrap tire rubber in the binder as a modifier. Interim Advice
Note 019, Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt
Works of Qatar Construction from Specifications (Ashghal, 2012c) provides the
specification for asphalt binders meeting Standard Specification for Performance-
Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test (AASHTO
MP 19-10). The guides for Superpave and Marshall mix designs provide additional
specifications when crumb rubber is added to the binder. Test dense-graded AC
according to Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test
of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) (AASHTO TP 70-13) using
the multiple stress creep recovery test. Binders used in Qatar are Performance
Grade PG-76-10 and PG-76-22. The selection of binder grades, designated “S,” “H,”
“V,” and “E” in Interim Advice Notice 019, depends on traffic volume. Guidance for
the selection of binder designation based on traffic levels is provided in the Ashghal
guidance documents referenced in Clause 7.1.1 in this part.
The benefits of open-graded AC are improved surface skid resistance, improved

surface drainage, and a quieter pavement than dense-graded asphalt. The concrete
mix uses a gap-graded aggregate and an asphalt content of 1 to 2 percent higher than
dense graded mixes because of greater void space and needs for more stability from
the binder. It is placed in thin lifts, with thicknesses of less than 25 mm. This material
does not add any structural value and, therefore, no layer coefficient is applied to this
material.
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Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) surfacing is a gap-graded material with synthetic fibers
that is added to the aggregate matrix. The aggregate gradation is similar to open-
graded asphalt, yet has more fine aggregate. SMA has high stability to guard against
rutting and is placed in thicknesses of less than 150 mm. Material properties similar to
those of dense-graded AC can be used for SMA.
7.1.3 Intermediate Courses

In thicker asphalt pavements and perpetual pavements, an intermediate course is
developed as the main section of the pavement to carry traffic loads. The gradation
and mix design of this material is different than the surface course or base course and
is described in more detail in the QCS 2010.
Intermediate courses in asphalt pavements can include the same dense-graded

asphalt mix as the surface course. This may be the case in pavements where the total
asphalt thickness does not justify the use of two mix types. Rather than construct the
asphalt with two separate mixes, it can be more economical to construct the asphalt
with one mix for consistency. When developing plans, the terms base lift and surface
lift are sometimes used for construction of a course and are not be confused with
base course and surface course.
7.2 Portland Cement Concrete

PCC usually has a compressive strength of about 32 MPa to 40 MPa and is laid wet,
without compaction. In Qatar, concrete is usually made with local limestone aggregates.
The stress generated in a concrete slab partly depends on the stiffness ratio between
the slab and its underlying support. To maximize the pavement life, rigid pavements
can be designed with a bound subbase at least 150 mm thick to reduce stress at the
base of the concrete. For lower trafficked roads with a minimum slab thickness for
construction, a granular subbase is usually sufficient.
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8 Design Elements and

Construction Considerations
8.1 Design Elements: Failure Mechanisms
The basic concept of the structural design of new and rehabilitated pavements is to
reduce the strains, deflections, and stresses under repeated traffic loads to the
acceptable levels that can be resisted by the various pavement layers. There are two
primary modes of failure:
• Fatigue in the asphalt or concrete at the base of the structural layer, where the
horizontal strain is exceeded for asphalt, or stress exceeded for cement-bound
aggregate
• Rutting and permanent deformation of unbound granular materials caused by
excess vertical strain in the subgrade/subbase interface
Figure 8.1 shows the location and failure mechanisms in pavement layers.
Figure 8.1 Designing for Vertical and Horizontal Strain in Pavement Layers
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8.1.1 Flexible Pavements with Flexible Base

“Deterioration in flexible pavements with asphalt base is predominantly caused by
traffic loading, environmental factors, or a combination thereof. Deterioration from
traffic loading is associated with the following mechanisms:
• Repeated tensile strains within the bound layers under vehicle loading, which
cause fatigue cracks to initiate in the asphalt. Traditional pavement analysis
indicates that these cracks start at the bottom of the asphalt base and then
propagate upward through the materials. Further investigations have shown that
fatigue cracking in thicker pavements is different. Fatigue cracking initiates as
bottom-up cracking for thinner pavements; in thicker pavements, failure tends to
be top-down, with fatigue cracking starting at the surface.
• Rutting caused by cumulative deformation of one or more of the layers within the
pavement structure including the subgrade. When rutting emanates from the
subgrade or base layers and the entire pavement structure is deformed, it is
referred to as structural deformation. When rutting is within the asphalt surfacing
only, it is referred to as nonstructural deformation.” (Department for Transport,
1992). Examples of each are shown in Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2.
“The main environmental causes of pavement deterioration are as follows:
• The asphalt binder hardens over time with consequent effects on the fatigue-
resisting properties of the mixture. Hardening of the binder is a result of oxidation
occurring at the surface of the pavement, which is exposed to air and solar
radiation. Strains at the pavement surface caused by thermal cycling and vehicle
loading can eventually lead to surface cracks. Over time, the cracks can propagate
downward and ultimately reach the base of the bound layers. Hardening can also
reduce cohesion of the mixture, resulting in a loss of aggregate; this is often called
fretting, raveling, or surface disintegration.
• Asphalt binder is a material that shows both viscous and elastic behaviors under
different conditions, primarily temperature and loading. Performance of asphalt
mixtures is influenced by the service temperature. At higher temperatures, the
binder is more fluid, and the risk of the accumulation of permanent deformation
in the surfacing increases. This is referred to as nonstructural rutting. This risk is
increased by slow moving or stationary traffic but can be mitigated by selecting
appropriate, well-designed, and well-placed materials.
• Deterioration can result from a variation in foundation strength caused by changes
in moisture levels, particularly on cracked pavements of thin construction.”
(Department for Transport, 1992)
8.1.2 Perpetual Pavements with Asphalt Base

Perpetual (long-life) pavement is an ultra-thick, full-depth asphalt pavement section
designed with multiple layers and specific mixes to guard against rutting and fatigue
cracking. A perpetual pavement system consists of a base layer with high asphalt
content for flexibility to guard against fatigue cracking, one or more intermediate
courses designed for high stability and rut resistance, and a high-performing surface
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course. Thick, well-constructed, flexible pavements with asphalt bases on strong

foundations will not suffer structural deformation or bottom-up fatigue cracking of
the base. The pavement section is designed for a 50-year service life, with the only
rehabilitation to replace the surface course from normal wear. Environmental factors
and repeated traffic loading can lead to cracking at the surface that can increase in
depth. Rutting in these pavements is limited to the surfacing layers (i.e., it is
nonstructural). Long pavement life can be achieved by removing and replacing the
cracked or rutted surface material before the defect has progressed too deeply and
deterioration begins to affect the structural integrity of the road. For particular
materials and axle loads, there is a thickness of pavement beyond which a further
increase in thickness does not necessarily add life. According to Interim Advice
Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines, traffic loads of over 50 million standard
axles warrant a perpetual pavement design (Ashghal, 2012a).
8.1.3 Flexible Pavements with Cement-Bound Base

These pavements consist of a lower base, usually of cement-bound material (CBM),
designed to handle traffic-induced stresses, and an asphalt upper base and surfacing
that protect the CBM and help spread the loading. The strength and thickness of the
CBM layer has a significant influence on the progression of deterioration, which is also
associated with the effects of traffic and the environment, as previously described.
Thermal stresses in this type of pavement usually result in transverse shrinkage cracks
in the CBM during construction. In time, shrinkage cracks can cause stresses in the
overlying asphalt, leading to reflective cracking. Reflective cracking, like
environmental cracking, begins in the surfacing but does not penetrate to the full
depth of the asphalt layers. Reflective and environmental cracks can allow the ingress
of water to the pavement structure and moisture-susceptible materials beneath the
surface if left untreated. If transverse cracks are wide enough, they can reduce
aggregate interlock, resulting in reduced load transfer capacity, which can cause
significant pavement deterioration. Thermal cracking from CBM can be reduced or
eliminated by precracking the CBM before paving the surface and overlaying it with
an adequate thickness of asphalt.
8.1.4 Rigid Pavements

Defects in rigid pavement include spalling, raveling, faulting, cracking and loss of load
transfer. Surface spalling is associated with the durability of the concrete, but it is not
generally a sign of structural deterioration of the pavement.
The reasons for structural deterioration in rigid pavements are very different from
those in flexible pavements. In rigid pavements, horizontal tensile stresses are
generated by the combined effects of wheel loading and thermally induced stresses.
Under certain conditions these stresses can lead to cracking, especially in corners and
along the edges of concrete slabs. Such cracking is often associated with diminished
support of the slab caused by drainage problems or water ingress at joints.
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The repeated traffic loads on rigid pavements create pumping under the transverse
joint, due to excessive deflections that lead to joint faulting, corner and edge breaks,
and transverse cracking near the middle of the concrete slab. The corner/edge break
and transverse cracking are caused by the excessive tensile stresses on the top face of
the slab due to the cantilever action.
8.1.4.1 Jointed Rigid Pavements

Jointed concrete pavement (JRC) can be unreinforced (URC) or reinforced. They are
designed to minimize the occurrence of uncontrolled, random cracking. Dowel bars
are used in JRC and URC for load transfer across joints. Cracking in URC pavements is a
major problem because there is no reinforcement to hold the material together. JRC
pavements can tolerate transverse cracking if good load transfer is maintained.
Structural defects are mainly in the form of cracking. Settlement from joint failure can
also occur. If not remedied, this can lead to the development of cracks and
subsequent failure.
Expansion joints in concrete pavement are placed at intervals and wide enough to
allow for expansion and contraction of the concrete as a result of temperature
changes and thermal expansion. In extremely high temperatures, concrete pavement
can expand a distance that exceeds the spacing provided by the joints. The dowels
can become locked and debris can fill the expansion gap, resulting in expansion joints
that have lost their capacity to absorb movement. In these instances, “blow ups,”
where two consecutive slabs rise up in an inverted “V,” can occur.
8.1.4.2 Continuously Reinforced Rigid Pavements

CRCPs and pavements with continuously reinforced concrete bases (CRCBs) have
longitudinal reinforcement without intermediate expansion or contraction joints.
Thermally induced stresses within the concrete slab are relieved by minor transverse
cracks occurring at 1-m to 2-m spacings held tightly closed by the reinforcement. The
middle of a long slab of CRCP does not move when subjected to temperature
changes. Longitudinal movement is limited to the ends of the slab. This end
movement can be partly restrained with ground beams in a ground beam anchorage
or can be accommodated by a special joint.
Another form of defect called a punchout occurs when closely spaced transverse
cracks are connected by parallel longitudinal cracks. Small blocks of concrete are
formed, become loose, and eventually detach from the pavement when subject to
repeated traffic loads.
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8.2 Design Elements: 1993 AASHTO Guide

8.2.1 Input for the 1993 AASHTO Guide
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical pavement design method is widely used in many
countries and by many road agencies in the United States. Factors other than the
determination of pavement layer thickness are to be considered for a reliable
pavement design. The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method includes consideration
of these items:
• Design life
• Traffic
• Foundation ground conditions
• Pavement performance parameters
• Reliability
• Standard deviation
• Material properties
• Drainage coefficients of layers
• Environmental conditions
• Life cycle cost
The following clauses provide brief guidelines on input values recommended for
pavement design in Qatar using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method.
Appendix A contains a table of parameters appropriate for use in Qatar.
Most transportation agencies in the United States have recently implemented, or

have plans to implement, the mechanistic-empirical design method described in the
MEPDG. These plans include local calibration testing and verification to determine
input values and failure criteria. Furthermore, the United States Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) advocates implementation of the mechanistic-empirical
design method. The Guide for the Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (AASHTO, 2010) describes the steps necessary for full
implementation of the mechanistic-empirical method.
8.2.2 Pavement Performance

The functional performance of a pavement depends on how well the pavement serves
the user. In this context, riding comfort or ride quality is the dominant characteristic.
To quantify riding comfort, the serviceability-performance concept was developed by
AASHTO in 1957. The serviceability of a pavement is expressed in terms of the Present
Serviceability Index (PSI). The PSI is obtained from measurements of roughness and
distress such as cracking, patching, and rut depth at a particular time during the
service life of the pavement. Roughness is the dominant factor in estimating the PSI of
a pavement. Both initial serviceability and terminal serviceability are important for
the pavement design. The initial serviceability index (pi) is an estimate by the user of
what the PSI will be immediately after construction. Values of PSI established for
AASHTO road test conditions were 4.2 for flexible pavements and 4.5 for rigid
pavement. The terminal serviceability index (pt) is the lowest acceptable level before
resurfacing or reconstruction is necessary for particular class of road.
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8.2.3 Reliability
Reliability is a means of incorporating certainty into the design process to increase
probability that the various design alternatives will function as planned through the
analysis period. Reliability can also be defined as the probability of achieving the
design life that Ashghal desires for a certain roadway. As the volume of traffic,
difficulty of diverting traffic, and public expectation of availability increase, the risk of
not performing to expectations needs to be minimized. This is accomplished by
selecting higher levels of reliability.
Appendix A presents recommended levels of reliability for various functional

classifications. The higher levels correspond to the facilities that receive the most use,
and the lowest level corresponds to local roads. When selecting the appropriate level
of reliability, consider such factors as the importance of the roadway under
consideration, new or rehabilitation design, implications of future reconstruction,
traffic level, and minor or major road classification. Reliability levels can be slightly
higher or lower based on specific site conditions and should be confirmed with
Ashghal.
8.2.4 Standard Deviation

Select a standard deviation that is representative of local conditions. The 1993
AASHTO Guide recommends a total standard deviation of 0.35 for rigid pavements
and 0.45 for flexible pavements.
8.2.5 Serviceability
The serviceability of pavement is defined as its ability to serve the type of traffic using
the facility. The primary measure of serviceability is the PSI, which ranges from 0 for
an impassible road to 5 for a perfect road. Selection of the lowest allowable PSI or pt
is based on the lowest index that will be tolerated before rehabilitation, resurfacing,
or reconstruction is necessary. In the 1993 AASHTO Guide, an index of 2.5 or higher is
suggested for major arterials, and 2.0 for arterials with smaller traffic volumes. An
index of 2.5 or 3 is often suggested for use in the design of major roads and an index
of 2 for roads with lower classification. For relatively minor roads, for which economic
considerations dictate that initial expenditures be kept low, a pt of 1.5 can be used.
The time at which a given pavement structure reaches its terminal serviceability
depends on traffic volume and the original or initial serviceability.
Values of 4.2 for flexible pavement and 4.5 for rigid pavement are recommended in
the 1993 AASHTO Guide. Appendix A provides levels of serviceability for roadway
classifications in Qatar, based on information provided in Interim Advice Notice 016,
Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a).
Once pi and pt are established, the following equation is used to define the total
change in serviceability index:
ΔPSI = pi – pt
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8.2.6 Material Properties: Flexible Design

A structural layer coefficient, ai, is assigned to each pavement layer thickness to
convert actual layer thickness to a Structural Number (SN). This coefficient is assigned
to each layer of materials in the pavement structure. “This layer coefficient expresses
the empirical relationship between SN and thickness, and is a measure of the relative
ability of the material to function as a structural component of the pavement”
(AASHTO, 1986).
Appendix B provides charts for estimating the structural layer coefficient of AC,
granular base, granular subbase, and cement-treated base. The structural coefficients
of these materials are based on their modulus of elasticity, or resilience.
When considering the modulus for asphalts, it is important to know the ambient
temperature under which the material will be operating. Values in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide are based on a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius (°C) and will need to be
adjusted to account for the climate in Qatar.
The modulus of resilience refers to the material’s stress-strain behavior under normal
pavement loading conditions. For pavement layer materials, established laboratory
tests are performed to calculate the MR of different materials. For example, the
stiffness of AC can be assessed using Standard Test Method for Determining the
Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures by Indirect Tension Test (ASTM D7369-11).
8.2.7 Material Properties: Rigid Design

Properties for rigid pavement design using the 1993 AASHTO Guide include:
• Concrete modulus of rupture

• Concrete modulus of elasticity
• Load transfer coefficient
• Loss of support factor
Concrete modulus of rupture is a measure of the concrete flexural strength. The

flexural strength will vary with concrete mix design, aggregate type and gradation,
and the amount of cement. Flexural strength is proportional to compressive strength.
The modulus of rupture can be approximated by the following equation:
Modulus of rupture (psi) = [fc]2 × 10
where:
fc = compressive strength in psi.
Values for modulus rupture range from 3.8 MPa to 5.2 MPa (550 psi to 750 psi). PCC
pavement has a value of approximately 4.5 MPa (650 psi).
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Concrete modulus of elasticity can also be approximated from the compressive

strength by the following equation:
elastic modulus (psi) = [fc]0.5 × 59,000
where:
fc = compressive strength in psi
Values for concrete range from 20,700 MPa to 34,500 MPa (3,000,000 psi to
5,000,000 psi). A typical value for paving grade concrete is 27,600 MPa
(4,000,000 psi).
The load transfer coefficient number will vary, depending on pavement type,
reinforcing, joint properties, and shoulder construction. The load transfer coefficient
can be determined using Table 8.1. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete
pavement with dowelled joints and tied concrete shoulders would provide a load
transfer coefficient of 2.8.
Table 8.1 Recommended Load Transfer Coefficients for Various Pavement Types
and Conditions
Shoulder Asphalt Tied PCC
Load transfer devices Yes No Yes No
Pavement Type
Plain jointed and jointed reinforced 3.2 3.8–4.4 2.5–3.1 3.6–4.2
CRCP 2.9–3.2 Not applicable 2.3–2.9 Not applicable
Source: Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
8.2.8 Drainage Coefficient

Drainage of water from over and under the pavement is an important consideration
in pavement design. The drainage coefficient methodology uses a modified layer
coefficient to represent drainage conditions. For example, a higher effective layer
coefficient would be used for improved drainage conditions.
A drainage coefficient (mi) is selected based on the quality of drainage on the

pavement system and percentage of time that the pavement structure is exposed to
moisture levels approaching saturation. These coefficients are used to modify the
structural layer coefficients for granular base and subbase. Recommended mi values
are provided in Table 2.4 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide. However, for general use in
Qatar, a value of 1.0 could be assumed unless there is a risk of high water tables or
excessive irrigation for landscapes on the sides of the road. If conditions cannot be
predicted with accuracy, a value of 1.2 is used.
8.2.9 Environmental Conditions

For pavement performance and pavement structural design, the two main
environmental factors are temperature and rainfall. Temperature will affect the creep
properties of AC, thermal-induced stresses in AC, and contraction and expansion of
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concrete pavement. Material properties used in designs need to be appropriate for

the environmental conditions anticipated.
8.2.10 Traffic
Traffic loading is input as a cumulative number of ESALs. Assessment and prediction
of traffic is discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part.
8.3 Construction Considerations

8.3.1 Asphalt Concrete
For AC to be effective in flexible or composite pavement structure, full adhesion is
needed between the individual layers of asphalt materials so that they act as a single
monolithic layer. To achieve this in practice and to help achieve good, long-life
performance, a tack or bond coat is needed between all layers.
A prime coat shall be placed on granular layers below the AC. The prime coat will aid
in binding and sealing the surface of the granular layer, and bonding the asphalt.
The jointing between paving lanes, if not constructed properly, can allow water to
enter the pavement structure, which could lead to stripping of the binder, loss of
aggregate, and raveling. When preparing specifications for construction, address joint
construction. Density along paving joints and staggering paving joints between
successive lifts need to be addressed. Check asphalt field density at the joint or within
60 cm of the joint. A wedge detail can be used along edges of paving lanes to provide
more surface contact between adjacent lanes. Pavers can also be equipped with a
joint-matching apparatus for continuity between paving lanes or a joint heater device
to ensure good bond between the existing (cold) and new (hot) asphalt layers.
Longitudinal joints between lifts of asphalt need to overlap by at least 150 mm.
To facilitate the development of AC materials for pavement design purposes, Ashghal

has recommended specific performance tests to obtain specific information that can
be used in further pavement designs. Use the Guide for the Performance Testing of
Flexible Pavement Layers (Ashghal, 2013a) as directed.
8.3.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete

CRCP and continuously reinforced concrete base (CRCB) pavements develop a fine
transverse crack pattern soon after the concrete is laid. The crack spacing is initially
about 3 m or 4 m. Further cracking is usual after the road has been in service for a few
years. Continuous longitudinal steel holds the cracks tightly closed, ensuring load
transfer by aggregate interlock and minimizing steel corrosion. Crack propagation in
CRCP/CRCB pavements is closely related to the subsurface friction, the aggregate
used, the strength of the concrete, and the proportion of steel.
The restraint provided by the subbase reduces the amount of movement and is
related to the desired crack pattern. The use of a layer of material under the
CRCP/CRCB with uniform surface properties, such as paver-laid wet-lean concrete or
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an asphalt material, is recommended. The thickness of any underlying asphalt

material can be considered as part of the bound subbase.
Discontinuities in the slab need to be prevented, because they encourage the

formation of closely spaced cracks, which increases the risk of spalling. For this
reason, locate gullies and manholes outside the main CRCP/CRCB slab. If this is not
possible, then the slab around the gullies and manholes is heavily reinforced.
Where a CRCP has an asphalt surface, including a wearing course, surface noise
generation is reduced and water penetration (and the potential for steel corrosion) is
likely to be reduced. A surfacing thickness of 100 mm (or greater) also provides a
degree of thermal protection from rapid temperature changes for the concrete base.
8.3.3 Joints in Rigid Pavements

Temperature and, to a lesser extent, moisture changes cause contraction/expansion
of the slab, which, if retained, induce stresses in the concrete. A separation
membrane is needed between the slab and subbase for URC and JRC pavements to
reduce this effect and to inhibit the formation of mid-bay cracks. The membrane also
helps reduce the loss of water from fresh concrete.
The types of joints used in concrete pavements include contraction, expansion,

warping, isolation, and construction joints. Each type of joint is described in the
following paragraphs.
Contraction joints are constructed in strategic locations to allow the slab to shrink and
crack when its temperature falls. Joints are sawcut or formed to a depth of one-fourth
to one-third the slab thickness and sealed. Consequently, adequate joint design will
allow the slab to expand by approximately the same amount. Contraction joints are
saw-cut to relieve stresses from concrete shrinkage and to control the location of
shrinkage cracks. Saw-cutting is performed after concrete placement and before
hardening, while the concrete is still plastic. Sawcut joints within 24 hours after
placement to prevent random cracking away from joints and load transfer devices.
Expansion joints allow movement that would naturally occur at temperatures higher
than that of the concrete at the time the slab was constructed and allow the slab to
shrink. Transverse joints are either expansion or contraction types.
Warping joints are provided for longitudinal joints only and tie the slabs together;
they act as hinges in the slab.
Isolation joints are used around structures such as manholes, catch basins, and vaults
to prevent bonding of the concrete to fixed objects, and to isolate areas of differing
pavement thicknesses and widths. Isolation joints can include a thickened edge of
150 percent of the normal pavement thickness. They can be doweled if loads will be
transferred across adjoining pavement slabs. Spacing between the adjoining
pavement and structure will be the same as an expansion joint.
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Construction joints are joints made at the end of a day’s paving in advance
preparation for future paving. Construction joints include load transfer through
dowels in transverse construction joints and tie bars in longitudinal joints and are
sealed the same as contraction joints.
The permitted spacing of transverse joints is a function of slab thickness, aggregate

type, and, for JRC, the quantity of reinforcement. Joint spacing reflects the capacity of
the slab to distribute strain, rather than allow damaging strain concentrations. For
jointed plain concrete pavement, joint spacing is typically 5 m. Dowels are added to
transverse contraction joints for load transfer. Dowel bar sizes vary with slab
thickness, but are typically 460 mm long at 305-mm spacing. Dowel bar diameters are
20 mm to 40 mm for a concrete thickness of 160 mm to 320 mm.
The advantage of concrete containing aggregate with a lower coefficient of thermal

expansion is that it results in less expansion/contraction of the slab, which allows a
greater joint spacing.
The ability of reinforcement to distribute strain increases with the amount of

reinforcement used. Greater joint spacings can be used with larger areas of
reinforcement, although this results in greater movement at each joint and
appropriate sealants must be used.
8.3.4 Smoothness of Pavement Surface

Pavement performance is affected by the smoothness of the pavement surface and
ride quality, which in turn is affected by sound subgrade, subbase, and base
construction; proper jointing in rigid pavements; control of finish grade; and final
surface finish. Pavement surface smoothness can be determined in several ways. The
selection of the method is dependent on the volume and speed of traffic, road
category, and use.
In areas of light and low traffic, it can be permissible to check surface deviations by
using a straight edge. In other areas, a rolling inclinometer, or profilograph, can be
used to check deviations to grade along the profile. In higher speed and higher
classifications of pavement, the International Roughness Index (IRI) is used to
determine ride quality. If using of a profilograph, follow the procedures in Standard
Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure Longitudinal and Transverse
Profiles of a Traveled Surface [ASTM E2133-03(2013)]. The IRI is reported in
accordance with Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of
Roads from Longitudinal Profile Measurements (ASTM E1926-08).
The QCS 2010 lists the specifications for testing with a 3-m straight edge on minor
roads. A laser road surface testing machine is used to test the finished wearing course
of major roads, such as freeways, expressways, and arterials. Acceptable IRI values for
new construction, rehabilitation, and flexible and rigid pavement are provided in the
QCS 2010. Select the method of testing and determining pavement smoothness with
concurrence with Ashghal procedures at the time of construction.
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9 Traffic Analysis
9.1 Estimation of Annual Average Daily Traffic
A pavement is expected to carry the predicted traffic volume and allowable axle loads
without requiring complete reconstruction for the duration of its design life. At some
point during the design life, the pavement may be in a condition that requires
rehabilitation to improve performance. The pavement then may have reached the
end of its performance life but is still able to carry the traffic loading. Rehabilitation
may consist of an overlay without requiring reconstruction.
In Qatar, the design life for most pavements is 20 years. At 20 years, major
refurbishment is expected. A design life of 20 years does not indicate that routine
maintenance, or surface replacement, is not needed during that time. Significant
changes in predicted traffic, climate, and inadequate maintenance practices may
shorten the life of the pavement and result in the need for early rehabilitation.
At the end of the design life, when the allowable axle loading has been applied or
when the pavement reaches the end of its service life as indicated by the pavement
evaluation survey, the pavement will probably need rehabilitation. Pavement
assessment and rehabilitation are discussed in Chapter 11 in this Part.
9.1.1 Traffic Counts

The necessity for traffic counts depends on the types of road projects being
considered and the relative magnitude of the three types of traffic expected to use
them. These are normal, diverted and developed traffic. Normal traffic is that which
uses or will use the particular roadway. Diverted traffic is that which is attracted to
the new roadway. Developed traffic is that which is generated from the result of new
development.
The determination of traffic, traffic loads, prediction of future traffic, and how loads
are accounted will have a significant impact on the overall pavement structure
needed to support the traffic. Predicting normal and diverted traffic requires
knowledge of the flows on the existing road or near the proposed road, and of the
types of vehicles that are expected to use the road.
Developed traffic cannot be directly counted in advance of construction and is

estimated. Traffic resulting from planned development can be quantified using details
of the planned residential, commercial, and industrial projects. For most roads, it is
likely that some relevant data are available but will likely need to be augmented or
updated by additional counts. Similarly, diverted traffic cannot be counted directly.
Traffic studies need to assess the volume of local traffic diverted to a new or
improved road.
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Conventional traffic counts used to justify or to geometrically design a road project

are usually based on manual or automatic methods where all vehicles are combined
to produce a single value for average daily traffic (ADT). ADT is the total average daily
traffic in both directions, based on annual data. However, for pavement design
purposes, it is essential that classified counts are carried out so that heavy vehicles,
which cause the most pavement damage, can be clearly quantified. A standard
classification is needed in the counting process to yield separate ADT values for each
class of vehicle. For pavement design, axle loading in one direction using one lane is
considered.
Conduct classified counts using Qatar’s standard 13 traffic classes, as shown in

Table 9.1 Class 1, consisting of cars, and Class 2, consisting of four-wheel drive
vehicles and light pick-ups, cause negligible pavement damage, and hence, are
omitted from the table. Additional information on these vehicles can be found in
Tables 5.2 and 5.3 of Part 2, Planning, of this manual. At the time of design, verify the
information in Table 9.1 for updates on axle loads.
Table 9.1 Qatar Standard Vehicle Classes
Number Wheels (on each side Number of Standard Axles per

Class Type of Axles of the vehicle) Vehicle (80 kilonewtons)
3 Minibus 2 1+2 / 1+1 0.2–0.5
4 Bus/coach 2 1+2 0.7–5.0
5 Pickup truck 2 1+1 / 1+2 0.1–3.0
6 Rigid truck 2 1+2 0.4–7.0
7 Rigid truck 3 1+2+2 1.5–6.0
8 Articulated truck 3 1+2+22 0.6–10.0
14 Trailer 3 1+2+22 2.0–7.0
15 Trailer 4 1+22+22 2. 0–10.0
The number of standard axles per vehicle ranges from vehicles carrying no loads to
those fully loaded at the legal limit, or over the limit. The classification can be manual or
automated.
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In order for axle loading and composition percentages to be representative of the

annual traffic, the method described below is followed unless otherwise stated in the
contract, such as the case of detailed traffic data being unavailable:
• Perform traffic counts over 7 days, preferably in each direction separately.

• Perform counts outside times of abnormal traffic activity, such as public holidays.
• Consider the average of the 24-hour counts, total or vehicle class, in each direction
as one-way ADT, total or vehicle class. One-way ADT may also be calculated from
actual survey volumes from one or more traffic counts for six consecutive days. A
detailed vehicle classification can then developed based on the actual traffic data.
• For important roads, repeat the counts several times throughout the year to
improve the accuracy of the ADT values.
• If classified counts are not available use the following procedures:
1. Preferably, perform traffic count surveys at similar sites to develop an
approximate traffic volume and heavy vehicle classification.
2. With total traffic, use typical class percentages from historic statistics.
3. If a brownfield site, extract traffic volumes from Qatar Standard Traffic
Manual work peak hour volumes and heavy vehicle classification extracted
from full day model runs.
For the purpose of pavement design, daily traffic is usually assessed from counts by
using one of the following three methods described below. Additional information
transportation study procedures, traffic surveys, data collection and reporting can be
found in the Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation Studies, Rev. 3 (Ministry of
Municipality and Urban Planning [MMUP], 2011).
• Classified Counts—axle configuration, number, and weight: Traffic is counted in

accordance with a prescribed classification with axle layout and a sample of
vehicles is weighed to determine actual axle weights. This approach is considered
the most accurate method for estimating load from design traffic loading over the
design period. In this method, the number, configuration, and loading of axles for
each vehicle class are counted and used in design traffic calculations. The classes
include passenger cars, buses, light trucks, and commercial vehicles or heavy
trucks. With knowledge of axle number, axle configuration, and axle load, the
equivalent design loads are then estimated using axle load equivalency factors
(ALEFs) to convert all axles into 80 kN, single-axle, dual-tire axles used in
pavement design. The annual equivalent axle load is then projected and factored
over the design period to calculate the cumulative design traffic loading.
• Classified Counts—truck class: Vehicles are counted in accordance with a
prescribed classification. For the purpose of traffic prediction, an axle load
equivalency factor (ALEF) is assigned to the axle configuration for each truck class.
The equivalent design loads are then estimated using truck equivalency factors to
convert all traffic into 80 kN, single-axle, dual-tire axles used in pavement design.
The annual equivalent axle load is then projected and factored over the design
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period to calculate the cumulative design traffic loading. ALEFs are provided in the
1993 AASHTO Guide. These ALEF values are used to determine the total number of
equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) used for design purposes. ALEF, and
corresponding ESAL, values vary depending on pavement type and thickness, and
are not the same for flexible and rigid pavement for the same mix of traffic when
using the 1993 AASHTO Guide.
• Truck percentage: This method is used when classified counts are not available.
The percentage of heavy traffic is either counted directly, but not classified, or
estimated and used to calculate the design traffic loading in terms of ESALs over
the selected design period by using a single factor calculated based on field
surveys and research studies. The annual equivalent axle load is then projected
and factored over the design period to calculate the cumulative design traffic
loading. Truck percentages will vary depending on location and classification of
roadway. Expressways may have as much as 15 percent trucks, where local roads
may have as little as 1 percent trucks, and industrial areas, weigh stations, and
construction sites could have all trucks.
9.2 Estimating Equivalent Standard Axle Loads

Pavement performance is affected by the magnitude of the applied wheel loads and
the load repetitions. For pavement design purposes, it is essential to consider not only
the number of vehicles that will use the pavement over the design life, but also the
axle loads of these vehicles, as well as tire type, configuration, and pressure. The design
procedure is to calculate cumulative ESALs for the design period. A design traffic
number of a mixed traffic stream of different trucks, axle loads, and axle configurations
is determined by converting each axle load into an equivalent number of standard axle
loads and summing these loads over the design period.
There is an approximate relationship between the damage from a given axle load and
that for any standard axle load, known as the fourth power law, as shown in the
following equation:
ALEF = (AL/ALS)4
where:
ALEF = axle load equivalency factor of axle in question
AL = axle load of axle in question
ALS = standard axle load to which all other axle loads are compared
The factors listed in Table 9.2 and Table 9.3 are for single axles, as compared to an
80 kN standard single axle. Axle type, single, tandem, or tridem, is also important.
Because heavy trucks have multiple axles, most pavement designs primarily consider
the accurate prediction of heavy trucks and their respective expected axle weights.
This also demonstrates the importance of the knowledge of the number of axles per
heavy truck and the expected weight of the axles. The pavement designer needs
traffic surveys from which the number and weight of vehicles can be predicted. If only
inadequate and incomplete data is available, other known and reliable information
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such as product data and truck equipment information and truck percentages and
data from similar locations can be used, along with good engineering judgment, to
estimate axle loads for certain truck types.
Table 9.2 Damage Factors for Light Vehicles

Vehicle Description Damage Factor
1-metric-ton axle (10 kilonewtons) − a car) (10/80)4 = 0.00024 (almost zero)
2-metric-ton (20 kilonewtons) −a light goods vehicle (20/80)4 = 0.0039
Table 9.3 Damage Factors for Heavy Trucks

Vehicle Description Damage Factor
8-metric-ton axle (80/80)4 = 1
10-metric-ton axle (100/80)4 = 2.44
13-metric-ton axle (130/80)4 = 6.97
15-metric-ton axle (150/80)4 = 12.36
20-metric-ton axle (200/80)4 = 39.06
It is typical to design pavements on the basis of the cumulative traffic to be carried

over the design life in years, expressed in standard axles. Needed information
includes:
• Traffic counts, both trucks and cars

• Axles per vehicle and axle types
• Axle loads
• ESALs
• Growth rates and corresponding growth factor
• Directional or proportioned traffic
• Determination of cumulative standard axles
• Design life
Accurate traffic predictions can significantly influence the life of a designed pavement.
Key considerations are:
• Correctness of load equivalency values used to estimate relative damage of axle

loads of different mass and configurations
• Accuracy of traffic volume and weight information used to represent the actual
loading projections
• Prediction of ESALs over the design period
• Interaction of age and traffic as it affects pavement performance
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9.2.1 Standard Axle Load

For pavement design purposes, the effect of vehicle axles can be expressed in terms
of a “standard axle.” In the AASHTO road test conducted in the United States from
1958 to 1960, this term was defined as one axle carrying 18,000 pounds.
Subsequently, the load has been rationalized in metric units to 80 kN (equivalent to
8,157 kilograms [kg]). To determine the cumulative axle loads over the design life of
the pavement, it is typical to convert the number of each class of heavy vehicle axles
to an equivalent number of 80 kN standard axles. The relationship between axle loads
can be expressed using the following equation:
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂(𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌) 𝒂𝒂
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = ( )
𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
where:
𝑎𝑎 = typically between 4 and 5 depending on the type of distress and the design of the
pavement structure. This exponent is less for weaker asphalt pavements.
Overloaded vehicles cause significant pavement damage. In the case of a five-axle

articulated truck, this can increase from about four equivalent standard axles for the
designed weight limit, up to 160 equivalent standard axles for some overloaded
vehicles.
If data are unavailable, axle loads can be measured using portable weighbridges or
weigh-in-motion systems. Several types of weigh-in-motion systems are available.
Associated measurement errors are available in Standard Specification for Highway
Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Systems with User Requirements and Test Methods
(ASTM E1318-09). Such systems generally need regular calibration and can be
corrected for vehicle speed and road surface smoothness.
9.2.2 Axle Load Limits

Chapter XII, Article 86 of Law No. 19 of 2007 regarding the Traffic Law established
legal load limits for vehicles using public roads in Qatar. Legal load limits were
established for two types of axles: single axle with dual-tire assembly, and tandem
axle with dual-tire assembly. No specific legal limit is defined for the now common
tridem axle with dual-tire assembly or the single axle with a single tire
9.2.3 Design Life

Pavements in Qatar have been designed for a predicted life of 20 years. As materials,
construction methods, and pavement design become more advanced, and where there
are also small differences between pavement design thickness for 20 and 40 years of
design life, it is probably more cost-effective to consider a 40-year design life for new
pavement. Designs for 20 years and 40 years can be compared to determine which
provide the best value. In some cases, it can be cost-effective to design for 20 years
with the intention to apply an overlay to extend the life from 20 years to 40 years.
Expressways and freeways with high traffic volumes warrant the application of a
40-year design life because of the high user costs associated with a reconstruction in
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20-years. In any case, a life-cycle cost analysis, as discussed in Chapter 12 in this Part,
may be performed to compare the life-cycle costs of 20- and 40-year pavements.
During the design period, the road pavement is expected to perform with no major
failures. Because of environmental conditions, it is inevitable that surfacing materials
will need to be replaced.
9.2.4 Growth Rate

Once traffic levels have been determined for current conditions, they need to be
predicted for future growth to comply with the development of the country. Growth
can be negligible for some minor roads, but for major roads growth may be
significant. Given the developing economy in Qatar, uncertainty about traffic volumes
and types is high. To predict traffic growth, consider the following four traffic
categories:
• Normal traffic that uses the route

• Planned traffic for proposed roads
• Diverted traffic, which is attracted to the route because of the improved
pavement, detour from construction or other road closure, or congestion and
delays on other roads
• Development traffic, which arises from planned and unplanned development
along the road corridor (this is sometimes called “generated traffic”)
Normal traffic can be assumed to continue to grow according to current trends, either
as a fixed number of vehicles per year or as a cumulative percentage of the current
total. Diverted traffic can be considered from an economic perspective; this could
include all vehicles that would save time or money by switching from an existing route
to the newly paved route. Diverted traffic is usually predicted to grow at the same
rate as the traffic on the road from which it has been diverted.
The volume of the traffic due to planned development can be estimated from the
details of policy plans, but is often difficult to predict with accuracy. The prediction is
influenced by factors such as the availability of land for such development and
economic growth. Historical data from previous road projects can provide relevant
information. The Qatar Strategic Transport Model was developed for all of Qatar and
is a good source of information for development traffic of different land uses. The use
of different trip rates for different land uses is also a common practice to estimate
developed traffic. The Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation, Rev. 3 (MMUP,
2011) provides additional information on the development of trip generation and land
use data. A construction traffic due to new development is also to be considered.
For roads that are to be rehabilitated, past growth can be an indication of future
growth. For new roads, predicted growth will depend on the results of traffic impact
studies. Traffic growth, which is dependent on the selected design period and growth
rate, can be calculated for each type of vehicle.
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Growth is usually compound and cumulative from year to year. It is sometimes easier
to work with an overall growth factor (GF) where the initial traffic (year one) is
multiplied by a single factor, taking the compound growth into account. For a growth
rate (g) and design period (t), a GF can be expressed as follows:
(1 + 𝑔𝑔)𝑡𝑡 − 1
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 =
𝑔𝑔
For ease of calculation, GF can be determined for any type of vehicle for any design
period and growth rate. For example, the GF is 29.78 for a 20-year design period and
a growth rate of 4 percent per year.
Different growth rates can be used for different vehicle classes if sufficiently detailed
information is available. Past experience in Qatar road projects has shown that GFs
for traffic to be used to estimate design ESALs are as shown in Interim Advice
Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a), provided here as Table 9.4.
Higher growth rates are unlikely to be sustained for the whole of the design life; few
economies will sustain the economic growth needed for continuing high traffic
growth. Growth rates were determined at the time of the development of this
manual, and care needs to be taken when selecting and verifying the growth rate to
be applied at the time the roadway is opened to traffic. Because the growth rate will
influence the total traffic volume for the life of the pavement, it is important to
consider all factors and resources to determine a sustainable growth rate for the
entire design life.
Table 9.4 Growth Rate for Traffic to be Used to Estimate Design ESALs for Qatar
Traffic Growth Rate per Annum

Type Compoundeda Remarks
New construction This value is subject to change due to

4–6%
projects significant proposed construction works.
Rehabilitation and This value is subject to change due to

2–4%
twinning projects significant proposed construction works.
Notes:
a These values are estimates only; use actual figures where possible.
Further growth ought not be applied to any given lane once traffic levels are saturated.
Source: Table A-2 in Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a)
9.2.5 Directional and Lane Distribution Factors

Some traffic count data will be in the form of annual average daily traffic (AADT). For
pavement design only, the traffic in one direction is needed; this is annual average
daily flow (AADF). It is best to carry out traffic counts in each direction separately;
however, if this is not possible and the directional split is not known, then the flow in
one direction is assumed as a minimum of 55 percent of the total.
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Traffic distribution on multi-lane roads is an additional factor to consider. On roads

with more than one lane in each direction, it is necessary to assume a split between
lanes. As flow increases in the right lane, more vehicles, including heavy vehicles, will
generally move over to an adjacent lane. For two-lane highways, the lane in each
direction is the design lane and so the lane distribution is 100 percent. For multi-lane
highways, the design lane is the outside lane. Table 9.5 shows the approved lane
distribution factors used in Qatar.
Where detailed information is not available, the values in Table 9.5 can be considered
under normal traffic conditions. Use these valies with caution if directional
distribution is not balanced or if designated heavy vehicle lanes are used, or both. On
multi-lane highways, the total traffic volume represents all lanes in one direction.
The AASHTO design guidelines can be used where such distribution factors based on
actual field surveys are not available. The 1993 AASHTO Guide provides a good basis
for traffic distribution and percentage of design traffic in the design lane, depending
on the number of lanes open to truck traffic in each direction. In Qatar, the values
shown in Table 9.5 can be used, as presented in Interim Advice Notice 016 (Ashgahl,
2012a).
Table 9.5 Traffic Distribution and Percentage of Design Traffic in the Design Lane
for Qatar
Number of Lanes per Direction % in Design Lane
1 100
2 90
3 60
4 40
Source: Interim Advice Notice 016, Pavement Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2012a)
Give special consideration when estimating ESAL on a high volume heavy goods
vehicle turning lanes for heavy trucks. Evaluate the selection and application of the
lane distribution factor based on engineering judgment or actual survey data on
turning volumes for heavy trucks.
9.3 Determination of Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle

Loads
As stated in Section 9.2 in this Part, the purpose of predicting future traffic is to
calculate cumulative ESALs for the design period to determine a design traffic number
for a mixed traffic stream of different trucks, axle loads, and axle configurations. This
is accomplished by converting each axle load into an equivalent number of equivalent
axle loads) and summing these loads over the design period.
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The basic process is accomplished by conducting the following steps:
Step 1: Determine vehicle flow (AADT) at the beginning of the design period.
Calculation of predicted traffic will usually begin with results of a traffic count. It is
likely that one of three types of count will be available (see Section 9.1 in this Part):
1a All traffic count: all vehicles not classified by type.

1b Total count: all traffic count with truck and car classifications.
1c Classified count: the number of vehicles in specific classes. Qatar uses a
classification system with 15 classes (see Table 9.1).
For each type of count, the count can be one-way or two-way.
Step 2: Determine largest AADF in one direction.
If counts have been carried out in each direction separately, the traffic from Step 1
can be proportioned appropriately. If counts are two-way, then a split needs to be
assumed. If local knowledge suggests that the road is traveled more in one direction
than the other, this is taken into account. In the absence of other information, it is
prudent to adopt a 55 percent flow in the direction being designed.
AADF in one direction is adopted based on six consecutive days of traffic count survey
data from one or more counts through the year. If estimating AADF from traffic model
data, full day or peak hour volumes, calculate AADF from two-way volumes and
applicable directional and lane distribution factors.
Step 3: Determine the proportion and number of trucks in the overall flow.
From Step 1a: In this case, the designer will make an assessment of the number of
trucks in the overall vehicle count. If no other information is available, then the Qatar
average proportion of trucks for the appropriate road classification can be used.
Figure 7.1 from Guidelines and Procedures for Transportation Studies, Rev. 3 (MMUP,
2011), can also be used to estimate the percentage of heavy vehicle by road
classification.
From Step 1b: The overall proportion/number of trucks will be identified.
From Step 1c: A classified traffic count will give the number of trucks in the overall
traffic flow, classified by truck type or class. For example, bus/coach, rigid truck-three-
axle, articulated truck-six-axle, or 1+tandem+tridem. In Qatar, Classes 1 and 2 are
light vehicles and are not considered in the calculation. Classes 3 to 15 are counted as
heavy vehicles or trucks.
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Step 4: If sufficient information is available over the proposed design life, apply a
growth rate to the overall number of trucks or to each individual truck class. Growth
factors (GFs) can be used instead of growth rates; GFs take the design life into
account.
For roads where trucks are permitted to use more than one lane, growth rates and
GFs need to be applied to the ADT or average daily flow value, not to the expected
lane flow at opening. The traffic is then apportioned between lanes as described in
Step 6. Where high growth rates are used for long design lives or there is high traffic
for a single lane flow, or a combination thereof, it is possible to generate a traffic flow
that will not be sustained by the road layout. This will result in a disproportionately
high cumulative ESAL value.
Step 5: Determine an average ESAL factor, or truck factor, or the ESAL factor for
each class of truck to determine the total number of ESALs.
Where only the total number of trucks is available (Steps 1a and 1b), an overall ESAL
factor is used. If the proportion (and hence number) of trucks in the overall flow can
be identified, but no classification of different trucks is available, then it will be
necessary to apply a single representative ESAL factor to the truck count.
Where a classified count is available from Step 1c, then a separate ESAL factor is
applied to each class. If no other information is available, then it will be necessary to
apply a single representative ESAL factor to the entire truck count.
ESAL factors can be established only where actual axle weights are known. It is
unusual to commission axle weight studies for a particular project. It is expected that
values are determined from several counts set up on a regional or countrywide basis.
The assessment of the truck factor is critical in determining the cumulative ESALs.
Establishing ESALs from tandem and tridem axles is not straightforward. Tables 9.6
through 9.12 can be used for estimating ESALs.
Factors for the consideration of single, tandem, and tridem axles are provided in the
1993 AASHTO Guide. Tables D.4, D.5, D.13 and D.14 in Appendix D of the 1993
AASHTO Guide are provided herein as Table 9.6 and Table 9.7.
In this method, the axle equivalency factor is dependent on the pt and the overall SN.
For instance, from Table 9.7, for a serviceability level of 2.5 and an SN of 4, a tandem
axle carrying 80 kN (18 kips) has an equivalence of about 0.092, and a 150-kN
(40-kips) tandem axle has an equivalence of about 2.03. Examples of tabulated values
from Appendix D, Tables D.4 and D.5, in the 1993 AASHTO Guide are shown in
Table 9.6 through Table 9.9. An example calculation of the overall truck factor from
Figure D.1 in Appendix D of the 1993 AASHTO Guide is reproduced here as Table 9.10.
A rigid ESAL calculation is provided in Table 9.11 and a blank worksheet for
determining 18-kip ESALs is provided as Table 9.12.
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Step 6: Determine the proportion of truck traffic in the most heavily trafficked lane
See Table 9.5.
Step 7: Calculate traffic using information from Steps 1 to 6.
The calculation can be tabulated as the example from the 1993 AASHTO Guide, using
Table 9.10 and the worksheet in Table 9.12.
Table 9.6 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Single Axle, and
Pt of 2.5
Pavement Structural Number
Axle Load (kip) 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0.0004 0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
4 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.002
6 0.011 0.017 0.017 0.013 0.010 0.009
8 0.032 0.047 0.051 0.041 0.034 0.031
10 0.078 0.102 0.118 0.102 0.088 0.080
12 0.168 0.198 0.229 0.213 0.189 0.176
14 0.328 0.358 0.399 0.388 0.360 0.342
16 0.591 0.613 0.646 0.645 0.623 0.606
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.61 1.57 1.49 1.47 1.51 1.55
22 2.48 2.38 2.17 2.09 2.18 2.30
24 3.69 3.49 3.09 2.89 3.03 3.27
26 5.33 4.99 4.31 3.91 4.09 4.48
28 7.49 6.98 5.90 5.21 5.39 5.98
30 10.3 9.5 7.9 6.8 7.0 7.8
32 13.9 12.8 10.5 8.8 8.9 10.0
34 18.4 16.9 13.7 11.3 11.2 12.5
Source: Table D4 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
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Table 9.7 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Flexible Pavements, Tandem Axles,
and Pt of 2.5
Pavement Structural Number
Axle Load
(kip) 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002
6 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001
8 0.004 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.003
10 0.008 0.013 0.011 0.009 0.007 0.006
12 0.015 0.024 0.023 0.018 0.014 0.013
14 0.026 0.041 0.042 0.033 0.027 0.024
16 0.044 0.065 0.070 0.057 0.047 0.043
18 0.070 0.097 0.109 0.092 0.077 0.070
20 0.107 0.141 0.162 0.141 0.121 0.110
22 0.160 0.198 0.229 0.207 0.180 0.166
24 0.231 0.273 0.315 0.292 0.260 0.242
26 0.327 0.370 0.420 0.401 0.364 0.342
28 0.451 0.493 0.548 0.534 0.495 0.470
30 0.611 0.648 0.703 0.695 0.658 0.633
32 0.813 0.843 0.889 0.887 0.857 0.834
34 1.06 1.08 1.11 1.11 1.09 1.08
36 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38
38 1.75 1.73 1.69 1.68 1.70 1.73
40 2.21 2.16 2.06 2.03 2.08 2.14
42 2.76 2.67 2.49 2.43 2.51 2.61
44 3.41 3.27 2.99 2.88 3.00 3.16
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Table 9.8 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Single Axle, and Pt
of 2.5
Axle Slab Thickness, D (inches)
Load
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(kip)
0.000
2 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
2
4 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
6 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
8 0.039 0.035 0.033 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
10 0.097 0.089 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080 0.080
12 0.203 0.189 0.181 0.176 0.175 0.174 0.174 0.173 0.173
14 0.376 0.360 0.347 0.341 0.338 0.337 0.336 0.336 0.336
16 0.634 0.623 0.610 0.604 0.601 0.599 0.599 0.599 0.598
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.51 1.52 1.55 1.57 1.58 1.58 1.59 1.59 1.59
22 2.21 2.20 2.28 2.34 2.38 2.40 2.41 2.41 2.41
24 3.16 3.10 3.22 3.36 3.45 3.50 3.53 3.54 3.55
26 4.41 4.26 4.42 4.67 4.85 4.95 5.01 5.04 5.05
28 6.05 5.76 5.92 6.29 6.61 6.81 6.92 6.98 7.01
30 8.16 7.67 7.79 8.28 8.79 9.14 9.35 9.46 9.52
32 10.8 10.1 10.1 10.7 11.4 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7
34 14.1 13.0 12.9 13.6 14.6 15.4 16.0 16.4 16.5
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Table 9.9 Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavements, Tandem Axles, and
Pt of 2.5
Axle Slab Thickness, D (inches)
Load
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(kip)
2 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
4 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
6 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
8 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
10 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012
12 0.031 0.028 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025
14 0.057 0.052 0.049 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.047
16 0.097 0.089 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080
18 0.155 0.143 0.136 0.133 0.132 0.131 0.131 0.131 0.131
20 0.234 0.220 0.211 0.206 0.204 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.203
22 0.340 0.325 0.313 0.308 0.305 0.304 0.304 0.304 0.304
24 0.475 0.462 0.450 0.444 0.441 0.440 0.439 0.439 0.439
26 0.644 0.637 0.627 0.622 0.620 0.619 0.618 0.618 0.618
28 0.855 0.854 0.852 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.840 0.840 0.840
30 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14
32 1.43 1.44 1.47 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51
34 1.82 1.82 1.87 1.92 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.97 1.97
36 2.29 2.27 2.35 2.43 2.48 2.51 2.52 2.52 2.53
38 2.85 2.80 2.91 3.03 3.12 3.16 3.18 3.20 3.20
40 3.52 3.42 3.55 3.74 3.87 3.94 3.98 4.00 4.01
42 4.32 4.16 4.30 4.55 4.74 4.86 4.91 4.95 4.96
44 5.26 5.01 5.16 5.48 5.75 5.92 6.01 6.06 6.09
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Flexible Pavements with an SN=5 and a Terminal Serviceability of 2.5
Axle Load Axle Load Equivalency Factor Number of Axles 18-kip EALs
P = 2.5
Single Axles SN = 5
Under 3,000 0.0002 × 0 = 0.000
3,000–6,999 0.0050 × 1 = 0.005
7,000–7,999 0.0320 × 6 = 0.192
8,000–11,999 0.0870 × 144 = 12.528
12,000–15,999 0.3600 × 16 = 5,760
26,000–29,999 5,3890 × 1 = 5.3890
Tandem Axle Groups
Under 6,000 0.0100 × 0 = 0.000
6,000–11,993 0.0100 × 14 = 0.140
12,000–17,999 0.0440 × 21 = 0.924
18,000–23,999 0.1480 × 44 = 6.512
24,000–29,999 0.4260 × 42 = 17.892
30,000–32,000 0.7530 × 44 = 33.132
32,001–32,500 0.8850 × 21 = 18.585
32,501–33,999 1.0020 × 101 = 101.202
34,000–35,999 1.2300 × 43 = 52.890
18-kips EALs for all trucks weighed = 255.151
Truck Load Factor = 18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 255.151 = 1.5464
Number of trucks weighed 165 = 165
Notes:
kip = 1,000 pounds-force
EAL = equivalent axle load
Source: Figure D.1 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
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Rigid Pavements
Axle Load Axle Load Equivalency Factor Number of Axles 18-kip EALs
P = 2.5
Single Axles
D = 12 inches
Under 3,000 0.0011 × 0 = 0.000
3,000–6,999 0.0006 × 1 = 0.006
7,000–7,999 0.0265 × 6 = 0.159
8,000–11,999 0.0800 × 144 = 11.52
12,000–15,999 0.3360 × 16 = 5.376
26,000–29,999 6.9200 × 1 = 6.92
Tandem Axle Groups
Under 6,000 0.002 × 0 = 0.000
6,000–11,993 0.0085 × 14 = 0.119
12,000–17,999 0.0635 × 21 = 1.754
18,000–23,999 0.2530 × 44 = 11.132
24,000–29,999 0.7335 × 42 = 30.807
30,000–32,000 1.3250 × 44 = 58.300
32,001–32,500 1.5675 × 21 = 32.918
32,501–33,999 1.7975 × 101 = 181.548
34,000–35,999 2.2450 × 43 = 96.535
18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 437.094
Truck load factor = 18-kip EALs for all trucks weighed = 413.11 = 2.649
Number of trucks weighed = 165
Notes:
kip = 1,000 pounds-force
EAL = equivalent axle load
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Table 9.12 Worksheet for Calculating 18-kip ESAL Applications

Analysis Period =______________________Years
Location_______________ Assumed SN or D = ___________________________
Current Growth Design ESAL Factor Design ESAL
Vehicle Types Traffic (A) Factors (B) Traffic (C) (D) (E)
Passenger cars
Buses
Panel and pickup trucks
Other 2-axle/4-tire trucks
2-axle/6-tire trucks
3 or more axle trucks
All single unit trucks
3 axle tractor semitrailers
4 axle tractor semitrailers
5+ axle tractor semitrailers
All tractor semitrailers
5 axle double trailers
6+axle double trailers
All double trailer combos
3 axle truck-trailers
4 axle truck-trailers
5+ axle truck-trailers
All truck-trailer combos
All Vehicles Design ESAL
Source: Table D.19 in Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide) (AASHTO, 1993)
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10 Design of New Pavements

10.1 Flexible Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide
The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for
flexible pavement.
Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL.
This is explained in detail in Chapter 9 in this Part.
Step 2: Calculate appropriate SN for the initial pavement.
The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for flexible pavement is based on
identifying a flexible pavement SN to withstand the projected level of axle load traffic.
The following information will be needed to calculate SN:
• The estimated future traffic for the performance period in ESALs

• The reliability, R, which assume all inputs at average value
• The overall standard deviation, S0
• The effective resilient modulus of roadbed material, MR
• The design serviceability loss, ∆PSI = Terminal PSI - Initial PSI
The SN can be calculated from the formula or nomograph presented in the 1993
AASHTO Guide and reproduced in Appendix D.
Step 3: Select layer thicknesses.
Once the SN for an initial pavement structure is determined, it is necessary to identify

a set of pavement layer thicknesses which, when combined, will provide the load-
carrying capacity corresponding to the design SN. The following equation provides the
basis for converting SN into actual thickness of surface, base, and subbase:
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
where:
a1, a2, a3 = Layers coefficient representative of surface, base and subbase
courses, respectively
D1, D2, D3 = actual thicknesses (in inches) of surface, base, and subbase courses,
respectively
m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for base and subbase, respectively
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The SN equation does not have a unique solution. Many combinations of layer
thicknesses are satisfactory solutions. The design process is an example of the 1993
AASHTO Guide empirical design method. Other considerations are also included in the
process, such as the minimum design thickness of pavement layers from the layered
design analysis. This is needed to design an adequate thickness for each pavement layer
under traffic loading.
The layered design analysis is used for solving the design equation in this step.
Figure 10.1 shows the procedures for determining thickness of the pavement layers
using a layered analysis approach. In a layered analysis approach, the SN needed over
the roadbed soil and each pavement layer is determined using the applicable strength
values for each. Using the differences between the computed SNs over each layer, the
minimum allowable thickness of any given layer can be determined. Figure 3.2 in the
1993 AASHTO Guide is provided herein as Figure 10.1 and Appendix D. Note that the
1993 AASHTO Guide and the equations and nomographs within that are referenced
and used in this manual are in imperial units. Therefore, the example provided is in
imperial units and the designer must convert to metric units as appropriate. Software
for the empirical design method is available.
Figure 10.1 Procedure for Determining Thickness of Layers Using a Layered
Analysis Approach
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10.1.1 Example Flexible Pavement Design
10.1.1.1 Assumptions
Performance period: 40 years
Two-way AADT: 10,000 vehicles
Number of lanes in each direction: 2
Percentage of traffic in design 60%
direction:
Percentage of trucks in design lane: 90%
Annual growth: 2.7%
AADT in design direction = 10,000 × 0.6 = 6,000
AADT in design lane = 6,000 × 0.9 = 5,400
10.1.1.2 Determine Design Traffic

The truck factor depends on the weight of the vehicle and the wheel configuration.
The truck factors, or ESALs per truck are assumed for this example and are shown in
Column (b) of Table 10.1, which summarizes the design traffic calculations. The truck
factors are provided for this illustration only and are not intended to apply to any or
all cases of actual loads. Actual truck factors are to be verified for design.
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Table 10.1 Summary of Design Traffic Calculations

(a) (c) (d) (e)
Assumed (b) Commercial ESALs per ESALs per
Percentage of ESALs per Vehicle Per Day Vehicle per Vehicle per
Category AADT Truck (5,400 × (a/100)) Day, (b) × (c) Year, (d) × 365r
3 1 0.5 54 27 9,855
4 1 2 54 108 39,420
5 1 2 54 108 39,420
6 1 4 54 216 78,840
7 1 4 54 216 78,840
8 1 5 54 270 98,550
9 1 5 54 270 98,550
10 1 6 54 324 118,260
11 1 6 54 324 118,260
12 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
13 0.5 6 27 162 59,130
(g) ESAL
(f) 40-year Compound Growth Factor (Compound)
Category Assumed Annual Growth, g (1+g)t – 1)/g (e) × (g)
3 2.7 70.474 694,521
4 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
5 2.7 70.474 2,778,085
6 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
7 2.7 70.474 5,556,170
8 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
9 2.7 70.474 6,945,213
10 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
11 2.7 70.474 8,334,255
12 27 70.474 4,167,128
13 27 70.474 4,167,128
Total ESAL: 56,256,223
Notes:
ESAL = equivalent single-axle load
10.1.1.3 Selection of Design Parameters

Reliability is a means of incorporating a degree of certainty in the design process to
increase the probability that the various design alternatives will function as planned
through the analysis period. The reliability factor accounts for variations in the traffic
and performance predictions and, therefore, provides a predetermined level of
reliability that facility will correctly function for the design period.
Select higher levels of reliability to minimize the performance risk because the volume
of traffic, the difficulty of diverting the traffic, and public expectations of availability
increase.
Reliability (Freeway–Rural): 90%
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Serviceability is the ability of a pavement to serve the type of traffic that uses it. The
primary measure of serviceability is the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which
ranges from 0 (impassible road) to 5 (perfect road). The basic design philosophy is the
serviceability-performance concept, which provides a means of designing a pavement
based on a specific total traffic volume and a minimum level of serviceability desired
at the end of the performance period (1993 AASHTO Guide).
Standard Deviation (Flexible): 0.45

Assumed Serviceability Index:
P0 (initial) = 4.2
Pt (Terminal) = 2.5 minimum
∆PSI = P0 – Pt = 1.7
Layer coefficient: a
Three-layer designs (asphalt, aggregate base, subbase):

Surface course: 3,000 MPa = 435,000 psi (assumed)
Aggregate base: 200 MPa = 30,000 psi (assumed)
Subbase: 145 MPa = 21,000 psi (assumed)
According to Figure 10.2, Figure 10.3, and Figure 10.4, the coefficients of layers are
summarized below. Copies of these figures are provided in Appendix B.
a1 (asphalt) = 0.44
a2 (aggregate base) = 0.14
a3 (subbase) = 0.10
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Figure 10.2 Chart for Estimating Structural Layer Coefficient of Dense-Graded
Asphalt Concrete Based on Elastic (Resilient) Modulus
Figure 10.3 Variation in Aggregate Base Layer Coefficient (a2) with Various Base
Strength Parameters
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Figure 10.4 Variation in Aggregate Subbase Layer Coefficient (a32) with Various
Base Strength Parameters
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10.1.1.4 Layered System Analysis

With flexible pavements, the structure is a layered system and is designed
accordingly. The SN needed over the roadbed soil, subbase layer, and base layer is
calculated using the applicable strength values for each, with the layer immediately
below acting as the foundation. This provides the minimum allowable thickness for
any given layer. The SN for the subbase layer is equal to the SN over the subbase
layer, subtracted from the SN needed over the roadbed soil.
Assumed CBR: 5%
Roadbed soil MR: 1,500 × CBR
MR : 1,500 × 5% = 7,500 psi
SN needed above the subgrade from Figure 10.5:
SN3 = 6.3 for surface course + base course + subbase
SN2 above subbase with a CBR of 26 percent assumed:
From Figure 10.3, MR = 21,000 psi
Using Figure 10.5, SN2 = 4.50 for surface course + base course
SN1 above aggregate base with a CBR of 100 percent assumed:
From Figure 10.3, MR = 30,000 psi
Using Figure 10.5, SN1 = 4.00 (surface course)
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Figure 10.5 Design Chart for Flexible Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input
For calculating the layer thickness according to layered method:
D1 (asphalt) > SN1/a1
= 4.0 ÷ 0.44 = 9.09 inches, use 9.5 inches
SN1 = a1 × D1 = 0.44 × 9.5 = 4.18
D2 (base course) > (SN2 - SN1) ÷ a2m2; where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for
no drainage issues
= (4.50 – 4.18) ÷ (0.14 × 1.0) = 2.28 inches, assume minimum of 6 inches
SN2 = (D2 × a2 × m2) = 6 × 0.14 × 1.0= 0.84
D3 (subbase) > SN3 – (SN1 + SN2) ÷ a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1
for no drainage issues.
= 6.30 – (4.18 + 0.84) ÷ (0.1 × 1.0) = 12.8 inches, assume 13 inches
SN3 = D3 × a3 × m3 = 13 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 1.30
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Check:
Total SN needed = 6.30
SN1 = 4.18 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 1.30 (subbase)
Total = 6.32 > 6.30; the design is sufficient
There is no unique answer for the pavement design. This procedure will give a preliminary
design thickness for each layer. However, it is possible to increase the thickness of one
layer and consider the effect on other layers. For example, if we consider 11 inches for
asphalt, the subbase thickness will be reduced as shown in the following:
SN1 = 0.44 × 1 = 4.84
Maintain the minimum 6 inches of base.
SN = 6 × 0.14 = 0.84
D3 (subbase) > SN3 – (SN1 + SN2) ÷ a3m3, where m is drainage coefficients, assume 1 for
no drainage issues.
= 6.30 – (4.84 + 0.84) ÷ (0.1 × 1.0) = 6.2 inches, assume 7 inches
By adding 1.5 inches of asphalt, the subbase thickness will be reduced by 6 inches.
Check:
Total SN needed = 6.30
SN1 = 4.84 (asphalt)

SN2 = 0.84 (aggregate base)
SN3 = 0.70 (subbase)
Total = 6.38 > 6.30; the design is sufficient
Table 10.2 summarizes the two pavement design options. It shows the subbase
thickness can be reduced by 6 inches by increasing the asphalt thickness by 1.5 inches.
There is no unique answer for the pavement design. The designer needs to choose the
appropriate design option based on constructability, material availability, and cost.
When evaluating a reduced subbase alternative, verify that the subbase can adequately
support construction traffic.
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Table 10.2 Summary of Pavement Options

Layer Option 1 Option 2
Asphalt thickness (inches) 9.5 11
Granular base thickness (inches) 6 6
Subbase thickness (inches) 13 7
10.2 Rigid Pavement Design Process: 1993 AASHTO Guide

The following steps are used for the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical design method for
rigid pavement:
Step 1: Estimate future traffic for the performance period in ESAL
As discussed in Chapter 9 in this Part, the ESAL value for each vehicle is dependent on
pavement type, serviceability, and slab thickness. The ESAL values per category of
vehicle in the flexible design example were assumed and were within the range of
ESAL values shown in Table 9.1. Because damage factors are different for rigid
pavement, ESAL values for rigid pavement will be greater than those for flexible
pavement for the same mix of traffic. However, for this example, the same number of
ESALs will be used as in the flexible design examples. When specific axles weights are
known, determine the design ESAL values, as shown in Table 9.10.
Design ESALs = 56,256,223
Step 2: Determine the effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k-value, of the

supporting foundation, determined by subgrade soil Resilient Modulus (MR) and
thickness and Elastic Modulus of any subbase layers.
For this example, the foundation will consist of 150 mm of aggregate subbase, placed
on the same subgrade as in the flexible design example.
The following information will be needed to calculate the effective k-value:
• Subgrade soil MR
• Base MR and thickness
• Depth to bedrock
• Loss of support factor
Determine the effective subgrade k-value by using Figure 3.3 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, included herein as Figure 10.6. Figure 3.3 is also provided in Appendix C.
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Figure 10.6 Chart for Determining Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
In this example, the effective k-value is approximately 400 pounds per cubic inch (pci).
This value is then corrected for depth to bedrock, if applicable, and LS, depending on
the material. Figure 3.4 from the 1993 AAHSTO Guide is used to correct the k-value
for the effects of bedrock. Table 2.7 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, included herein as
Table 10.3, can be used to estimate the Loss of Support, LS, value.
Table 10.3 Typical Ranges of Loss of Support Factors for Various Types of
Materials
Type of Material Loss of Support
Cement Treated Granular Base (E = 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Cement Aggregate Mixtures (E = 500,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Asphalt Treated Base (E = 350,000 to 1,000,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Bituminous Stabilized Mixtures (E = 40,000 to 300,000 psi) 0.0 to 1.0
Lime Stabilized (E = 20,000 to 70,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Unbound Ground Materials (E = 15,000 to 45,000 psi) 1.0 to 3.0
Fine Grained or Natural Subgrade Materials (E = 3,000 to 40,000 psi) 2.0 to 3.0
Note:
psi = pounds per square inch
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Assuming an LS value of 2.0 for a granular subbase with an MR value of 145 MPa, and
a depth to bedrock of greater than 10 feet, use the previously determined effective
k-value (400 pci) and Figure 3.6 in the 1993 AASHTO Guide, reproduced herein as
Figure 10.7, to determine the final effective k-value. In this example, the value is 40.
Figure 3.6 is also provided in Appendix C.
Figure 10.7 Correction for Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Loss of
Support
Step 3: Determine values for design parameters
The following information will be needed to determine the slab thickness:
• Reliability
• Serviceability loss
• Overall standard deviation
• Concrete modulus of rupture
• Concrete modulus of elasticity
• Load transfer coefficient
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Overall Drainage Coefficient: Reliability for this example is the same as for the flexible
design example.
Reliability (Freeway–Rural): 90%
Serviceability for rigid pavements will differ from that for flexible pavements. Initial
serviceability is set at 4.50 for rigid pavements. Terminal serviceability will vary with
the classification of roadway. In this case, for a roadway with a high traffic volume, a
terminal serviceability is set at 3.00.
Assumed Serviceability Index: P0 (initial) = 4.5
Pt (Terminal) = 3.0 minimum
PSI = P0 - Pt = 1.5
Standard Deviation (Rigid): 0.35
Concrete Modulus Rupture: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of

4.5 MPa is used.
Concrete Modulus of Elasticity: As discussed in Section 8.2 in this Part, a value of

28,000 MPa is used.
Load Transfer Coefficient: The load transfer coefficient is discussed in Section 8.2 in
this Part. In this example, a plain-jointed concrete pavement with doweled joints and
tied concrete shoulders would provide a load transfer coefficient of 2.8 (see
Table 8.1).
Drainage Coefficient: For this example, 1.0 will be used for granular subbase, as in the
flexible design example. If using an open-graded drainable base, a value of 1.2 can be
used.
Step 4: Determine slab thickness
With the values determined in Steps 1 through 3, use Figure 3.7 in the 1993 AASHTO
Guide, reproduced here as Figure 10.8, to determine slab thickness. In this example,
the slab thickness is 13.2 inches, or 340 mm.
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Figure 10.8 Design Chart for Rigid Pavements Based on Using Mean Values for
Each Input Variable
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10.3 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method

From the early 1960s until recently, all versions of AASHTO pavement design were
based on empirical performance equations developed at the AASHTO Road Test
facility in the late 1950s using limited data. In the late 1980s, the need for and
benefits of a mechanistic-based pavement design procedure were recognized. To
meet that need, a new method was commissioned that resulted in MEPDG software
and the MEPDG (AASHTO, 2008).
In this approach, the main pavement design inputs are the same as empirical method
with regard to design traffic and subgrade calculations. The subgrade needs to be
characterized in terms of its modulus (MR) and Poisson’s ratio. These are best
measured directly by repeated triaxial loading (MR) testing. Other construction
materials used in pavement layers are also characterized by modulus (MR) and
Poisson’s ratio to build the pavement design model. Loading positions and critical
strain locations are to be estimated by the design engineer based on the pavement
layering system and other design inputs.
The mechanistic-empirical design method has the following main advantages:
• The reliable performance of a pavement structure will include determining the

pavement layer thickness, material specifications, construction specifications, and
quality control.
• The design of pavement layer thicknesses depends on many parameters, such as
traffic, geotechnical, and material information.
• Other parameters such as reliability, safety, and serviceability are key inputs for
the pavement design.
• Unless these parameters can be identified with accuracy, a degree of caution is
needed when adopting pavement designs and design methods.
• Analytical methods need detailed analysis of multilayered structures. Historically,
therefore, pavement design has tended towards empirical methods.
Because of the complexity of the mechanistic-empirical design method, software

must be used for this analysis. AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design 2.0 (formally
known as DARWin-ME™) builds upon the research-grade MEPDG software and is
intended to support the MEPDG (AASHTO, 2008). ME Design is a production-ready
software tool that supports the mechanistic-empirical pavement design and analysis.
This software represents a major change in the way pavement design is performed, by
providing a direct link between pavement materials, structure, construction practices,
climate, traffic, and pavement design features.
The AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design software needs correct input data, input by
an experienced pavement engineer, to carry out accurate pavement design. The
software is suitable for different types of pavement, including flexible, flexible
composite, and rigid pavements.
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10.3.1 Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Process

Figure 10.9 shows the design process used in the mechanistic-empirical design
method.
Source: Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures (NCHRP, 2004)
Figure 10.9 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Process
The mechanistic-empirical design method consists of three stages of input

parameters, analysis, and strategic selection. The most important part is to select
appropriate input parameters, which include traffic, foundation, climate and material
properties. Also, design criteria for analysis need to be specified, which will have a
significant impact on pavement design thicknesses. Design criteria consist of design
life, reliability, and performance criteria.
10.3.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters

The fundamental input parameters are for traffic, including axle loads, configuration,
and axle number, material properties, and foundation modulus. These are described
in detail in the following clauses. Table 10.4 gives a description of the design
parameters and input levels. There are three levels of input. Level 1 is the highest
level, indicating a thorough knowledge of all the information needed for design. At
Level 2, the designer has a modest understanding of the information. At Level 3, the
information is not as thorough and the designer has only basic knowledge; in this
case, the software will populate the data with best-fit default data and the designer
needs to be aware of the limitations, and the sensitivity of the design outcome.
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Table 10.4 Design Parameters and Input Levels

Input Level Determination of Input Values Knowledge of Input Parameter
1 Project/segment specific measurements Good
2 Correlations/regression equations, regional values Fair
3 Defaults, educated guess Poor
10.3.3 Traffic Input Parameters

As shown on Figure 10.10, the number of axles by axle type, truck type, and axle load
intervals are needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method. In addition, the
number of axles for each year, each season, and each hour can be considered in the
mechanistic-empirical design method. Input Levels 2 and 3 can be considered if there
is not sufficient information to cover all these parameters.
Figure 10.10 Traffic Data for the Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method
Traffic data are a key element needed for the analysis of pavement structures. Load
estimates and frequencies throughout the life of the pavement are needed. The
following traffic data are needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method:
• Base year truck volume and speed

• Traffic capacity
• Axle configuration
• Lateral wander
• Wheelbase
• Vehicle class distribution and growth
• Hourly adjustment
• Axles per truck
• Monthly adjustment
• Axle load distribution factors
• Initial two-way annual average daily truck traffic (AADTT)
• Number of lanes in design direction
• Percent of trucks in design direction
• Percent trucks in design lane
• Operational speed
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All this information may not be available. Therefore, traffic inputs can be provided in
three levels, depending upon the traffic information available for the project and the
accuracy of that information. Traffic assessment and prediction is discussed further in
Chapter 9 in this Part.
Level 1: Actual numbers of trucks, truck weights, axle loads, and truck volumes are
known. Obtaining these data will involve gathering and analysis of site-specific traffic
volume and load data. The traffic data measured at or near a site includes counting
and classifying the number of trucks travelling over the roadway, a breakdown by lane
and direction, and measuring the axle loads for each truck class. These data will
determine the truck traffic for the first year after construction. Level 1 traffic data are
the most accurate.
Level 2: Enough truck traffic information is obtained at a site to measure truck

volumes accurately. Accounting for any weekday/weekend volume variation, and any
significant seasonal trends in truck loads. For example, areas affected by heavy,
seasonal, agricultural hauls. Regional weight summaries maintained by each
government organization can be used to determine vehicle weights. An example is
the “truck weight road groups” defined in the Traffic Monitoring Guide (FHWA, 2013).
This information is used to differentiate routes with heavy or loaded trucks weights,
from those with light or unloaded truck weights. Regional axle load spectra for each
truck class are analyzed and then completed separately to the traffic module.
Level 3: There is little information about truck traffic. Only the AADT and truck
percentage are known, with no site-specific information. AADT and percent trucks or
from simple truck volume counts with no knowledge on the size of the loads those
trucks are carrying. This needs the use of a regional average load distribution
information or other default load distribution information. An estimate of traffic
inputs based on local experience is also considered Level 3.
The FHWA defines 10 truck classes that need to be considered with Vehicle Classes 4
through 13 (see Table 10.5):
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Table 10.5 Federal Highway Administration Vehicle Classes for use in MEDPG
Class Schematic Description
Class 1 Motorcycles
Class 2 Passenger cars
Other two-axle, four-tire, single unit

Class 3 vehicles
Buses: Two-axle/six-tire, or three or

Class 4 more axles
Class 5 Two-axle, six-tire, single unit trucks
Class 6 Three-axle, single unit trucks
Class 7 Four or more axle single unit trucks
Class 8 Four or less axle single trailer trucks
Class 9 Five axle single trailer trucks
Class 10 Six or more axle single trailer trucks
Five or less axle multi-trailer trucks,

Class 11 three or mor units
Six-axle multi trailer trucks, three or

Class 12 more units
Seven or more axle multi trailer

Class 13 trucks, three or more units
Figure 10.11 demonstrates the traffic data input for Levels 1, 2, and 3:
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Figure 10.11 Traffic Input for Various Input Levels in the Mechanistic-Empirical
Design Method
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10.3.4 Climate
Environmental conditions affect the performance of flexible and rigid pavements.
Precipitation, ambient temperature, and depth to water table may affect the
temperature and moisture content of unbound materials. Changes to aggregate
materials directly affect the load-carrying capacity of the pavement. Furthermore,
temperature levels have a direct bearing on the stiffness of asphalt materials, and
temperature gradients induce stresses and deformations in PCC layers. The
mechanistic-empirical design method considers the effects of environmental factors,
and it models diurnal and seasonal changes in the moisture and temperature of the
pavement structure caused by changes in groundwater table, precipitation/
infiltration, freeze-thaw cycles, and other external factors. Climate data have been
prepared for different states in the United States, and those with a similar climate to
Qatar can be used for the design input.
All distresses are affected by the environmental factors to some extent. Therefore,
diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in the moisture and temperature of the pavement
structure brought about by changes in groundwater table, precipitation/infiltration,
freeze-thaw cycles, and other external factors are modeled in a very comprehensive
manner in the mechanistic-empirical design method.
Temperatures and moisture profiles in the pavement and subgrade are modeled using
the Enhanced Integrated Climatic Model (EICM) software, which is integrated into the
MEPDG software. The EICM consists of three major components:
• Climatic-Materials-Structural Model
• CRREL Frost Heave and Thaw Settlement Model
• Infiltration and Drainage Model
Moisture and temperature profiles are predicted through the EICM module
integrated in the MEPDG software.
10.3.5 Subgrade
Level 1, 2, and 3 input parameters for subgrade are as follows:
• Level 1 MR values for unbound aggregate materials, subgrade, and bedrock are
determined from cyclic triaxial tests on prepared representative samples.
• Level 2 analysis uses resilient modulus (MR). Level 2 inputs use general
correlations between soil index and strength properties and resilient modulus to
estimate MR. The relationships could be direct or indirect. For the indirect
relationships, the material property is first related to CBR and then CBR is related
to MR.
• Level 3 inputs uses a default value for the MR of the unbound material. For
Level 3, only a typical representative MR value is needed at optimum moisture
content. Climate data are used to modify the representative MR for the seasonal
effect of climate.
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Typical MR values for unbound granular and subgrade materials at optimum moisture
content for input Level 3 are shown in Table 10.6
Table 10.6 Unbound Granular and Subgrade Resilient Modulus Values

(psi) for Level 3 Input
Material Classifications Mr Range Typical Mr*
A-1-a 18,500–42,000 40,000
A-1-b 15,500–40,000 38,000
A-2-4 28,000–37,500 32,000
A-2-5 24,000–33,000 28,000
A-2-6 21,500–31,000 26,000
A-2-7 21,500–28,000 24,000
A-3 24,500–35,500 29,000
A-4 21,500–29,000 24,000
A-5 17,000–25,500 20,000
A-6 13,500–24,000 17,000
A-7-5 8,000–17,500 12,000
A-7-6 5,000–13,500 8,000
CH 5,000–13,500 8,000
MH 8,000–17,500 11,500
CL 13,500–24,000 17,000
ML 17,000–25,500 20,000
SW 28,000–37,500 32,000
SP 24,000–33,000 28,000
SW-SC 21,500–31,000 25,500
SW-SM 24,000–33,000 28,000
SP-SC 21,500–31,000 25,500
SP-SM 24,000–33,000 28,000
SC 21,500–28,000 24,000
SM 28,000–37,500 32,000
GW 39,500–42,500 41,000
GP 35,500–40,000 38,000
GW-GC 28,000–40,000 34,500
GW-GM 35,500–40,500 38,500
GP-GC 28,000–39,000 34,000
GP-GM 31,000–40,000 36,000
GC 24,000–37,500 31,000
GM 33,000–42,000 38,500
For Level 2 input parameters, Table 10.7 summarizes the correlations the MEPDG has
adopted to estimate modulus from other material properties.
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Table 10.7 Subgrade Correlations for Level 2 Input for Use in the Mechanistic-
Empirical Design Method
Subgrade/Index
Property Model Comments Test Standard
CBR MR = 2555(CBR)0.64 CBR = California bearing AASHTO T-193, Standard
ratio Method of Test for the
California Bearing Ratio
R-value MR = 1155 + 555R R = R-value AASHTO T-190, Standard
Method of Test for Resistance
R-Value and Expansion
Pressure of Compacted Soils
AASHTO layer MR = 3000(ai/0.14) Ai = AASHTO layer Guide for the Design of
coefficient coefficient Pavement Structures (1993
AASHTO Guide)
PI and Gradation CBR = 75/(1.0.728 × wPI) wPI = P200 × PI AASHTO T-27, Standard
P200 = percent passing Method of Test for Sieve
No. 200 sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
PI = plasticity index, Aggregates
percent AASHTO T-90, Standard
Method of Test for
Determining the Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils
DCP CBR = 292/DCP1.12 CBR = California bearing ASTM D6951/D6951M 09,
ratio, percent Standard Test Method for Use
DCP = DCP index, of the Dynamic Cone
in/blow Penetrometer in Shallow
Pavement Applications
10.3.6 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for

Flexible Pavement
The following AC surfaced pavements are considered flexible pavements in the
mechanistic-empirical design method:
• Conventional Flexible Pavements: Pavements with AC surfaces less than 150 mm

thick and unbound aggregate base layers of crushed stone or gravel, and soil-
aggregate mixtures.
• Deep-strength AC Pavements: Pavements with AC surface greater than 150 mm
and a dense-graded AC or asphalt stabilized base placed over an aggregate base.
These pavements also include a stabilized or treated subgrade.
• Full-depth AC Pavements: AC layers placed on a stabilized subgrade or directly on
the prepared embankment or foundation soil.
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• “Semi-rigid” Pavements: AC placed over a chemically stabilized layer. Chemically

stabilized materials include lime, lime-fly ash, and portland cement stabilizers.
Allowable cross sections for a flexible pavement include conventional layering and
sandwich aggregate layers. In conventional layering, material quality decreases in
depth. A sandwich aggregate layer involves an unbound aggregate layer placed
between two stabilized layers. Regardless of the materials and stiffness of layers
underneath an AC surface, the MEPDG methodology analyzes the pavement as a
flexible pavement. This pavement structure maintains contact with, and
distributes loads to, the subgrade while relying on aggregate interlock, particle
friction, and cohesion for stability.
10.3.6.1 Performance Criteria

The mechanistic-empirical design method is based on pavement performance;
therefore, the critical levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the
selected level of reliability needs to be specified by the user. If the simulation process
shows the trial design produces an excessive amount of distresses, then the trial
design is modified accordingly to produce a feasible design in the future trials.
The distress types considered in the design of a new flexible pavement are: total
rutting of all layers and subgrade; AC rutting; load-related, longitudinal top-down
cracking in the wheel path; and bottom-up fatigue cracking or alligator cracking. In
addition, pavement smoothness is considered for performance verification and is
characterized using the IRI. Table 10.8 shows typical values for performance criteria.
Table 10.8 Typical Performance Criteria (Flexible Pavements)

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.7 90
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km) 378.8 90
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent) 25 90
Chemically stabilized layer—fatigue fracture (percent) 25 90
Permanent deformation—total pavement (mm) 19 90
Permanent deformation—AC only (mm) 6 90
Reflective cracking (percent) 100 50*
Notes:
* For reflective cracking, the form of distress is only applicable to a flexible pavement with a chemically
stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The limit control allows you to define the not-to-exceed
limit for reflective cracking at the end of the design life at 50 percent reliability level.
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)
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The following summarize each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability
values in Table 10.8:
• Performance Criteria: Performance indicators to evaluate if a pavement design

will perform satisfactorily over its design life.
• Limit: Threshold values of these performance indicators to evaluate the adequacy
of a design.
• Reliability: The probability at which the predicted distresses and smoothness will
be less than the limits over the design period.
• Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control definition of the expected smoothness
immediately after new pavement construction (expressed in terms of IRI). Initial
IRI is a very important input because the time from initial construction to attaining
a threshold IRI value is very dependent on the initial IRI obtained at the time of
construction. Thus, the initial IRI value provided is what is typically obtained in the
field.
• Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion allow
definition of the not-to-exceed limit for IRI at the end of the design life at a
specified reliability level.
• AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for surface-initiated fatigue
cracking at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion controls allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for bottom-initiated
fatigue cracking at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• AC thermal fracture (m/km): The limit and reliability controls for this criterion
allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for non-load related transverse cracking
at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
• Chemically stabilized layer with fatigue fracture (percent): The limit and
reliability controls for this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for
fatigue fracture in the underlying chemically stabilized base layers at the end of
the design life at a specified reliability level. This form of distress is only applicable
to a flexible pavement with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the
AC layer. Therefore, no inputs are needed if the pavement structure is otherwise.
• Permanent deformation in total pavement (mm): The limit and reliability controls
for this criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for total rutting at the
end of the design life at a specified reliability level. Total permanent deformation
at the surface is the accumulation of the permanent deformation in all of the
asphalt and unbound layers in the pavement system.
• Permanent deformation in AC only (mm): The limit and reliability controls for this
criterion allow definition of the not-to-exceed limit for rutting contributed by the
AC layers at the end of the design life at a specified reliability level.
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• Reflective cracking (percent): This form of distress is only applicable to a flexible

pavement with a chemically stabilized layer directly placed under the AC layer. The
limit control allows definition of the not-to-exceed limit for reflective cracking at
the end of the design life at a 50 percent reliability level. In Pavement ME Design,
reflective cracking is computed as a fraction of the fatigue cracking in the
chemically stabilized layer that reflects through the HMA layer to the surface. The
sum of reflective cracking and bottom initiated fatigue cracking is reported as total
cracking.
10.3.6.2 Pavement Structure Definition and Materials

The AC material types that fall under the following general definitions can be defined
as an asphalt layer:
• Dense-graded asphalt
• Open-graded asphalt
• Asphalt-stabilized base mixes
• Sand asphalt mixtures
• Stone matrix asphalt
• Cold-mix asphalt
• Central plant processed asphalt
• Cold in-place recycling
If a small amount of asphalt, emulsion, or a combination thereof, is added to granular

base materials, and can be produced at a plant or mixed in-place, this material is not
considered an AC layer. If needed, it is combined with the crushed stone base
materials or considered an unbound aggregate mixture.
The key material inputs needed for AC layers are:
• Dynamic modulus of asphalt mixtures

• Rheological properties of asphalt binders which include, viscosity, penetration,
complex modulus, and phase angles
• Creep compliance and indirect tensile strength
• Mix-related and other properties, such as effective binder content, air voids, heat
capacity, and thermal conductivity
Other input parameters are material thickness and mix volumetric, which consist of:
• Unit weight (kilograms per cubic meter [kg/m3])

• Effective binder content (percent)
• Air voids (percent)
• Poisson’s ratio
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There are other parameters for granular materials, such as subbase. These materials
are called nonstabilized materials. Nonstabilized materials include AASHTO soil
classes A-1 through A-3, and those commonly defined in practice as crushed stone,
crushed gravel, river gravel, permeable aggregate, and recycled asphalt material,
which includes millings and in-place pulverized material.
Inputs needed for nonstabilized materials include physical and engineering

properties, such as dry density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific
gravity, soil-water characteristic curve parameters, classification properties, and the
MR. Methods for estimating the MR include the following:
• Resilient modulus (MPa)

• CBR (percent)
• R-value
• Layer coefficient (ai)
• DCP penetration (mm per blow)
• Plasticity index and gradation (percent passing 0.075-mm sieve)
Subgrade materials include AASHTO soil classes A-1 through A-7-6, defined in
accordance with the AASHTO soil classification system. Inputs for subgrade materials
are the same as those for nonstabilized materials and include physical and engineering
properties, such as dry density, moisture content, hydraulic conductivity, specific
gravity, soil-water characteristic curve parameters, classification properties, and the MR.
10.3.6.3 Perpetual Pavement

Perpetual pavement designs are considered in cases where traffic loads exceed
50 million ESALs and with low reliability in predicting traffic. A perpetual pavement is
an asphalt pavement designed to last 50 years or more without requiring major
structural rehabilitation or reconstruction. It is important remember that perpetual
pavements are not maintenance-free; periodic surface renewal is still needed in
response to distresses confined to the top part of the pavement. If this maintenance
is not carried out and cracks propagate into the structural layers, then major
rehabilitation will be necessary.
The design concept of perpetual pavements is to combine (1) a rut-resistant and high-
friction-wearing course layer, (2) a rut-resistant and durable intermediate/leveling
course, and (3) a fatigue-resistant and durable lower base layer. These layers are
designed to minimize the horizontal tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt base
layer, and the compressive vertical stresses at the top of the subgrade.
It is important to select proper asphalt mixtures for each layer of the perpetual
pavement to meet its specific functions. See Sections 7.1 and 8.3.1 in this Part for
more information on the selection of mix design and material specifications. Design
the surface wearing layer to provide smooth, high-friction, and quiet pavement. An
SMA with a high-quality, polymer-modified binder is recommended for the wearing
surface layer. The durability and the rutting resistance of the upper part of the
structural layers, surfacing, and intermediate/leveling course can be achieved using a
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Superpave mix with a polymer-modified binder. The fatigue resistance of the lower
base layer can be achieved by using a fine mix with rich-binder content. Performance
tests characterize the resistance of the asphalt layers to permanent deformation and
fatigue cracking. The long-term performance of the pavement structure depends on
good bonding between the pavement layers.
In summary, perpetual pavement options can be used in the following cases:
• Direct instruction from the client to adopt one of the typical perpetual pavement
structures with a design life of 50 years or more regardless of traffic level and
subgrade condition.
• Lack of information on future changes in traffic loads.
• Design traffic volumes and axle loading cannot be estimated accurately as a result
of uncertain development or planning policies.
• Design traffic loading exceeds 50 million ESAL over the design period.
10.3.7 Mechanistic-Empirical Design Method Input Parameters for Rigid

Pavement
There are different input parameters and design criteria for jointed plain concrete
pavement (JPCP), which is a PCC pavement that can be used:
• With no steel reinforcement for controlling random cracking

• With or without transverse joint load transfer devices, such as dowels
• With joints spaced 3 m to 6 m to minimize transverse cracking from temperature
gradient and drying gradient shrinkage stresses
• With mostly PCC or AC shoulders
• With or without tied lane to lane or lane to PCC shoulder longitudinal joints
Although the JPCP’s PCC slab can be placed directly over the pavement foundation
subgrade, there is usually a base layer. Any other layers underneath the base layer are
described as subbase, and there can be several types of these. The base and subbase
layers can consist of a wide variety of materials, including nonstabilized, asphalt
stabilized, cement stabilized, lean concrete, crushed concrete, lime stabilized,
recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), and other materials. The base and subbase layers
can be dense-graded or a combination of dense-graded and permeable drainage layers.
JPCP is typically placed over a natural subgrade foundation or embankment soil.
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Pavement design begins when users establish a trial JPCP design by selecting
appropriate inputs for the following:
• Site conditions, including traffic, climate, and subgrade

• Design features, such as layer types and thicknesses, edge support, transverse
joint load transfer mechanism, and shoulder type
• Materials properties
• Performance criteria
The trial design is checked for compliance with user or agency performance criteria.
The prediction of distresses and smoothness at a given reliability level are evaluated
against the criteria. If the design does not pass the performance criteria at the
specified reliability, changes are made to the pavement section and the evaluation
process is repeated. Thus, the pavement designer is engaged throughout the design
process and can consider different design features and materials.
10.3.7.1 Performance Criteria

Performance verification forms the basis for determining the adequacy of a trial
design. Adequacy for the mechanistic-empirical design method analysis implies that
the trial design meets all performance criteria at a user- or agency-selected level of
reliability within the trial pavements design life or the mechanistic-empirical design
method analysis period. If the trial design after analysis does produce
distress/smoothness levels in excess of the user or agency’s threshold levels, then the
trial design is modified to produce more acceptable levels of distress and smoothness.
Trial design modification includes changes to layer material types and properties and
JPCP design features. In general, trial design site properties such as climate, traffic,
and foundation/subgrade type cannot be altered to improve design adequacy. The
distress types considered in JPCP design are transverse slab cracking and transverse
joint faulting. The mechanistic-empirical design method analysis predicts transverse
joint spalling, which is used solely as an input for predicting smoothness characterized
by using the IRI. Table 10.9 shows typical performance criteria for rigid pavements.
Table 10.9 Typical Performance Criteria for Rigid Pavements

Performance Criteria Limit Reliability
Initial IRI (m/km) 1 Not applicable
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.715 90
JPCP transverse cracking (percent slabs) 15 90
Mean joint faulting (mm) 3.048 90
Notes:
m/km = meters per kilometer
mm = millimeters
Source: DARWin-ME software, Version 3.1 (Applied Research Associates, 2014)
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The following summarizes each of the performance criteria, limits, and reliability
values in Table 10.9:
• Performance criteria: Distresses and smoothness criteria by the mechanistic-

empirical design method to assess adequacy of JPCP trial design.
• Limit: The limit or threshold values of the distresses and smoothness provided.
• Reliability: The probability that the trial design using a combination of variables
such as climate, materials, and design features will perform as predicted over the
design life of the JPCP for a given level of traffic loading.
• Initial IRI (m/km): The limit control defines the level of smoothness immediately
after JPCP construction, expressed in terms of IRI. Initial IRI is a very important
input, because the time from initial construction to attaining a threshold IRI value
is very dependent on the initial IRI obtained at the time of construction. Thus, the
initial IRI value provided is what is typically obtained in the field.
• Terminal IRI (m/km): The limit and reliability controls allow the definition of the
threshold value for IRI at the end of the design life at a user- or agency-specified
reliability level.
• Mean transverse joint faulting (mm): The limit and reliability controls allow the
definition of the threshold value for transverse joint faulting at the end of the
design life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level. Transverse joint faulting is
the differential elevation across the transverse joint measured approximately
0.3 m from the slab edge or longitudinal joint for a conventional lane width, or
from the rightmost lane paint stripe for a widened slab. Because joint faulting
varies significantly from joint to joint, the mean faulting of all transverse joints in a
pavement section is the parameter predicted by the mechanistic-empirical design
method analysis.
• Transverse cracking (percent of all slabs): The limit and reliability controls allow
the definition of the threshold value for transverse cracking at the end of the
design life at a user- or agency-specified reliability level. The mechanistic-empirical
design method analysis predicts the combined percentage of PCC slabs with
bottom-up and top-down transverse cracks, which occur mostly in the middle
third of the slab. It is reported as percent of slabs cracked.
The two main transverse cracking mechanisms are described below (Watson et al.,
2009):
• Bottom-up transverse cracking: When the truck axles are near the longitudinal
edge of the slab, midway between the transverse joints, a critical tensile bending
stress occurs at the bottom of the slab under the wheel load. This stress increases
greatly when there is a high positive temperature gradient through the slab (the
top of the slab is warmer than the bottom of the slab). Repeated loadings of heavy
axles under those conditions result in fatigue damage along the bottom edge of
the slab, which eventually results in a transverse crack that propagates to the
surface of the pavement.
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• Top-down transverse cracking: Repeated loadings by heavy trucks when the

pavement is exposed to high negative temperature gradients (the top of the slab
cooler than the bottom of the slab) result in fatigue damage at the top of the slab,
which eventually results in a transverse or diagonal crack that is initiated on the
surface of the pavement. The critical wheel loading condition for top-down
cracking involves a combination of axles that load the opposite ends of a slab
simultaneously. In the presence of a high negative temperature gradient, such
load combinations cause a high tensile stress at the top of the slab near the critical
pavement edge. This type of loading is most often produced by the combination of
steering and drive axles of truck tractors and other vehicles. Multiple trailers with
relatively short trailer-to-trailer axle spacing are other common sources of critical
loadings for top-down cracking.
10.3.7.2 Materials Input for PCC (New JPCP) Layer

PCC consists of portland cement, water, and fine and coarse aggregates. In general,
PCC properties, such as early and long-term strength, elastic modulus, shrinkage,
thermal expansion, and durability depend on the quantities and qualities of its
components. Some special applications, as in the need to open a pavement early for
traffic, use special cements such as high-early strength cements to provide higher
levels of properties or blended cements with aggregates susceptible to alkali-
aggregate reactions. It is important that pavement designers select the type of
cement and aggregates that will provide suitable performance. This choice involves
knowing the correct relationship between cement and aggregate properties and PCC
performance.
The key PCC materials inputs needed for the mechanistic-empirical design method are
as follows:
• Flexural strength (MR)

• Elastic modulus
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Ultimate shrinkage
• Concrete mix properties, such as cement type, cement content, and aggregate
type
These inputs are needed to predict pavement responses to applied loads, long-term
strength and elastic modulus, and effect of temperature, moisture, and humidity on
PCC expansion and contraction.
10.3.8 Run Analysis and Report

The mechanistic-empirical design method is an iterative process. It does not
determine a pavement section, rather it evaluates the performance of a user-
specified section. A trial section is defined and evaluated by its predicted performance
against the design criteria. If the result is not satisfactory, the section is modified and
reanalyzed until an acceptable design is reached.
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After an analysis run has been successfully completed, the application will generate
and display a report in Adobe Acrobat portable document format containing an input
summary and output results of the trial design. The output results indicate the
proposed pavement thickness to satisfy the performance criteria. The report will also
include the calculated strain and stress in pavement layers.
As noted, the design procedure is based on pavement performance; therefore, the

critical levels of pavement distresses that can be tolerated at the selected level of
reliability needs to be specified by the user. The definition of the trial section,
selection of critical levels of pavement distress, and assessment of the analysis need
to be carried out by a competent and experienced pavement engineer.
10.4 Ramp and Shoulder Pavements

For design of pavement for ramps and shoulders, follow the same procedures as for
the main roadway. Ramps are designed for the intended traffic and appropriate
subgrade CBR value. Mainline shoulders can be designed for a reduction of traffic, but
must be verified and confirmed. Usual practice on freeways and expressways is to
maintain the same pavement section all through the shoulders to allow for future
widening and movement of traffic during future maintenance and construction.
However, management practices may allow for reduction of traffic and corresponding
pavement or the use of asphalt concrete or aggregate for shoulders. In all cases,
maintain the same subgrade elevation through the shoulder to allow for continuity of
subdrainage. This will result in a thicker subbase with less surfacing.
10.5 Design for Special Pavements

Modular paving can take several forms, from block paving and setts, to larger element
slabs of natural stone, and flags of concrete. There are three main paving systems:
• Flexible: typically blocks on laying course of sand with a granular base

• Flexible/rigid with flexible surfacing: typically blocks on laying course of sand over
an asphalt or cement-bound or concrete base, with flexible joints
• Rigid: typically slabs, flags, or setts on mortar bed over asphalt or cement-bound
or concrete base, with rigid pointing in joints
For roadworthy, highway legal vehicles, the British Standards Institution Standard
Elemental Pavements—Pavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or Concrete
Pavers (BS 7533 Series, various dates) is appropriate for use in Qatar. The documents
are in 13 volumes and include design guides, specifications, workmanship, and
construction. For all types of pavement, it is important to use the appropriate
specification and construction guide. For this reason, it is not possible to simplify the
standard for use in this manual. Because the construction elements of pavers, laying
course, and base are less influenced by environmental factors, BS 7533 can easily be
adapted for use in Qatar.
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For very heavily laden pavements, or pavements with abnormal wheel loads, use The
Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries (Knapton,
2008), previously known as the British Ports Association Manual.
There are several important design considerations for modular pavements. Modular
pavements have different performance characteristics than fully flexible, flexible-
composite, or rigid pavements.
Slabs and flags are to be designed not just for overall structural strength, but for
individual catastrophic failure. It is not sufficient to design for cumulative ESALs; the
individual loads on the paving elements need to be considered. Even if the overall
depth of the pavement is adequate for structural thickness, this is not sufficient. It is
necessary, by design and construction, that individual slabs or flags prevent cracking
under loads. Unlike flexible pavements, a slab or flag will crack and fail if overloaded.
Overloads can occur if the volume or type of traffic has not been properly anticipated,
or if the construction does not take into account all elements of the design. Large
pavers, such as flags and slabs, used by heavy vehicles will usually need a rigid
construction. The deflection of the base needs to be restricted, and the slab, laying
course, and base all should be monolithic. If any elements debond, then the
redistributed strain will cause the surfacing elements to crack.
In areas that are predominantly for pedestrian use, consider heavy-truck traffic. Even
a single vehicle can overload the pavement and make it unserviceable.
There are several considerations for block paving. The laying course of sand is used
for the placement of and leveling of the pavers. Therefore, the thickness and
compaction need to be consistent. For pavements carrying heavy vehicles, the laying
course is determined by the design methodology. Edge restraint is vital; without it, the
blocks can spread and lose their load-carrying capacity. The laying pattern of blocks is
an important consideration. Stretcher bond is less able to resist traffic loads;
therefore, a herringbone pattern at 45 degrees to direction of traffic is the best pattern
to resist load.
Drainage of the subgrade is considered, as for any other pavement. With modular
pavements, drainage of the laying course sand is also considered. If there is a risk of
the sand becoming saturated, then either fin drains could be installed at the edges,
or, and probably preferably, holes can be cored through the base into the subgrade
and backfilled with laying course.
Ashghal has developed separate guidelines for bike paths and sidewalks. Because
these pavements are intended for bike and foot traffic only, design these facilities in
accordance with the Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guidelines, Revision
No. A1 (Ashghal, 2013).
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10.6 Selection of Pavement Design Method

The recommended pavement design method for Qatar is the empirical method based
on the 1993 AASHTO Guide. When sufficient information is available, designs can be
based on the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical design method. It is best to adopt one
method for all designs, because this leads to familiarity and efficiency of use. Of the
other methods often adopted, the Austroads mechanistic-empirical method needs
similar information as the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical design method. The United
Kingdom Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department for Transport, various
dates) pavement design charts are not applicable to conditions in Qatar.
It is a good practice to compare thick pavement designs using the 1993 AASHTO
Guide empirical design method against the mechanistic-empirical design method
described in the MEPDG. Until local calibration is performed for Level 1 and 2 inputs
into the mechanistic-empirical design method, use best judgment to select
parameters for Level 3 input and performance criteria to become familiar with the
mechanistic-empirical design method and its use in Qatar.
Appendix E contains examples of the mechanistic-empirical design method for flexible

and rigid pavements to further illustrate the level of input and analysis reporting
involved with the mechanistic-empirical design. The samples presented and
information therein are not to be used for design purposes. They are included only to
compare to empirical design and to demonstrate the level of detail used for input
parameters and the reporting of the analysis.
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11 Design for Rehabilitation of

Existing Pavements
11.1 Rehabilitation Design Process
The rehabilitation of pavements involves restoring ride quality, improving
performance, repairing defects, and restoring or improving structural integrity.
Restoration to improve performance and repair defects may improve structural
integrity but may not necessarily be designed to a specific design life for a certain
level of traffic. These methods may include crack sealing, seal coats, milling and
nominal asphalt replacement, joint seal repair and resealing, diamond grinding,
partial or full-depth slab repairs, dowel bar retrofit, and localized repairs.
This Chapter covers aspects of rehabilitation that are required to restore structural
capacity. It involves designing a new pavement structure over an existing pavement
structure to provide the necessary structural capacity for a given design life. The
following are basic design principles to accomplish this:
• Determining the repairs required of the existing pavement

• Determining the structural capacity, or structural number, of the existing
pavement after repairs
• Determining the strength of the subgrade
• Determining the future traffic and required structural number for the selected
design life
• Determining the overlay thickness, or alternative pavement methods
As part of the design process, it is necessary to determine what repairs are needed
before resurfacing may take place. The intent of repairing existing pavements is to
prepare the pavement to a uniform condition on which to evaluate structural capacity
and not to overdesign the new section based on locally failed areas that do not
represent the entire condition. For flexible pavements, this would include sealing
cracks and the localized repair of major ruts, depressions, and potholes by removing
and replacing the pavement in its entirety, or by milling or applying a leveling course,
or both. For rigid pavements, it may be necessary to repair joints, repair dowel bars,
partially replace slabs, or underseal slabs that have lost support. Chapter 4 of the
1993 AASHTO Guide contains information on rehabilitation strategies for different
pavement types and distresses. The amount and extent of repair is to be evaluated
with the overall cost of the project and compared against the value of providing a
better structural number for the existing pavement. In some cases, the pavement may
be in such poor condition that repair is infeasible.
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11.1.1 Basis of Rehabilitation Design

An experienced engineer might be able to present a reasonable remedial solution
based on a visual inspections and core data, and possibly DCP data alone. This might
be appropriate for minor roads but may carry high design risk for major roads or
where major expenditures are expected.
FWD back-analysis results will be used for calculating pavement residual life and
pavement rehabilitation design. All deflection bowls obtained from the FWD data are
analyzed using a computer program that determines the effective stiffness of the
various pavement and subgrade layers by matching measured deflections to
computed values. The program uses a multilayer linear elastic model for the
pavement layers and a nonlinear model for unbound material below formation level
consisting of fill and natural ground, the stiffness of which is stress-dependent. The
thickness of pavement layers is needed for this back-analysis, and this are usually
determined by coring of the bound layers followed by DCP testing of the unbound
layers, in conjunction with GPR, for a continuous thickness profile, where appropriate.
Pavement evaluation uses the same principles as analytical pavement design, except
that the effective stiffness and material properties represent the in situ pavement
condition. Using multi-layer elastic theory, interactions between the different
pavement layers are defined. The stresses/strains generated in the pavement are
calculated for the loading from the design vehicle. Compressive strains on the
subgrade, tensile strains in the bottom of the surface layer, and total deflection can
be analyzed. Using typical properties of the pavement materials, relationships are
obtained between the stress/strain criteria and the number of load applications
before the pavement reaches its design life.
Perform material testing on samples cored from the pavement to better characterize
material behavior. Stiffness modulus test results provide data on stiffness at different
temperatures and strains, which is used in the interpretation of the FWD data.
According to Pavement Testing Services International (2013):
“For concrete slabs, the life of the pavement is assessed by calculating the
stresses that are induced under the passage of the design loading. The most
significant stresses are the horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of the
concrete in a slab center location, and the tensile stress at the top of the
concrete at an edge or corner location. The former is calculated using the
pavement model determined from the back-analysis, and then factors are
applied (based on developments of the Westergaard equations) to determine
the edge or corner stresses. The stresses caused by restraint of temperature-
induced movements can also be considered. The life prior to the onset of
fatigue cracking can then be determined from the ratio of induced stress to
concrete strength. For a lean concrete base, the design criterion relating to
fatigue is maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the layer.”
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If the residual life of the existing pavement is inadequate, the pavement needs to be
refurbished. Remedial treatment often takes the form of overlays and inlays.
An overlay is placed where the finished pavement level is higher than the existing
pavement after maintenance. Essentially, new material is laid over the existing surface,
but removal of some of the deteriorated material may be necessary. Overlays are the
most effective form of remedial treatment. An overlay has the advantage adding
thickness to the surfacing, hence reducing the horizontal strain in the bound layer and
the vertical strain in the foundation.
An inlay is placed where material is removed and replaced to the existing level with
material of higher strength. Inlays are effective where existing materials have become
relatively weak. However, inlays only strengthen the pavement to the extent to which
the newer material is stronger than the existing material in the limited depth of
replacement.
Where levels and overlaying of structures permit, overlays are usually the optimum
solution. If existing layers are weak, particularly the upper layers, a combination of
inlay and overlay can be used. For example, plane out 100 mm of existing pavement
and replace with 150 mm of new pavement. Hence, replacing weak layers with an
inlay is advantageous.
Modulus values for new materials can be assessed by experience or by laboratory

testing. In an iterative process, several designs can be assessed until a variation is
found that gives the desired residual life. Full or partial reconstruction options can be
assessed using stiffnesses of lower pavement layers and subgrade, which are based
on the back-analyzed values.
11.1.2 Rehabilitation Design Using the 1993 AASHTO Guide

The structural capacity and effective structural number of the existing pavement can
be determined in a number of ways. The preferable method is to perform in-place
testing and coring of the existing pavement as discussed in this Chapter. Other
methods as presented in the 1993 AASHTO Guide include visual condition surveys and
remaining life.
Visual condition surveys involve determining the extent and severity of existing
cracking in the pavement that result in a reduction of the layer coefficient for that
material. Table 5.2 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide provides guidance on the selection of
layer coefficients based on condition surveys. Table 5.3 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide
can be used as a worksheet to determine effective structural number for this method,
as well as for using non-destructive test data. Tables 5.5 and 5.6 of the 1993 AASHTO
Guide provide guidance for layer coefficients and a worksheet to determine effective
structural number of existing rigid pavements.
The remaining life method involves determining the amount of traffic the existing
pavement has carried during its design life against the amount of traffic the pavement
can carry to failure, or a serviceability index of 1.5. A condition factor is obtained
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using Figure 5.2 of the 1993 AASHTO Guide based on the percentage of remaining life.
The condition factor is then applied to the layer coefficients and layers to determine
and effective structural number.
11.2 Pavement Assessment and Need for Rehabilitation

Road pavements will in time need rehabilitation. Signs of wear and surface
disintegration through polishing, rutting, fretting, raveling, and cracking will show on
road surfaces. When wear affects the quality of service and the integrity of the
pavement structure, maintenance is needed to restore the pavement to an
acceptable level. To be cost-effective, a logical assessment is needed to determine the
most effective and timely maintenance treatment. If strengthening or resurfacing, a
carefully considered and designed pavement assessment is performed to determine if
it is warranted and will accommodate future traffic, and to prevent laying
improvements on structurally inadequate pavement.
Pavements gradually deteriorate with time because of environmental and traffic

loading. Environmental deterioration can take the form of bitumen surface-hardening
because of aging. This increases brittleness, which can cause early cracking. Poorly
designed or maintained drainage systems can lead to a reduction in the pavement
system’s structural capacity, which can result in various pavement distresses under
vehicular loading. Traffic-related deterioration can take many forms, including the
development of ruts and cracking, which can lead to heaving, pop-outs, and potholes.
Determining when a pavement has failed or is no longer providing the intended level
of service needs structural or functional pavement evaluations or a combination
thereof. Criteria for “failure” can be identified based on the severity and extent of
distress, such as rut depth, roughness, pavement deflection under known loading,
surface distress, or the level and frequency of maintenance and its extent.
Major deterioration can sometimes occur over a short period because of the use of
inappropriate or moisture-susceptible materials, inadequate construction practices,
and the presence of high groundwater levels. Distress at the surface of the pavement
does not necessarily indicate structural failure. Surface cracking and rutting within the
wearing course material can be mitigated without major structural rehabilitation if
the main structural layers of the pavement are intact or structurally sound. Surface
cracking, sometimes called block cracking, is not unusual in hot climates and occurs
because of the hardening of the binder in the surfacing caused by oxidation.
11.3 Methods of Rehabilitation

11.3.1 Bituminous Overlays
The most common method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to place new
bituminous surfacing over the existing surface. The thickness of the overlay depends
on the structural capacity of the existing pavement. The added asphalt will provide
the SN for future design traffic when it is added to the SN of the existing pavement in
its condition. Before placing new asphalt, existing pavement distresses such as cracks,
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raveling, localized subgrade failure, or rutting needs to be repaired. If the depth

needed for repair is such that it is not feasible to construct, full-depth replacement
might be necessary.
11.3.2 Mill and Overlay

Another method of rehabilitating flexible pavements is to mill the pavement to a
specified depth before placing the new bituminous surfacing. The depth of milling
depends on the depth of rutting, the depth of surface cracking, the existing cross
section, and the ability to raise the grade. Milling needs to be deep enough to remove
surface cracking and rutting to create a smooth profile. At least 150 mm of surface
needs to remain to support paving equipment. For thinner pavements, complete
removal of the asphalt surfacing might be necessary.
11.3.3 Concrete Overlays
11.3.3.1 Concrete over Concrete

Concrete overlays on concrete pavement can be bonded or unbonded. Bonded
overlays are to be placed only on pavements that are in good condition. Pavement
jointing and joint types on bonded overlays need to mirror the joints of the existing
pavement.
Unbonded concrete overlays typically are applied over concrete pavements in poor
condition. A stress absorbing membrane interlayer acts as a bond-breaker to relieve
the stress from existing cracks and pavement deformities and to prevent them from
affecting the new overlay.
For both cases, existing pavement distresses need to be addressed.
11.3.3.2 White Topping

White topping is a rehabilitation method that involves the overlay of bituminous
pavement with concrete. The existing pavement acts as the base for the new
concrete. The 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical method can be used to develop an
effective k-value to determine the concrete thickness.
Ultrathin white topping is 50 mm to 100 mm thick. The thinness of the concrete

necessitates detailed surface preparation, joint spacing, and joint design.
11.3.4 In-Place Recycling

Existing pavement can be rehabilitated in place by adding stabilizers and rejuvenating
agents to produce a new base or a new surface with the existing materials. These
methods are described in greater detail in Chapter 13 in this Part.
11.4 Pavement Deterioration Mechanisms

To decide which test methods are appropriate and which means of refurbishment are
necessary, it is necessary to understand how pavements perform and deteriorate.
Pavement surfaces eventually lose skid resistance. In flexible pavements, loss of
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surface texture and rutting can occur in surfacing materials with relatively high binder
contents. Rutting can be the result of shear failure of the asphalt courses or deep
structural failure from the subgrade and base layers, as show in Figure 11.1 and
Figure 11.2, respectively.
Figure 11.1 Plastic Rutting (Internal Shear Failure)
Figure 11.2 Structural Rutting
11.5 Pavement Survey and Investigation

A pavement assessment is usually carried out first at the network level and then at
the project level. Different survey types tend to be more applicable at one level or the
other but rarely both.
The purpose of a network-level survey is to determine an approximate, needs-based

level, at which informed decisions can be based on where and how to obtain more
detailed information to identify projects. Network-level data are useful for identifying
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annual trends and establishing a cost-effective sifting process to determine existing

problem areas and where problems are likely to occur in the near future.
Network-level data can be used to:
• Provide a network level performance indicator.

• Determine an appropriate level of budget.
• Determine physical condition, defects, etc.
• Target more detailed assessments for scheme identification.
At project level, the data can be used to:
• Inform decisions on what, where, and how to treat defects.

• Provide information for conceptual design.
• Develop options for conceptual designs and subsequent detailed designs.
11.6 Network-Level Surveys

Network-level surveys are usually based on surface characteristics and can vary from
simple drive-through surveys, to visual surveys where data on general deterioration,
cracking, and rutting are obtained. Surface characteristics can be measured from
visual surveys or automated surveys. Ride quality can also be measured using
profilometers and output such as the IRI. The IRI is sometimes used to assess
pavements. A maximum IRI can be used to identify “failure,” or lack of serviceability.
The usual characteristics for measurement are rutting, cracking, edge deterioration,
fretting, and raveling. Surface characteristics can provide a great deal of data about
the condition of a road. However, they cannot directly evaluate residual life, although
combinations of defects can be combined to give a proxy value. It is important to
measure and collect appropriate data for the design.
Network surveys indicate the sections of roadway that need further investigation,
usually for a scheme design. Project-level surveys are carried out as needed, rather
than cyclically.
11.7 Project-Level Investigation and Assessment

When assessing existing pavements, the following processes are needed:
• Review existing information

• Visual survey
• Establish construction from coring, DCP, test pits, or ground-penetrating radar [GPR]
• Assess “strength”
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11.7.1 Review existing information

The first stage of any pavement assessment is to review all existing information:
• As-built records
• Maintenance records
• Records of repeated maintenance or specific maintenance issues
• Network surveys to determine general condition (cracks, ruts, IRI)
Assessment of this information can give an indication of the pavement condition and
the reasons for failure or lack of serviceability, such as aged, inadequate construction,
or high traffic. Such indicators can be taken into account when designing the
remaining investigation.
11.7.2 Visual Survey

A detailed visual survey needs to be carried out by an experienced pavement
engineer. Ideally, this is done before core positions are established, to inform the
process of core position. The survey is done on foot and in good weather, and it
includes inspecting for the following defects and the severity of each:
• Transverse cracking
• Longitudinal cracking
• Crazing
• Rutting
• Signs of previous maintenance such as patching, crack seal, and slurry seal
• Settlement or subsidence
• Off-road features, such as drainage features, signs of defective drainage, adjacent
trees, and steep side slopes
In addition to a narrative report, it is useful to indicate defects on a diagram of the

site or a chart. Site record charts are particularly useful when surveying rigid
pavements. Charts showing defects such as joint faulting, corner spalling, and cracking
can be quickly completed on-site.
11.7.3 Coring
Existing pavement construction typically will be determined by coring. Coring has the
disadvantages of requiring road space and disrupting traffic. Choose locations to be
representative of the overall construction as well as the weak and defective areas. It
is important to target the worst areas, but it is also important to core good areas to
compare materials and performance. Cores will identify many features and provide
significant information that GPR cannot.
Extend cores through all bound materials wherever possible. Recovery can be difficult
in weak, broken materials. Cores provide information on overall pavement depth and
construction and the means for carrying out DCP testing, sampling for laboratory
testing, and correlating GPR.
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Where cores are taken to establish cracking, take an adjacent core in sound material
to ascertain thickness. Where rutting has occurred, take at least three cores to try to
establish a profile. Where cores are taken in heavily cracked areas, expect only partial
recovery. If coring is being undertaken to establish the reason for failure, note that
cracking will have allowed ingress of water, deterioration of subgrade, and other
factors. Although it is important to assess the additional damage to design the
remedial work, the cause of failure can be disguised. For example, the primary mode
of failure may be cracking that causes a secondary mode of failure of a weak
subgrade.
Cores need to be properly logged with the following data:
• Core reference
• Unique location reference such as road/lane/chainage/direction of traffic/core
number referenced to site plan
• Layer and total thickness, and depth of core hole to identify lost material
• Material type, thickness, and condition, such as sound, friable, or cracked, for each
layer
• Missing layers
• Material
• Voiding and segregation
• Binder stripping
• Debonding and any detritus between debonded layers
• Depth of cracking
• Material type at base of core
• Photograph with scale
11.7.4 Test Pits

Test pits are very disruptive and are made only where necessary. The bound
materials, particularly the upper layers, are always saw cut. Test pits can provide a
cross section of layers to identify rutting or other deformation and to allow inspection
of the behavior of the material under the excavation. In addition, test pits provide for
a greater degree of testing, such as in situ CBR, and the collection of bulk samples of
bound materials, subbase, and subgrade. Test pits are most likely to be used for
investigations of premature failure.
11.7.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

GPR is used to gather data on pavement thickness and construction. It is useful in
determining continuous information on pavement structures. GPR can identify
anomalies and discontinuities that coring would miss. It can also be used to build a
database of pavement constructions. This is useful at the initial assessment stage,
because changes or deficiencies in construction can be identified and compared with
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the incidence of defects. GPR involves correlation and calibration with core data. It is
nondestructive and can be carried out at normal road speeds. GPR might give only
approximations of construction. If detailed information is needed, such as accurate
layer thickness and the presence of underslab voids, then walking-speed surveys
could be necessary. GPR will tell little about the condition of a pavement, but the
information adds significantly to other surveys and assessments.
11.7.6 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The DCP consists of a specific cone driven by a specific drop-weight. The equipment is
low-cost and is easy to transport and use. There are published correlations of blows
against penetration to give values of CBR. In pavement investigations, the DCP is usually
driven from the base of the bound material. The thickness of the underlying layers can,
to some extent, be estimated by changes in blow count, and hence stiffness. Individual
readings are not to be used to define a CBR value at a specific depth. Results need to be
plotted graphically with cumulative blows against depth. Sections with similar gradients
can be plotted. It can be seen from Figure 11.3 that the bound material was about
270 mm thick, followed by a layer 150 mm thick with a CBR of 138 percent. There is also
a base layer with a CBR of 30 percent. There is an intermediate 300 mm layer of CBR of
7 percent. This indicates a subbase over a relatively stiff subgrade with an upper layer of
soft subgrade.
Figure 11.3 Sample of DCP Test
11.8 Pavement Strength

Surveys of surface characteristics alone can be misleading. A rutted, cracked surface
does not always indicate a failing pavement, and recent thin resurfacing can disguise a
failing pavement. Therefore, particularly on major projects, it will be necessary to try
to assess the structural capacity of the pavement through testing procedures to
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estimate the residual life of a pavement structure and to establish information about
layer stiffness to be used in analytical techniques to design refurbishment works.
11.8.1 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

As noted, a DCP can be used to assess CBR values beneath pavements. It can also be a
good guide about changes in strength with depth immediately below the pavement,
even if the absolute strength cannot be measured.
11.8.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer

An FWD (see Figure 11.4) can be used to identify the “strength” or modulus values in
pavement layers. This allows a back-analysis to determine residual life, as well as an
analysis of proposed strengthening measures. It is possible to analyze overlays and
inlays.
Figure 11.4 Falling Weight Deflectometer
FWD testing is carried out using integral trailer-mounted equipment. The equipment
is static at each test location, so traffic management is needed. The FWD can be used
as a network tool but it is more usual to use an FWD for information at the scheme or
project level. FWD testing ought to be carried out on projects consisting only of
superficial resurfacing to uncover underlying, unidentified, structural problems.
The trailer consists of an impulse-generating device with a guide system that

comprises a variable weight that can be dropped from different heights; a loading
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plate that uniformly distributes the force on the test layer; a load cell to measure the
actual applied impulse; and a row of geophones spread along the length of the trailer
to measure deflection. The weight is dropped onto the loading plate. The impulse is
similar in magnitude and duration to a single, heavy, wheel load. The reflection of the
impact is measured by the geophones and can be interpreted as a “bowl.” For
detailed design, the spacing between drops is usually 10 m to 20 m, with closer
spacings in areas of greater interest. The shape of the reflected bowl is an indication
of the strength, or modulus value, of the basic layers in the pavement construction.
The software used calculates the modulus values from the deflection data.
A road pavement is a multi-layered structure. The modulus values of the layers can be
used to analyze strains in the layers, and hence its residual life. The equipment is
static at each test location, so traffic management is needed.
11.8.3 Data Handling of FWD Results

The FWD results are tabulated in the form of normalized deflection bowls for each
FWD test. Deflections are adjusted to a common contact pressure of the FWD loading
plate on the pavement surface. In addition, statistical analyses are performed for
three or more deflection criteria. The central deflection (d1) gives an indication of
overall pavement performance; the deflection difference, d0 to d300, d0 to d900, or
d300 to d900, indicates the condition of the bound pavement layers at different
depths. Deflection d1500 is used as an indicator of the subgrade condition.
The statistical analyses indicate the spread of results by giving maximum, minimum, and
85th, 50th, and 15th percentile values for the three deflection criteria. The
85th percentile value is such that 85 percent of the measured deflections are less
than or equal to it. Alternatively, the mean and standard deviations are calculated.
The statistics are used later to obtain representative effective stiffnesses for the
various pavement and subgrade layers, which are then used for the assessment of
residual life and the design of strengthening measures.
Profiles of deflection criteria are often plotted to show the variation of pavement
layers and subgrade stiffnesses along a length of pavement. The profiles support the
development of appropriate strategies for future maintenance and strengthening
measures.
11.8.4 Interpretation of FWD Data

Before data analysis, the FWD data are checked first for abnormalities. Data with
abnormalities are discarded and noted when reporting the FWD results.
Depending on the collected FWD data, two types of methods can be used to back-
calculate the modulus of pavement layers: the closed-form method and the iterative
method. The iterative method is more commonly used in current practice. Various
iterative back-calculation programs are available, such as MICHBAK, Evercalc©,
MODULUS, and ELMOD. The agency reviewing and approving the analysis must
preapprove the software to be used. Regardless of the software selected, follow the
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flow chart shown on Figure 11.5 to obtain the reasonable modulus value for each
layer.
Document and report data with the FWD results on the following items:
• Pavement surface condition. Conduct a pavement survey before FWD testing to

identify distress type, severity, extent, and exact location.
• Pavement layer structure information. For most pavements, the exact structure is
unknown; therefore, pavement cores are usually extracted. For materials above
the subgrade, record the following information: layer material, layer thickness,
layer condition, and material type. For the subgrade, record the following
information: soil classification, natural moisture content, and laboratory CBR and
MR. This information can be used to validate the FWD data analysis results.
For quality assurance, a lightweight deflectometer (LWD), a portable, lighter version

of the FWD, can be used after compaction of unbound pavement materials. It can be
also used for quality control of asphaltic bound materials immediately after
compaction, to determine appropriate timing to open the road after construction.
Relative to the FWD, the LWD has a shallow depth of influence because of the lighter
weight, less than 20 kg, being dropped by hand.
Figure 11.5 Flow Chart for Iterative Back-Calculation of Pavement Layer Modulus
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12 Evaluation of Pavement
Alternatives
12.1 Engineering and Design
The selection of pavement type will usually be based on lowest first-time cost for a
given design period. This assumes that special factors, such as rut resistance, special
drainage conditions, high water table, and long-term settlement, were considered in
the design.
There can be special circumstances. Continuously reinforced concrete pavements are

the only types suitable where large or significant differential movement or settlement
is expected, because they can withstand large strains and remain intact. Flexible
pavements with asphalt base and jointed, reinforced pavements are suitable where
slight differential movements, or settlement caused by compressible ground, or
subsidence are expected. Flexible pavements with cement-bound bases and
unreinforced concrete pavements are not suitable where differential movement,
subsidence, or appreciable settlement is expected.
When evaluating different paving alternatives, construction methods and practices,

availability and quality of materials, time of construction, and maintenance during the
life of the pavement all need to be considered. The economic analysis and value
engineering of these alternatives are described in this Chapter.
12.2 Economic Analysis and Value Engineering

12.2.1 Life Cycle Cost
Life cycle costing is a method of assessing the overall cost of an asset, in this case
pavement over a specified duration. It uses a structured approach to identify the
direct and indirect costs that can be incurred over the life of the pavement. It can also
be used to identify the cost-effectiveness of future planned maintenance treatments.
Life cycle costing, or value comparison, can compare the cost-effectiveness or value of
options for the same scheme or compare the effectiveness of schemes. The adoption
of a life cycle cost approach enables informed maintenance decisions.
Life cycle costing involves the evaluation of treatment costs for a range of alternative
maintenance treatments over a set period. All costs and any benefits are then
discounted back to a common reference point, typically the current works year. The
discounting process reflects the “time value of money,” usually borrowing or interest
rates, and enables options to be assessed on a comparable basis. The option with the
lowest total discounted cost indicates the most advantageous investment. Life cycle
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costs can be developed for a newly constructed road or a road receiving a

maintenance treatment at a given time. The intention is to determine the likely cost
of construction or maintenance, or a combination thereof, for a given period. The life
cycle period needs to be at least as long as the longest design life for the alternatives
that are analyzed, and extend to the next maintenance period. By comparing life cycle
costs for a long period, the effectiveness of different constructions, maintenance
techniques, and treatments can be assessed. The following factors are to be
considered:
• The time period to be used: 10, 20, 40 years, or more

• Initial construction costs, including full construction for new build, or cost of
maintenance treatment for an existing road
• Traffic control costs
• Road user costs during works, including time delay and additional vehicle
operating costs
• Future treatment costs
• Timings of future treatments
• Salvage value or disposal costs of materials and recycling
• Interest rate
Determining the future maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements involves

reviewing historical information and considering the maintenance practices of the
owning agency. These practices depend on available funding and priorities of
roadways. Confirmation of the selected maintenance strategy needs to take place
before a life cycle cost analysis is performed. In the absence of such information, the
following can be used as a guide for flexible and rigid pavements.
Flexible Pavement
• Year 5: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal joints, clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km of lane width
• Year 10: Full depth patching of 2 percent of pavement, mill and inlay pavement,
10 mm to 25 mm depth
• Year 15: Clean and seal 15 percent of longitudinal joints, clean and seal cracks,
100 m/km
• Year 20: Full depth patching of 2 percent of pavement, mill wearing course and
replace, apply 10 mm to 50 mm of overlay
• Repeat maintenance tasks from years 5 to 20, beginning year 25, applying to
year 40.
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Rigid Pavement
• Year 8: Clean and seal 25 percent of longitudinal and transverse joints

• Year 15: Patch 2 percent of pavement area with new concrete, diamond grind or
refinish 50 percent of pavement area, clean and seal all longitudinal and
transverse joints
• Year 25: Concrete patch 8 percent of pavement area, clean and seal all
longitudinal and transverse joints, place bituminous leveling course, place 100-mm
overlay, saw and seal all transverse joints
• Year 30: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints, clean and seal
cracks, 100 m/km
• Year 35: Partial depth patching of 5 percent of pavement area, mill wearing
course, 10 mm to 25 mm bituminous overlay, saw and seal all transverse joints
• Year 40: Clean and seal 25 percent of sawed and sealed joints, clean and seal
cracks, 100 m/km
• Year 45: Full depth patching of 8 percent of pavement area, place bituminous
leveling course, place 10 mm to 25 mm thick bituminous overlay, saw and seal all
transverse joints
A life cycle analysis can be carried out to indicate which set of treatments are most
appropriate. The life cycle costing approach offers the following benefits:
• It provides a means of evaluating maintenance options over a defined period.

• It increases awareness of the life cycle costs of various maintenance options.
• It can demonstrate to decision makers the long-term performance and economic
implications of various treatment strategies and funding levels.
By using life cycle costing to aid investment planning, engineers can demonstrate
long-term value.
12.2.2 Value Engineering

Value engineering can be a useful tool in the overall design process. When significant
elements of the design and construction process have been established, they ought to
be analyzed to verify the initial concepts and parameters are still valid, and to
determine whether improvements can be made. Value engineering can be an integral
stage of any project to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness in design and
construction, and sometimes to compare the effectiveness of different schemes for
prioritization. With respect to pavement alternatives, value engineering can compare
different sections that would add value in the following ways:
• Reducing cost, time of construction, or maintenance

• Increasing design life
• Increasing quality
• Deferring costs with staged construction
• Using alternative materials
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13 Sustainable Pavement
Practices
13.1 Overview
The design methods in this manual direct the designer to assess the strength of
available materials and design accordingly. This allows the designer to choose
materials suitable to achieve the optimum design. The key drivers for sustainability
are reuse, reduce, and recycle. Reuse of pavement materials is usually limited to curbs
and paving elements such as concrete blocks and slabs. Reduction in the use of
materials can be achieved by adopting the most appropriate materials in the design.
This manual is not prescriptive regarding materials. If the designer can assess the
necessary parameters, any appropriate material can be used. The design methods
adopted allow the designer to compare any number of options, substituting different
thicknesses of different materials to achieve the overall objective. Many materials can
be recycled. In the case of granular material, if a material meets the specifications it can
be included, even it is not a prime material. Again, if the necessary design parameters
can be assessed such as primarily modulus, recycled materials can be used.
Particularly for lower classes of road, reduced specifications could be permitted, if the
relevant parameters can be identified and the material will perform in the conditions
and environment. Durability of recycled materials is always considered.
13.2 Recycled Aggregates

The most common applications of recycled aggregates include crushed recycled
concrete and RAP. Crushed recycled concrete can be used as a base or subbase
material, provided it meets the gradation and physical qualities of the applicable
specification. It can be blended with virgin aggregate or used in cement-treated bases
or concrete. RAP is typically used in AC, but it can also be used as a subbase or base
course when blended with virgin aggregate. Precaution must be taken to verify the
origin of recycled materials and to check for contaminants or previous material flaws.
Existing pavement can be recycled in-situ. Cold in situ recycling is a rehabilitation

method that reduces the cost of the pavement structure by reusing the existing
asphalt pavement. Existing asphalt is pulverized in place and mixed with native base.
New binder is added and the asphalt/base mixture is compacted in place to form a
new asphalt stabilized layer. The process uses 100 percent RAP mixed with a new
binder consisting of either emulsion or foamed asphalt cement. Because heat is not
used in the process, less energy is used, and the impact on the environment is less.
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Hot in situ recycling involves heating the existing pavement before it is milled, adding
hot emulsified asphalt binder, and replacing and repaving the RAP in the field. It is
used for thinner pavement sections because of the limits of the depth of recycling.
Cement recycled asphalt base is a method of milling and pulverizing existing asphalt
with part of the aggregate base and adding cement to produce a new cement-treated
base in situ.
13.3 Warm-Mix Asphalt

Warm-mix asphalt is a technology that uses admixtures and changes in production to
help inhibit the coating of the aggregate using asphalt with a lower viscosity to allow
AC to be produced and placed at temperatures of 10°C to 40°C lower than
conventional asphalt. Warm-mix is attained through chemical admixtures, organic
additives (wax), foaming, materials processing, or combinations at the asphalt paving
plant. By lowering the mix temperature, the warm-mix process has the following
environmental benefits:
• Reduced volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide
• Less energy and less fuel usage
• A better work environment with fewer fumes, less heat stress, and improved air
quality
• A higher percentage of RAP usage by decreasing the aging of the binder during
production, rejuvenating the old binder in the RAP, offsetting stiffness from added
RAP, and aiding in compaction
Warm-mix asphalt is an emerging technology. Its use and implementation on projects

needs to be evaluated closely against cost, contractor experience, and available
suppliers. The following are sources of additional information on warm-mix asphalt:
• Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix Asphalt (NCHRP, 2011)

• Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices (National Asphalt Pavement Association [NAPA],
2012)
• Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice (FHWA, 2008)
13.4 Two-lift Concrete Construction

Two-lift concrete construction, originally developed in Europe, is a process involving
placing a concrete pavement with two separate mixes. The lower lift is made of
coarse-graded concrete consisting of recycled aggregate. The upper lift consists of a
finer, dense-graded, high-quality concrete. The benefits of dual-layer concrete are the
use of recycled materials, low cost, and smooth pavement surface.
Two-lift concrete construction has been used and evaluated on multiple projects.
Additional information can be obtained from the FHWA.
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13.5 Noise Reducing Pavements

On high-speed expressways, tire contact on the pavement surface can generate noise
levels greater than 100 decibels. Noise levels are directly related to surface texture.
To reduce noise and noise pollution, certain methods of surface finish and mix types
can be used for better results. For flexible pavement, an open-graded surface course
has provided the best results for noise reduction. For rigid pavements, next-
generation concrete surfacing provides the lowest noise levels. Diamond grinding,
drag texturing, and longitudinal tining have provided results similar to and better than
transverse tining, shot peening, and grooving. Next-generation concrete surfacing is
produced with a new type of diamond grinding apparatus that creates a smooth
profile with consistently spaced grooves. The method is still being researched.
Table 13.1 and Table 13.2 compare the noise levels of different pavement types from
previous studies.
Table 13.1 Noise Level Ranges for Different Concrete Surfaces

Noise Level at the Est. Noise Level Est. Noise Level
Texture Type Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) at 100 feet (dBA)
Next-generation concrete surfacing 99–100 71–73 68–70
Conventional diamond grinding 100–104 72–76 69–73
Drag texture 100–102 72–74 69–71
Longitudinal tines 101–106 73–78 70–75
Grooving 106–108 78–80 75–77
Shot peening 105–108 77–80 74–77
Transverse tines 103–100 75–82 72–79
Random transverse tines 103–100 75–82 72–78
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
“Quieter Pavement Research” (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013);
ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data
Collection (National Concrete Pavement Techology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental
Traffic Noise Research Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); “Pavement Noise” (Pavement
Interactive, 2014)
Table 13.2 Noise Level Ranges for Different Asphalt Surfaces

Est. Noise Level Est. Noise Level
Texture Type Noise Level (dBA) at the Source (dBA) at 50 feet (dBA) at 100 feet
HMA (open- 98–99 (after construction) 70–71 67–68
graded, modified) 102–104 (after 3–4 years of service) 74–76 71–73
HMA (dense- 99–101 (after construction) 71–73 68–70
graded) 104–105 (after 3–4 years of service) 76–77 73–74
SMA 101–103 73–75 70–72
Note:
dBA = decibels (A-weighted scale)
Sources: Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface (Scofield, 2012);
“Quieter Pavement Research” (Washington State Department of Transportation, 2013);
ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data
Collection (National Concrete Pavement Techology Center, 2007); Tire-Pavement and Environmental
Traffic Noise Research Study (Rasmussen and Sohaney, 2012); “Pavement Noise” (Pavement
Interactive, 2014)
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13.6 Porous Pavement

Porous pavements are constructed with permeable materials to allow stormwater to
infiltrate to the subsurface. Surface materials can consist of permeable concrete
pavers, concrete, or AC with at least a 20 percent void content to allow for infiltration.
Base materials are free-draining and open-graded.
The benefits of porous paving are improved stormwater quality, replenishment of the
groundwater, and elimination or reduction of drainage system infrastructure.
Porous pavement sections are limited to areas that have lower vehicle speeds and
light traffic such as parking areas and sidewalks. Porous pavements are maintained to
prevent clogging of the surface. They are best used in granular soils, but can be used
in fine-grained soils with the addition of subdrains. More information on subdrains is
provided in Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.
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References
AASHTO. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1986.
AASHTO. Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures (1993 AASHTO Guide). American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1993.
AASHTO. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice

(MEPDG). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC,
United States. July 2008.
AASHTO. Guide for the Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide.
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AASHTO MP 19-10. Standard Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple
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Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2010.
AASHTO T- 27. Standard Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates.
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AASHTO T-180-10-UL. Standard Method of Test for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a
4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop. American Association of State Highway and
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Compacted Soils. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
AASHTO T-193. Standard Method of Test for the California Bearing Ratio. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2013.
AASHTO TP 70-13. Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test of
Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. August 2013.
Applied Research Associates. DARWin-ME™ software. Version 3.1.

http://www.ara.com/products/DARwin.htm. Accessed June 13, 2014.
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Ashghal. Pavement Design Guidelines, Interim Advice Notice 016. Rev. No. 2. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. July 26, 2012a.
Ashghal. Guide for Superpave Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2012b.
Ashghal. Amendments to Earthworks, Unbound Pavement Materials and Asphalt Works of Qatar
Construction Specifications. Interim Advice Note 019. Rev. No. 1. State of Qatar Public Works
Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2012c.
Ashghal. Cycleways and Footways Pavement Design Guideline, Revision No. 1A. Interim Advice Note
No. 021. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. September 2013.
Ashghal. Guide for the Performance Testing of Flexible Pavement Layers. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013a.
Ashghal. Specifications and Quality Control of Unbound Materials, Base Courses, Sub-bases, and
Subgrades. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. November 2013b.
Ashghal. Guide for Marshall Mix Design and Quality Control of Asphalt Mixtures. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013c.
ASTM D6951/D6951M-09. Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in
Shallow Pavement Applications. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2009.
ASTM D7369-11. Standard Test Method for Determining the Resilient Modulus of Bituminous
Mixtures by Indirect Tension Test. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2011.
ASTM E1318-09. Standard Specification for Highway Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) Systems with User
Requirements and Test Methods. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United
States. 2009.
ASTM E1926-08. Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads from
Longitudinal Profile Measurements. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania,
ASTM E2133-03(2013). Standard Test Method for Using a Rolling Inclinometer to Measure
Longitudinal and Transverse Profiles of a Traveled Surface. ASTM International: West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States. 2013.
Austroads. Pavement Design—A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements. Sydney,
Australia. 1992.
BS 7533 Series. Elemental Pavements—Pavements Constructed with Clay, Natural Stone or

Concrete Pavers. Parts 1 to 13. British Standards Institution: London, England. Various dates.
PAGE 116 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 12
PAVEMENT DESIGN
Department for Transport. “New Roads Heritage.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 10, Section 1, Part 5. HA 60/92. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol10/section1/ha6092.pdf. December 1992.
Department for Transport. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volumes 0 to 15. UK Highways
Agency: London, England. Various dates.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice. Report

No. FHWA-PL-08-007. International Technology Scanning Program, U.S. Department of
Transportation: Washington, DC, United States. February 2008.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Traffic Monitoring Guide. Publication

No. FHWA-PL-13-015. Office of Highway Policy Information, U.S. Department of Transportation:
Washington, DC, United States. September 2013.
Heukelom, W., and A. J. G. Klomp. “Dynamic Testing as a Means of Controlling Pavements During
and After Construction.” Proceedings of the (1st) International Conference on the Structural
Design of Asphalt Pavements. Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. pp. 667-685. August 20-24,
1962.
Knapton, John. The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and Other Industries,
Edition 4. Uniclass L534. (previously known as the British Ports Association Manual.) Interpave
(a Product Association of the British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd.): Leicester, England.
December 2008.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards 2010 (QCS 2010). State of
Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2011.
Studies, Revision 3. Transportation and Infrastructure Planning Department; State of Qatar: Doha,
Qatar. May 2011.
National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). Warm-Mix Asphalt: Best Practices. 3rd edition.
Quality Improvement Publication 125. Lanham, Massachusetts, United States. January 2012.
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. ISU-FHWA-ACPA Concrete Pavement Surface

Characteristics Program Part 2: Preliminary Field Data Collection. Prepared for Federal Highway
Administration. Iowa State University: Ames, Iowa, United States. 2007.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Evaluation of AASHTO Design Guides
for Design of Pavement Structures. Report 128. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New

and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. Research Report 1-37A. Transportation Research Board:
Washington, DC. 2004.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 117

VOLUME 2 PART 12
PAVEMENT DESIGN
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Mix Design Practices for Warm Mix
Asphalt. Report 691. Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
Pavement Interactive. “Pavement Noise.”

http://www.pavementinteractive.org/article/pavement-noise/. February 28, 2008. Accessed
2014.
Pavement Testing Services International (PTS). Website. Adlington, Lancashire, United Kingdom.
http://www.ptsinternational.co.uk/. Accessed 2014
Rasmussen, R. O., and R. C. Sohaney. Tire-Pavement and Environmental Traffic Noise Research
Study. Final Report. Report No. CDOT-2012-5. Prepared for Colorado Department of
Transportation: Denver, Colorado, United States. June 2012.
Scofield, Larry. Development and Implementation of the Next Generation Concrete Surface. Final
Report. American Concrete Pavement Association: Rosemont, Illinois, United States. January
2012.
Thompson, Marshal R., and Quentin L. Robnett. 1979. “Resilient Properties of Subgrade Soils.
Transportation Engineering Journal. Vol. 105, No. 1: pp. 71-89. January/February 1979.
Washington State Department of Transportation. “Quieter Pavement Research.” Olympia,

Washington, United States. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Business/materialslab/quieterpavement.
Accessed April 17, 2013.
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PAVEMENT DESIGN
Appendix A
Parameters Appropriate for Use
in Qatar
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Design Parameters for Qatar for Use in 1993 AASHTO Design
Standard Drainage
Reliability Deviation (S0) Coefficient, m Service- Service-
Flexibl ability ability
Rural Urban e Rigid Fair Poor (Initial) (Final) ΔPSI
Freeeways and Expressways 97 97 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 3.0 1.2
Arterials 95 85 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 2.5 1.7
Collectors 90 80 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 2.0 2.2
Local Roads 80 75 0.35 0.45 1.0 1.2 4.2 1.5 2.7
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Appendix B
Layer Coefficient Graphs from
the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the
Design of Pavement Structures
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Appendix C
Effective k-value Charts from
the 1993 AASHTO Guide for the
Design of Pavement Structures
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Appendix D
Design Charts from the 1993
AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures
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Appendix E
Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Examples
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PAGE 142 VOLUME 2

Qatar Highway Design Manual Flexilble Pavement Example
File Name: C:\PROJECTS\Qatar Highway Design Manual\Qatar Highway Design Manual Flexilble Pavement Example.dgpx
Design Inputs
Design Life: 20 years Base construction: May, 2015 Climate Data 36.079, -115.155
Design Type: Flexible Pavement Pavement construction: June, 2016 Sources (Lat/Lon)
Traffic opening: September, 2016
Design Structure Traffic
Layer type Material Type Thickness(mm): Volumetric at Construction: Heavy Trucks

Age (year)
Default asphalt Effective binder (cumulative)
Flexible 310.0 5.5
concrete content (%) 2016 (initial) 1,000
NonStabilized Crushed stone 150.0 Air voids (%) 4.0
2026 (10 years) 2,230,090
NonStabilized A-2-7 150.0
2036 (20 years) 5,140,980
Subgrade A-5 Semi-infinite
Design Outputs
Distress Prediction Summary
Distress @ Specified
Reliability (%) Criterion
Distress Type Reliability
Satisfied?
Target Predicted Target Achieved
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.70 2.22 90.00 99.01 Pass
Permanent deformation - total pavement (mm) 19.00 15.82 90.00 99.61 Pass
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking (percent) 25.00 1.56 90.00 100.00 Pass
AC thermal cracking (m/km) 47.30 5.15 90.00 100.00 Pass
AC top-down fatigue cracking (m/km) 378.80 49.79 90.00 100.00 Pass
Permanent deformation - AC only (mm) 6.00 5.98 90.00 90.17 Pass
Distress Charts
Report generated on: by: by:

Created Approved Page 1 of 20
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Traffic Inputs
Graphical Representation of Traffic Inputs
Initial two-way AADTT: 1,000 Percent of trucks in design direction (%): 60.0
Number of lanes in design direction: 2 Percent of trucks in design lane (%): 90.0
Operational speed (kph) 100.0
Traffic Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13

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Tabular Representation of Traffic Inputs
Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors Level 3: Default MAF
Vehicle Class
Month
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
January 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
February 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
March 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
April 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
May 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
June 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
July 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
August 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
September 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
October 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
November 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
December 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Distributions by Vehicle Class Truck Distribution by Hour
AADTT Growth Factor Distribution Distribution

Hour Hour
Vehicle Class Distribution (%) (%) (%)
(Level 3) Rate (%) Function 12 AM 12 PM
2.3% 5.9%
Class 4 10% 2.7% Compound 1 AM 2.3% 1 PM 5.9%
Class 9 12% 2.7% Compound 6 AM 5% 6 PM 4.6%
11 AM 5.9% 11 PM 3.1%
Total 100%
Axle Configuration Number of Axles per Truck
Traffic Wander Axle Configuration Vehicle Single Tandem Tridem Quad

Mean wheel location (mm) 460 Average axle width (m) 2.59 Class Axle Axle Axle Axle
Traffic wander standard deviation (mm) 254 Dual tire spacing (mm) 305 Class 4 1.62 0.39 0 0
Design lane width (m) 3.7 Tire pressure (kPa) 827.4 Class 5 2 0 0 0
Class 6 1.02 0.99 0 0
Average Axle Spacing Wheelbase does not apply Class 7 1 0.26 0.83 0
Tandem axle Class 8 2.38 0.67 0 0
1.31
spacing (m) Class 9 1.13 1.93 0 0
Tridem axle Class 10 1.19 1.09 0.89 0
1.25
spacing (m) Class 11 4.29 0.26 0.06 0
Quad axle spacing Class 12
1.25 3.52 1.14 0.06 0
(m)
Class 13 2.15 2.13 0.35 0

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AADTT (Average Annual Daily Truck Traffic) Growth

* Traffic cap is not enforced

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Climate Inputs
Climate Data Sources:
Climate Station Cities: Location (lat lon elevation(m))
LAS VEGAS, NV 36.07900 -115.15500 648
Annual Statistics:
Mean annual air temperature (ºC) 20.73

Mean annual precipitation (mm) 136.40
Freezing index (ºC - days) 0.83
Water table depth 10.00
Average annual number of freeze/thaw cycles: 5.12
(m)
Monthly Climate Summary:

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Hourly Air Temperature Distribution by Month:
< -25ºC -25ºC to -20ºC -20ºC to -15ºC -15ºC to -10ºC -10ºC to -5ºC -5ºC to 0ºC 0ºC to 5ºC 5ºC to 10ºC
10ºC to 15ºC 15ºC to 20ºC 20ºC to 25ºC 25ºC to 30ºC 30ºC to 35ºC 35ºC to 40ºC 40ºC to 45ºC > 45ºC

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Design Properties
HMA Design Properties
Using G* based model (not nationally Interface

True Layer Name Layer Type
calibrated) Friction
Is NCHRP 1-37A HMA Rutting Model Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt
True Flexible (1) 1.00
Coefficients concrete
Endurance Limit - Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base :
Non-stabilized Base (4) 1.00
Crushed stone
Use Reflective Cracking True
Layer 3 Non-stabilized Base : A-2
Non-stabilized Base (4) 1.00
Structure - ICM Properties -7
AC surface shortwave absorptivity 0.85 Layer 4 Subgrade : A-5 Subgrade (5) -

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Thermal Cracking (Input Level: 3)
Creep Compliance (1/GPa)

Indirect tensile strength at -10 ºC (MPa) 4.82 Loading time (sec) -20 ºC -10 ºC 0 ºC
Thermal Contraction 1 1.82e-002 2.97e-002 4.21e-002
Is thermal contraction calculated? True 2 1.94e-002 3.38e-002 5.14e-002
Mix coefficient of thermal contraction (mm/mm/ºC) - 5 2.12e-002 3.99e-002 6.69e-002
Aggregate coefficient of thermal contraction 10 2.26e-002 4.53e-002 8.16e-002
9.0e-006
(mm/mm/ºC)
20 2.41e-002 5.15e-002 9.95e-002
Voids in Mineral Aggregate (%) 9.5
50 2.63e-002 6.09e-002 1.29e-001
100 2.81e-002 6.91e-002 1.58e-001

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HMA Layer 1: Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt concrete

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Analysis Output Charts

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Layer Information
Layer 1 Flexible : Default asphalt concrete
Asphalt General Info

Thickness (mm) 310.0
Name Value
Unit weight (kgf/m^3) 2400.0
Reference temperature (ºC) 21.1
Poisson's ratio Is Calculated? False
Effective binder content (%) 5.5
Ratio 0.35
Air voids (%) 4
Parameter A -
Thermal conductivity (watt/meter-
Parameter B - 1.16
kelvin)
Heat capacity (joule/kg-kelvin ) 963
Asphalt Dynamic Modulus (Input Level: 3)
Gradation Percent Passing Identifiers

19 mm-inch sieve 100 Field Value
9.5 mm sieve 77 Display name/identifier Default asphalt concrete
4.75 mm sieve 60
0.075mm sieve 6 Description of object
Asphalt Binder Author

Date Created 9/16/2010 8:00:00 AM
Parameter Value Approver
Grade Superpave Performance Grade Date approved 9/16/2010 8:00:00 AM
Binder Type 76-10 State
A 10.059 District
VTS -3.331 County
Highway
Direction of Travel
From station (km)
To station (km)
Province
User defined field 2
User defined field 3
Revision Number 0

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Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base : Crushed stone
Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) 150.0
Liquid Limit 6.0
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Plasticity Index 1.0
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (k0) 0.5
Is layer compacted? False
Modulus (Input Level: 3) Is User
Value
Defined?
Modify input values by
Analysis Type: Maximum dry unit weight
temperature/moisture False 2038.2
(kgf/m^3)
Method: Resilient Modulus (MPa) Saturated hydraulic conductivity
False 5.054e-02
(m/hr)
Resilient Modulus (MPa) Specific gravity of solids False 2.7
210.0 Optimum gravimetric water
False 7.4
content (%)
Use Correction factor for NDT modulus? -
User-defined Soil Water Characteristic Curve
NDT Correction Factor: - (SWCC)
Is User Defined? False
Identifiers
af 7.2555
Field Value bf 1.3328
Display name/identifier Crushed stone cf 0.8242
hr 117.4000
Description of object Default material
Sieve Size % Passing
Author AASHTO 0.001mm
Date Created 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.002mm
Approver 0.020mm
Date approved 1/1/2011 12:00:00 AM 0.075mm 8.7
State 0.150mm
District 0.180mm 12.9
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Direction of Travel 0.425mm 20.0
From station (km) 0.600mm
To station (km) 0.850mm
Province 1.18mm
User defined field 2 2.0mm 33.8
User defined field 3 2.36mm
Revision Number 0 4.75mm 44.7
9.5mm 57.2
12.5mm 63.1
19.0mm 72.7
25.0mm 78.8
37.5mm 85.8
50.0mm 91.6
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 97.6

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Layer 3 Non-stabilized Base : A-2-7
Unbound Sieve
Liquid Limit 50.0
Value
Defined?
(kgf/m^3)
False 6.832e-06
(m/hr)
False 10.6
content (%)
Identifiers
af 100.4941
Display name/identifier A-2-7 cf 0.2680
hr 500.0000
Approver 0.020mm
State 0.150mm
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Province 1.18mm
9.5mm 72.4
12.5mm 78.1
19.0mm 85.3
25.0mm 89.1
37.5mm 94.6
50.0mm 97.0
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 100.0

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Layer 4 Subgrade : A-5
Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) Semi-infinite
Liquid Limit 45.0
Value
Defined?
(kgf/m^3)
False 9.256e-07
(m/hr)
False 11.4
content (%)
Identifiers
af 65.2333
Display name/identifier A-5 cf 0.4994
hr 500.0000
Approver 0.020mm
State 0.150mm
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Province 1.18mm
9.5mm 90.2
12.5mm 91.9
19.0mm 94.1
25.0mm 95.9
37.5mm 97.5
50.0mm 98.5
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 99.5

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Calibration Coefficients
AC Fatigue
k1: 0.007566
k2: 3.9492
k3: 1.281
Bf1: 1
Bf2: 1
Bf3: 1
AC Rutting
K1: -3.35412 K2: 1.5606 K3: 0.4791

Br2: 1 Br3: 1 Br1: 1
AC Rutting Standard Deviation
0.24*Pow(RUT,0.8026)+0.001
Thermal Fracture
Level 1 K: 1.5 Level 1 Standard Deviation: 0.1468 * THERMAL + 65.027

Level 2 K: 0.5 Level 2 Standard Deviation: 0.2841 *THERMAL + 55.462
Level 3 K: 1.5 Level 3 Standard Deviation: 0.3972 * THERMAL + 20.422
CSM Fatigue
k1: 1 k2: 1 Bc1: 1 Bc2:1

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Subgrade Rutting
Granular Fine
k1: 2.03 Bs1: 1 k1: 1.35 Bs1: 1
Standard Deviation (BASERUT) Standard Deviation (BASERUT)
0.1477*Pow(BASERUT,0.6711)+0.001 0.1235*Pow(SUBRUT,0.5012)+0.001
AC Cracking
AC Top Down Cracking AC Bottom Up Cracking
c1: 7 c2: 3.5 c3: 0 c4: 1000 c1: 1 c2: 1 c3: 6000
AC Cracking Top Standard Deviation AC Cracking Bottom Standard Deviation
200 + 2300/(1+exp(1.072-2.1654*LOG10 1.13+13/(1+exp(7.57-15.5*LOG10
(TOP+0.0001))) (BOTTOM+0.0001)))
CSM Cracking IRI Flexible Pavements
C1: 1 C2: 1 C3: 0 C4: 1000 C1: 40 C2: 0.4 C3: 0.008 C4: 0.015
CSM Standard Deviation
CTB*1

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Qatar Highway Design Manual Rigid Pavement Example
File Name: C:\PROJECTS\Qatar Highway Design Manual\Qatar Highway Design Manual Rigid Pavement Example.dgpx
Design Inputs
Design Life: 20 years Existing construction: - Climate Data 36.079, -115.155
Design Type: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement construction: June, 2016 Sources (Lat/Lon)
Pavement (JPCP) Traffic opening: September, 2016
Design Structure Traffic
Layer type Material Type Thickness(mm): Joint Design: Heavy Trucks

Age (year)
PCC JPCP Default 240.0 Joint spacing (m) 5.0 (cumulative)
NonStabilized Crushed stone 150.0 Dowel diameter (mm) 32.0 2016 (initial) 1,000
Subgrade A-5 Semi-infinite Slab width (m) 3.7 2026 (10 years) 2,230,090
2036 (20 years) 5,140,980
Design Outputs
Distress Prediction Summary
Distress @ Specified
Reliability (%) Criterion
Distress Type Reliability
Satisfied?
Target Predicted Target Achieved
Terminal IRI (m/km) 2.70 1.69 90.00 99.99 Pass
Mean joint faulting (mm) 3.00 1.32 90.00 99.99 Pass
JPCP transverse cracking (percent slabs) 15.00 8.56 90.00 99.35 Pass
Distress Charts

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Traffic Inputs
Graphical Representation of Traffic Inputs
Initial two-way AADTT: 1,000 Percent of trucks in design direction (%): 60.0
Number of lanes in design direction: 2 Percent of trucks in design lane (%): 90.0
Operational speed (kph) 100.0
Traffic Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13

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Tabular Representation of Traffic Inputs
Volume Monthly Adjustment Factors Level 3: Default MAF
Vehicle Class
Month
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
January 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
February 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
March 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
April 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
May 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
June 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
July 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
August 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
September 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
October 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
November 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
December 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Distributions by Vehicle Class Truck Distribution by Hour
AADTT Growth Factor Distribution Distribution

Hour Hour
Vehicle Class Distribution (%) (%) (%)
(Level 3) Rate (%) Function 12 AM 12 PM
2.3% 5.9%
11 AM 5.9% 11 PM 3.1%
Total 100%
Axle Configuration Number of Axles per Truck
Traffic Wander Axle Configuration Vehicle Single Tandem Tridem Quad

Mean wheel location (mm) 460 Average axle width (m) 2.59 Class Axle Axle Axle Axle
Traffic wander standard deviation (mm) 254 Dual tire spacing (mm) 305 Class 4 1.62 0.39 0 0
Design lane width (m) 3.7 Tire pressure (kPa) 827.4 Class 5 2 0 0 0
Class 6 1.02 0.99 0 0
Average Axle Spacing Wheelbase Class 7 1 0.26 0.83 0
Tandem axle Axle Type Class 8 2.38 0.67 0 0
1.31 Short Medium Long
spacing (m) Value Type Class 9 1.13 1.93 0 0
Tridem axle Average spacing of axles Class 10 1.19 1.09 0.89 0
1.25 3.66 4.57 5.49
spacing (m) (m) Class 11 4.29 0.26 0.06 0
Quad axle spacing Class 12
1.25 Percent of Trucks (%) 33 33 34 3.52 1.14 0.06 0
(m)
Class 13 2.15 2.13 0.35 0

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AADTT (Average Annual Daily Truck Traffic) Growth

* Traffic cap is not enforced

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Climate Inputs
Climate Data Sources:
Climate Station Cities: Location (lat lon elevation(m))
LAS VEGAS, NV 36.07900 -115.15500 648
Annual Statistics:
Mean annual air temperature (ºC) 20.71

Mean annual precipitation (mm) 136.40
Freezing index (ºC - days) 0.83
Water table depth 10.00
Average annual number of freeze/thaw cycles: 5.12
(m)
Monthly Climate Summary:

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Hourly Air Temperature Distribution by Month:
< -25ºC -25ºC to -20ºC -20ºC to -15ºC -15ºC to -10ºC -10ºC to -5ºC -5ºC to 0ºC 0ºC to 5ºC 5ºC to 10ºC
10ºC to 15ºC 15ºC to 20ºC 20ºC to 25ºC 25ºC to 30ºC 30ºC to 35ºC 35ºC to 40ºC 40ºC to 45ºC > 45ºC

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Design Properties
JPCP Design Properties
Structure - ICM Properties Doweled Joints Tied Shoulders

PCC surface shortwave Is joint doweled ? True Tied shoulders False
0.85
absorptivity Dowel diameter (mm) 32.00 Load transfer efficiency (%) -
Dowel spacing (mm) 300.00
PCC joint spacing (m) Widened Slab PCC-Base Contact Friction

Is joint spacing random ? False Is slab widened ? False PCC-Base full friction contact True
Joint spacing (m) 5.00 Slab width (m) 3.66 Months until friction loss 240.00
Sealant type Preformed Erodibility index 5
Permanent curl/warp effective temperature difference (ºC) -5.60

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Analysis Output Charts

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Layer Information
Layer 1 PCC : JPCP Default
PCC Identifiers
Thickness (mm) 240.0
Unit weight (kgf/m^3) 2400.0
Field Value
Display name/identifier JPCP Default
Poisson's ratio 0.2
Thermal Description of object

PCC coefficient of thermal expansion
9.9
(mm/mm/ºC x 10^-6) Author
PCC thermal conductivity (watt/meter-kelvin) 2.16
Date Created 4/7/2014 4:42:44 PM
PCC heat capacity (joule/kg-kelvin) 1172.3
Approver
Mix Date approved 4/7/2014 4:42:44 PM
Cement type GU(Type I)(1) State
Cementitious material content (kgf/m^3) 356 District
Water to cement ratio 0.42 County
Aggregate type Dolomite (2) Highway
PCC zero-stress Calculated Internally? True Direction of Travel
temperature (ºC)
User Value - From station (km)
Calculated Value 51.2 To station (km)
Ultimate shrinkage Calculated Internally? True Province
(microstrain)
User Value - User defined field 2
Calculated Value 632.3 User defined field 3
Reversible shrinkage (%) 50 Revision Number 0
Time to develop 50% of ultimate shrinkage
35
(days)
Curing method Curing Compound
PCC strength and modulus (Input Level: 3)
28-Day PCC modulus of rupture (MPa) 4.8

28-Day PCC elastic modulus (MPa) 28958.0

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Layer 2 Non-stabilized Base : Crushed stone
Unbound Sieve
Liquid Limit 6.0
Value
Defined?
(kgf/m^3)
False 5.054e-02
(m/hr)
False 7.4
content (%)
Identifiers
af 7.2555
Display name/identifier Crushed stone cf 0.8242
hr 117.4000
Approver 0.020mm
State 0.150mm
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Province 1.18mm
9.5mm 57.2
12.5mm 63.1
19.0mm 72.7
25.0mm 78.8
37.5mm 85.8
50.0mm 91.6
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 97.6

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Layer 3 Subgrade : A-5
Unbound Sieve
Layer thickness (mm) Semi-infinite
Liquid Limit 45.0
Value
Defined?
(kgf/m^3)
False 9.256e-07
(m/hr)
False 11.4
content (%)
Identifiers
af 65.2333
Display name/identifier A-5 cf 0.4994
hr 500.0000
Approver 0.020mm
State 0.150mm
County 0.250mm
Highway 0.300mm
Province 1.18mm
9.5mm 90.2
12.5mm 91.9
19.0mm 94.1
25.0mm 95.9
37.5mm 97.5
50.0mm 98.5
63.0mm
75.0mm
90.0mm 99.5

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Calibration Coefficients
PCC Faulting
C1: 1.0184 C2: 0.91656 C3: 0.0021848 C4: 0.000883739

C5: 250 C6: 0.4 C7: 1.83312 C8: 400
PCC Reliability Faulting Standard Deviation
Pow(0.0097*FAULT,0.5178)+0.014
IRI-jpcp
C1: 0.8203 C2: 0.4417
C3: 1.4929 C4: 25.24
Reliability Standard Deviation
5.4
PCC Cracking
Fatigue Coefficients Cracking Coefficients
C1: 2 C2: 1.22 C4: 1 C5: -1.98
PCC Reliability Cracking Standard Deviation
Pow(5.3116*CRACK,0.3903) + 2.99

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Volume 2
Part 13
Structures Interfaces
VOLUME 2 PART 13
STRUCTURES INTERFACES
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪STRUCTURES INTERFACES‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 13
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... iii

1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
2 Structure Design and Approval......................................................................................... 3
2.1 Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual ......................................................................3
2.2 Technical Approval of Highways Structures ..................................................................3
2.3 Structures Requiring Approval in Principle ....................................................................4
2.4 Submission of Approval in Principle ..............................................................................4
2.5 Departures from Standard.............................................................................................6
3 Structure Interfaces with Highway Design ........................................................................ 9
3.1 Headroom to Structures ................................................................................................9
3.2 Highway Configuration on Bridges ................................................................................9
3.3 Highway Configuration in Tunnels and Underpasses ................................................. 10
3.4 Special Consideration for Tunnels .............................................................................. 10
3.5 Clearance to Obstacles ............................................................................................... 11
3.6 Parapets ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.7 Waterproofing of Bridge Decks .................................................................................. 12
3.8 Pavement on Bridges .................................................................................................. 12
3.9 Lighting, Sign, and Gantry Supports ........................................................................... 13
4 Maintenance Requirements ........................................................................................... 15
4.1 Bridge Structures ........................................................................................................ 15
4.1.1 Bearings ........................................................................................................ 16
4.1.2 Expansion Joints ........................................................................................... 16
4.1.3 Access to Edges and Overhangs ................................................................... 17
4.1.4 Access at Bridge Abutments......................................................................... 17
4.1.5 Access within Bridge Decks .......................................................................... 17
4.1.6 Drainage of Bridge Decks ............................................................................. 18
4.2 Tunnels, Underpass Structures, and Retaining Walls ................................................. 18
4.2.1 Drainage of Tunnels and Underpass Structures ........................................... 18
4.2.2 Associated Drainage Structures ................................................................... 18
4.2.3 Fire Life Safety Equipment ........................................................................... 18
5 Pedestrian Crossings ...................................................................................................... 19
5.1 Pedestrian and Bike Bridges ....................................................................................... 19
5.2 Pedestrian and Bike Underpasses .............................................................................. 19
6 Animal Crossings ............................................................................................................ 21
References .............................................................................................................................. 23
VOLUME 2 PAGE I
VOLUME 2 PART 13
Table
Table 2.1 Technical Approval Categories ............................................................................. 5
Figure
Figure 2.1 Cantilever Signal and CCTV Masts ....................................................................... 6
Appendixes
Appendix A Approval in Principle Model Form ..................................................................... 25

Appendix B Sample Certificates ............................................................................................ 35
PAGE II VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 13
AIP Approval in Principle
BS EN European Standard adopted as British Standard
CCTV closed-circuit television
CDM Construction Design and Management
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (United Kingdom)
m meter(s)
m2 square meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
QHSDM Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual
VOLUME 2 PAGE III

VOLUME 2 PART 13
PAGE IV VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 13
1 Introduction
Most highway projects employ structures to carry the highway over obstacles, support
the highway, or create space to allow the project to fit harmoniously and safely into the
built environment. Structures may take the form of bridges or underpass tunnels that
cross obstacles or promote traffic movements. Retaining walls, culverts, or sign gantries
may also be required for the safe operation of a highway.
The integration of structures into the highway environment requires that designers
consider the life cycle of the highway and the structure. Particular consideration is to
be given to the safety of operatives and the public during construction, operation,
maintenance, and final demolition. Other essential factors to consider are the overall
experience of the users and the cost-benefit balance for the Overseeing Organization.
The designer should consider the possibility of future modifications to the structure or
change of use and, where practical, incorporate them into the initial design.
The design of highway projects that incorporate structural elements shall include
structural bridge or tunnel engineers working as part of the design team. The structural
engineers should be included in the early design stages to support the development of
an efficient and cost-effective integration of the highway with the structures. This part
identifies criteria for the integration of highway structures into a highway project. It
refers to a separate document for the details of structures design. It also refers to other
parts of the Qatar Highway Design Manual where appropriate.
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
PAGE 2 VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 13
2 Structure Design and Approval

2.1 Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual
Structures shall be designed to the Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual (QHSDM)
(Ashghal, in preparation), currently included in Criteria for Highway Structures
(Ashghal, 2013).
2.2 Technical Approval of Highways Structures

Designers shall submit Approval in Principle (AIP) reports to the Overseeing
Organization to document and agree the design approach and parameters of a
structure. The AIPs shall be prepared in accordance with the Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges (DMRB) BD 2/12, “Technical Approval of Highway Structures” (Department
for Transport, 2012), unless directed otherwise by the Overseeing Organization.
The following interpretations of DMRB BD 2/12 are to be observed:

• The Overseeing Organization for public works projects is the Qatar Public Works
Authority (Ashghal).
• The approach for non-Eurocode design is generally to be followed unless the basis
for design identified in QHSDM is taken as the Eurocodes.
• Appendix A contains the model AIP form.
• The technical approval category of highway structures is provided in Section 2.3 in
this Part.
• The consultant shall confirm the check category of structures with the Overseeing
Organization, particularly those requiring a design check through an independent
design consultant.
• Construction design and management (CDM) regulations and the role of the CDM
Coordinator are to be applied in accordance with Section 11 of the Qatar National
Construction Standards 2010 (Ministry of Environment, 2011).
• Reference to the Commission for Architecture in the Built Environment does not
apply. The Overseeing Organization may specify that the designer is to conduct
architectural studies or appoint a bridge architect or urban realm consultant to
assist with bridge aesthetics.
• Use of trenchless methods for installation of services undertaken either as part of
a highway project or as a standalone project is subject to Geotechnical Certification,
as described in Volume 2 of this manual.
• Structural design checks shall use the same codes and standards as adopted for the
design.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 3
VOLUME 2 PART 13
• Significant temporary works shall require the submission of an AIP. Designers of

temporary works shall seek confirmation from the Overseeing Organization as to
whether the temporary works under design are considered significant and require
an AIP, and what level of design check is required.
2.3 Structures Requiring Approval in Principle

AIP documents are required for Categories 1, 2, and 3 structures but not for Category 0
structures.
Table 2.1 identifies the technical approval categories for structures. A designer who is
unsure about the appropriate category for a structure should contact the Overseeing
Organization.
2.4 Submission of Approval in Principle

Stage 1: Prior to Completion of Design
• The outline AIP is to be submitted with concept designs.

• When preparing the AIP document, designers shall consult with the Ashghal
Operations and Maintenance Management Department, because different
structure types have different maintenance liabilities.
• Where Departures from Standard (Departures) are proposed or input from the
Overseeing Organization is required on complex structures, the designer may
submit an interim AIP.
• A complete AIP for each structure is to be submitted for agreement during the
preliminary design. Designers should not proceed with detailed design until the AIP
is agreed to.
• AIPs are to be submitted both electronically and in hard copy.
Stage 2: On Completion of Design
• The designer and checking engineers shall submit copies of certificates to the
Overseeing Organization to declare the satisfactory completion of the design and
check works with due professional skills and diligence.
• Design checkers shall endorse Departures and addendums to the AIP.
• The design and check certificates shall refer to the relevant AIP and any addendums
or Departures.
• Sample forms of certificate are provided in Appendix B. If the certificate consists of
more than one page, each page shall be identifiable by the name of the project, the
name and reference number of the structure, and the date of preparation. The form
of certificate may vary depending on the particular requirements of the Overseeing
Organization.
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
Table 2.1 Technical Approval Categories

Category Structure Type Criteria
Structures Traffic signs and Posts less than 7 m in height from the top of post to bottom of
not signal posts flange plate or top of foundation, whichever is less.
Requiring Earth-retaining structures Effective retained height <1.5 m
Technical
Approval Note: effective retained height is the level of the fill at the back
of the structure above the finished ground level in front of the
structure).
Category 0 Lighting columns For steel, aluminum, fiber-reinforced, and concrete columns:
• Post top columns <20 m nominal height
• Columns with brackets <18 m nominal height
• Bracket projections—not exceeding the lesser of
0.25 × nominal height or 3 m
CCTV masts (see Figure 2.1) For nominal height of steel CCTV mast ≤25 m. The nominal
height is the vertical distance between the underside of the
flange plate and the top of the mast. This height excludes the
height of camera, mounting, or other attachments.
The design height of a CCTV mast shall be the vertical distance
between the underside of the flange plate and the top of the
CCTV mast, camera in its operating position, or other
attachments, whichever is greater.
Note: “Design height” differs from “nominal height” and is
required for wind loading calculations.
Cantilever masts For cantilever masts:
(see Figure 2.1) • Nominal height ≤8.5 m, where nominal height is the
distance between the underside of the flange plate and
the highest point on the mast.
• Cantilever projection ≤8.5 m.
• The horizontal projected area of any signs, traffic signals,
speed cameras, and associated equipment suspended
above the roadway shall not exceed 1.2 m2, and the
vertical projection shall not exceed 0.3 m2.
Traffic signs and 7.0 m ≤ nominal height ≤ 9.0 m.
signal posts
Earth-retaining structures 1.5 m ≤ effective retained height ≤ 2.0 m
Note: Effective retained height is the level of the fill at the back
of the structure above the finished ground level in front of the
structure.
Bridge and tunnels Single-span, simply supported structures with spans less than
5.0 m.
Buried concrete boxes, buried rigid pipes, and corrugated steel
buried structures of less than 3.0 m clear span/diameter and
having more than 1.0 m cover.
Multi-cell buried structures, where the cumulative span is less
than 5.0 m, and having more than 1.0 m cover.
Category 1 Lighting columns, CCTV Structures not included in Category 0.
masts, cantilever masts,
traffic signs, and signposts
Category 2 Sign or signal gantries Cantilever: All
above roadways (portal) Portal: Clear span ≤50.0 m.
Category 3 Sign or signal gantries Structures not included in Category 2.
above roadways (portal)
Earth-retaining structures Structures not included in Category 0.
Bridges and tunnels Structures not included in Category 0.
Notes:
CCTV = closed-circuit television
m = meter(s)
m2 = square meter(s)
VOLUME 2 PAGE 5
VOLUME 2 PART 13
Figure 2.1 Cantilever Signal and CCTV Masts
2.5 Departures from Standard

The procedures for registering Departures from Standard are provided in Part 25,
Departures from Standard Processes, of this manual. Departures are to be listed in the
AIP. The Overseeing Organization’s agreement of the AIP does not constitute
agreement to the Departures identified in it. Agreement of Departures from Standard
can be recorded only through the process identified in Part 25.
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
A complete justification for proposed Departures from Standard shall be submitted to

the Overseeing Organization at an early stage in design. The justification shall include
an assessment of risk level with and without the Departure, and demonstrate that the
risk level of the proposed solution is as low as reasonably practicable. The justification
should include a cost-benefit analysis.
All Departures from Standard shall be agreed before incorporation into the design and
before construction begins. An application for a Departure shall be made for each
occurrence, and Departure agreed between similar situations should not be assumed.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 7
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
3 Structure Interfaces with

Highway Design
3.1 Headroom to Structures
Headroom to structures shall be in accordance with Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this manual.
Headroom to structures on a high-load route shall have a posted clearance of 5.7 m.

Headroom on other routes shall have a posted clearance of 5.5 m, unless agreed
otherwise with the Overseeing Organization. Designers shall confirm with the
Overseeing Organization whether the highway structure crosses over a high-load route.
Utility structures crossing above highways (such as pipe galleries) shall have the same
vertical clearance as pedestrian footbridges, unless directed otherwise by the utility
provider.
Over-height protection systems shall be specified for structures with headroom less
than 5.7 m. These systems shall be designed in accordance with the QHSDM.
3.2 Highway Configuration on Bridges

The arrangement of the highway cross section for the road classifications is given in
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. For bridges of 60 m or less, the
highway cross section on the approaches shall be maintained. For bridge spans longer
than 60 m, the adjustments to the sidewalk, bike lane, shoulder, and median
dimensions indicated in the cross sections given in Part 3 may be applied, provided the
designer gives justification in the AIP document for review and agreement by the
Overseeing Organization. Adjustment to these dimensions shall be in accordance with
the criteria given in the relevant sections of this manual.
Changes in highway alignment made to tie in with the adjustments in the cross section
over-bridges shall be carried out in accordance with Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this manual.
Any amendment to the highway configuration shall take into account measures
required for the safe maintenance and inspection of the bridge.
If sidewalks are not continued over bridges, safe alternative routes shall be provided
and measures taken to discourage pedestrian traffic over the bridge.
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
On long bridge structures with horizontal grades, the highway designer should consider
using an appropriate vertical crest curve to avoid the illusion of sag. Vertical alignment
of highways is addressed in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual.
Where bridge structures cross an obstruction at a skew angle, consideration should be

given to reducing the angle of the skew as far as is practical.
If the bridge spans an area where access for under-bridge inspection is difficult, such as
access restrictions associated with a railway, then consideration should be given to
increasing the bridge spans to provide access on either side of the restricted area to aid
bridge soffit inspection.
3.3 Highway Configuration in Tunnels and Underpasses

The arrangement of the highway cross section for the road classifications is given in
Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. For underpass and underpass-
approach road lengths of 500 m or less, the highway cross section on the approaches
shall be maintained. For underpass and underpass approach road lengths of more than
500 m, the adjustments may be applied to the sidewalk, bike lane, shoulder, and
median dimensions indicated in the cross sections given in Part 3, provided the designer
gives justification in the AIP document for review and agreement by the Overseeing
Organization. Adjustment to these dimensions shall be in accordance with the criteria
given in the relevant sections of this manual.
Changes in highway alignment made to tie in with the adjustments in the cross section
through tunnels or underpasses shall be carried out in accordance with Part 3, Roadway
Design Elements, of this manual.
Any amendment to the highway configuration shall take into account measures
required for the safe maintenance and inspection of the underpass or tunnel.
If sidewalks are not continued through tunnels or underpasses, safe alternative routes
shall be provided and measures taken to discourage pedestrian traffic through the
tunnel or underpass.
Where underpass structures cross an obstruction at a skew angle, consideration should

be given to reducing the angle of the skew as far as is practical.
3.4 Special Consideration for Tunnels

Operating highways in subsurface structures presents increased risk to the health and
safety of those using the tunnels. In particular, a fire in a confined environment
presents a significant safety concern that will dictate the measures required for
supporting the safety of the tunnel users. The consequences of any incident are
dependent on the tunnel length and the proximity or means of escape. As a result,
tunnel designs shall be undertaken under the supervision of an engineer experienced
in tunnel design and associated fire and life safety measures.
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VOLUME 2 PART 13
The design of fire and life safety measures is to be dictated by the tunnel designer based
on a risk assessment approach to the safety concerns associated with the tunnel
environment. The tunnel design engineer is directed to the QHSDM and Road Tunnel
Fire and Life Safety Systems (Ashghal, 2013), which uses the Standard for Road Tunnels,
Bridges and Other Limited Access Highways (National Fire Protection Association,
2014).
3.5 Clearance to Obstacles

Highway structures shall be arranged such that adequate protection measures are
provided in situations where roadside obstacles are within the clear zone. The clear
zone and the protection requirements are covered in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements,
of this manual.
Designers shall specify the clearance to obstacles and protection measures on the
drawings and in the AIPs.
3.6 Parapets
The performance of bridge parapets shall be in accordance with Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements, of this manual. Safety-fence end treatments shall be avoided on bridge
structures. Designers shall specify the safe working widths of barrier systems adjacent
to structures on the drawings and in the AIPs. When specifying the working width for
bridge parapets, designers should take into account the behavior of the vehicle and
debris on the environment around and under the bridge in the event of a crash.
Deck edges shall be provided with a minimum 100-millimeter (mm) vertical upstand to
prevent debris from falling from the bridge deck, except where an alternative
arrangement has been agreed by the Overseeing Organization.
Masonry vehicle parapets shall not be used on road bridges and structures over or
adjacent to roads, except where their use has been agreed by the Overseeing
Organization.
The designer should consider the aesthetic effects of the vehicle parapet construction,
including its connection and finishing details, at the initial stage of the design of the
structure. The aesthetic considerations should complement the aesthetic treatment of
other nearby highway elements.
The requirements of pedestrians and other users need to be considered, particularly

sidewalk widths and vehicle restraint systems in the event of a vehicle crash.
Mesh infilling shall be provided to discourage climbing where pedestrians have access
to open vehicle-deck edge parapets on bridges. The parapet detail shall not provide
footholds. Any Departure from the criteria requires prior agreement by the Overseeing
Organization.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 11
VOLUME 2 PART 13
Designers shall consult with the rail authority to establish particular requirements for
bridge parapets over railways. Where open parapets are permitted by the rail authority,
mesh infilling shall be provided to prevent climbing of the barrier. Unless permitted
otherwise by the rail authority or the Overseeing Organization, the height of the barrier
shall not be less than 1.5 m. In addition, measures shall be taken to eliminate footholds
on the outer (no traffic) face and prevent access to the outer edge. Any outstands on the
outer face shall not be greater than 15 mm unless agreed otherwise by the rail authority
and the Overseeing Organization. Access restriction can be achieved through solid or
mesh sheeting, or through profiling in the case of concrete barriers.
Refer to Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual regarding performance

requirements for impact severity levels. Departures from these performance criteria
require prior agreement by the Overseeing Organization.
Pedestrian bridge-edge restraint systems shall be in accordance with British Standard

PD CEN/TR 1317-6:2012.
The use of passive safe posts for lighting or signage in situations where the barrier
working width exceeds the distance to the post should be avoided. Passive safe posts
require agreement by the Overseeing Organization.
3.7 Waterproofing of Bridge Decks

A waterproofing membrane shall be applied to all bridge decks, as specified in the
QHSDM.
3.8 Pavement on Bridges

It is necessary to take special measures when placing pavement layers over sprayed
waterproofing. It is essential that the lowest paving layer be well bonded to the
waterproofing. This applies especially where asphalt layers are thinner than 100 mm.
With thicker layers, evidence suggests that the weight of the overlying layer helps to
achieve the required bond, and thin base layers do not retain sufficient heat for
adequate bonding. The inherent roughness of the base asphalt layer should be reduced
to a minimum to achieve an adequate bond, and the bond coat should be sufficiently
thick to fill voids. The material in the lower layer should have a smaller aggregate size
to reduce roughness.
Several steps should be taken to achieve an adequate bond:

• The correct bond coat should be used (compatible with the waterproofing layer).
• The asphalt layer over the sprayed waterproofing should have a minimum thickness
of 45 mm.
• The asphalt layer over the sprayed waterproofing should be compacted within
5 minutes of spreading.
• The asphalt layer over the sprayed waterproofing should have an aggregate size no
greater than 14 mm and a design air void no greater than 4 percent.
PAGE 12 VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 13
The designer should include measures for draining subsurface water from the
pavement layers.
3.9 Lighting, Sign, and Gantry Supports

Lighting of streets on or under structures shall be provided in accordance with Part 18,
Street Lighting, of this manual.
Road signs and gantries on or within structures shall be provided in accordance with
Part 17, Intelligent Transportation Systems, and Part 18, Street Lighting, of this manual.
When locating post supports, electrical equipment, feeder pillars, and other
mechanical and electrical equipment, designers shall make provision for their safe
inspection and maintenance. The designer shall identify in the AIP the measures
required for maintenance of the lighting, equipment, and signs, and include any
requirements (such as lane closures or operating procedures) on the design drawings.
Where signs or lighting are provided on columns or gantries, designers shall arrange
the means of support so as to protect it from errant vehicles. Where this requirement
is achieved by providing corbels on the bridge parapet stringcourse of decks, designers
should consider the aesthetic integration of the corbels into the overall bridge
appearance.
Passive safe lighting posts and signposts shall not be used where a risk exists that the
post may fall onto trafficked areas if struck. Passive safe posts are to be designed in
accordance with BS EN 12767:2007 and Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual.
Designers should make provisions for adequate space for electrical cabinets, feeder
pillars, and other mechanical and electrical equipment, as well as space for them to be
safely maintained. The designer should consider providing spare cable ducts,
particularly when the ducts are cast into concrete surrounds.
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4 Maintenance Requirements
The type of structure and the materials used can significantly affect the maintenance
liability of the structural form. The designer should consult with the Ashghal Road
Operations and Maintenance Management Department at key stages of the design
development, particularly at the concept development stage when maintenance
requirements can be readily incorporated into the design. As a minimum, the designer
should consider the requirements of the Roads Maintenance Manual (Ashghal, in
preparation) for particular maintenance requirements.
Highway structures shall be designed with due consideration for the safe inspection
and maintenance of the structure.
Good detailing practices shall be adopted during design to minimize the maintenance
liability during the service life of the structures. Unless specified otherwise in this
manual, structures shall be detailed in accordance with the QHSDM, which refers to the
following detailing guides:
• Bridge Detailing Guide (Construction Industry Research and Information

Association, 2001)
• Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Structures (The Concrete Society, 2010)
The design life of structural components shall be taken from the QHSDM.
Intelligent transportation systems may be required to supplement the safe operation

and maintenance of the highway environment, including structures. In such instances
the designer is directed to the current edition of Intelligent Transportation Systems
Standards and Specifications (Ashghal, in preparation) for detailing and inclusion of
equipment.
Where specific measures for inspection and maintenance are identified, such as the use
of under-bridge inspection vehicles, the designer shall provide for these measures in
the design of the structure so that they can be safely deployed during operation.
4.1 Bridge Structures

The design of bridge components is covered in the QHSDM.
The following measures are specific maintenance items identified for the design and
detailing of bridge structures. Where these measures are not adopted, the reason for
the Departure from this manual shall be described in the AIP and agreed by the
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Overseeing Organization before implementation. Where alternative approaches to

maintenance are required, these shall be described in the AIP and documented on the
design drawings.
4.1.1 Bearings
Where practical, bridges should be designed with integral connections between the
substructure and the superstructure to minimize the requirements for bearing
replacement.
Piers and abutments with bearings shall have provision for the safe replacement of the
bearings by using the permanent works. Where it is not possible to use the permanent
works for bearing replacement, designers shall submit the proposals for bearing
replacement in the AIP for review and agreement by the Overseeing Organization.
Bearing replacement operations shall be carried out with no more than a 50 percent
reduction in the number of marked lanes. This requirement shall apply to bridge decks
and to roads under the bridge. Shoulders or untrafficked areas may be used to maintain
this traffic capacity, but this requirement shall be included in the design of the bridge
and indicated in the AIP and on the design drawings.
Jacking points and jack loads shall be identified on the design drawings.
All bearings shall be replaceable and replacement methods shall permit the controlled
removal and replacement of bearings without damaging the bearing or the permanent
bridge works. Where applicable, measures that facilitate bearing removal should be
incorporated, such as the use of bearing adaptor plates on mechanical bearings.
Unless advised otherwise by the Overseeing Organization, bearings should be

protected by a removable dust cover on the circumference of the pier top and along
the face of the abutment.
4.1.2 Expansion Joints

Design and detailing around expansion joints should be based on the assumption that
they will leak. As a result, designers shall make a space provision for the safe inspection
and maintenance of the expansion joint as well as the structure at the joint. The
designer shall incorporate appropriate means for draining water that may run through
the joint such that no standing water occurs. Drainage paths shall be kept clear of post-
tension tendons and anchorages.
Stainless steel reinforcement should be used in areas of an in situ fixing recess of an

expansion joint where a potential water path exists.
All limited design life components of a joint shall be designed so that they can be easily
replaced, with minimum delay to road users.
Cover plates shall be provided on the curb lines to protect expansion joints. Other
measures should be considered to prevent the accumulation of debris in the joint.
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The use of half joints in bridge decks should be avoided. Where half joints are
necessary, the designer shall seek confirmation from the Overseeing Organization that
their use is acceptable and shall incorporate measures within the design for their safe
inspection and maintenance.
4.1.3 Access to Edges and Overhangs

Reasonable measures shall be made to restrict public access to edges and overhangs.
Edges or overhangs that are to be accessed for maintenance shall allow safe access and
shall have suitable fixing points for fall-arrest harnesses or for temporary edge
protection.
4.1.4 Access at Bridge Abutments

The clear distance between the bridge soffit and the made ground, or revetment, at
the face of the abutment shall be greater than 2 m.
Bearings and expansion joints in abutments shall be accessible through an inspection

gallery. The access door shall be lockable and should be located on the front face.
Where side access is required, a reason for this location shall be provided in the AIP for
review and agreement by the Overseeing Organization. Where appropriate, the
designer should consider providing a permanent means of access to the bridge
abutment access door.
The inspection gallery shall have a minimum 600-mm-wide clear walkway. Where
significant internal safety concerns exist the designer should consider the provision of
gallery lighting as appropriate. The gallery should incorporate drainage weep holes to
drain internal moisture buildup. Ventilation openings to the gallery shall be covered
with anti-vermin screens, with a maximum grid of 12 mm by 12 mm.
4.1.5 Access within Bridge Decks

Each deck void greater than 800 mm by 800 mm in cross section shall be accessible
through at least two 800-mm by 1,000-mm openings in the bottom slab (one at each
end). The positioning of the openings in the bridge decks shall be such that they can be
safely accessed. Where such access requires a lane closure, the AIP shall describe the
procedures for achieving the lane closure and identify the residual road capacity while
the closure is in place.
The following bridge detailing should be considered in addition to those presented in

the QHSDM:
• A minimum of 600-mm-wide clear walkway shall be provided in all accessible voids

in bridge decks. The designer should consider the use of internal deck void lighting
where significant internal safety concerns exist.
• Access openings of at least 800 mm in diameter shall be provided through deck
diaphragms at piers and abutments to connect accessible deck voids.
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• Deck voids shall incorporate drainage weep holes to drain internal moisture
buildup.
• Ventilation openings to internal deck voids shall be covered with anti-vermin
screens with a maximum grid of 12 mm by 12 mm.
4.1.6 Drainage of Bridge Decks

Drainage from structures shall be designed in accordance with Part 10, Drainage.
Where drainage is provided on bridge decks, the design shall make provision for safe
access for inspection and maintenance of the drainage system. Where permitted in
Part 10, Drainage, direct discharge scuppers or simple traps with easy access should be
used to minimize cleaning and maintenance requirements.
External surface-mounted drainage pipes should be avoided. The designer should also
avoid casting lengths of pipe into a significant length of concrete structure. Where cast-
in pipes are required, these shall comprise a single length of pipe without joints.
4.2 Tunnels, Underpass Structures, and Retaining Walls

The designs of underpass and buried structure components are covered in the QHSDM.
The measures discussed in this section are specific requirements for the design and
detailing of underpasses, buried structures, and retaining walls.
4.2.1 Drainage of Tunnels and Underpass Structures

Access to pump rooms and sumps for the drainage of underpasses shall be arranged such
that the pump equipment can be safely accessed for maintenance and inspection. The
designer shall include provisions for the removal and replacement of equipment. Access
doors to sumps or pump rooms shall be lockable to prevent unauthorized access.
The designer shall identify the drainage provisions based on requirements given in
Part 10, Drainage, of this manual and should modify the highway cross section to
incorporate any particular requirements.
4.2.2 Associated Drainage Structures

The design of drainage structures are presented in Part 10, Drainage, which also
describes the measures for stormwater retention, pump rooms, and containment of
spills and flammable liquids.
The design of the drainage structure is covered by the QHSDM.
4.2.3 Fire Life Safety Equipment

Using the findings of the risk approach outlined in Section 3.4, the tunnel designer is to
identify equipment required within the tunnel cross section. The designer shall arrange
the equipment such that it can be safely accessed for use and maintenance. Where
possible, the designer should avoid the need for lane closures. Any closures that are
required for maintenance shall be identified on the design drawings.
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5 Pedestrian Crossings
5.1 Pedestrian and Bike Bridges
Pedestrian and bike bridges shall be designed in accordance with Part 19, Pedestrian
Bicycle and Public Transportation. Designers may refer to DMRB BD 29/04, “Design
Criteria for Footbridges” (Department for Transport, 2004).
The design of pedestrian or bike bridges shall be subject to technical approval in

accordance with Chapter 2 in this Part.
Surface water shall be positively drained from the bridge deck, ramps, and stairs, in
compliance with the QHSDM.
The requirements for measures such as air conditioning, property privacy screens, and
lift access are location-sensitive and shall be established with the Overseeing
Organization.
Designers shall establish with the Overseeing Organization whether a bridge requires
full enclosure.
5.2 Pedestrian and Bike Underpasses

Pedestrian and bike underpasses shall be designed in accordance with Part 19,
Pedestrian Bicycle and Public Transportation. Designers may also refer to DMRB
TD 36/93, “Subways for Pedestrians and Pedal Cyclists Layout and Dimensions”
Underpass lighting shall be provided in accordance with Part 18, Street Lighting. Where
the highway has an overall median greater than 2 m, the top slab may include openings
for natural light and ventilation.
Underpasses shall be positively drained to sumps in accordance with Part 10, Drainage.
Where pump rooms are required, these too shall comply with Part 10.
Where there is a high possibility that windblown sand will enter the underpass and
affect its operability, designers should provide methods for preventing the
accumulation of sand and measures to facilitate the cleaning and removal of the sand.
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6 Animal Crossings
Where possible, pedestrian underpasses are to be dual function so they can
accommodate pedestrian and animal traffic. For underpasses that accommodate
animals, pedestrians, or cyclists, with no vehicular access, the minimum headroom shall
be 3.7 m, except where suitable facilities are provided to allow riders to dismount and
remount when the headroom is less than 2.7 m. The headroom for camel underpasses
is given in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual. The distinction between
animal and camel crossings depends on the primary use and shall be defined by the
Overseeing Organization. The minimum width for an animal crossing without
pedestrian, bicycle, or vehicular access shall be 3.0 m.
If animal crossings are to be combined with vehicular access under a highway, then the
minimum headroom clearances identified in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual shall be maintained. The cross section requirements shall also be maintained,
although the minimum width shall be 10 m.
Wingwalls or retaining walls at the entrance and exit of an animal crossing shall have a
45-degree splay or greater. The gradient of the ground leading into the entrance and
exit shall be no greater than 1:14.
Where the highway has an overall median greater than 2 m, the top slab may be
discontinued to provide an opening for natural light and ventilation.
The barrier heights on over-bridges used for animal crossings shall be amended as
follows:
• 1.8 m for crossings for mounted riders and large animals

• 1.5 m for dismounted riders
Consideration should be given to screening and the use of solid barriers on the edge of
bridges to prevent visual and audible distractions to animals.
Where there is a high possibility that windblown sand will enter the underpass and
affect its operability, designers should provide methods for preventing the
accumulation of sand and measures to facilitate removal of the sand.
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References
Ashghal. Criteria for Highway Structures. Interim Advice Note 009. Rev. No. A1. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013.
Ashghal. Road Tunnel Fire and Life Safety Systems. Interim Advice Note 020. Rev. No. A1. State of
Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013.
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards and Specifications. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. In preparation.
Ashghal. Qatar Highway Structure Design Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha,
Qatar. In preparation.
Ashghal. Qatar Roads Maintenance Manual. State of Qatar Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar.
In preparation.
BS EN 12767:2007. Passive Safety of Support Structures for Road Equipment—Requirements,

Classification and Test Methods. British Standards Institution: London, England. November 2007.
The Concrete Society. Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Structures. Technical Report 72. Surrey,
England. 2010.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). Bridge Detailing Guide.
Publication 543. London, England. 2001.
Department for Transport. “Subways for Pedestrians and Pedal Cyclists Layout and Dimensions.”
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 2, Section 2, Part 8. TD 36/93. UK Highways
Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section3/td3693.pdf.
July 1993.
Department for Transport. “Loads for Highway Bridges.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
Volume 1, Section 3, Part 14. BD 37/01. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol1/section3/bd3701.pdf. August 2001.
Department for Transport. “Design Criteria for Footbridges.” Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, Volume 2, Section 2, Part 8. BD 29/04. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
Department for Transport. “Technical Approval of Highway Structures.” Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges. Volume 1, Section 1, Part 1. BD 2/12. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 23
VOLUME 2 PART 13
National Fire Protection Association. Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited
Access Highways. NFPA 502. Quincy, Massachusetts, United States. 2014.
PD CEN/TR 1317-6:2012. Road Restraint Systems—Pedestrian Restraint System—Pedestrian

Parapets. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2012.
PAGE 24 VOLUME 2
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Appendix A
Approval in Principle
Model Form
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MODEL FORM: APPROVAL IN PRINCIPLE DOCUMENT
COVER
Include Project Number, Project Name and Bridge Name.
Include and document control information, forms, and sheets required by the designer’s quality
assurance system.
The document should have a revision number and a record of revision history.
1 HIGHWAY DETAILS
1.1 Type of Highway
Describe all roads, including roads over and under bridges; for example, freeway,
expressway, arterial, collector, local, and high-load route.
1.2 Permitted Traffic Speed
Indicate for all roads, including those over and under bridges.
2 SITE DETAILS
2.1 Obstacles Crossed
List all obstacles; for example roads, rail lines, tracks, watercourses, major and
pipelines.
3 PROPOSED STRUCTURE
3.1 Description of Structure
Basic description; for example, four-span road over road bridge.
3.2 Structural Type
Basic description to include proposed basic material and form of construction; for
example, in situ post-tensioned concrete box girder.
3.3 Foundation Type
Basic description to include proposed basic material and form of construction; for
example, in situ reinforced concrete pile cap on bored cast in situ piles.
3.4 Span Arrangements and General Dimensions
List number and dimensions of spans, deck width, skew angle, and other
dimensions.
3.5 Articulation Arrangements
Describe articulation arrangements, including location of any fixed, guided, and
free bearings.
Indicate type of any bearings proposed; for example, pot bearing or spherical
bearing.
Indicate type of any expansion joints proposed; for example, slip strip or
elastomeric.
3.6 Types of Road Restraint Systems
Parapet or barrier shape, material, containment level, height, and other details.
3.7 Maintenance and Inspection
3.7.1 Traffic Management
Indicate any requirements during access for maintenance and inspection; for
example, road closures and lane closures.
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3.7.2 Access
Access proposals for maintenance and inspection; for example, abutment
galleries, access hatches, and access equipment.
3.8 Materials and Finishes
Include details of materials and finishes. Refer to the appropriate contents of the
Criteria for Highway Structures (including revision number) published by Ashghal.
3.9 Risks and Safety Concerns
Document risk assessment undertaken and any unusual or exceptional risks
identified.
3.10 Estimated Cost and Alternatives Considered
Estimated cost of proposed structure together with other structural forms
considered.
3.11 Proposed Arrangements for Construction
Describe the construction method and requirements.
3.11.1 Traffic Management
If traffic management is required to construct the structure, provide a brief
description.
3.11.2 Utility Diversions
Note any diversion of major utilities required specifically to construct the
structure and those with significant cost or program implications.
3.11.3 Interface with Existing Structures
If applicable.
4 DESIGN CRITERIA
4.1 General Criteria
Sample text:
The structure shall be designed in accordance with the Qatar Highway Structure
Design Manual, revision XX.
4.2 Live Loading and Headroom
4.2.1 HA Loading
Sample text:
HA loading shall be applied in accordance with the Qatar Highway Structure
Design Manual, revision XX. This includes traffic live loading to the full width of
the structure between parapet faces and not to the width between curbs, as
required by DMRB BD 37/01 (Department for Transport, 2001).
4.2.2 HB Loading
Sample text:
Forty-five units of HB loading shall be applied in accordance with the Qatar
Highway Structure Design Manual, revision XX. This includes traffic live loading to
the full width of the structure between parapet faces and not to the width
between curbs as required by DMRB BD 37/01 (Department for Transport, 2001).
4.2.3 Sidewalk or Footbridge Live Loading
If required.
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4.2.4 Loading Related to Exceptional Loads

Document any exceptional loads being designed, including location of vehicle
track on deck cross section.
4.2.5 Any Special Loading Not Yet Covered
As required.
4.2.6 Heavy or High-Load Route
Document heavy or high-load route requirements and arrangements being made
to preserve the route, including any provision for future heavier loads or future
widening.
4.2.7 Minimum Headroom Provided
State the minimum headroom provided to each obstacle crossed. The clearance
envelopes should be shown on the design drawings.
4.2.8 Authorities Consulted and Any Special Conditions Required
List authorities and all conditions imposed.
4.3 List of Relevant Documents from the Technical Approval Schedule
List all relevant documents proposed for use in the design. This should be included
as an appendix to the AIP. The format and guidance given in DMRB BD 2/12
(Department for Transport, 2012) shall be adopted.
4.3.1 Additional Relevant Standards
List all relevant documents proposed for use in the design that are not included in
the Technical Approval Schedule. The list should be included as an appendix to
the AIP.
4.4 Proposed Departures
Provide details of proposed Departures from Standard given in 4.2 and 4.2.1 and
from the Criteria for Highway Structures published by Ashghal. Include details of
proposed departures together with reasons and justification, including benefits to
Ashghal. Note: Endorsement of an AIP by Ashghal is not an approval or
agreement of proposed Departures listed in that AIP. A separate approval
procedure exists for Departures.
4.5 Proposed Methods for Dealing with Aspects Not Covered by Standards in 4.2
and 4.2.1
As required.
5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
5.1 Methods of Analysis Proposed for Superstructure, Substructure, and Foundations
5.2 Description and Diagram of Idealized Structure to be used for Analysis
5.3 Assumptions Intended for Calculation of Structural Element Stiffness
5.4 Earth Pressure Coefficients
Provide details of proposed earth pressure coefficients (active earth pressure
coefficient [Ka], at rest earth pressure coefficient [Ko], or passive earth pressure
coefficient [Kp]) to be used in the design of earth retaining elements.
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6 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
6.1 Acceptance of the Geotechnical Report
Give acceptance of recommendations of the geotechnical report to be used in the
design and reasons for any proposed changes.
If the geotechnical report is not yet available, state when the results are expected
and list the sources of information used to justify the preliminary choice of
foundations. When the results of the ground investigation become available, an
addendum to the AIP or a reissue, covering Section 6, shall be submitted to
Ashghal. If an addendum is issued, it shall have its own Sections 8, 9, and 10 to
provide a list of drawings, documents, and signatures.
6.2 Geotechnical Summary
Provide a brief description of the ground conditions and any relevant soil or rock
properties assumed in the design.
6.3 Differential Settlement
Clarify differential settlement to be allowed for in the design of the structure.
7 CHECKING
7.1 Proposed Category
Category 3.
7.2 Name of Proposed Independent Checker
7.3 Erection Proposals or Temporary Works
Erection proposals or temporary works for which an independent check will be
required, listing parts of the structure affected and providing reasons for
recommending an independent check.
8 DRAWINGS AND DOCUMENTS
8.1 Drawings and Documents
List of documents and drawings (including numbers) appended to the AIP.
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9 THE ABOVE IS SUBMITTED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY
Signed
Name
Position Held
Engineering Qualifications
On behalf of (Organization)
Date
Organizations’ Stamp
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10 THE ABOVE IS ACCEPTED BY [Insert Overseeing Organization Title]

(SUBJECT TO THE AMENDMENTS AND CONDITIONS SHOWN BELOW)
[Insert Overseeing Organization Title] confirms that this Approval in Principle is compliant with
the current Criteria for Highway Structures.
Organization’s Stamp
Signed
Name
Position Held
Engineering Qualifications
Acceptance
Date
AMENDMENTS AND CONDITIONS
This acceptance in no way modifies:

1. The contractual and statutory responsibility of any party for the work carried out
2. The legal responsibility of professional engineers, the consultant, or both
This acceptance does not relieve the designer/checker or the Category 3 checker of the
responsibility for:
1. The validity and arithmetic correctness of the calculations and their translations into the
design details, design drawings, specification clauses, and other documentation.
2. The applicability and accuracy of all computer programs.
3. Verifying the validity to the programs for each application.
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DOCUMENTS TO BE APPENDED TO THE AIP DOCUMENT
Include, without limitation:

(a) Copy of the proposed Criteria for Highway Structures being adopted for the design.
(b) Technical Approval Schedule.
(c) Site Location Plan at 1:50,000 or other agreed scale.
(d) General Arrangement Drawings. These shall be drawn to scale with a border and should
include the following details as appropriate:
Plan
North arrow
Right-of-way
Chainage
Earthworks profile
Plan dimension on roadway(s)/watercourse/railway
Skew angle
Service ducts/chambers
Lighting
Interface with existing or proposed structures
Direction of flow for watercourses
Articulation arrangement
Elevation
Existing ground profile
Rock profile/competent strata
Intermediate and end support details
Foundations (hidden detail)
Access arrangements
Paving details
Slope protection
Lighting
Safety barriers
Interfaces with existing or proposed structures
Clearance envelope
Overall length
Span dimensions
Water levels (flood level assumed)
Road/rail under cross slope, dimensions
Watercourse cross section dimensions
Parapets/pedestrian guardrail
Earthworks profile
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Cross Section
Bridge cross section dimensions
Cross slope
Superstructure cross section
Interface with existing structures
Interface with intermediate supports
Raised shoulder/sidewalk details
Services
Parapet/pedestrian guardrail
Surfacing and waterproofing
Miscellaneous
Wingwalls
Approach arrangements
Finishes
Waterproofing details
Indicative location of construction joints
(e) Relevant extracts from the geotechnical report

(f) Departures from Standard
(g) Methods of dealing with aspects not covered by standards
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Appendix B
Sample Certificates
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DESIGN INTERIM CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
1.0 Certificate No: DIC (S)...........................................................................................

1.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the design of the
following further divided part of the Design or Design Element; namely:
.................................................................…………………………………………….
(Name of further divided part of Structure)
...........................................................................................................................….
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us with a view to
securing that the further divided part of the Design or Design Element:
(a) Complies with the Particular Overseeing Organization’s Requirements;
(b) Has been accurately translated into the execution drawings and bar bending
schedules bearing the unique numbers listed below; and
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element and will not affect
the completion of the Certificate(s).
We agree that the words and phrases herein, unless otherwise stated, have the
same meaning as attributed to them in the Contract between the Overseeing
Organization and Consultant.
Signed: ......................................................... Firm.................................................................

Team leader for Consultant
Name: ........................................................... Date ................................................................
Signed: ......................................................... Firm ................................................................

Consultant’s Representative
Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
1.2 Receipt of this Certificate is acknowledged
Signed: .............................…...........….………
On behalf of the ENGINEER
Name: .......................................................... Date ...........................................................
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DESIGN CHECK INTERIM CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
2.0 CERTIFICATE NO: CIC (S) ...................................................................................

2.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design Check
of the following further divided part for the Design or Design Element; namely:
........................................………………………………………………………………..
(Name of further divided part of Structure)
......................………………………………………………………………………………
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us in carrying out
the independent heck of the part of the Design or Design Element with a view to
securing that the further divided part of the Design or Design Element:
(a) Complies with the Particular Overseeing Organization's Requirements;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element and will not affect
the completion of the heck Certificate(s).
We agree that the Words and phrases herein, unless otherwise stated, have the
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

CHECKER (Team leader for Checker)
Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........…………
Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
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DESIGN CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
3.0 Certificate No: DC (S) ..........................................................................................

3.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design of the
following part of the Design or Design Element, namely
..............................................................................................................................
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us with a view to
securing that the part of the Design or Design Element:
(a) Complies with the Particular Overseeing Organization's Requirements;
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element.
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

Team leader for Consultant
Name: .......................................................... Date: ................................................................
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........………..
Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
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DESIGN CHECK CERTIFICATE: STRUCTURES
4.0 Certificate No: CC (S) ..........................................................................................

4.1 We hereby certify to the Overseeing Organization in respect of the Design Check
of the following part of the Design or Design Element; namely
..............................................................................................................................
(Name of Structure)
that reasonable professional skill and care has been taken by us in carrying out
the independent Design Check of the part of the Design or Design Element with a
view to securing that the part of the Design or Design Element:
(a) Complies with the Particular Overseeing Organization’s Requirements;
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
(c) Is not detrimental to the whole Design or Design Element.
Organization and Consultant
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

CHECKER (Team leader for Checker)
Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
Signed: ........................................................ Firm .................................................................

Name: .......................................................... Date .................................................................
Signed: .............................…...........….…….
Name: ........................................................... Date ................................................................
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Volume 2
Part 14
Earthworks
VOLUME 2 PART 14
EARTHWORKS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪EARTHWORKS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫يجب التأكيد ع ى إن وزارة املواصالت‪ ،‬وتحت أي ظرف من الظروف‪ ،‬ال تج أو تتعهد أو ُتصادق ع ى أن تكون املعلومات املتضمنة ي هذين‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 14
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Contents Page
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Use of Soil and Rock Terms ......................................................................................... 1
2 Planning of Earthworks ................................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Sustainable Practices ................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Materials Stewardship ................................................................................. 3
2.2.2 Preservation of Topsoil ................................................................................ 3
2.2.3 Use of Nonstandard or Recycled Materials ................................................. 4
2.2.4 Minimization of Erosion ............................................................................... 4
2.3 Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Assessments and Ground Investigation for
Earthworks ................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Consideration of Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures .......................... 6
2.5 Existing Earthworks ..................................................................................................... 7
3 Earthworks Design .......................................................................................................9

3.1 Balancing Earthwork Materials Volume ...................................................................... 9
3.2 Potential Effects of Sustainable Drainage ................................................................. 11
3.3 Disposal of Surplus Fill ............................................................................................... 11
3.4 Design of Cuttings ...................................................................................................... 11
3.4.1 Modes of Slope Failure............................................................................... 11
3.4.2 Cutting Slope Design .................................................................................. 12
3.5 Influence of Construction Procedures on Cutting Slope Stability ............................. 15
3.5.1 Seismic Effects ............................................................................................ 15
3.6 Design of Embankments and Filled Areas ................................................................. 15
3.6.1 Embankment and Fill Slope Design ............................................................ 15
3.6.2 Seismic Effects ............................................................................................ 16
3.7 Embankments over Weak Ground ............................................................................ 17
4 Earthworks Construction ............................................................................................19

4.1 Quality Control of Earthworks Materials ................................................................... 19
4.2 Placement of Earthworks Materials .......................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Soils ............................................................................................................ 19
4.2.2 Rocks .......................................................................................................... 20
4.3 Slope Inspections ....................................................................................................... 21
4.3.1 Soil Slopes................................................................................................... 21
4.3.2 Rock Slopes................................................................................................. 21
4.4 Minimizing the Effects of Construction Plant Operations ......................................... 21
4.5 Blasting ...................................................................................................................... 21
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5 Information on Specific Materials and Issues ............................................................. 25

5.1 Soils and Bedrock Strata ............................................................................................ 25
5.2 Seismic Hazard ........................................................................................................... 25
5.3 Geosynthetics ............................................................................................................ 25
5.4 Prevent the Spread of Plant and Animal Diseases ..................................................... 25
6 Highways in Dune Areas............................................................................................. 27

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 27
6.2 Dune Formation and Movement ............................................................................... 27
6.3 Design and Construction in Dune Areas .................................................................... 27
6.3.1 Highway Location ....................................................................................... 27
6.3.2 Design Elements ......................................................................................... 27
6.3.3 Design and Construction Considerations ................................................... 30
6.3.4 Dune Stabilization....................................................................................... 31
6.3.5 Dune Destruction ....................................................................................... 32
References ............................................................................................................................. 33
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Tables
Table 3.1 Typical Bulking Factors for Rock and Soil ............................................................ 9
Table 3.2 Typical Permanent Slopes in Cut for Various Soil and Rock Materials.............. 13
Table 3.3 Typical Permanent Slopes in Fill for Various Soil and Rock Materials............... 16
Figures
Figure 6.1 Typical Schematic Embankment Using Dune Sand Fill ...................................... 30
Figure 6.2 Sand Dune Fill—Embankment Planting............................................................. 31
Appendixes
Appendix A Potential Modes of Slope Failure ...................................................................... 35

Appendix B Dune Areas and Example Treatment ................................................................ 41
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BS British Standard
cm centimeter(s)
H horizontal
m meter(s)
Mg/m3 megagrams per cubic meter
mm millimeter(s)
mm/s millimeter(s) per second
MOE Ministry of Environment
ppv peak particle velocity
QCS 2010 Qatar National Construction Standards
RQD rock quality designation
SuDS sustainable drainage systems
V vertical
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1 Introduction
1.1 Scope
This part of this manual covers the design and construction of earthworks. It is
applicable to arterials, expressways, and freeways.
1.2 Use of Soil and Rock Terms

Numerous published definitions of “soil” and “rock” are often related to specific fields
of work. These definitions usually are based on characteristics such as particle size,
hardness, durability, inertness, and combinations thereof. The way in which rock is
defined can have significant implications for road project construction costs;
consequently, the Qatar National Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (Ministry of
Environment [MoE], 2011) provides the definition of rock for use in construction
contracts. In this part, the terms soil, rock, and material reflect general geotechnical
engineering designations, and no contractual definition should be inferred.
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2 Planning of Earthworks
2.1 Introduction
The strategy of the earthworks designer should be to provide a design that is feasible,
functional, constructible, and suitable for the proposed end use. Consideration should
be given to land requirements, including temporary works. The design should be
developed to minimize environmental impact during the construction phase, during
use, and for future maintenance operations. This part summarizes the main issues to
consider when planning the earthworks of a highway project.
2.2 Sustainable Practices

2.2.1 Materials Stewardship
To the extent practicable, earthworks volumes should be balanced to avoid the need to
import material from elsewhere to make up a shortfall to dispose of surplus fill,
particularly off-site. Section 3.1 in this Part provides further discussion, as does Part 21,
Environmental, of this manual.
Rock excavated on-site can provide an opportunity for producing aggregates that can
reduce the need for imported materials. Surplus processed materials of soils-type
grading, subject to meeting specification requirements, can be used as general
earthworks and landscape earthworks fill. Thoughtful design and construction can
maximize reuse of larger rock fragments, as discussed in Clause 4.2.2 in this Part.
2.2.2 Preservation of Topsoil

Topsoil is the uppermost layer of soil, usually the top 5 to 20 centimeters (cm), which
will normally contain organic matter, microorganisms, and a seedbank for the
vegetation cover they support. Topsoils are important for re-establishing vegetation
cover along a highway corridor after construction. In Qatar, topsoils are mostly sands
with limited organic matter; nonetheless, it is important to preserve and reuse the
topsoil horizon and its seedbank.
Geotechnical investigations should clearly identify the depth of available topsoil in

both cut and fill areas. This information can then be used by the designer to establish
the appropriate depth of stripping to maximize the availability of local topsoil and
minimize requirements for import. It is important to avoid loss of organic material
through soils mixing and by general overlay of earthworks fill. The designer should
consider topsoil-forming materials balance, taking into account the volume of
material needed to cover areas such as embankment and cutting slopes and
shoulders and also for reinstatement of borrow pit areas, where appropriate, after
completion of materials extraction.
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The stripping of vegetation before topsoil removal should be undertaken so as to

maximize the vegetative matter and natural seedbank in the recovered topsoil. This
will assist and promote the regeneration of native vegetation that can be expected to
be tolerant of local conditions. To the extent practicable, the material should be
reused near to where it is extracted to maintain the integrity of the topsoil and
support a cost-effective operation. Further information on the preservation of topsoil
can be found in Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
Slopes with a gradient of 1 vertical to 4 horizontal (1V:4H) or less generally will have
greater success than steeper slopes in retaining topsoil, limiting its loss from erosion
processes, and encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term
growth.
In cases where it is necessary to import topsoil, the material should be certified as

being free of pathogens, toxins, weeds, and their roots.
2.2.3 Use of Nonstandard or Recycled Materials

Where projects involve the demolition of structures, removal of existing highway
pavement, or both, suitable opportunities should be sought to reuse those materials
within the new works rather than dispose of them off-site. Concrete and other
suitable structure materials might be crushed and processed to produce aggregates,
as well as specific and general engineering fills. The recycled materials also might be
blended with virgin materials.
Recycled materials normally are tested to establish their engineering and chemical
properties to verify their suitability for the proposed end use. Approvals for their use
also might need to be sought from relevant authorities. Further information on the
use of nonstandard and recycled materials can be found in Part 21, Environmental, of
this manual.
2.2.4 Minimization of Erosion

To minimize the potential for erosion and landslips, where practical, the road
alignment should avoid steep topography, and the earthworks should be designed to
suitably stable slopes.
Chapter 6 discusses aspects of wind erosion. The main risk of water erosion relates to
occasional (once or twice per year) high-intensity rainfall that generates high overland
flow. Therefore, the designer should consider the controlled discharge of water from
the road pavement and over earthworks slopes. Where there is sufficient road
corridor space, designing slopes to be as flat as 1V:6H and to support denser plant
growth will reduce the potential for soil erosion.
Part 10, Drainage, of this manual discusses the use of swales to intercept flow from
the highway and convey runoff slowly along their length, which limits erosion.
Particular attention should be given to the erosive power of stormwater flowing from
a culvert outlet so the designer can ensure that design outflow velocity accounts for
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local soils and thereby minimizes the potential for downstream scouring. Dispersive
materials will require very detailed treatments.
2.3 Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Assessments and

Ground Investigation for Earthworks
The geotechnical assessment and any associated ground investigation for the design
and construction of highway earthworks should be advised and implemented by the
project’s geotechnical practitioners as part of overall geotechnical studies, which are
described in Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide,
of this manual. The advice of a geoenvironmental specialist should be obtained for
projects where there is known or potential contamination, a need to manage waste
materials as part of the project earthworks, or both. The geoenvironmental specialist
should assess the risks of hazardous substances and address aspects such as waste
classification and its management. These activities will require appropriate testing as
part of the ground investigation. The geotechnical assessment, together with any
required geoenvironmental work, should be conducted according to the geotechnical
certification procedure set out in Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this
manual.
The geotechnical practitioner and, where required, the geoenvironmental

practitioner, need to consider the following matters in relation to project earthworks:
• Existing ground and reuse of materials:

− Establishing the location and extent of the various materials available in
cuttings and borrow areas that may be suitable for use as select fill, structural
fill, capping layer, and pavement subbase. High-quality materials may be
nominated for special uses or stockpiled for later use on other stages of a
project or on other projects. In cases where significant quantities of sound
rock can be extracted from large cuttings, a mobile crushing plant might be
used to produce aggregate and graded fill materials for a variety of uses.
− Performing “relationship testing” to establish the suitability of materials for
use in construction.
− Assessing the chemical environment of the ground, particularly in relation to
concrete, and mitigation measures to be taken.
− Performing contamination testing that is sufficient to develop a conceptual
model of the site to inform an appropriate risk assessment.
• Modification of marginal materials for use as engineering fills
• Use of unsuitable materials for landscape earthworks
• Enhancement of soils as a growing media
Materials generated on-site for which there is no suitable reuse in project

construction, such as excavated soils, are commonly referred to as “waste.” Such
materials usually are classified as inert, nonhazardous, or hazardous waste. The cost
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of off-site disposal is higher for hazardous wastes than for nonhazardous wastes, with
the disposal of inert waste being the least expensive. When contamination is
identified as an issue for a project and a design requires off-site disposal of waste,
there is likely to be a significant commercial benefit in reducing the proportion of
material classified as hazardous or nonhazardous waste and increasing the proportion
classified as inert waste. The following treatment methods may be cost-effective,
depending on the condition and volumes of the materials for disposal:
• Sorting or screening to separate inert materials from hazardous materials

• Stabilizing with hydraulic binders (cement stabilization)
• Bioremediation
• Soil washing
In such cases, detailed ground investigation and testing may be required to assist in
the assessment and detailed design of the treatment process to manage the waste
materials from a site.
Materials that might require off-site disposal should be tested to assess the following:
• Classification under relevant international standards and guidelines. No Qatari soil

or groundwater standards have been established. The typical default standard is
the “Circular on Target Values and Intervention Values for Soil Remediation”
(Ministerie van Volkshuisvestig, 2000), commonly referred to as the “New Dutch
List.”
• Classification with regard to waste acceptance criteria.
• Suitability for off-site reuse (subject to acceptance by the Ministry of
Environment, State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal), and Ministry of
Municipality & Urban Planning).
2.4 Consideration of Environmental Impacts and Mitigation

Measures
The planning of earthworks should consider the environmental impacts of the
proposed works and appropriate mitigation measures that might be implemented.
The following aspects should be considered:
• Habitat loss and opportunities for existing habitat enhancement and new habitat
formation, or both. Loose tipping (reduced compaction) of subsoil or shallow
ripping of placed subsoils to loosen near-surface materials can promote
vegetation establishment. These techniques might be adopted in areas where
they would not be detrimental to the engineering performance of the earthwork.
Refer to Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
• Use of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). Such systems can provide for
enhanced biodiversity, but there can be downsides, as discussed in Section 3.2 in
this Part. See also Part 10, Drainage, and Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual.
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• Geodiversity and its enhancement through the retention of exposures in cutting

and the retention of spoils of mineralogical or paleontological interest.
• Maximizing use of local resources, including recycled and secondary aggregates,
to avoid unnecessary disposal of materials off-site. This includes use of excess
materials in landscaping earthworks or environmental earthworks, such as noise
reduction mounds, to reduce the need for off-site disposal. Refer to Part 21,
Environmental, of this manual.
• Land-take options. The physical footprint of an earthwork can be modified by
design to mitigate adverse impacts of land-take. A narrow footprint reducing land-
take requirements in areas where limited land is available or where land has
particular environmental value might be achieved by use of reinforced soil. A wide
footprint with gentle slopes in other areas would be beneficial in establishing
vegetation and minimizing erosion and would assist with integration into the
adjacent landforms. Refer to Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
• Air and noise quality in the immediate area that can be influenced by the form of
the earthwork. Refer to Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
2.5 Existing Earthworks

In situations where existing earthworks are subject to modification, such as
embankment widening, special consideration should be given to establishing the
necessary information through the ground investigation to assess any issue of
differential settlement between the existing and new construction. Likely changes, if
any, in pore water pressures within the fill or founding soils also should be
determined to assess any impact on stability.
Where an existing earthwork is to be modified and shows signs of distress or has

failed, the ground investigation should be designed to identify the failure mechanism
and to provide sufficient information to design an engineering remediation solution.
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3 Earthworks Design
3.1 Balancing Earthwork Materials Volume
Once a highway grade line has been selected that satisfies geometric requirements,
consideration should be given to raising or lowering it between control points to
achieve a close balance between the volume of cut materials and the volume of fill
materials, referred to as an earthworks balance. If an earthworks balance cannot be
achieved, it will be necessary to import material from elsewhere to make up a shortfall
or to dispose of surplus fill, which may be difficult in urban or environmentally sensitive
areas.
In assessing the earthworks balance, consideration should be given to the potential

volume change between materials excavation and their placement in engineered
earthworks. The in situ density of solid rock can range typically from 2.1 to
2.7 megagrams per cubic meter (Mg/m3), whereas the density of placed rockfill will
normally be lower, generally from 1.9 to 2.2 Mg/m3). Consequently, rock from an
excavation will normally facilitate filling of a larger volume of earthworks fill. The
magnitude of the change is typically referred to as the bulking factor and is
dependent on the type of rock.
The aeolian sands, continental soils, and residual soils of Qatar normally provide
about the same volume of compacted fill as was excavated. Small changes on large
volumes of filling can, however, have a significant impact on a project. The in situ
density of the source soil materials and their compacted density in the engineered
earthworks, therefore, should be considered. Table 3.1 lists the typical ranges of
bulking factors for rock and soils.
Table 3.1 Typical Bulking Factors for Rock and Soil

Material Bulking factor
Solid rock 1.2 to 1.6a
Aeolian sand 0.95 to 1.15
Note:
a Relative to the type of rock
In assessing cut-and-fill volumes in earthworks, allowance should be made for waste

due to spillage, disposal of surplus oversize rock which is not to be processed, and
materials obtained from areas such as excavations for trench drainage and structure
foundations. Waste can vary from 5 percent to 15 percent, depending on the
topography (more waste is typically generated in hilly country) and the large particle
content of blasted rock excavated material.
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Slopes will influence the level of the highway grade line required to achieve an
earthworks balance. Consideration should be given to the difference in cost of
achieving an earthworks balance by raising the grade line and providing steeper
slopes in rock cuttings to reduce cut volume or by lowering the grade line and
flattening slopes in soft rock or soil cuttings to increase cut volume. Rock excavation
requiring blasting and loading into dump trucks is significantly more expensive than
excavation of materials that can be ripped by a bulldozer and transported by scrapers.
For an earthworks balance, it is important that allowance is made for the backfill of
excavations associated with the removal of topsoil, soil-forming materials, and
unsuitable material such as sabkha. This is discussed further in Part 15, Ground
Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual. Allowance
should also be made for the overall thickness of the proposed highway pavement.
Where massive rock excavation is to be performed, it is good practice to identify

areas, such as mounding and fill slope flattening, where rock boulders too large to be
placed as common fill can be buried as low-grade, nonstructural fill.
Where an earthworks balance cannot be readily achieved and a shortfall of fill

remains, a ready supply of fill must be made available from either borrow areas,
another project, or commercial sources such as a local quarry, sand pit, or gravel pit.
During construction, the earthworks should be monitored and steps should be taken
to maintain the earthworks balance to the extent practicable. Factors that can alter
the cut-fill balance include the following:
• Unforeseen unsuitable earthworks materials

• Unforeseen contaminated material that cannot be remediated
• Unforeseen factors affecting the execution of the works (for example, traffic
management constraints, land access constraints, or program constraints, all of
which can create local surpluses or shortfalls)
• Inappropriate use of material with specific performance criteria (for example, use
of structural backfill for embankment construction)
• The magnitude of bulking that occurs when any material is excavated and
recompacted
• Poor management of surface water and groundwater or construction plant
resulting in suitable fill becoming unsuitable
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3.2 Potential Effects of Sustainable Drainage

Surface water drainage systems developed in line with the ideals of sustainable
development are collectively referred to as SuDS. SuDS are designed to manage the
environmental risks resulting from urban runoff and to contribute wherever possible
to environmental enhancement. The philosophy of SuDS is to replicate, as closely as
possible, the natural drainage from a site before development. SuDS are increasingly
being adopted as the main form of drainage for highway projects and other
developments.
From an earthwork perspective, the most notable aspect of SuDS is the

encouragement of surface water infiltration into the ground rather than its runoff
over impermeable surfaces. Poorly planned SuDS that introduce water or enhance
groundwater levels within a slope can have a potentially deleterious effect on the
stability of either existing or newly constructed earthworks. Therefore, close liaison
among the earthworks and drainage designers and the landscape architect is
important, so that the benefit of SuDS may be gained while avoiding introduction of
any significant additional risks to the earthworks. Possible increase in risk of instability
is best managed by providing infiltration away from such areas. Further information
on SuDS can be found in Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.
3.3 Disposal of Surplus Fill

If excess fill is generated because of an earthworks imbalance, its disposal as a waste
to an off-site facility should be avoided, where possible. Opportunities to use the
surplus material on other projects should be considered. The surplus materials might
also in effect be disposed of within the highway corridor by flattening embankment
slopes, mounding, or landscaping. The ability to perform such work will depend on
the area available and the nature of the excess material. Boulders too large for
narrow slope flattening or mounds can generally be buried, removed to a crushing
plant, or split with rock hammers or explosives so that the rocks can then be used in
embankment construction. The amount of unsuitable fill needs to be quantified.
3.4 Design of Cuttings

3.4.1 Modes of Slope Failure
When preparing designs for the alignment and slopes of a cutting, in addition to
assessing the overall stability against the various forms of failure described in Appendix A,
the possibility of local landslips and rockfalls on the slopes faces should be
considered. Local landslips or rockfalls can typically result from random pockets of
weak, unstable, or water-bearing soils or from thin layers of weak or shattered rock.
In most cases, local instability may be addressed as it becomes evident by
implementing appropriate remedial works. Flattening of slopes in an effort to limit
local landslips and rockfalls is rarely justifiable.
The overall stability of cutting slopes should be assessed using the design standard
adopted for the project.
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3.4.2 Cutting Slope Design

The excavation of a road cutting inevitably results in the removal of support to higher
ground on one or both sides of the cutting. As a result, the slopes local to the cutting,
and possibly those at some distance, may be destabilized or may be prone to landslips
or falling rock. The impact of such events is high and in extreme cases can result in
road closures, death or personal injury, and extensive damage to nearby property and
to the highway. The proximity, type, and condition of adjacent buildings and other
structures need to be considered in design.
The natural groundwater levels and possible future changes in the groundwater
regime should be considered in the design of the base platform to underpass and
cutting areas and in the design of their associated drainage. Groundwater levels
representative of long-term conditions may not be established during the relatively
short period of ground investigation site works because of seasonal variations, the
influence of dewatering exercises in surrounding areas, or the effects of groundwater
rise. Refer to Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide,
of this manual. Such factors should be considered in the assessment of the
groundwater levels to be used in design. Appropriate adverse groundwater levels for
the structure or earthwork location, over the designated design life of the
infrastructure, should be used in design.
Determining the maximum slopes in cuttings depends on aspects such as the

following:
• Types of materials in the cutting

• Groundwater tables, current levels taking into account any local lowering or rise
and possible future levels
• Locations of buildings
• Angle of rock and soil bedding planes relative to the slope
• Presence of soft, weaker materials that are more prone to failure or are easily
eroded by wind or surface water
• Environmental constraints
For deep cuttings, it is common practice to provide benches (often referred to as

berms) at regular intervals based on the stability of the slope, requirements for
drainage of water permeating from the ground within the cutting face, and the width
of the road corridor. Benching reduces risks associated with landslip and falling rock,
facilitates the maintenance and repair of cut slopes, and improves the access safety
for maintenance workers. In rock cuts, berm widths of 3 meters (m) to 4 m typically
are adopted. In soil slopes, berm widths of at least 5 m typically are adopted.
The gradient of a slope may not depend wholly on the stability of the material as
determined by geotechnical design, but may be influenced by factors such as
aesthetics, landscaping requirements, and whether there is a shortage of fill.
Generally, for cuttings through soft, highly fractured, or weathered rock and soil, the
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maximum slopes should be no steeper than 1V:2H and will normally need to be 1V:4H
or less to establish vegetation and limit soil erosion. Cuttings through stable rock
formations where planting is not required to prevent erosion may be up to 6V:1H,
depending on the strata joints orientations and the quality of the rock. Table 3.2
provides guidance on the typical geometry for safe slopes in the range of rock and soil
conditions generally found. The actual slope design details should, however, be
established based on the actual site conditions, the materials’ characteristic
engineering parameters interpreted from the geotechnical investigations conducted,
and relevant slope stability analyses.
Table 3.2 Typical Permanent Slopes in Cut for Various Soil and Rock Materials
Typical Maximum Slope
Height before Incorporating
Typical Slope Ratio a Berm or Between Berms
Rock/Soil Material (vertical : horizontal) (m)
Good to excellent rock conditions, RQDa >75b 6V:1H to 5V:1Hc 10
Poor to fair rock conditions, 25 < RQD <75 4V:1H to 2V:1Hc 8
Very poor rock conditions, RQD <25 2V:1H to 1V:2Hc 6
Gravelly materials 1V:1.5H to 1V:2Hd 6
Sand 1V:1.5H to 1V:2.5Hd 6
Notes:
a RQD = rock quality designation (ratio of length of solid core pieces longer than 100 millimeters to length
of core run [%])

b Rock of this quality is rarely found in Qatar.
c Depends on joint orientation, the extent of clay interbeds, and groundwater conditions.
d Slopes of gradient 1V:4H or less generally will have a greater success in retaining topsoil, limiting its loss
from erosion processes and encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term growth
compared to steeper slopes.
The behavior of a rock mass is dominated by discontinuities such as faults, joints, and
bedding planes. Therefore, cuttings in rock are commonly designed by kinematic
assessment, as detailed in Hoek and Bray (1981) and others. Limit equilibrium stability
analyses design methods are also used in the design of rock slopes, particularly when
construction is in poor quality rock. For limit equilibrium analyses of rock slopes it is
necessary to establish engineering properties representative of the rock mass, which
is not readily practicable from testing.
Rock mass classification systems including the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system
(Bieniawski 1973 and 1989) and the Q system (Barton et al 1974) are commonly used
to make an initial assessment of the excavation procedures to be used in tunnel and
underground space construction in rock and of the measures required to support the
exposed excavated rock wall (eg rock bolts or shotcrete). The RMR system can be
used to estimate the rock mass properties and is utilized in the Hoek-Brown failure
criterion (Hoek, et al., 2002) widely used to establish rock mass engineering
parameters for use in design. A software program for determining rock mass strength
parameters, RocLab, has been developed to apply the Hoek-Brown failure criterion.
The excavated rock slopes should, however, be inspected by a suitably experienced

geotechnical practitioner to identify any areas of the face that require removal of
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loose material, localized rock bolting to secure specific rock blocks, or dentition work
to secure and protect particular weak horizons. For unnetted faces, a rock trap should
be provided at the toe of the cut slope to capture small-scale fall debris and prevent it
from reaching the highway. For particularly unstable rock strata, extensive rock
bolting and netting may be needed. Fookes and Sweeny (1976) provided information
on stabilization and control of local rock falls, including the design of rock traps.
The limit equilibrium methods of stability analysis are normally used in Qatar for
design of soil slopes. A limit-state design approach is now commonly used in Europe
and may be adopted in Qatar at some future date. If a limit-state design approach is
adopted in Qatar, refer to BS EN 1997-1:2004.
The safety factors adopted for use in limit equilibrium-stability analyses for design of a
soil slope should be derived by the geotechnical practitioner after careful
consideration of the following:
• The complexity of the ground conditions

• The adequacy of the ground investigation
• The certainty with which the design parameters (for example, shear strength and
groundwater pressures) represent the actual in situ conditions
• The length of time over which stability has to be assured
• The likelihood of unfavorable changes in groundwater regime
• Surface profile or other factors occurring in the future
• The likely speed of movement and consequences of any failures
In general, it is important to distinguish between first-time failures and failures

involving preexisting slip surfaces. For first-time failures at a site, where there is a
good standard of ground investigation, analyses performed using suitably
conservative characteristic shear-strength parameters and design water conditions,
and for which no unusually risks are associated with a failure, a safety factor
between 1.3 and 1.4 would normally be appropriate. For a failure involving a
preexisting failure and analyses using back-analyses parameters, but otherwise of
similar status, a safety factor of 1.2 would normally be appropriate.
The design water conditions should take into account those conditions that could
reasonably be expected to occur over the design life of the earthworks, with
allowance where appropriate for higher groundwater levels or higher pore water
pressures than those observed in the ground investigation and subsequent
monitoring periods. Information on groundwater problems in Qatar is provided in
Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this
manual.
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3.5 Influence of Construction Procedures on Cutting

Slope Stability
Cutting slope stability can be influenced by construction-related factors, including the
following:
• Sequence and geometry of excavation. Stability of the slopes must be maintained.

Where appropriate, temporary slopes and excavations might be designed with
safety factors lower than those used for design of permanent works. The safety
factors to be used, however, must be assessed on a risk basis by a suitably
experience geotechnical practitioner.
• Effect of explosives. Vibrations from blasting should be considered in the design.
• Control of groundwater. The potential for groundwater conditions during
construction to have detrimental effect on the earthworks should be considered
and, where necessary, appropriate measures should be incorporated within the
works. This might necessitate control of the rate of excavation in pervious water-
bearing soils to achieve a gradual reduction in the water table or dewatering
techniques to release pore water pressures trapped by low-permeability strata.
• Control of surface water. The works should be shaped to prevent water flow or
ponding conditions where these are likely to have a detrimental effect on the
earthworks.
• Construction of drain trenches at the base of the slope.
The potential for construction-related factors to affect cutting slope stability should
be assessed in design and appropriate allowance made to maintain adequate stability.
3.5.1 Seismic Effects

The designer should assess the potential seismicity of the location and make
appropriate allowance for seismicity in the design of cutting slopes. Further
information on seismic loading in Qatar and associated ground risks is given in
manual.
3.6 Design of Embankments and Filled Areas

3.6.1 Embankment and Fill Slope Design
Embankments and filled areas should be designed to have adequate stability against
shear failure and to ensure that any deformation is within acceptable limits. The
following information should be obtained to design the cross section of an
embankment:
• Ultimate width at the top of the embankment

• Loading on the top of the embankment
• Geotechnical properties of the foundation soils and fill materials
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• Restrictions on width of land available for construction

• Groundwater tables and current levels, taking into account local lowering or rise
and possible future levels
• Special conditions to which the embankment would be subject (for example, tidal
waters, natural cavities, environmental, and economic factors that could influence
the final choice of cross section, such as earth banks for sound screening or
flattening of slopes for promoting vegetation establishment and providing for
landscape and an aesthetic earthwork)
Table 3.2 provides guidance on the typical geometry for safe embankment slopes in
the range of rock and soil conditions generally found in Qatar. However, the actual
slope design details should be established based on the actual site conditions, the
materials’ characteristic engineering parameters interpreted from the geotechnical
investigations conducted, and relevant slope stability analyses.
Table 3.3 Typical Permanent Slopes in Fill for Various Soil and Rock Materials
Typical Slope Ratio Typical Maximum Slope Height before
Rock/Soil Material (vertical : horizontal) Incorporating a Berm or Between Berms (m)
Selected hard rock fill 1V:1.4Ha 6
Selected gravel material 1V:1.5H to 1V:2Ha 6
Selected sand 1V:1.5H to 1V:2.5Ha 6
Note:
a Slopes of gradient 1V:4H or less generally will have a greater success in retaining topsoil, limiting its
loss from erosion processes and encouraging more successful planting establishment and long-term
growth compared to steeper slopes.
The overall stability of embankment slopes should be analyzed using the design
standard adopted for the project. The limit equilibrium method of stability analysis is
typically used for design in Qatar. The factors to be considered by the geotechnical
practitioner in determining the safety factors to be adopted in limit equilibrium stability
analyses of embankments and fill areas and typical safety factors adopted are as
described for cutting slopes in Clause 3.4.2 in this Part. A limit-state design approach is
now commonly used in Europe and may be adopted in Qatar at some future date. If a
limit-state design approach is adopted in Qatar, refer to British Standard 1997-1
(BS EN 1997-1:2004).
Some deformation of the fill and of foundation soils is to be expected, and the
magnitude of those movements should be assessed using data obtained as part of the
project ground investigation. In some instances, it may be desirable to analyze
embankment deformations using finite-element methods to determine whether
deformation is acceptable.
3.6.2 Seismic Effects

The designer should assess the potential seismicity of the location and make
appropriate allowance for it in the design of embankments and fill slopes. Further
information on seismic loading in Qatar and associated ground risks is given in Part 15,
Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, in this manual.
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3.7 Embankments over Weak Ground

Weak, compressible soils, such as sabkha, are typically near the surface and are of
shallow depth in Qatar. In many instances, existing ponds are reclaimed using poor
quality compressible soils. Where such deposits lie below an embankment footprint,
they are generally removed and replaced with engineered fill.
In some instances, it may be necessary or preferred to leave the weak, compressible

deposits in place. In these cases, ground treatment measures will likely be required to
ensure stability of the embankment and to limit post-construction ground movements
to within serviceability limits. Geotextiles might be also included within the base of
the embankment to distribute expected loading and to reduce differential
movements. Implemented ground treatment works and post-treatment ground
performance should be monitored to verify the design.
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4 Earthworks Construction
4.1 Quality Control of Earthworks Materials
The nature of materials to be used in earthworks construction should be checked
against the design and the findings of any project ground investigation to confirm that
when placed and compacted, they remain in accordance with the contract
specification.
The designer should provide a table that clearly sets out the testing requirements for
earthworks materials as they are excavated on-site. The designer should include the
frequency or number of tests, depending on the size or duration of the works being
performed. Testing should be carried out at excavation for materials found on-site,
unless the material is likely to change between excavation and deposition, in which
case further sampling and testing should be carried out at deposition.
Where earthworks materials are to be imported for use on-site, initial source testing
should be specified along with compliance testing requirements.
4.2 Placement of Earthworks Materials

4.2.1 Soils
The placement of soil fills in earthworks typically is controlled by either an end-
product specification or method specification to confirm that adequate compaction is
achieved in construction. End-product specification is mainly used in Qatar, including
in the QCS 2010 (MoE, 2011), with placed fill compacted to 95 percent maximum dry
density, as determined by Test 13: 4.5-kilogram rammer method in British
Standard 1377-4 (BS 1377-4:1990). If required, further information on the use of
method specification can be found in HA 70/94 (UK Highways Agency, 1994).
When using an end-product specification, it is useful to establish a rolling/compaction

procedure that should achieve the required degree of compaction and for that to be
adopted as the minimum requirement for construction of the permanent works. The
adoption of such a procedure should minimize disruption related to compliance
testing and any requirement to apply additional compaction to a fill layer with
associated further compliance testing. The compaction procedure is normally defined
in terms of a maximum thickness of each fill layer placed and the number of passes
applied to it by a roller of specific type and size. The QCS 2010 requires compaction
trials before construction of any permanent earthworks and specifies that the trials be
carried out on areas of 50 m by 10 m (MoE, 2011).
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Rapid verification of the compacted density of placed earthworks fill is essential if

earthworks filling operations are not to be unduly disrupted. Consequently, nuclear
methods are normally used as the primary means of establishing the in situ density
and moisture content of the placed soils and compliance with the specification.
Nuclear density and moisture content testing should be carried out in accordance
with QCS 2010 requirements (MoE, 2011). Calibration of the equipment is required,
and personnel conducting the tests require approved user certification by the Qatar
Ministry of Environment.
If particular concerns exist regarding the results of nuclear test methods or the ability
of the test to provide accurate results in particular circumstances, then the in situ
density of the placed fill should be determined using by the appropriate sand
replacement method suitable for the soil grading, in accordance with QCS 2010
testing requirements (MoE, 2011).
Intelligent compaction technology systems can optimize earthworks construction and

provide a comprehensive geographic information system–based record of the quality
of earthworks compaction at a site. The systems involve continuous assessment of the
mechanistic soil properties (for example, stiffness modulus) through compaction-
roller vibration monitoring and continuous modification of roller vibration amplitude
and frequency. Research findings in Europe and the United States show that use of
such equipment can significantly improve the efficiency and quality of the compaction
process. Further information on these systems can be found in Use of Intelligent
Compaction Technology (Transport Research Laboratory [TRL], 2009).
4.2.2 Rocks
To the extent practicable, rock excavated on a project should be reused. Subject to
crushing and processing, it might provide a suitable source for aggregate or soils-type
graded earthworks fill. Larger rock fill may be used in earthworks construction subject
to the rock fill being placed in layers not exceeding twice the average size of the larger
fragments, with no layer exceeding 800-millimeter (mm) loose thickness. The largest
boulders and fragments should be placed and spread so that they are evenly distributed
within the fill and the voids between them should be completely filled with smaller rock
fragments, sand, or gravel. The in-filling of the voids can be promoted by the use of
watering techniques.
The QCS 2010 provides details of the acceptable compaction procedures for rock fill in
terms of the depth of fill layer and the number of passes to be applied for particular
sizes of vibratory roller (MoE, 2011). The placement of rock fill is not normally subject
to density verification testing, but it should be subject to inspection by experienced
and qualified personnel.
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4.3 Slope Inspections

4.3.1 Soil Slopes
The soil slopes of cuttings and embankments should be inspected during construction,
and at regular intervals thereafter, for signs of cracking or bulging that might indicate
imminent failure of the slope or for seepage that could lead to instability. Instability
early in a soil slope's life is likely to be deep-seated, related to some form of
discontinuity such as a preexisting shear plane or a thin weak layer. The consequences
are likely to be severe and may involve considerable amounts of failed material.
Shallow failures are relatively rare on new soil slopes when compared to slopes older
than 10 years, but they do occur more frequently on steep, recently constructed rock
fill slopes due to of topsoil slippage. The failure is not of the rock fill itself. Where a
failure has occurred or appears to be developing, remediation works will need to be
implemented.
4.3.2 Rock Slopes

The exposed faces of rock cuttings should be inspected for discontinuities, especially
those oriented in a manner that would lead to instability. The face should be
examined at regular intervals and for signs of excessive weathering after a period of
exposure, preferably through the winter season. If left unchecked, excessive
weathering could lead to instability and high future maintenance costs incurred due
to frequent removal of large amounts of debris from the base of the face. The
inspections should be performed by an experienced geotechnical practitioner, who
should then prepare a report on the stability of the face and whether remedial action
is needed. Guidance on the recording of rock exposures is provided by the
International Society for Rock Mechanics (1981); Transport Research Laboratory
(2011a and 2011b); and Hoek and Bray (1981). The method to be adopted on a
project will need to be determined by a qualified and experienced geotechnical
practitioner.
4.4 Minimizing the Effects of Construction Plant Operations

The designer should be alert to the problems that could arise when earthmoving
construction equipment and vibratory compaction equipment are operating in urban
areas and other sensitive locations. The Transport Research Laboratory (2000) provides
guidelines on acceptable vibration levels, and British Standard 7385-2 (BS 7385-2:1993)
provides guidance on the evaluation and measurement of vibration in buildings. Where
practical, the design should avoid or minimize noise and vibration effects (for example,
by microrouting away from sensitive receptors). Contract specifications should include
appropriate restrictions on working hours, noise levels, and vibration levels.
4.5 Blasting
The designer should consider possible requirements for blasting works on a project.
Blasting works have to be carried out in accordance with The Guide for Civil Users of
Explosives in Qatar (Ministry of Industry and Public Works, 2001). The personnel
conducting blasting works are required to be licensed.
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The designer should be aware that to establish safe and environmentally acceptable
working procedures, blasting trials should be performed by the contractor prior to
executing blasting operations on contract works. These trials should include
establishing the delay between explosions necessary to avoid superposition of
vibrations from successive delays. Preliminary blasting trials also might be performed
as part of the project geotechnical studies. Trial explosions should start with small
charges and increase to charges similar to the working charges, but only if the
measurements show that it is safe and environmentally acceptable to do so.
At the preconstruction consultation stage, a condition survey of neighboring

properties at risk from blasting should be carried out, including photographs. Selected
critical properties should then be monitored as part of preworks blasting trials and
also during the works themselves. Information on the procedures and equipment
necessary for effective vibration studies is provided by Transport Research Laboratory
(2000). Instruments exist that can measure both the peak overpressure associated
with air blast and ground vibration in three orthogonal planes.
Factors affecting vibration levels when explosives are used include the following:
• Size of the explosive charge

• Pattern of charges
• Confinement of charge
• Geology and nature of the ground (for example, the dip, depth and type of rock,
and presence of fault planes)
The safe level of peak particle velocity (ppv) is governed by the type and state of
repair of the structure affected and, very importantly, by the frequency of the
vibration of the structure. Peak particle velocities in excess of 50 millimeters per
second (mm/s) may be safe and acceptable for some structures, but often much
lower limits will need to be applied, particularly for domestic structures. Advice on
acceptable levels of vibrations in structures is given in British Standards BS ISO 4866
(BS ISO 4866:2010), BS 7385-2 (BS 7385-2:1993), and BS 5228-1
(BS 5228-1:2009+A1:2014).
An accepted maximum safe value for air-blast or peak overpressure is 0.7 kilonewton
per square meter, but this value is unlikely to be reached where the ground vibration
ppv is kept below 50 mm/s. Windows may rattle with a peak overpressure of
0.3 kilonewton per square meter, and this may alarm to the public unless they are
informed in advance.
Good public relations and an education program are essential. Human reactions to
vibration can be a limiting factor because perceived ppv nuisance levels can be as low
as 2 mm/s. British Standards BS 6472-1 (BS 6472-1:2008) and BS 6472-2
(BS 6472-2:2008) provide valuable guidance on acceptable levels of human exposure
to vibration. Human response should be considered when determining a criterion for
ppv but should not be regarded as paramount provided the public is kept well
informed.
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Safety is also an important consideration, and work should be performed in

accordance with local regulations. British Standard BS 5607 (BS 5607:1998) also
provides useful information on safe use of explosives in the construction industry.
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5 Information on Specific
Materials and Issues
5.1 Soils and Bedrock Strata
The designer should refer to Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of
Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual for information on the engineering
characteristics, typical uses, and issues of the main soils and bedrock strata units in
Qatar.
5.2 Seismic Hazard

The designer should refer to Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of
Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual for information on the seismic hazard in
Qatar and seismic loadings to be used in design.
5.3 Geosynthetics
The designer should be alert to the risks of physical and chemical damage to
geosynthetics during construction because such damage can lead to a reduced life
and failure of the material and the constructed works. Typical physical damage
includes puncturing by sharp projections, tearing during placement, or as a result of
the construction equipment running over the geosynthetic once laid. The main
chemical damage to geosynthetics is embrittlement caused by ultraviolet light. The
designer should make appropriate allowances during design for possible damage
during construction. In addition, geosynthetics used in construction should be
afforded appropriate protection in transit from the manufacturer, during storage on-
site, and in placement within the works to avoid any significant damage.
5.4 Prevent the Spread of Plant and Animal Diseases

The designer should be alert to the potential for biological pathogens in surface soils
from past disposal of animal carcasses, including camels, horses, and other livestock,
both buried and unburied in rural areas. The designer also needs to be alert to the
potential spread of invasive animal and plant species associated with earthworks
operations.
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6 Highways in Dune Areas

6.1 Introduction
This chapter provides information on dune formation and movement and on the
design and construction of highways in dune areas from the Sultanate of Oman’s
Ministry of Transport and Communication (2010).
6.2 Dune Formation and Movement

Appendix B contains information on dune formation and movement.
6.3 Design and Construction in Dune Areas

6.3.1 Highway Location
It is always preferable to avoid routing highways through sand dune areas and, if such
an option exists, it should be considered as part of a value engineering exercise and in
the comparison of route options. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to locate
highways within sand dune areas, in which case the design principles set out in
Clause 6.3.2 in this Part should be followed.
Locating interchanges or intersections within sand dune areas should be avoided

where possible. Where it is necessary to locate an intersection within a dune area, the
design principles set out in Clause 6.3.2 of this part should be followed. Additionally,
there should be a site-specific assessment of conditions to determine the need for
special treatment or protection measures with regard to sand movement.
Grade-separation interchanges usually involve bridge structures and embankments.

The design and alignment of any bridges should be such that the prevailing wind can
easily pass through the structure without turbulence, which should help to reduce
sand deposition within the interchange area. Where such an alignment is not feasible,
use of windbreaks, located so that they unload windborne sand before entering the
interchange area, should be considered. Such windbreaks could consist of appropriate
plantings and fences or sand walls.
6.3.2 Design Elements

Sand will be deposited whenever the wind velocity falls below the critical velocity at
which it can carry sand particles (see Appendix B). Disruption to wind laminar flow is
likely to result in a drop in the wind speed and sand deposition. Turbulence also can
create areas of high velocity that can result in erosion or abrasion. For these reasons,
design elements and roadside features and furniture within the road corridor should
provide the most aerodynamic profile possible, facing the prevailing wind direction.
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Highway pavements are usually smoother than natural soil. Consequently, they
provide less friction for wind and, thus, tend to promote an increase in wind speed
that limits deposition of sand particles and their accumulation on the road surface.
Elevating the road platform above the desert floor can further help in keeping the
roadway surface clear of sand.
To avoid creating turbulence, earthwork side slopes should be fairly flat. Typically in
dune areas, 1V:10H maximum slopes should be used for cuttings and 1V:6H maximum
should be used for fill slopes. Wide toe-ditches of 3-m minimum width should be
provided to allow for the accumulation of deposited sand.
At selected locations and only in very special circumstances, steeper slopes of 1V:6H
maximum for cuttings and 1V:4H maximum for fill slopes might be adopted,
depending on the type of sand and frequency of sandstorms in the project area. The use
of steeper gradients will, however, be subject to the agreement to a Departure from
Standard by the Overseeing Organization, and detailed design should not commence until
that agreement is in place. The request for a Departure from Standards should be fully
evidenced and, where appropriate, might include a physical test—possibly at reduced
scale compared to the proposed works—conducted at critical locations on the project
site.
The design principles for highways in dune areas include the following:
• Highway alignment
− The highway should be located on the windward side of large dunes or
isolated dune fields.
− Alignments running parallel to the prevailing wind direction will present less
potential for sand accumulation.
− Grade lines should be kept above the elevation of upwind topography as
much as possible.
− Through-cuts and cuts to the upwind dune slopes should be avoided as much
as possible.
− Superelevation should not exceed 4 percent, and horizontal curvatures in
particular should be set such that this can be achieved.
− Alignments should be located to minimize the need for drainage provision,
particularly box culverts.
− When an upwind dune crest is above the roadway elevation, whether the
road is in cut or in fill, it is necessary to determine the relative positions of
the dune crest and the edge of road to determine the method of stabilization
needed (see Appendix B).
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• Slopes
− The general aerodynamic features of the natural topography should be
maintained to prevent or reduce sand accumulation, erosion, or both that
might affect the integrity of the roadway.
− Cut slopes should be 1V:10H or flatter, regardless of material excavated.
− Fill slopes should be 1V:6H or flatter when the maximum height of fill does
not exceed 4 m.
• Medians
− Wide, shallow medians should be used where possible to remove any need
for median safety barriers.
− Drainage drop inlet structures, if used in medians, should be designed with
flat grates.
− To ensure that medians are kept clear of sand accumulation, paving the
median could be considered. Paving would provide a similar friction
resistance to that of the road to avoid differential friction that could create
turbulence or reduce wind velocity, resulting in sand deposition and
accumulation.
• Highway and structures construction, highway furniture, and planting
− Highway curbs should not be used.
− Raised pavement markers should be avoided where possible because their
protrusion could produce a break in wind speed and result in sand deposition.
− Bridge openings at grade separations must be as large and clear as possible.
Elimination of piers by increasing bridge spans is desirable. Bridge railings
should be the “open tubular” type, while bridge deck sections should be
designed to be as aerodynamic as possible.
− Vehicle restraint systems should be avoided wherever possible, which should
generally be practical where slopes are flatter than 1V:5H. If a vehicle
restraint system is required, steel beam and concrete barriers should not be
employed, and open-cable-type construction should be used.
− Where feasible, signs should be mounted on grade-separation bridges rather
than creating additional supporting structures at ground level.
− Structures or roadside items that might cause an obstruction to the natural
flow of the wind or cause wind turbulence should be avoided.
− Consideration should be given to the use of wire fencing developed for
specific use as a right-of-way fence in sand dune areas. This fence type is
more open than chain link. Other types of fence that have a tendency to trap
paper and debris, which can cause sand deposition.
− The top of concrete foundations for items such as small supports and fence
posts, where used, should be at least 100 mm below the sand surface.
− Planting should be limited.
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6.3.3 Design and Construction Considerations

Dune sands, known as aeolian sands, essentially lack cohesion and are single sized.
Although they can be used for embankment construction both in and outside dune
areas, some precautions are necessary. Unless placed quite flat or appropriately
confined, dune sands are readily susceptible to sloughing due to vibration and erosion
by both wind and water. To use dune sands in embankment construction, the sand
core typically is confined with an outer shell of less-erosive soils. Figure 6.1 presents
basic dimensions for sand dune embankments.
Figure 6.1 Typical Schematic Embankment Using Dune Sand Fill
Highway construction in sandy and sand dune areas presents unique challenges for
contractors unfamiliar with practices and methods in such areas. The most common
approach for road construction is to establish a working platform at the base of the
embankment; otherwise, sand can cause substantial rolling resistance for
construction equipment and vehicles.
Figure 6.2 presents a detailed section showing the typical construction layers for an
embankment that uses sand fill, highlighting the disposition of the capping material
on the sides and the series of working platforms constructed in the core of the fill.
To start the construction process, the area of sand fill is normally rolled with steel
rollers, after which, a 50-mm working platform is spread and compacted. Spreading of
this layer is usually performed by end-tipping by truck and spreading forward onto the
in situ dune sand by bulldozers. In this way, the contractor’s hauling equipment is not
subject to the high rolling resistance of the dry sand, and the sand is intermixed with
the working platform material.
The establishment of this initial working platform is necessary to provide a firm

foundation upon which the embankment can be constructed in uniform layers. It is
generally impractical to require a high degree of compaction in this working platform
because the support from the underlying dry sand can be quite variable. A minimum
of 90 percent maximum dry density is usually acceptable.
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Figure 6.2 Sand Dune Fill—Embankment Planting
On top of the working platform, uniform layers of sand, not exceeding 200 mm
compacted thickness, can be placed by forward spreading and can be compacted with
steel-wheeled rollers to 95 percent maximum dry density. Trucks with high tire-
contact pressure should not be used on dry sand embankment areas until after the
subsequent intermediate capping layers have been placed and compacted.
6.3.4 Dune Stabilization

Stabilizing dunes and other loose-sand areas involves immobilizing the sand. The
figures in Appendix B depict typical details of dune stabilization works.
In the case of small to medium Barchan dunes, stabilizing the crest and wings of a
dune causes the trough of the dune to trap sand. Sand then accumulates in the trough
until an aerodynamic profile to the dune is established. Once established, that profile
will usually remain essentially stable, even without any subsequent stabilization of the
trapped sand.
Dune stabilization may be performed in other ways. The application of a gravel

blanket will provide a protective layer that is not as susceptible to erosion or saltation.
The dune sand can be treated to bind the sand particles and provide some cohesion
through the application of crude oil, crude-oil blends, and emulsified asphalts. Some
chemical stabilizers also can be used; however, their effect is usually temporary.
Stabilizing large dunes with complete coverage can be quite expensive. However,
treated strips created perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing winds can be
successful in immobilizing large dune features. The width of untreated area between
the stabilized strips should not exceed 4 m to maintain the effectiveness of the
treatment. Wider untreated areas will encourage sand movement and erosion of the
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treated strips. Strip stabilization may be achieved by spray application or by injection

methods. Injection methods provide greater control with respect to the applied width
and depth of penetration, which is reflected in the typical treatment patterns used, as
shown in Figure B.10 in Appendix B.
The depth of penetration of sprayed materials varies with the type of material being
sprayed, the type and natural density of the dune sand, and to a lesser extent the rate
of application.
The use of sand fencing is effective in immobilizing dunes but ultimately requires
frequent maintenance. As each fence installation becomes buried, it must be
extended in height. Raising the height effectively can result in the trapping of many
thousands of cubic meters of sand, if properly maintained. Sand fences should be
considered on the upwind side of an interchange in a dune area. For such
installations, two or more parallel rows of fencing should be located perpendicular to
the prevailing wind. The upwind fence will likely fill in very quickly and will need to be
raised first. The second and possibly third fence downwind can be used to gauge the
rate of sand accumulation to plan future fence installations and maintenance (see
Figure B.12 in Appendix B). Vegetation also can be used to stabilize dune areas. The
arid environment of Qatar, however, makes the use of this method extremely limited.
6.3.5 Dune Destruction

In certain instances, commonly where dunes have migrated to a location close to a
road, it may be desirable to destroy them (see Figure B.13 in Appendix B). For
example, dune destruction might be beneficial where an overhead power line lies
between the highway and an approaching dune. Destruction or lowering of this dune
would preserve the vertical clearance to the power line.
The forces of the wind can be used to erode and lower a dune formation by orienting
strip stabilization in a direction parallel to the prevailing wind. For smaller dune
features, differential oiling of the wings or the center section of the crescent-shaped
dunes can be effective in inducing dune destruction.
Extreme caution must be exercised when using dune destruction because the eroding
sand must pass across the downwind road section. Aerodynamic slopes combined
with minimal obstructions will be essential to facilitate the sand moving across the
highway and prevent it from being deposited on the road surface. The downwind side
of the road also should be evaluated so that the increased sand accumulation coming
to this area does not cause new problems.
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References
Bagnold, Ralph A. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen & Company: London,
England. 1941.
Barton N., Lien R. and Lunde J. 1974. Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of
tunnel support. Rock Mechanics, 6(4): 189-236.
Bieniawski Z. T. 1973. Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Trans. S. African Inst. Civ.
Engners, 15(12): 335-344.
Bieniawski Z. T. 1989. Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley, New York.
BS 1377-4:1990. Part 4: Compaction-related Tests. Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering
Purposes. British Standards Institution: London, England. 1990.
BS 5228-1:2009+A1:2014. Code of Practice for Noise and Vibration Control on Construction and
Open Sites—Part 1: Noise. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 5607:1998. Code of Practice for the Safe use of Explosives in the Construction Industry. British
Standards Institution: London, England. 1998.
BS 6031:2009. Code of Practice for Earthworks. British Standards Institution: London, England.
2009.
BS 6472-1:2008. Guide to Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration in Buildings—Part 1:

Vibration Sources Other than Blasting.. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 6472-2:2008. Guide to Evaluation of Human Exposure to Vibration in Buildings—Part 2: Blast-

Induced Vibration. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2008.
BS 7385-2:1993. Evaluation and Measurement for Vibration in Buildings—Part 2: Guide to

Damage Levels from Groundborne Vibration. British Standards Institution. 1993.
BS EN 1997-1:2004. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules. 2004 (incorporating

corrigendum February 2009). British Standards Institution: London, England. 2010.
BS ISO 4866:2010. Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Vibration of Fixed Structures – Guidelines for
the Measurement of Vibrations and Evaluation of their Effects on Structures. British Standards
Institution. 2010.
Department for Transport. “Construction of Highway Earthworks.” Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges. Volume 4, Section 1, Part 5. HA 70/94. UK Highways Agency: London, England. 1994.
Fookes, P. G. and M. Sweeny. “Stabilization and Control of Local Rock Falls and Degrading Rock
Slopes.” Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology. Vol. 9. pp. 37–55. 1976.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 33
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Hoek, Evert, and John W. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering. Revised 3rd edition. Spon Press for
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy: London, England. 1981.
Hoek, Evert, Carlos Carranza-Torres, and Brent Corkum. “Hoek-Brown Criterion – 2002 Edition.”
Proceedings of the 5th North American Rock Mechanics Symposium and the 17th Tunnelling
Association of Canada Conference (NARMS-TAC 2002), Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
https://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references/H2002.pdf. Volume 1. pp. 267-273. 7-10 July
2002.
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM). Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring
I.S.R.M. Suggested Methods. Ed. E. T. Brown. Pergamon Press: Oxford, England. 1981.
Ministerie van Volkshuisvestig. “Circular on Target Values and Intervention Values for Soil
Remediation” Dutch Target and Intervention Values 2000 (the New Dutch List). Dutch Ministry of
Housing Spatial Planning & Environment.
http://www.esdat.net/Environmental%20Standards/Dutch/annexS_I2000Dutch%20Environment
al%20Standards.pdf. Updated Soil Remediation Circular:
http://www.esdat.com.au/Environmental%20Standards/Dutch/ENGELSE%20versie%20circulaire
%20Bodemsanering%202009.pdf. Government of the Netherlands: Amsterdam, Netherlands.
2000. Updated 2009.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards. State of Qatar: Doha,
Qatar. 2011.
Ministry of Industry and Public Works. The Guide for Civil Users of Explosives in Qatar. State of
Ministry of Transport and Communication. Highway Design Standards. Prepared by Dar

Al-Handasah (Shair and Partners) for Sultanate of Oman. 2010.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Groundborne Vibration Caused by Mechanised Construction

Works. TRL Report 429. UK Highways Agency: Berkshire, England. 2000.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Use of Intelligent Compaction Technology. TRL Published
Project Report PPR406. Berkshire, England. August 28, 2009.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Rock Engineering Guides to Good Practice: Road Rock Slope
Excavation. TRL Published Project Report PPR556. Berkshire, England. October 5, 2011a.
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL). Rock Slope Risk Assessment. TRL Published Project
Report PPR554. Berkshire, England. October 24, 2011b.
PAGE 34 VOLUME 2
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Appendix A
Potential Modes of
Slope Failure
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Table A.1 Potential Modes of Slope Failure

Failure Mode Description Sketch
Rotational—Circular Rotational slide—Rotation of a mass of soil
along a curved slip surface.
Circular slide—Rotational slide on a slip

surface that is roughly circular.
Rotational— Noncircular slide—Rotational slide on a slip

Noncircular plane that is not wholly circular.
Translational Translational slide—Movement of a shallow

soil mass in a plane roughly parallel to the
slope due to weakness on the plane.
Compound Compound slide—Movement of a soil mass

that combines the characteristics of a
rotational slide and a translational slide.
Flow slides Flow slide, mud flow—Translational slide in

saturated soil, caused by a sudden increase
in pore water pressure in which the soil
flows as a viscous liquid.
Debris slide—Translational slide of debris,

forming a mantle on a slope or the
disturbed material at the toe of a rotational
slide, when rainfall or diverted surface
water causes downward movement of the
debris. Includes debris flows.
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Slab slide Slab slide—Translational slide in which the
sliding mass remains more or less intact.
Usually occurs in the weathered surface of a
slope.
Block slide Block slide—Translational slide in which a

block of relatively strong rock or stiff to hard
clay moves down a slope as a unit.
Progressive failure Progressive failure can occur in a mass of

brittle soil when it is not loaded uniformly.
Failure first develops along a rupture
surface or zone within part of the soil mass
and as the post-peak strains within the
failure zone increase; the soil strength
within the failure zone reduces from peak
toward residual. Final rupture of the soil
mass occurs before the failure surface has
developed fully.
Scour Removal of soil from the ground surface by
surface water that might be flowing within a
watercourse or occur as floodwater or
surface water run-off. Scour is a common
problem for slopes, riverbanks, or around
structures. On slopes, scour erosion can
quickly lead to the development of gullies.
Surface water runoff erosion of earthworks

also are referred to as “washouts.”
Internal erosion Loss of soil from a slope face as a

consequence of seepage of groundwater
from a preferential flow path at the slope
face (often referred to as piping), or the
slumping of a saturated mass of soil
prompted by water seeping through a slope
(commonly referred to as slumping or
sloughing).
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Rock slope—plane A block of relatively strong rock or stiff to
failure hard clay moves down slope as a unit on a
plane of weakness in the form of a fissure or
joint.
Rock slope—wedge Three-dimensional occurs when a wedge of

failure rock or stiff clay slides bodily forward and
downward on two or three well-defined
joint planes that intersect behind the slope.
Rock slope—toppling Toppling failures occur in rock slopes where

failures discontinuities behind the face are steeply
inclined.
Falls Falls occur from steeply cut faces in soils,

such as excavations for trenches or
foundation pits when only short-term
stability is required. Cracks open behind the
face as a result of stress relief or drying
shrinkage. Failure occurs near the base of
the freestanding column of soil bounded by
the crack system, and the mass of soil falls
forward or slides into the cut.
Source: BS 6031:2009. Code of Practice for Earthworks. British Standards Institution. 2009.
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Appendix B
Dune Areas and
Example Treatment
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Sand Movements and Deposition

A dune is a hill of sand built by aeolian processes: the wind’s ability to shape the surface of the
earth. Dunes exist in different forms and sizes based on their interaction with the wind. Most
dune shapes are longer on the windward side, where the sand is pushed up the dune, and
shorter on the slip face in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a
slack. Figure B.1 shows the general shape of a sand dune.
Figure B.1 Sand Dune General Shape
A dune field is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. The southeast coast of Qatar and central
south area of the state are dominated by sand dunes occasionally interrupted by interdune areas
occupied by sabkha plains, further details of which are given in Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual. As part of site reconnaissance, the
designer should assess whether the proposed highway route is located in a mobile dune area and
the degree of hazard to which the proposed facilities will be subject due to windblown sand.
Sand dune areas present exceptional challenges to the designers of roads and associated
facilities. During sandstorms, blowing and shifting sand flows like fluid, filling every gap and
tracing each contour until a drop of momentum is encountered, resulting sand deposition. Sand
flow and deposition affect not only the maintenance costs of a facility but also user safety. It is
virtually impossible to eliminate all problems and hazards associated with blowing sand given
variations in site and sand conditions, the ever-changing wind direction, and natural topography.
In the absence of moist or cohesive binders, which is typical of sand dune areas in Qatar, the
movement of sand particles is largely a function of wind velocity and particle size. The research of
Ralph A. Bagnold (1941), as well as wind tunnel experiments and field observations in the Libyan
Desert, provide a basic foundation for theories and equation of sand movements.
To show the amount of sand that could accumulate on a roadway or within a facility, Figure B.2
presents a plot of wind speed versus rate of sand erosion per square meter as determined from
wind tunnel tests.
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Figure B.2 Wind Speed versus Quantity of Sand Movement
Sand movement in dune areas occurs in four basic modes:
1. Suspension: The movement of sand particles in suspension occurs when the upward wind
velocity component exceeds the downward gravitational forces of the sand grain size. The
sand particle assumes the wind speed and becomes suspended. This mode of movement
dominates during high-speed wind with associated with sandstorms or dust storms.
Depending on wind velocity, this mode of transport is limited to particles smaller than
0.08 mm.
2. Saltation: Saltation is particle transport wind or the more dense fluid, water. It occurs when
loose material is removed from a bed and carried by the fluid, before being transported back
to the bed surface. Saltation occurs during moderate wind velocities, at what is known as the
“fluid threshold” wind velocity, capable of lifting a sand grain and carrying it forward in the
wind direction. As the sand grain falls back to the bed surface, it either bounces back up or
hits and ejects other grains, which in turn move forward bounding and ejecting other sand
grains. Once such a process is initiated by blowing wind, it propagates downwind and
intensifies or fades depending on wind speed increase or decrease. Figure B.3 presents the
path of a single sand grain in saltation. Figure B.4 shows the paths of multiple sand grains in
saltation.
Figure B.3 Path of a Single Particle in Saltation
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Figure B.4 Sand Particles in Saltation
In a naturally graded dune, less than 5 percent of sand movement occurs by suspension, 75 to
80 percent occurs by saltation, and 20 to 25 percent occurs by creep. Figure B.5 presents the
theoretical relationship between grain size and mode of transport and the percentages of each
mode for a naturally graded sand dune.
Figure B.5 Grain Size Related to Movement Mode with Percentages for Each Mode
Figure B.6 through Figure B.13 present details related to dune stabilization and dune destruction
measures.
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Figure B.6 Dune Stabilization
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Figure B.7 (1 of 2) Dune Treatment in Fill Section Stabilization
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Figure B.7 (2 of 2) Dune Treatment in Fill Section Stabilization
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Figure B.8 Dune Treatment in Cut Section Stabilization
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Figure B.9 Small and Intermediate Dune Immobilization
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Figure B.10 Large Dune Immobilization
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Figure B.11 Dune Stabilization with Sand Fence
Figure B.12 Major Interchange Dune Stabilization with Sand Fencing
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Figure B.13 Dune Destruction
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Volume 2
Part 15
Ground Investigation and Aspects
of Geotechnical Design Guide
VOLUME 2 PART 15
GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 15
Contents Page
Nomenclature and Symbols ..................................................................................................... xi
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
2 Qatar General Geology and Geotechnical Hazards ..........................................................3

2.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Geology of the Region ................................................................................................. 3
2.2.1 Solid Geology ................................................................................................ 4
2.2.2 Superficial Geology....................................................................................... 9
2.3 Characteristics of Qatar Strata .................................................................................. 11
2.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 11
2.3.2 Aeolian Sands ............................................................................................. 12
2.3.3 Sabkha ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.4 Marine Sediments ...................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 Continental Sediments ............................................................................... 14
2.3.6 Residual Soils .............................................................................................. 14
2.3.7 Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)................................................. 14
2.3.8 Rus Formation Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and
Sulfate Facies) ............................................................................................ 14
2.4 Groundwater Problems in Qatar ............................................................................... 18
3 Preliminary Sources Study ............................................................................................21

3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Scope of Preliminary Sources Study .......................................................................... 21
4 Ground Investigation Planning ......................................................................................23

4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 23
4.3 Ground Investigations Proposals ............................................................................... 25
4.3.1 Phasing of Ground Investigation ................................................................ 25
4.3.2 Guidelines for Overall Coverage of Exploratory Hole Spacing
and Depth ................................................................................................... 26
4.3.3 Ground Investigation Requirements with Regard to
Contaminated Land .................................................................................... 27
4.4 Soils and Rocks Sampling and Testing to Obtain Engineering Parameters
for Use in Geotechnical Design.................................................................................. 33
4.4.1 General ....................................................................................................... 33
4.4.2 Difficulties in Parameter Determination .................................................... 34
4.4.3 Natural Variability and Variability due to Past Land Use ........................... 38
4.4.4 Sampling and Testing Procedures .............................................................. 38
4.4.5 Interpretation ............................................................................................. 40
4.5 Guidelines for Typically Required Engineering Parameters ...................................... 42
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4.6 In Situ Tests for Determining Soils, Groundwater, and Rock Properties and
Engineering Parameters............................................................................................. 42
4.7 Laboratory Tests for Determining Soil, Groundwater, and Rock Properties and
Engineering Parameters............................................................................................. 43
4.7.1 Soils and Groundwater ............................................................................... 43
4.7.2 Rock ............................................................................................................ 54
4.8 Monitoring Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 57
5 Ground Investigation Procurement ............................................................................... 59

5.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Procurement of a Ground Investigation Company .................................................... 59
5.2.1 Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel ................................................ 60
5.2.2 Laboratory Quality ...................................................................................... 61
5.3 Ground Investigation Company Performance ........................................................... 62
6 Ground Investigation Specification and Bill of Quantities.............................................. 63

6.1 Specification and Bill of Quantities ............................................................................ 63
6.2 Specification of Ground Investigation of Contaminated Land................................... 64
7 In Situ Testing and Its Interpretation ............................................................................ 67

7.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 67
7.2 Standard Penetration Testing .................................................................................... 67
7.2.1 Influence of Different Practices and Equipment on SPT Results ................ 68
7.2.2 Corrections Applied to SPT Results ............................................................ 70
7.2.3 Engineering Parameters and Direct Design Methods ................................ 72
7.3 Cone Penetration Testing .......................................................................................... 73
7.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 73
7.3.2 Test Methods .............................................................................................. 75
7.3.3 Factors that Can Affect CPT Results ........................................................... 75
7.3.4 Presentation of Results .............................................................................. 76
7.3.5 Soils Characteristics, Engineering Parameters, Direct Design
Methods and Other Applications ............................................................... 78
7.4 Dynamic Cone Penetration Testing ........................................................................... 80
7.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 80
7.4.2 Description of DCPT Equipment and Operation of Equipment .................. 80
7.4.3 DCPT Application ........................................................................................ 81
7.4.4 DCPT Data Analysis ..................................................................................... 82
7.4.5 Relationship between Penetration Index and Other Geotechnical
Parameters ................................................................................................. 82
7.5 In Situ Density Tests ................................................................................................... 83
7.6 Pressuremeter Tests .................................................................................................. 84
7.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 84
7.6.2 Test methods .............................................................................................. 85
7.6.3 Factors that can affect pressuremeter test results .................................... 86
7.6.4 Data Processing and Results Presentation ................................................. 87
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7.7 Packer Testing (Lugeon)............................................................................................. 89

7.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 89
7.7.2 Test Methods ............................................................................................. 89
7.7.3 Factors that can affect packer test results ................................................. 90
7.8 Falling/Rising/Constant Head Permeability Tests ..................................................... 90
7.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 90
7.8.2 Test Methods, Data Processing, and Results Presentation ........................ 90
7.9 Infiltration testing ...................................................................................................... 91
8 Geophysical Surveys .....................................................................................................93

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 93
8.2 Planning ..................................................................................................................... 94
8.3 Seismic ....................................................................................................................... 95
8.4 Electrical Resistivity ................................................................................................... 97
8.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar ........................................................................................ 97
8.6 Microgravity............................................................................................................... 98
8.7 Borehole Geophysics ................................................................................................. 98
8.8 Procurement of Geophysical Survey Work................................................................ 99
9 Ground Investigation Reporting .................................................................................. 103

9.1 Description of Soils and Rocks, Borehole and Trial Pit Records .............................. 103
9.2 Laboratory Test Reporting ....................................................................................... 103
9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical Data ................................................................ 103
10 Geotechnical Design ................................................................................................... 105

10.1 Interpretative Ground Model .................................................................................. 105
10.2 Selection of Geotechnical Design Parameters......................................................... 106
10.3 Geotechnical Design ................................................................................................ 108
10.4 Seismic Loading ....................................................................................................... 110
10.5 Ground Improvement .............................................................................................. 110
10.6 Underground Structures and Roadway Tunnels ..................................................... 119
11 Trenchless Installation of Services below Roads .......................................................... 121

11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 121
11.2 Trenchless Technology Methods ............................................................................. 121
11.3 Managing Risk Associated with Trenchless Methods .............................................. 122
11.4 Geotechnical Certification ....................................................................................... 125
References ........................................................................................................................... 127
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 145
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Tables
Table 2.1 Qatar Main Soils and Bedrock Strata Units ....................................................... 11
Table 4.1 Guidelines for Overall Exploratory Holes Spacings for Detailed Design ............ 28
Table 4.2 Guidelines for Exploratory Holes Depths .......................................................... 31
Table 4.3 Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units ......................... 35
Table 4.4 Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units ....................... 37
Table 4.5 Proposed Sampling Techniques for Qatar Soils ................................................. 39
Table 4.6 Guidelines on the Minimum Number of Samples to be Tested for
Particular Soils Laboratory Tests ....................................................................... 41
Particular Rock Laboratory Test ........................................................................ 42
Table 4.8 Design Considerations, Engineering Parameters and Testing
Requirements for Road Projects........................................................................ 44
Table 4.9 Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly
Determined from In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects.................................... 47
Table 4.10 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from
Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects ......................................................... 49
Table 4.11 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from
Table 4.12 Groundwater Properties Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for
Qatar Road Projects ........................................................................................... 53
Table 4.13 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from
Table 4.14 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from
Table 4.15 Typical Instrumentation for Qatar Road Projects.............................................. 57
Table 6.1 Site Categorization in Relation to the Ground Investigation of Landfills and
Contaminated Land ........................................................................................... 65
Table 7.1 Correction Factors in Sands for Rod Length ...................................................... 70
Table 7.2 Correction Factors CN for Vertical Effective Stress (σv’) due to Overburden of
the Soils ............................................................................................................. 71
Table 7.3 Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from SPT Results ........................ 72
Table 7.4 Soil Characteristics and Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived
from Cone Penetration Testing Results ............................................................. 79
Table 7.5 Tests Commonly Undertaken for Qatar Road Projects for Determining
the In Situ Density of Soils ................................................................................. 83
Table 8.1 Summary of Geophysical Survey Techniques and their Application ................. 95
Table 8.2 Summary of Uses and Limitations of Frequently Used Seismic Methods ......... 96
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Table 10.1 International Standards and References Commonly Used for Geotechnical
Design in Qatar Road Projects ......................................................................... 111
Table 10.2 International Standards—Limit State Geotechnical Design ............................ 112
Table 10.3 Summary of Seismic Hazard Studies Results for Qatar at Various
Return Periods ................................................................................................. 116
Table 10.4 Suggested Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in
Preliminary Seismic Design.............................................................................. 117
Table 10.5 Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in Preliminary
Seismic Design ................................................................................................. 117
Table 11.1 Trenchless Technology Methods ..................................................................... 122
Table 11.2 Trenchless Technology Method Main Risks .................................................... 124
Table 11.3 Summary of Levels of Risk for Trenchless Technology Installations
below Roads .................................................................................................... 124
Figures
Figure 7.1 Cone Penetrometer Components ..................................................................... 75

Figure 7.2 Structure of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer........................................................ 81
Figure 8.1 Refraction Methodology ................................................................................... 96
Figure 10.1 Examples of Moderately Conservative and Worst Credible Values and
Parameters ...................................................................................................... 108
Appendixes
Appendix A Qatar Geological Map, Litho-Stratigraphy, Tectonic Setting, and Earthquake

Maps ................................................................................................................ 149
Appendix B Qatar Soils and Rock Strata Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks ............. 155
Appendix C Preliminary Sources Study ............................................................................... 159
Appendix D Example Template Evaluation Sheets for Ground Investigation Companies .. 167
Appendix E Template Bill of Quantities for Ground Investigation ..................................... 177
Appendix F SPT Corrections Spreadsheet Template .......................................................... 209
Appendix G Cone Penetration Testing ................................................................................ 213
Appendix H Borehole Geophysical Techniques .................................................................. 217
Appendix I Example Exploratory Hole Record ................................................................... 223
Appendix J Example Geological Profiles ............................................................................ 229
Appendix K Trenchless Installations ................................................................................... 233
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AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists
AS aeolian sand
ASD Allowable Stress Design
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS British Standards Institution
CBR California bearing ratio
CIRIA Construction Industry Research and Information Association
cm2 square centimeter(s)
CPT cone penetration test
CPTU cone penetration test with porewater pressure measurement
CU+PWP consolidated undrained with porewater pressure measurement (triaxial test)
DCPT dynamic cone penetration test
GIS geographic information system
GPR ground-penetrating radar
H horizontal
IBC International Building Code
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials
ICE Institution of Civil Engineers
IRTP International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test
ISSMFE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
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ISSMGE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
ISRM International Society for Rock Mechanics
kg kilogram(s)
kPa kilopascal(s)
L/sec liter(s) per second
L/min liter(s) per minute
LRFD Load and Resistance Factored Design
LSD Limit State Design
MASW multichannel analysis of surface waves (related to geophysical survey)
m meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
m/sec meter(s) per second
mm/sec millimeter(s) per second
MPa megapascal(s)
PGA peak ground acceleration
PIdc Penetration Index
R rock
S sabkha
SASW spectral analysis of surface waves (related to geophysical survey)
SLS serviceability limit state
SPT standard penetration test
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
TV television
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UCS uniaxial compressive strength
UK United Kingdom
ULS ultimate limit state
U.S. United States of America
USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
UU unconsolidated undrained (triaxial test)
V vertical
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Nomenclature and Symbols
Symbol Units Property or Engineering Parameter

c’ kPa (kN/m2)a Drained cohesion intercept
cr kPa (kN/m2)a Remolded shear strength
cr’ kPa (kN/m2)a Drained residual cohesion intercept
c’crit kPa (kN/m2)a Critical state cohesion intercept (usually zero)
CN — Correction factor related to standard penetration test (SPT) rod length
cu kPa (kN/m2)a Undrained shear strength
cv m2/yr Coefficient of consolidation (one dimensional)
CaCO3 % Carbonate content (total)
CBR % California bearing ratio
Cl %, mg/L Chloride (total, water soluble)
Dr — Relative density
Ip % Plasticity index (PI)
E MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity
E’ MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (drained)
Eh mV Redox potential
E’0.01 & Es MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain)
Er — Energy ratio of SPT hammer
Eu MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (undrained)
fs MPa Sleeve friction- cone penetration test
G MPa (MN/m2)a Shear modulus
Gmax MPa (MN/m2)a Very low strain shear modulus
Gs MPa Shear modulus (small strain/initial modulus)
γ Mg/m3 Bulk density/Mass density
I50 — Point load index, axial (I50a), diametral (l50d), lump (I50l)
ID — Density index
j — Mass factor j
k m/sec Coefficient of permeability, horizontal (kh), vertical (kv) as appropriate
Ko — Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
ks kN/m3 Modulus of subgrade reaction
LL % Moisture content at liquid limit (wI)
m — Rock material constant
mv m2/MN Coefficient of volume compressibility (one dimensional)
n % Porosity
N — SPT blow count (uncorrected)
N60 — SPT blow count corrected to a standard energy ratio of 60 percent of the
theoretical free-fall hammer energy (and rod length where appropriate)
(N1)60 — SPT blow count corrected to a standard energy ratio of 60 percent of the
theoretical free-fall hammer energy (and rod length where appropriate) and the
effective overburden pressure
OCR — Overconsolidation ratio
PI % Plasticity index
PIdc mm/blow Penetration index (dynamic cone penetration test)
PL % Moisture content at Plastic limit (wp)
PSD — Particle size distribution
qc MPa Cone resistance—cone penetration test
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Symbol Units Property or Engineering Parameter

RMR — Rock mass rating
rs Ohms.m Apparent resistivity
s — Rock material constant
SO4 %, mg/L Sulfate (total, water soluble)
u kN/m2 Porewater pressure
UCS MPa Uniaxial compressive strength
ν — Poisson’s ratio
ν’ — Drained Poisson’s ratio
νu — Undrained Poisson’s ratio
w % Moisture content
wI % Liquid limit (LL)
wp % Plastic limit (PL)
γd Mg/m3 Dry density
γdmax Mg/m3 Maximum dry density
γdmin Mg/m3 Minimum dry density
λ — Correction factor related to SPT rod length
ρs Mg/m3 Particle density
σh kPa (kN/m2)a In situ horizontal stress
σv kPa (kN/m2)a In situ vertical stress
φ’ degrees Peak drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
φ’crit degrees Critical state drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
φr’ degrees Residual drained (effective stress) angle of shear resistance
Notes:
a Units in brackets also commonly used.
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1 Introduction
This part provides guidance on Qatar soils and bedrock strata and the geotechnical
hazards they can present. It also provides guidance on undertaking preliminary
sources studies, the planning and procurement of ground investigations, in situ and
laboratory testing, and geotechnical design.
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2 Qatar General Geology and

Geotechnical Hazards
2.1 Overview
This chapter presents a general description of the geology of the region and a
generalized interpretation of the characteristics of Qatar strata and the typical
geotechnical hazards that they may present, based on available factual and
interpretative data from several sources. The generalized interpretation does not
necessarily reflect variations that can occur in the vertical and horizontal geology
across the country. The specific geology at a project site should therefore, be
established based on the procedures detailed in this Part and in Part 16, Geotechnical
Risk Management, of this manual. The Designer’s Geotechnical Advisor (DGA) shall
have the sole responsibility to ensure that the geotechnical data are complete and
accurately represents the ground conditions across the project site.
2.2 Geology of the Region

Figure A.1 in Appendix A is a geological map of Qatar. Table A.1 lists the litho-
stratigraphy of Qatar.
Qatar is an exposed part of the Arabian Shelf, between the stable Arabian Shield of
western Saudi Arabia and the Mobile Belt of southwestern Iran. It is located within
the interior platform of the shelf, between the basins of the northern Arabian Gulf
and the Rub Al Khali desert. Within those basins, sedimentation was mostly
continuous, and the deposits are relatively thick. The tilting and continuous gradual
subsidence of the region to the north and east started in Permian time. The
accumulation of large volumes of sediments on the shallow southern margin of the
Tethys Ocean led to instability and orogenic movement that created a regional
homocline.
Although Qatar is within the relatively stable interior platform of the Arabian Shelf, its
proximity to the Tethys Ocean to the northeast resulted in gentle tectonic activity in
the region. The tectonics persisted over a considerable period and produced
significant folding. The largest of the folds is the Qatar Arch, a broad, gently warped
anticline with a north-south axis through the Qatar peninsular. The Qatar Arch is
truncated in the west by the larger Dukhan Anticline, as shown in Figure A.1 in
Appendix A.
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The solid geology of Qatar comprises Eocene and Miocene formations of the Tertiary
Period. In western Qatar, the Midra Shale and Dukhan Limestone Members (of middle
Eocene-Lutetian age) uncomfortably overlie the Rus Formation (of Ypresian age). In
northeastern Qatar, the Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone)
overlies the Rus Formation, and the entire Midra Shale unit is absent (Boukhary and
Alsharhan, 1998).
Superficial deposits are thin to absent across much of Qatar, with geological maps
showing rock outcrop. Significant thickness of superficial deposits are, however,
present in the southeast of the county dominated by aeolian sand dunes. Superficial
deposits of residual soils are to be found within the center of Qatar. Along the
coastlines of Qatar, there are areas dominated by surficial deposits of sabkha and
evaporates, and thick marine sediments including marine silts, marine sands, and
caprock (calcarenite).
2.2.1 Solid Geology

Discussion on the solid geology strata is restricted to the Tertiary formations that
extend to almost 150 meters (m) below ground. Deeper formations would not be
expected to be encountered in highway construction. The following Tertiary
formation lithologies are discussed below:
• Umm Er-Radhuma
• Rus Formation
• Damman Formation
• Dam Formation
• Hofuf Formation
2.2.1.1 Umm Er-Radhuma (60 million to 54 million years ago)

The Umm Er-Radhuma Formation is not known to outcrop in Qatar, but it has been
proven in several locations across the country in deep boreholes at depths in excess
of 100 m. The formation exceeds 300 m in thickness and generally comprises
dolomites of various harnesses, often fractured, with bands of chert, marl, and clay
intercalations (Cavelier, 1970).
2.2.1.2 Rus Formation (54 million to 50 million years ago)

During Rus Formation deposition, in the late Paleocene to early Eocene epochs, the
present Qatar peninsula had a lagoonal/supratidal sabkha environment. The seawater
level was generally high with frequent regression events (Ziegler, 2001).
The thickness of the Rus Formation in Qatar is based on borehole results. The
formation displays a minimal thickness of 28 m in Latariyah, within the sharp anticline
of the Qatar Arch. In the north of Qatar, the formation is up to 44 m thick and, in the
area surrounding Doha, up to 80 m thick.
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According to Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier,

1970), the Rus Formation consists of three members, of which only Unit 1 and Unit 2
are found in Qatar. The Units found in Qatar in stratigraphic order (oldest to
youngest) are as follows:
• Unit 1 (Al Khor limestone), characterized by the presence of a white, generally

weak, often porous limestone
• Unit 2 (undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies), characterized by the
presence of a highly variable anhydrite, compact, finely crystalline, with
interbedded green shale or grey marl, with interbedded shales and limestone
Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)

Unit 1, the uppermost part of the Rus Formation, is formed of a granular limestone of
calcarenite type, of average strength, greyish, sometimes with secondary
dolomitization, and often fossilliferous. It is generally of uniform 0.8 to 1 m thickness.
It is often referred to as the Al Khor Limestone and is well exposed in the Al Khor area
at the top of the coastal cliffs. Unit 1 is characterized by the presence of weak
limestone, and is whitish or yellowish due to oxidation, soft, of chalky aspect, with
thin intercalations of veins of greenish to brownish clay (from a few centimeters up to
0.50 m thick). Several beds of whitish to greyish dolomitic limestone, generally strong,
vesicular, often spongy or tufaceous in aspect, and of limited thickness, about 1 m,
have also been identified in the sedimentary sequence. Unit 1 outcrops in the west of
Qatar in the area of Djebel Dukhan and in the north and northwest around Lusail and
Al Khor.
Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and Sulfate Facies)

Unit 2 of the Rus Formation comprises undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies,
including marls, siltstones, and thin limestones with the numerous and extensive beds
of evaporates, mainly gypsum, and anhydrite. The gypsum beds, which individually
can be up to 4 m thick, are present beneath much of the current ground surface
throughout southern Qatar.
The Unit 2 deposits are generally divided in two subunits:
• Subunit 1, an upper predominantly carbonate facies developed over roughly 20 m

thickness and represented by calcarenite, calcisiltite, and limestone with thin
interbeds (roughly 0.5 m thick) claystone and calcilutite layers
• Subunit 2, a lower sulfate facies represented by massive gypsum and anhydrite
with incrustation of siltstone, calcarenite, and claystone.
Subunit 2 extends northward to a belt between the Dukhan Anticline, the central
Qatar Arch, and the area south of Al Khor. North of the belt, evaporates are absent
from the Rus Formation. The absence of the evaporates is probably a result of the
Qatar Arch rising during the Lower Eocene epoch, preventing their deposition. The
gypsum beds, where present, have been subjected to extensive dissolution by
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circulating groundwater, resulting in collapse of the overlying strata in places with

occasional development of collapse structures to ground surface.
North of Doha, in the West Bay and Lusail area, the sulfate facies (Subunit 2) is
replaced by a clay facies roughly 30 to 40 m in thickness. Toward the northern
boundary of the sulfate facies, the clay facies become more predominant. Sampling
by coring of the unit is very difficult, and often no cores are retrieved from the
borehole.
2.2.1.3 Dammam Formation (50 million to 33.7 million years ago)

During the middle to late Eocene epoch, the eustatic sea level gradually fell, and a
relatively small part of the Arabian Shield became exposed, at least at the beginning
of the depositional sequence (Ziegler, 2001). The wide eastern shelf of the Arabian
Plate was covered by the Dammam Formation and reached about 30 m in thickness.
The base of the Dammam unit is represented by an open-marine environment,
whereas the upper part indicates a shallow-marine environment and a siliciclastic
influence from the west (Ziegler, 2001).
According to Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier,

1970), the Dammam Formation consists of four members (oldest to youngest in
stratigraphic order):
• Midra Shale
• Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
• Umm Bab Limestone (formerly named Simsima Limestone)
• Arbarug Limestone
Midra Shale
The Midra Shale is located at the base of the Dammam Formation, and it consists of
pale yellow-orange to yellow-green shale and clay and very pale orange marl and
dolomite. The shales are finely fissile (papyraceous) and contain clays, dolomite, and
gypsum. The dolomitic marl is laminated and contains ferricrete. The Midra Shale
ranges between 2 m and about 6 m in thickness.
The maximum flooding surface during the Eocene epoch represents a key element in
correlation of lithologies throughout Qatar. That horizon is located in the lower part
of the Midra Shale, where argillaceous rocks rich in marine fossils such as shark teeth
and abundant allogenic palygorskite (attapulgite) are present.
Dukhan Alveolina Limestone

The Dukhan Alveolina Limestone Member is represented by a massive limestone,
generally about 1 m thick but which can be up to 2 m thick. It is characterized by a
hard, microcrystalline, partly recrystallized, and dolomitized limestone (Cagatay,
1990).
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The Dukhan Alveolina Limestone is fairly continuous, but occasionally the limestone is
divided by a bed of intercalated attapulgite shale. The limestone is characterized by
an abundance of Alveolina fossils. The spread of the Dukhan Limestone appears more
restricted than that of the lower shales in northwestern Qatar, but it is not likely to
have been recognized in some cases, because of intensive dolomitization that
obliterates the typical fauna.
Umm Bab Limestone (formerly called Simsima Limestone)

The official term for this member is the Umm Bab Limestone, but it is still frequently
referred by its former name, Simsima Limestone. The unit is widely present
throughout Qatar, except for localized areas where it has been removed by erosion. It
is known to be up to 15 m thick, the thickest development being in the extreme north
of Qatar, particularly away from the Qatar Arch anticline. The unit is believed to have
a restricted thickness over the Qatar Arch, the Simsima Arch, and Dukhan Anticline.
The lithology is essentially represented by a highly recrystallized chalky limestone. At

the base of unit (over a maximum thickness of 5 m) the lithology include marls and
thin stringers of attapulgite shales rich in fossils. Toward the bottom of the unit, the
unit is represented by a light cream and light brown limestone with many yellowish
brown stains. The less-crystalline nature of this horizon suggests a low diagenetic
process. This limestone generally tends to be more competent in situ, being less broken
and less brittle.
Abaruq Limestone
The upper part of the Dammam Formation, which is roughly 10 m thick, comprises a
slightly calcareous clayey dolomite, often brightly colored, compact at depth, but with
dusty surface weathering and nodules at the upper part. The upper 2 m thickness of
the unit comprises a yellowish grey to brown, crystalline, and moderately strong
calcareous dolomite. The only variations are related to the intensity of the
dolomitization, and to the clay content of the lower layers.
The Abaruq limestone has a very limited extent in Qatar, being identified only in the
hills of the Zekreet area. It is, however, widely present offshore towards Bahrain,
where it correlates well with the Orange Marl member.
2.2.1.4 Dam Formation

The Dam Formation represents a complete sabkha sequence in Miocene sediments
from offshore to continental deposits. Cavelier (1970) subdivided the formation into
two members, the lower Dam and the upper Dam. Dill et al. (2005) subsequently
refined the formation, subdividing it into seven members (oldest to youngest in
stratigraphic order):
• Lower Salwa Member

• Middle Salwa Member
• Upper Salwa Member
• Lower Al Nakhsh Member
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• Middle Al Nakhsh Member

• Upper Al Nakhsh Member
• Abu Samrah Member
The Salwa Members at the base of the Dam Formation consist of heterolithic
siliciclastic-calcareous sediments that were laid down under meso-to-microtidal
conditions. The Salwa Members have a total thickness of over 27 m.
The Al Nakhsh Members were formed under macrotidal conditions with sub-to-
supratidal depositional environment passing into a continental environment.
Celestite, gypsum, and microbial mats (stromatolites) are very widespread in these
sabkha sediments. Crystals of gypsum and the thickness of stromatolites increase
markedly towards the younger sediments of the Al Nakhsh members, indicating a
close genetic link between the growth of microbial domes and gypsum precipitation.
The Al Nakhsh Members have a total thickness of roughly 33 m.
The Abu Samrah Member is about 48 m thick and consists of marine calcareous
sediments deposited in a microtidal wave-dominated environment.
Dam Formation deposits crop locally in the southwestern part of Qatar.
2.2.1.5 Hofuf Formation

The Hofuf Formation in Saudi Arabia comprises four members (in stratigraphic order,
youngest to oldest):
• Conglomerate—grey marly conglomerate, limestone boulders in a quartz sand

matrix
• Sandstone—alternating red and white argillaceous sandstone
• Limestone—off-white, partly impure sandy limestone
• Conglomerate—red and white conglomerate; boulders and pebbles of limestone
in a quartz sand matrix
Only the lowest (and oldest) stratigraphic member is present in Qatar, in the
southwestern part of the country, generally at high elevation. The deposits in Qatar
do not exceed 10 m thickness. The deposits at the base of the member consist of
sandy red and greenish clay and coarse sands and sandstones overlain by deposits
comprising pebbles of various rocks including quartz, limestone, and jasper in a sandy
matrix. The upper lithologies of the member are represented by loose, reworked
lower Hofuf Formation deposits.
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2.2.2 Superficial Geology

The superficial deposits comprise the following:
• Aeolian sands deposited during periods of lower sea levels, most notably during
the last ice age when sea levels were low
• Sabkha deposits laid down during periods of marine transgression
• Marine sediments deposited during period of higher sea levels, often reworked by
wave activities
• Continental sediments of reworked gravels and depression muds and silts, as well
as residual soils derived from the in situ alteration of the underlying rock strata;
these deposits are often reworked locally in their upper part by wind
These superficial deposits are described in the following paragraphs.
2.2.2.1 Aeolian Sand

The southeast coast of Qatar and central south area are dominated by aeolian dune
sands occasionally interrupted by interdune areas occupied by sabkha plains. The
aeolian sands exhibit four main depositional morphologies, with a general northwest
to southeast alignment:
• Surface sands in uneven and thin sheets representing the constantly reworked
material with a temporal character
• Sand clusters of no definite shape, located in depressions, acting as natural
barriers. These deposits occur in depressions in areas with scarce tree vegetation
• Dunes of barchans type, with the apex of the crescent orientated from north-
northwest to northwest, corresponding with the Shamal direction. Barchan dunes
dominate the area around Al Kharaara (known as “The Singing Sand Dunes”)
between the Sealine Beach Resort and the Inland Sea and are up to 40 m high
above interdune areas
• Elongated dunes or dunes with shapes no longer discernable, developed parallel
to the east coast of Qatar in the areas of Ras Laffan, Fuwairat, Al Khor, Inland Sea,
and southeast of Abu Samrah
The aeolian sands are generally silico-calcareous in nature, except for the deposits in
the northeast of Qatar around Ras Laffan, Fuwairat, and Al Khor that are essentially
calcareous. The grains of the aeolian sand deposits are worn, rounded, dull, and
uniform in size. The aeolian sand is often white in color. Inland, the aeolian sand
changes from white to reddish in color owing to an increase in iron oxide amount.
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2.2.2.2 Sabkha
Sabkha are extensive salt flats underlain by sand, silt, and clay that are often
encrusted with salt (halite). Sabkha occur generally along the coast (coastal sabkha).
There are also inland occurrences of isolated lagoons (inland sabkha), especially in the
area northeast and east of Mesaieed Industrial City and east of the Djebel Dukhan.
The main factors that control the formation of the sabkha are the depth to the water
table, high temperature, and the effects of wind deflation. The two types of sabkha
may be summarized as follows:
• Coastal sabkha dominate the east coast of the Qatar Peninsula. They are
extremely flat and are formed in conditions of a shallow brine water table located
within the capillary zone. The brine groundwater evaporates from the free water
surface bringing to the surface the salts within the surrounding soils. The upper
soils become salt saturated and crusts of halite precipitate on the surface. Beneath
the crust, calcium sulfate (CaSO4) becomes concentrated forming a mush of
gypsum crystals. As ground temperatures rise, water of crystallization is driven
from the gypsum crystals to form anhydrite. Active coastal sabkha also feature a
mat of thin black algae. Most of the time, the mat surface is dry and cracked.
During spring tides and storms, however, seawater can inundate the mats causing
the algae to regenerate into a slimy, rubbery surface. With time, the mat once
again becomes dry and a halite crust forms.
• Inland sabkha have no direct hydrological connection with the sea and derive
moisture from rare rainfall and a very shallow water table within the capillary
zone. They occur in areas dominated by high thickness of aeolian sand or residual
soils. The best examples of inland sabkha are found in area of Djebel Dukhan and
north of Mesaieed. As with coastal sabkha, inland sabkha develop halite crusts
concentrated by evaporation of groundwater, which contains dissolved salts from
the surrounding rocks and soils. Algae mats do not develop on inland sabkha.
2.2.2.3 Marine Sediments

The marine sediments in Qatar may be summarized as follows:
• Pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic limestone (calcarenite). These deposits are

present along and close to the current coastline of Qatar and are represented by
rounded cemented calcarenite, often classified as pseudo-oolitic limestone. The
sediments generally are coarsely graded and include numerous boulders of
limestone. The rounded calcarenite develops in the zone where wave breaking
occurs during the strong shamal (east wind) periods.
• Beach gravels or marine terraces. These deposits occur in only a few locations in
Qatar and are at most 2 m thick. The deposits are made up of coarse-grained sand
and gravel size pebbles of limestone or quartz. These deposits generally overlie
the marine conglomeratic limestone (calcarenite) deposits described above, with
which they are sometimes interbedded.
• Marine calcareous silts and sands. These deposits occur at the edge of sabkha
deposits. The grain size of these deposits is uniformly graded, mainly of calcareous
type, with local worn elements of rounded calcarenite and shell fragments. The
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deposits are locally abundant along the west coast of Qatar, representing a
redeposition of Hofuf Formation, and south of Mesaieed where they are derived
from aeolian sand deposits. The thickness of these deposits varies considerably,
from 2 m to 4 m in Lusail and West Bay area, to between 5 m and 12 m south of
Doha and north of Mesaieed.
2.2.2.4 Continental Sediments

Based on the material origin, the continental sediments can be divided as follows:
• Gravel deposits, which are generally reworked deposits present at the base of the
Miocene hillocks. The gravel deposits typically have a sandy matrix. The
composition of the gravel pebbles indicates their origin to be either Hoful
Formation or Dam Formation strata, within a sandy matrix. The deposits occur
around Kraij, Al Kharaara, and Djebel Dukhan.
• Depression muds and silts, which fill the numerous depressions of various depths
present across topographic surface of Qatar. The muds and silts are deposited by
runoff carrying alteration or weathering products from surface rocks of
neighboring areas.
2.2.2.5 Residual Soils

Residual soils, representing the in situ alteration and weathering products of the
underlying rocks, are widely spread throughout Qatar. The thickness of these deposits
rarely exceeds 2 m.
2.3 Characteristics of Qatar Strata

2.3.1 Introduction
This section provides a description of the engineering characteristics and the typical
uses and issues relating to the main soils and bedrock strata units encountered in
Qatar, as listed in Table 2.1
Table 2.1 Qatar Main Soils and Bedrock Strata Units

Qatar Main Strata Units
Soils Aeolian sands
Sabkha
Marine sediments
Continental sediments
Residual soils
Bedrock strata Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)
Rus Formation Unit 2 (undifferentiated carbonate and sulfate facies)
Midra Shale
Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
Umm Bab Limestone (formerly known as Simsima Limestone)
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Table B.1 in Appendix B summarizes the typical geotechnical hazards and risks in
Qatar associated with these main strata units. Geotechnical practitioners need to
identify all project-specific geotechnical hazards for a project and to prepare a
geotechnical risk register to provide for active management of the geotechnical risks
during the lifetime of a project.
2.3.2 Aeolian Sands

The aeolian sands are fine to medium-grained and contain sub-rounded to well-
rounded particles of quartz and carbonate. The deposits are generally free of clay and
silt and have moderate to good permeability. The consistency of the materials varies
from loose to medium dense. Many of the larger sand dunes comprise an upper layer
of loose, mobile, single-sized sand grains overlying a core of denser, single-sized sand
that has been cemented by pressure solution and recementation of the carbonate
and evaporate particles.
Aeolian sands may be used as general earthworks fill or structural backfill in

combination with other materials; however, this often requires implementation of
special measures during placement. Depending on source area and history of
deposition, the sands can have a high salt content and thus should be checked before
using the materials close to concrete foundations or as fine aggregate in concrete
mixes.
Owing to the uniform grading of the deposits, there can be issues related to poor
compaction of the sands where standard compaction procedures are used to place
the material in engineering works. It is often necessary to flood the deposits with
water and to use a heavy vibratory roller to achieve the required compaction.
Sometimes, however, the moisture content versus maximum dry density curve for the
deposits is very flat, allowing them to be compacted in a completely dry state (known
as dry compaction) to achieve reasonable levels of compaction.
Migration of aeolian sand particles associated with irrigation water flow can result in
cavities forming below ridged surfaces, such as highway pavement asphalt, which may
collapse because of this migration.
2.3.3 Sabkha
Sabkha comprises fine, poor- to well-graded sands or silts that have been flooded by
hyper-saline groundwater, typically of 1 m or less thickness.
The coastal sabkha consists of highly variable materials both horizontally and
vertically. Much of the horizontal variation can be considered to be related to the
position of the material relative to the shoreline. In the vertical dimension, the coastal
sabkha comprises a series of layers having a range of textures and varying degrees of
cementation, depending on the quantities and state of the calcium carbonates and
calcium sulfates present.
Inland sabkha varies in the horizontal direction only, because of the relatively
constant groundwater level beneath the ground surface.
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Due to its mode of deposition, sabkha typically contains high concentrations of

chloride and sulfates, giving rise to aggressive environments for buried concrete and
steel. This, together with its fine grading, usually makes it unsuitable as structural fill.
Due to the large variability, these deposits typically are either excavated and replaced
or left in place and treated when encountered for a road project. Ground
improvement methods typically used on sabkha deposits include preloading and
surcharging, dynamic compaction, and stone columns, the method employed being
dependent upon the type and thickness of sabkha.
Historically, existing unpaved tracks followed sabkha flats as they provided a hard
surface to travel along in comparison with the surrounding loose desert sand. During
periods of heavy rain, the roads often become impassable since the surface crust of
the sabkha tends to lose strength when saturated, resulting in collapse of the deposits
under their own weight.
Gypsum and anhydrite typically are abundant in sabkha deposits. These minerals can
undergo alternate hydration and dehydration under hot and humid conditions,
resulting in corresponding swelling and shrinkage volume changes that can affect
foundations and road pavements founded on the deposits.
Significant variability in the compressibility (ranging from high to low compressibility)

characteristics of sabkha sediments can be expected, which can result in large
differential settlements.
2.3.4 Marine Sediments

The upper horizon of the marine sediments, the pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic
limestone (calcarenite) deposits, show the characteristics of a rock. The unit typically
has numerous voids and shell content. The unit is consequently very porous, but
generally it is of high strength with unconfined compressive strength values greater
than 15 megapascals (MPa).
The beach gravels (marine terraces), which include coarse sand materials, are
generally of uniform grading and, as such, they can be problematic to compact in
earthworks when used as excavated. These deposits can, however, be mixed with
aeolian sand to produce a more well-graded earthworks fill, compared to the two
original materials, with improved compaction and engineering properties.
The marine calcareous silts and sand commonly are very loose with very high
moisture content and low strength. Owing to their low strength, fine-grained marine
sediments are susceptible to bearing capacity failure and are problematic for
trafficking. Fine-grained marine sediments usually require either removal or
treatment.
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2.3.5 Continental Sediments

The continental deposits generally are the result of alluvial transport and deposition
in the wadis, which activate during rainy seasons or in a local depression developed as
result of karstification. Based on the transport energy, the continental deposits
contain the full spectrum of grain sizes from clay sizes to coarse gravel, with fines of
medium plasticity. With limited treatment, these deposits may be used as earthworks
fill. The generally high soluble salt content of the deposits, however, makes them
unsuitable for use as structural fill without treatment such as washing the material
with clean water.
2.3.6 Residual Soils

The residual soils are generally derived from physical and chemical breakdown of the
underlying limestone bedrock. The unit is generally described as medium dense to
very dense, light brown to brown, slightly to highly gypsiferous, poorly graded to well
graded, fine to coarse grain silty sand, and gravel with local limestone cobbles. The
gravel and cobble fractions become larger and more frequent in depth. When residual
soils are generated from the weathered section of the Umm Bab unit (with excess of
attapulgite clay pockets), the materials exhibit very high plasticity with swelling
characteristics.
2.3.7 Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor Limestone)

Rus Formation Unit 1 is characterized by both dolomitized and porous limestone. The
strata in Unit 1 are unconformably overlain by Midra Shale deposits predominantly.
The Unit 1 deposits at the interface are consequently prone to cavity development.
The intact uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values of the strata generally range
from 2 MPa to 100 MPa, with a conservative average of 10 MPa.
The Unit 1 strata can usually be excavated by means of a pecker and mechanical
excavators. The material makes a good general fill for use in embankments or for the
construction of building platforms. The strata generally have high concentrations of
sulfates and chlorides that provide an aggressive chemical environment for concrete.
Rock slopes excavated in Rus Formation Unit 1 tend to be stable in dry conditions and
minimum protection of the slope face materials is required.
Generally, the stability of rock slopes in Rus Formation Unit 1 is governed by the
spacing, orientation, and condition of the discontinuities within the rock mass;
therefore, excavations must be designed accordingly based on geological
discontinuity mapping and rock mass characterization.
2.3.8 Rus Formation Unit 2 (Undifferentiated Carbonate and Sulfate Facies)

Rus Formation Unit 2 is represented by two distinct facies represented by an
undifferentiated carbonate facies and an undifferentiated sulfate facies.
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2.3.8.1 Undifferentiated Carbonate Facies

The undifferentiated carbonate facies occurs as a more or less irregularly dolomitized
limestone, whitish or yellowish due to oxidation, soft, and of chalky aspect, with thin
intercalations or veins of greenish to brownish clay (from a few centimeters up to
0.5 m).
The intact strength of the subunit ranges from 1 MPa to 20 MPa with a conservative
average value of 4 MPa to 5 MPa. The lenses and veins of clay exhibit high plasticity.
Rock slopes excavated in the subunit tend to be stable under dry conditions. In wet
conditions, however, the clayey interbeds can often provide a barrier to water flow,
resulting in elevated pore pressure that can initiate slope failure.
2.3.8.2 Undifferentiated Sulfate Facies

The lower subdivision of Rus Formation Unit 2 is represented by strata characterized
by the presence of a highly variable anhydrite, compact, finely crystalline, with
interbedded green shale or grey marl, with interbedded shales and limestone. The
strata shows simple folding from differential dissolution and rock plastic behavior.
The UCS values of anhydrite and gypsum typically are in the range 20 MPa to
100 MPa, whereas the strengths of the shales, marls, and limestone vary from 1 MPa
to 10 MPa.
Cavities are known to occur because of dissolution of the anhydrite and gypsum,
where groundwater flow tends to concentrate at the shale, marl, and gypsum
interface. Owing to their strength and massive nature, excavation of the thick gypsum
deposits typically requires heavy ripping or cutting machinery. The shales, marls, and
limestone are easily excavated by mechanical means but tend to disintegrate.
The strata belonging to the undifferentiated carbonate facies of Rus Formation Unit 2
strata may be used as general earthworks fill. The combination of high fines content,
high plasticity, high sulfates content, and the presence of gypsum in the Rus
Formation Unit 2 deposits, however, makes them unsuitable for filling to structures.
Excavations in the strata will result in stress release leading to increases in moisture
content in the shales and consequent loss of strength, which can initiate shallow
landslides in cut faces over time.
2.3.8.3 Midra Shale

The Midra Shale generally comprises finely fissile shales and contains clays, dolomite,
and local gypsum.
The Midra Shale deposits show a large degree of anisotropy with UCS values in the
vertical direction of generally between 8 MPa and 15 MPa with much lower UCS
values, as low as 1 MPa, laterally. The rock elastic properties follow the same pattern.
The intact strength of the dolomitic deposits is generally up to 80 MPa.
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The Midra Shale deposits typically can be easily excavated by mechanical excavator.
The dolomitic deposits, however, normally require excavation using a pecker or by
ripping. In extreme cases, blasting may be necessary, but this is uncommon.
Owing to the large amount of high-plasticity fines, the Midra Shale deposits are not
usually considered suitable fill material.
Permanent cut slopes in Midra Shale deposits are susceptible to disintegration and
will normally require protection.
2.3.8.4 Dukhan Alveolina Limestone

Dukhan Alveolina Limestone is characterized by very high strength, with UCS values
between 25 MPa and 100 MPa and high elastic properties. The presence of fines is
generally limited, and consequently the rock is good for producing concrete
aggregate. It can also be used for earthworks fill, particular if mixed with fine-grained
materials, such as aeolian sand, marine gravels, or both, and sands to produce a well-
graded fill.
Excavation of the Dukhan Alveolina Limestone usually requires use of at least a peck
hammer and normally requires ripping. Blasting may be necessary in rare cases.
Excavated slopes in Dukhan Alveolina Limestone generally are not susceptible to

degradation. Consequently, protection of the cut faces normally is unnecessary if the
slope is designed appropriately.
2.3.8.5 Umm Bab Limestone (Formerly Simsima Limestone)

The Umm Bab Limestone is typically described as weak to moderately weak and
moderately strong, occasionally strong, and off-white to light grey and light brown,
fine-grained, or crystalline, or a combination thereof, limestone with joints and
fractures of variable spacing, typically nonintact, crystalline, or pseudo-brecciated
dolomitic limestone, along with calcareous siltstone. Thin bands or lenses of
carbonate siltstone and marl and interconnecting voids and cavities in-filled with silt,
marl, calcite, or gypsum are often observed. The upper layers of the formation are
typically highly weathered and tend to be more competent in terms of cementation,
strength, fractures, and weathering with depth. The limestone is frequently
intermixed with or contains pockets of poorly to moderately cemented light greenish-
grey to purple diagenetically derived carbonate silt and siltstone. The secondary
carbonate siltstone may constitute up to 60 percent of the rock mass.
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The upper layers of the Umm Bab Limestone tend to be highly weathered to the
extent that the limestone forms gravel and cobbles within a silt, sand, or marl matrix.
The Umm Bab Limestone generally is bimodal, comprising hard recrystallized
predominantly calcareous (occasionally dolomitic) “original” limestone and a variable
percentage of secondary attapulgitic mudstone, clay, and siltstone. The engineering
properties of the limestone are largely influenced by:
• The relative percentage of original limestone to secondary material.

• The degree of cementation of the secondary material. Where the rock comprises
a high percentage of weakly cemented secondary attapulgite, the whole rock
mass generally is more fractured and considerably weaker in terms of the bearing
capacity of the strata.
The quality and strength of the limestone can vary significantly over relatively small
lateral and vertical distances. Wetting or saturation of the rock mass causes significant
reductions in the rock mass strength, because the secondary attapulgite clay becomes
highly plastic upon wetting. This phenomenon is particularly important in zones
where the rock mass comprises a relatively high percentage of secondary attapulgite
(>50 percent).
The Umm Bab Limestone might also be represented by a change of facies from the
crystalline dolomitic limestone into a lighter cream and light brown limestone with
many yellowish brown stains. The less-crystalline nature of this zone suggests that it
has not undergone a diagenetic process to the same degree as the overlying strata.
This zone generally tends to be more competent in situ; that is, less broken and less
brittle than the overlying strata.
The Umm Bab Limestone can be excavated by means of a pecker and mechanical
excavators, but patches of hard crystalline rock might require heavy rippers or
blasting. When excavated, the materials make good general earthworks fill for use in
embankment or building platform constructions. However, they can contain high
concentrations of sulfates and chlorides that create an aggressive chemical
environment for concrete. They can also contain high-plasticity fines (attapulgite clay)
that should normally be screened out.
Excavated rock slopes in Umm Bab Limestone tend to be prone to failure in highly
weathered zones, generally the upper 2 m to 3 m of the sequence, unless properly
designed and protected. The rock slope stability is governed by the spacing,
orientation, and condition of the discontinuities within the rock mass, and excavations
in these materials must be designed based on geological discontinuity mapping and
rock mass characterization.
Temporary cut slopes in Umm Bab Limestone can be designed to be near vertical but
may require a retaining system if the slope is to remain open for a significant period.
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Cavities (dahal) are common with the Umm Bab Limestone. They tend to be largest
near the Qatar Arch, where they can be more than 20 m high and similar laterally but
with decreasing size with distance from the Arch to the east and west.
2.4 Groundwater Problems in Qatar

The pace of development in Qatar has generated a number of legacy issues including
adverse impacts on the groundwater table and issues with the satisfactory functioning
of surface water drainage systems. Within Doha, a fundamental concern is the rising
groundwater table that has resulted from recharge by water lost from piped water
systems. The rising groundwater table adversely affects infrastructure, the built
environment, and the natural environment, and can place constraints on
development. Ashghal contracted Schlumberger Water Services to conduct a program
of groundwater monitoring; the results were presented in several project reports
(Schlumberger Water Services, 2012a, 2012b, and 2013). Information on further
update reports may be obtained from Ashghal Drainage Design Department.
Without mitigation, the extent and scale of the problems are expected to worsen with
time; consequently, the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013)
has been prepared to develop a strategy that controls and mitigates the rising
groundwater problem in urban Qatar. The strategic approach recommended by the
Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan, with regard to the control and management
of the ground and surface water, is as follows:
• Primary road infrastructure to be served by piped systems to ensure high level of

protection and minimal disruption to the core transportation infrastructure.
• As far as practical, adopt Sustainable Drainage System approaches to the
management and control of surface water.
• Resolve the rising groundwater table issues in the metropolitan area by achieving
zero net inflow, then lowering the groundwater to achieve the level of service
needed for the satisfactory performance of Sustainable Drainage System, such as
soakaways and infiltration systems. The level of service will help arrest the
nuisance of groundwater, especially in terms of protection of basements and
mitigation of flow into the wastewater system. The level of service is defined in
term of two zones:
− Inland Zone: 4 m below ground
− Coastal Zone: 4 m below ground where possible, but not lower than mean sea
level
Geotechnical practitioners should ensure that they are familiar with the Qatar
Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013), its strategic approach, the
results of the monitoring study, and subsequent updates. Geotechnical practitioners
must consider the current state of the groundwater table and anticipated future
change, if any, as part of their assessment of geotechnical risks to a project. Future
changes might include ongoing rise, the effects of implementation of Qatar Integrated
Drainage Master Plan and its controls, and ultimately reversing the trend to lower the
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groundwater table. The expected groundwater conditions must be fully considered in

temporary works design, including dewatering, and, in the design of the permanent
works, possible medium- and long-term changes. Within the design, appropriate
provision should be made for maintenance of the drainage measures.
To establish the groundwater conditions at a site, instrumentation in the form of

standpipes or piezometers, or both, usually will need to be installed as part of ground
investigation works, as noted in Sections 4.6 and 4.8 in this Part. To establish seasonal
and other trends, the instruments will need to be monitored regularly over several
months, and possibly over a year. Data loggers can be used in place of manual
readings.
Geotechnical practitioners need to establish the geology and hydrogeology together

with the permeability and infiltration characteristics of the deposits. The information
is normally required for the assessment and design of groundwater systems or
infiltration systems such as soakaways. Information on in situ (field) tests that
geotechnical practitioners might use to determine strata permeability and infiltration
characteristics are discussed in Section 4.6 in this Part.
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3 Preliminary Sources Study

3.1 Overview
The preliminary sources study is an important part of the geotechnical studies for any
Qatar highway project. This chapter provides guidance for carrying out a preliminary
sources study and associated site reconnaissance. It also provides details on the types
of information typically available and to be considered for review.
3.2 Scope of Preliminary Sources Study

A preliminary sources study should be conducted at an early stage in any geotechnical
investigation. The preliminary sources study is Substage 2A in the geotechnical
certification process, as described in Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this
manual. The primary objectives of the preliminary sources study are to evaluate the
ground and groundwater conditions based on existing information and to assess the
scope of further investigation that may be required. This should cover both
engineering and environmental assessment aspects of a project. Table C.1 in
Appendix C lists the types of information routinely required for a preliminary sources
study. This includes services in and around the site that need to be considered in the
design and implementation of any ground investigation, and in the design and
construction of the highway project. The precise information to be gathered will be
project-specific, with the scope of the preliminary sources study being determined by
the project geotechnical practitioner.
A significant amount of information about a site may be available in existing records.

Table C.2 in Appendix C lists the most important sources of information.
As part of the preliminary sources study, reconnaissance of the site should be made
and, where possible, the area immediately surrounding it. Table C.3 in Appendix C
summarizes the procedure for site reconnaissance and the main points to be
considered. The precise extent of the reconnaissance required at any site should,
however, be established by the geotechnical practitioner taking account of the
particular circumstances of the site and project. The geotechnical practitioner should
extend or modify the standard procedure to reflect the site and project needs.
Inspection of road cuttings, open cuts for building construction, utility excavations,
and areas such as quarries near a site can provide useful information on soil and rock
types and their stability characteristics. Similarly, embankments, buildings, or other
structures with a history of settlement can provide useful evidence of unstable or
compressible soils. Surface (geomorphological) features on a site can also provide
evidence of the ground conditions that exist; for example, ground collapse
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depressions might be indicative of underground cavities (dahal). Areas of silty

alluvium may be indicative of collapse features (Ministry of Municipality Affairs and
Agriculture et al., 2005).
Further information on carrying out preliminary sources studies can be found in the
following documents:
• Code of Practice for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010)

• Manual on Subsurface Investigations (AASHTO, 1988)
• The Value of Geotechnics in Construction: Proceedings from the Seminar (ICE, 1998)
• Subsurface Investigations—Geotechnical Site Characterization (FHWA, 2002)
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4 Ground Investigation Planning

4.1 Overview
This chapter provides guidance on the phasing of ground investigations, and
guidelines for exploratory holes spacing and depths. It also provides advice on soils
and rock sampling, engineering parameters typically required for geotechnical design,
and soil and rock laboratory testing to obtain those engineering parameters.
4.2 Introduction
The composition and the extent of the geotechnical investigations for a project should
reflect the anticipated type and design of the proposed construction. Consequently,
the geotechnical practitioner should seek all pertinent information for a project from
the designer at the early stages of geotechnical investigation planning and design. For
guidance, the sorts of details that should be obtained are given below:
• Road earthworks: locations, layout, dimensions, geometry, and elevations of the

sections at grade, in cutting, and on embankment.
• Road structures: locations of bridges and their approaches, tunnels and their
approaches, retaining walls, gantry signage, and buildings (for example, toll
booths, low-rise office buildings, or maintenance depots). Information on the
structures layout, type of construction anticipated, together with design load and
performance criteria.
• Borrow pit requirements and reuse of earthworks materials.
• The precise details to be obtained will be project-specific and must be established
by the geotechnical practitioner.
With such information, the geotechnical practitioner can optimize the design of the
geotechnical investigations and thereby provide overall value for money.
The geotechnical investigations should provide sufficient data on the ground and
groundwater conditions to facilitate a full description of the essential ground
properties and a reliable assessment of the soil and rock parameters to be used in
design calculations.
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The typical aspects to be considered by the geotechnical practitioner when scoping a

ground investigation based on Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 2: Ground
Investigation and Testing (BS EN 1997-2:2007) are as follows:
• Ground:
− Suitability of the site with respect to the proposed construction and the level
of acceptable risks
− Deformation of the ground caused by the structure or earthworks or resulting
from construction works and its behavior over time
− Safety with respect to limit states; for example, settlement, subsidence,
ground heave, uplift, slippage of soil, and rock masses
− Loads transmitted to the structure from the ground; for example, lateral
pressures on piles, and the extent to which they depend on its design and
construction
− Foundation methods; for example, ground improvement, whether it is
possible to excavate, drivability of piles, drainage
− Sequence of foundation works
− Effects of the proposed structure on the surroundings, for example, on an
adjoining structure
− Any additional structural measures required; for example, support of
excavations, anchorage, sleeving of bored piles, and removal of obstructions
− Effects of construction on the surroundings; for example, on an adjoining
structure
− Type and extent of contamination on and near the site from historical land
use, including the effectiveness of any existing measures installed to contain
or remediate contamination
• Use of excavated materials for construction:
− Suitability for the intended use
− Extent of the deposits
− Whether it is possible to extract and process the materials, and whether and
how suitable material can be separated and disposed of
− Prospective methods to improve soil and rock
− Workability of the soil and rock during construction and possible changes in
their properties during excavation, transport, placement, and further treatment
• Groundwater
− Depth to groundwater
− Thickness, extent and permeability of water bearing strata in the ground and
joint systems in rock
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− Elevation of the groundwater surface or piezometric surface of aquifers and

their variation over time and actual groundwater levels including possible
extreme levels and their periods of recurrence
− Porewater pressure distribution
− Chemical composition and temperature of groundwater
− Scope and nature of groundwater lowering work
− Harmful effects of the groundwater on excavations or slopes; for example, the
risk of hydraulic failure, excessive seepage pressure, or erosion
− Necessary measures to protect the structure; for example, waterproofing,
drainage, and measures to protect against aggressive water
− Effects of groundwater lowering, desiccation, and impounding on the
surroundings
− Capacity of the ground to absorb water injected during construction
− Whether it is possible to use local groundwater, given its chemical
composition, for construction purposes
− Presence of existing groundwater controls near the site, which will need to be
considered
− Tidal waters and groundwater monitoring over a tidal cycle
• Constructability
− Effects of construction traffic and heavy loads on the ground
− Prospective methods of dewatering or excavation (or both), effects of
precipitation, resistance to weathering, and susceptibility to shrinkage,
swelling, and disintegration
Further information on the planning of ground investigations can be found in the

Part 2: Planning, Procurement and Quality Management, Part 3: Specification for
Ground Investigation, and Part 4: Guidelines for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of
Landfills and Contaminated Land, and (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993a,
1993b, and 1993c).
4.3 Ground Investigations Proposals

4.3.1 Phasing of Ground Investigation
Typically, ground investigation for road projects is performed in a three-phased
approach as follows:
• Preliminary Ground Investigation: Undertaken in the early stages of a project, such

as route selection and concept design. May also be undertaken to provide
information for project preliminary design for tendering a design and build
contract for project construction.
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• Detailed Design Ground Investigation: Usually performed in advance of, or at the

start of project detailed design. The investigation provides earthwork and structure-
specific information, supplementing any preliminary ground investigation findings.
Occasionally, there could be additional phases of “detailed design” ground
investigation prior to project design finalization and construction.
• Construction Ground Investigation: Usually performed during project construction
for controlling and monitoring purposes. For example, to investigate particular
ground conditions and verify the extent of construction works such as the
treatment of solution cavities (dahal) or for the installation of piezometers to
monitor groundwater levels associated with dewatering of a deep excavation.
The composition and the extent of the ground investigations should reflect the
amount and quality of available historical exploratory hole information, the particular
stage of a project, and also the ground risks as established from a Geotechnical Risk
Assessment and reflected in the Geotechnical Category of the project (as discussed in
Section 3.3 of Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this manual).
4.3.2 Guidelines for Overall Coverage of Exploratory Hole Spacing and Depth
The term “exploratory holes” is used here as it covers all forms of possible
investigative holes including boreholes, trial pits, and trial trenches that the
geotechnical practitioner may wish to use in a ground investigation.
The geotechnical practitioner should plan each phase of ground investigation to

supplement information already available to ensure that an appropriate level of
geotechnical information and data are available at the particular project stage. The
information obtained must be sufficient to enable the geotechnical practitioner to
assess the geotechnical risks relative to the project stage. The ground investigation
would normally be required to establish the soil, rock, and groundwater conditions;
identify the level of contamination (if present); and determine the properties of the soil
and rock.
The type, frequency, and spacing of exploratory holes required for a particular phase
of investigation depends on the quantity and quality of information already available,
the variability of subsurface conditions, the type of earthworks and structures
proposed, and the geotechnical category of the project. Where appropriate, the
geotechnical practitioner should incorporate in situ cone penetration testing
(Section 7.3 in this Part) within the overall ground investigation design to obtain the
necessary information on ground and groundwater conditions at a site.
For project elements such as route selection studies and conceptual design, overall
coverage of exploratory holes (comprising good quality available historical exploratory
holes and any required Phase 1 ground investigation to supplement those data) of up
to 300 m spacing may be appropriate. For simple projects in areas of generally
uniform or simple subsurface conditions, it may be appropriate to adopt a greater
spacing of up to 500 m. For preparing a preliminary design for a project, an overall
reduced spacing of roughly 200 m may be appropriate with at least one exploratory
hole at important structures such as a bridge foundation. However, the overall
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coverage of exploratory holes and the extent of any Phase 1 ground investigation to
supplement available historical records should be limited to that necessary for making
basic design decisions.
For project-detailed design, a much denser spacing of exploratory holes (comprising

good quality available historical records, any Phase 1 ground investigation previously
undertaken and any required Phase 2 ground investigation to supplement those data)
will be required. The locations of exploratory holes and the depths of the
investigations should reflect the expected ground conditions, the dimensions of the
structures and earthworks, and the engineering problems.
Guidelines on the layout of exploratory holes for detailed design of project structures
and earthworks are given in Table 4.1, based on Subsurface Investigations—
Geotechnical Site Characterization (FHWA, 2002) and Eurocode 7: Geotechnical
Design—Part 1: General Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004). Guidelines on the minimum
depths requirements for the exploratory holes below the lowest point of the structure
foundation or earthwork are shown in Table 4.2 and are based on those references.
However, the precise numbers, locations, and depths of exploratory holes must be
determined by a suitably experienced geotechnical practitioner and must be based on
the project-specific geotechnical risk assessment. Guidelines on the geotechnical risk-
management process are provided in Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this
manual.
When selecting the exploratory holes locations the following should be observed:
• Investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the soils and rock
stratification can be assessed across the site.
• Investigation points for structures and any buildings should be placed at critical
points relative to the shape, structural behavior, and expected loading.
• For linear structures, the exploratory holes should be arranged at adequate offsets
to the centerline, depending on the overall width of the structure, such as an
embankment footprint or a cutting.
• For structures on or near slopes and changes in the terrain (including
excavations), the exploratory holes should be located so that the stability of the
slope or cut can be assessed. Where anchorages are installed, the extent and
likely stresses in their load transfer zone should be considered.
4.3.3 Ground Investigation Requirements with Regard to Contaminated Land

Depending on past use of a site or part of it, geo-environmental ground investigation
works, which typically include soils and groundwater sampling and laboratory testing
for contaminants, may need to be performed. The scope of any geo-environmental
ground investigation works should be established based on the historical land use as
established from the preliminary sources study (described in Chapter 3 in this Part)
with reference to the Ministry of Environment (MoE, 2012) requirements, and be
made by a suitably experienced and qualified geo-environment specialist.
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To provide best value, an integrated approach to the geo-environmental and

geotechnical engineering ground investigation works should be employed. Similarly,
an integrated approach developed among these disciplines should be used in overall
highway project development.
Table 4.1 Guidelines for Overall Exploratory Holes Spacings for Detailed Design
Exploratory Hole (Typically Boreholes, Trial Pits, and
Project Element
Project Element In Situ Cone Penetration Tests, where Appropriate)
or Geotechnical
Hazard Size Layout Minimum Requirements Additional Considerations
Bridge — Advice on the design of the ground Additional exploratory holes to be
foundations investigation should be sought from a provided in areas of variable subsurface
geotechnical practitioner with conditions.
knowledge and experience in bridge
Additional exploratory holes to be
design and construction.
provided for unusual foundation shape
For piers or One exploratory hole at each
and loading.
abutments less foundation
than 25 m wide
For piers or Two exploratory holes at each
abutments over foundation
25 m wide
Tunnel (bored) — Advice on the design of the ground If the exact tunnel location/alignment is
investigation should be sought from a known, drilling through the proposed
geotechnical practitioner with tunnel location may have to be avoided.
knowledge and experience in tunnel
design and construction.
— One exploratory hole at each portal or
launch (or both) and reception shafts.
One exploratory hole at intermediate
shafts
Exploratory holes at 20 to 200 m
intervals along the tunnel alignment
depending on the initial geological
assessment or terrain, or both.
Retaining walls For retaining One exploratory hole at each retaining Additional exploratory holes inside and
walls less than wall outside the wall line to define conditions
25 m long at the toe of the wall and in the zone
For retaining Spacing between exploratory holes behind the wall to estimate lateral loads,
walls over 25 m should be no greater than 25 m at each engulfing slope failure, and anchorage
long retaining wall. capacities.
Gantry signs — One exploratory hole at each —
foundation.
Cuttings For cuttings of One exploratory hole at each cutting. Additional exploratory holes
less than 25 m perpendicular to the cutting (typically a
long minimum of three) to be provided at
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Project Element
In Situ Cone Penetration Tests, where Appropriate)
or Geotechnical Project Element
For cuttings ofSpacing between exploratory holes
greater than should be no greater than 100 m at
25 m long each cutting in simple ground
conditions. Reduce minimum spacing
required in more difficult ground
conditions relative to complexity.
Embankments For One exploratory hole at each Additional exploratory holes
embankments of embankment. perpendicular to the embankment to be
less than 25 m provided at critical locations and high
long embankments (typically a minimum of 3)
For Spacing between exploratory holes to define the ground and groundwater
embankments of should be no greater than 100 m at conditions for settlement and stability
greater than each embankment in simple ground analysis design.
25 m long conditions. Reduce minimum spacing
required in more difficult ground
conditions relative to complexity.
Roads — Spacing between exploratory holes Some of the exploratory holes should be
along the road alignment generally offset from the centerline.
should not exceed 200 m. In complex ground and groundwater
conditions (for example, sabkha),
exploratory holes should closely spaced to
ensure that the vertical and horizontal
boundaries of the distinct soil and rock
units are properly defined. Use may be
made of boreholes carried out for other
project elements such as embankments,
cuttings, and structures.
Culverts — One exploratory hole at each major Additional exploratory holes should be
culvert. provided for long culverts or in areas of
very variable subsurface conditions.
Nondestructive For crossings less Two exploratory holes, one at each end Additional exploratory holes should be
crossings than 25 m length of the crossing (close to crossing ends at provided for long crossings or in areas of
the launch and reception locations and very variable subsurface conditions.
pits).
Nondestructive For crossings of Two exploratory holes, one at each end Additional exploratory holes should be
crossings greater than of the crossing (close to the crossing provided for long crossings or in areas of
(continued) 25 m long ends at the launch and reception very variable subsurface conditions.
locations and pits).
One borehole at crossing center point.
Low rise buildings — One exploratory hole at building Additional exploratory holes to be
(such as, toll plaza location. provided in areas of variable subsurface
or road conditions.
maintenance Additional exploratory holes to be
depot) provided for unusual foundation shape
and loadings.
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Project Element
In Situ Cone Penetration Tests, where Appropriate)
or Geotechnical Project Element
Landslides — Advice on the design of the ground —
investigation should be sought from a
geotechnical practitioner with
knowledge and experience in the
investigation and interpretation of
landslides, their management and in the
design and construction of remediation
measures.
At minimum, three boreholes along a
critical section perpendicular through
the landslide to establish a ground
model including groundwater
conditions for analysis. One borehole
should be upslope of the area of
instability.
Natural cavities — Advice on the design of the ground Consideration should be given to
(dahal) investigation should be sought from a performing the geophysical survey using
geotechnical practitioner with techniques suitable for the rock strata in
knowledge and experience in the Qatar. For example, potential problems
investigation and interpretation of with the interpretation of geophysical
natural cavities, their management, and testing due to density inversion (stronger
in the design and construction of strata overlying weaker rock) should be
remediation measures. considered during planning of the
geophysical testing.
Materials borrow — One exploratory hole every 1,000 m2 of Additional exploratory holes should be
areas borrow area. provided in areas of variable subsurface
conditions.
Pipelines and — Spacing between exploratory holes Additional exploratory holes should be
Channels along the pipeline or channel alignment provided in areas of variable subsurface
generally should not exceed 200 m. conditions and at the location of thrust
blocks for pressurized pipelines.
Notes:
m meters
m2 square meters
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Table 4.2 Guidelines for Exploratory Holes Depths

Depth of Exploratory Holes Below the Lowest Point of the
Structure Foundation or Earthwork
Project Element or Minimum Depth Requirements,
Geotechnical Hazard Foundation Type Dmin Additional Considerations
Bridge (abutments and Spread foundation For L<2 B, take Dmin = greater of Extend exploratory hole
piers) 5 m or 2 B depth in unfavorable
For L>4 B, take Dmin = greater of 6 m ground conditions such as
or 3 B weak or compressible
For L between 2 B and 4 B, strata.
interpolate between the above.
Pile foundations For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia Extend exploratory hole
of the pile, whichever is the greater depth in unfavorable
in competent strata (below the ground conditions such as
estimated depth of the pile toe) weak or compressible
For pile groups Dmin must also be strata.
greater than B for the area
If tension piles are needed
circumscribing the pile group area
the depth of investigation
in competent strata.
should be as for pile
foundations.
Tunnel (bored) — Advice on the design of the ground If the exact tunnel
investigation should be sought location/alignment is
from a geotechnical practitioner known, drilling through the
with knowledge and experience in proposed tunnel location
tunnel design and construction. may have to be avoided.
If vertical alignment is known Dmin =
1 Dia to 2 Dia of the tunnel below
tunnel invert.
Retaining walls Gravity and cantilever Dmin = 5 m or 2 B whichever is the Extend exploratory hole
walls (spread footing) greater. depth in situations with
In the case of piled footings, the sloping ground behind
same as bridge pile foundations retaining wall.
applies.
Extend exploratory hole
Embedded walls Dmin = 1.5 H for the wall retained
depth to provide sufficient
height
information to allow
comprehensive stability
assessment of engulfing
slope failures of the
retaining wall.
Extend exploratory hole
depth in unfavorable
ground conditions such as
weak or compressible
strata.
Gantry signs Spread footings Dmin = 5 m or 2 B whichever is the —
greater.
Pile foundations For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia —
of the pile whichever is the greater
For pile groups Dmin must also be
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Cuttings — Dmin = 2 m or 0.4 H for the cutting Extend exploratory hole
whichever is the greater, below the depth to provide sufficient
base of the cutting. information to allow
comprehensive stability
assessment of cutting
slope.
Embankments — Dmin = 5 m or 1.2 H for the Exploratory holes should
embankment whichever is the extend to a depth where
greater, below embankment the additional stress owing
founding level. to the embankment is less
than 10 percent of the
imposed load at its base.
Exploratory holes should
be extended in
unfavorable ground
conditions such as weak or
compressible strata to
competent strata.
Roads (at grade sections) — Dmin = 4 m below the proposed Exploratory holes should
formation level. be extended in
unfavorable ground
competent strata.
Culverts Ground bearing Dmin = 4 m below the invert level or For major culverts Dmin =
1.5 B of the trench whichever is the 5 m or 3 B of the trench
greater whichever is the greater
should apply.
Piled For single piles Dmin = 5 m or 3 Dia —
of the pile, whichever is the greater
For pile groups, Dmin must also be
Nondestructive crossings — Dmin = 4 m below crossing invert —
level or 3 Dia, whichever is the
greater.
Low-rise buildings (such as — Dmin = 5 m or three times width of Exploratory holes should
toll plaza or road the spread footing, whichever is extend to a depth where
maintenance depot) greater, below building founding the additional stress owing
level. to the building is less than
For pile foundations, criteria for 10 percent of the imposed
bridge pile foundations should be load at its base.
adopted.
Exploratory holes should
be extended in
unfavorable ground
competent strata.
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Landslides — Advice on the design of the ground Geomorphological
investigation should be sought mapping and assessment
from a geotechnical practitioner of the landslide should be
with knowledge and experience in initially carried out and
the investigation and interpretation used to design the ground
of landslides, their management, investigation and should
and in the design and construction be used to assist in
of remediation measures. development of the
Dmin has to prove the depth of the ground model.
landslide together with the
geological sequence of soils and
rocks that make up the landslide
and the affected slope.
Natural cavities (dahal) — Advice on the design of the ground Geophysical survey
investigation should be sought mapping and assessment
from a geotechnical practitioner of the natural cavities
with knowledge and experience in should be initially carried
the investigation and interpretation out and used to design the
of natural cavities, their ground investigation and
management, and in the design be used to assist in
and construction of remediation development of the
measures. ground model.
Dmin has to prove the bedrock cover
to potential or known cavities to
between three and five times the
anticipated cavity width.
Materials borrow areas — Dmin = base of the deposit or to the —
depth required to provide the
quantity of materials needed.
Notes:
B = breadth
Dia = diameter
H = height (all in meters)
L = length
4.4 Soils and Rocks Sampling and Testing to Obtain

Engineering Parameters for Use in Geotechnical Design
4.4.1 General
The derivation of engineering parameters for soils and rocks for use in geotechnical
design will usually form an important part of a geotechnical investigation. It is
essential, therefore, that in designing a ground investigation, geotechnical
practitioners consider the soils and rock properties that need to be investigated. They
also need to consider the engineering parameters that will be required for design of
both permanent earthworks and structures and any temporary measures required for
their construction, for example, support to a deep excavation. Geotechnical
practitioners can then design a ground investigation that includes appropriate in situ
VOLUME 2 PAGE 33
VOLUME 2 PART 15
testing, soils and rock sampling for subsequent laboratory testing, and, in special
cases, field trials to enable them to derive the parameters required.
The type, quantity, and sophistication of the geotechnical test data required for a
project will depend on the nature of the ground and the importance and sensitivity of
the structure or earthwork. For most projects in Qatar, in situ standard penetration
testing (SPT) with bulk sampling of soils for classification and chemical testing will form
the basis of the ground investigation. In bedrock, cores will normally be collected for
laboratory determination of the rock uniaxial compressive strength. For some major
structures such as bridges, the consequences of a foundation failure or excessive
settlement are likely to be severe. In those cases, more sophisticated in situ and
laboratory testing may be appropriate to provide the data required for specialist
modeling of the ground structure interaction during and post construction and possibly
during extreme events, such as an earthquake. Before embarking on a program of
expensive tests, the aims, applicability, and cost benefits of such testing should be
considered.
Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 list of the main soil and rock properties, engineering
parameters, symbols and units that might be required for use in design, as discussed
in later sections in this Part.
4.4.2 Difficulties in Parameter Determination

Only a very small proportion of the ground that will be influenced by the proposed
structures and earthworks is tested in situ or sampled during a ground investigation.
In addition, only a selection of the samples recovered are usually tested in the
laboratory. Therefore, testing must be carried out using reliable and repeatable
techniques that will yield parameters representative of the bulk of the soil or rock
in situ.
Parameters can be derived from in situ testing, laboratory testing, and field trials.
However, several factors will influence the measured values, many of which are
inherent or unavoidable. Geotechnical practitioners should understand the magnitude
of these influences on the required parameter and, where necessary, consider these
based on their experience and published knowledge. The factors that affect the
measured soil and rock parameters can be categorized as follows:
• Natural variability and variability due to past land use

• Sampling and testing procedures
• Interpretation
Table 4.3 lists the soil properties parameters symbols and units. Table 4.4 lists the rock
properties parameters symbols and units.
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Table 4.3 Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units

Symbol Units Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters
Classification Properties
wI % Water Content at Liquid limit (LL) Collectively referred
% Water Content at Plastic limit (PL) to as Atterberg limits
wp
Ip % Plasticity index (PI)
γ Mg/m3 Bulk density/Mass density
γd Mg/m3 Dry density (maximum γdmax or minimum γdmin)
— — Particle size distribution (PSD)—fine and coarse
ρs Mg/m3 Particle density
— % Organic content (O)
Compaction, Compaction-Related, and California Bearing Ratio Properties
— — Moisture content or dry density relationship (COMP)
— % California bearing ratio (CBR)
Chemical Properties
— — pH, sulfate and chloride, as appropriate
Mg %,mg/L Magnesium (total, water soluble)
Electrochemical Properties
Shear Strength Properties
cu kPa (kN/m2)a Undrained shear strength
cr kPa (kN/m2)a Remolded shear strength
c’ kPa (kN/m2)a Drained cohesion intercept Peak effective shear
degrees Drained angle of shear resistance strength
φ’
cr’ kPa (kN/m2)a Drained residual cohesion intercept Residual effective
degrees Drained residual angle of shear resistance shear strength
φr’
c’crit kPa (kN/m2)a Critical state cohesion intercept (usually zero) Critical state effective
degrees Critical state angle of shear resistance shear strength
φ’crit
Consolidation and Elastic Properties
mv m2/MN Coefficient of volume compressibility (one dimensional)
cv m2/yr Coefficient of consolidation (one dimensional)
Cc — Compression Index
Cr — Recompression Index
Cα — Secondary Compression Index
σ P’ MPa (MN/m2)a Preconsolidation Pressure
Eu MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (undrained)
E’ MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (drained)
E’0.01 MPa (MN/m2)a Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain)
G MPa (MN/m2)a Shear modulus
Gmax MPa (MN/m2)a Very low strain shear modulus
ν — Poisson’s ratio (νu—undrained, ν’—drained)
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Table 4.3 Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units

Symbol Units Soil Properties or Engineering Parameters
ks kN/m3 Modulus of subgrade reaction
Earth Pressure
Ka — Coefficient of active earth pressure
Kp — Coefficient of passive earth pressure
Permeability
k m/sec Coefficient of permeability, horizontal (kh), vertical (kv) as appropriate
Note:
a Units in brackets also commonly used.
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Table 4.4 Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters Symbols and Units

Symbol Units Rock Properties or Engineering Parameters
Classification Properties
n % Porosity
γ Mg/m3 Density
Chemical Properties (Chem) (As Appropriate)
— — pH, sulfate and chloride, as appropriate
Mg %, mg/L Magnesium (total, water soluble)
CaCO3 % Carbonate content (total)
Durability, Hardness, Abrasion, and Swelling
Id2 % Slake durability index
— — Schmit rebound hardness, Shore hardness
— — Cerchar abrasivity index
- % Swelling (strain) index
Electrochemical Properties (Echem)
Strength and Mass Properties
I — Point load index, axial (Ia), diametral (ld), lump (Il)
UCS MPa Uniaxial compressive strength
— MPa Tensile strength
m and s — Rock material constants
RMR — Rock mass rating
RQD, FI — Fracture State Indices of Rock
j — Mass factor j
c’ MPa Discontinuity drained cohesion intercept Discontinuity peak
degrees Discontinuity drained angle of shear effective strength
φ’
resistance
cr’ MPa Discontinuity drained residual cohesion Discontinuity residual
intercept effective shear
φr’ degrees Discontinuity drained residual angle of strength
shear resistance
Elastic Properties
E MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity
Es MPa Young’s modulus of elasticity (small strain/initial modulus)
G MPa Shear modulus
Gs MPa Shear modulus (small strain/initial modulus)
ν — Poisson’s ratio
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4.4.3 Natural Variability and Variability due to Past Land Use

Lateral and vertical variability on a large scale will lead to a scatter of test results.
There may also be small-scale variability such as sabkha that could require particular
consideration. Soils are also typically anisotropic with, particularly, their
compressibility and permeability being different in the vertical and horizontal
directions. Therefore, the orientation of soil testing regarding the proposed structures
and earthworks may need to be considered. Regarding soil laboratory testing for
properties such as shear strength and consolidation from nonlinear stress-strain
behavior of soils, it is essential that testing be carried out over the appropriate
working stress range of the proposed construction.
The stress history that a soil has undergone will also affect the way it responds to an
imposed load. In some cases, it may be important to understand and possibly model
the stress history and to model the stress changes that the works will cause to achieve
the most accurate prediction of soil behavior.
Past land use may locally affect the soil’s physical and chemical properties. Effects on
soil in the form of possible contamination, change in chemical properties or physical
properties such as compressibility, permeability and stress history need to be
understood by the geotechnical practitioner.
For roads and bridges planned for construction on reclaimed land, the seabed profile
and the density and consolidation status of the in situ materials will need to be
investigated and considered for the geotechnical design. Possible fill materials and the
required compaction effort for their placement as reclaimed fill should also be
investigated.
4.4.4 Sampling and Testing Procedures

In situ testing and sampling techniques cause disturbance to the soil and to a greater
or lesser extent to some rock fabric. This is a combination of physical remolding of the
soil and modification of its state of stress from that existing in situ. The Code of
Practice for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) provides a quality
classification for soil samples (Class 1 to Class 5) and provides guidance on the soil
properties that can be reliably determined from each class of sample. Table 4.5 lists
the types of samples that are generally most suitable for taking in Qatar soils and
provides guidance on the quality class of those samples. Further guidance on
preferred methods for drilling in different soils types, achievable standards of
sampling and quality class of samples that might be obtained may be found in
Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Sampling Methods and Groundwater
Measurements—Part 1: Technical Principles for Execution (BS EN ISO 22475-1:2006).
For sampling of rock strata, rotary core drilling using double tube wireline core-barrels
are most widely used in Qatar. Triple tube wireline core-barrels are also used where
specifically specified. Core size H (63-millimeter [mm] nominal diameter core) tend to
provide poor recovery. Therefore, it is advisable that larger core sizes P (83 mm
nominal diameter core) and S (102 mm nominal diameter core) are to be used. With
careful drilling, a high level of core recovery can usually be achieved. Core recovery of
PAGE 38 VOLUME 2
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90 percent minimum in any single core run should be attained. Where prebored
pressuremeter testing of rock strata is undertaken, then the “pockets” for those tests
is normally achieved by coring at Nx size (76 mm nominal hole diameter, 61 mm
nominal core diameter).
To ensure that representative properties and engineering parameters are determined

for soils and rock strata that are inherently variable, a reasonable number of samples
should be subjected to laboratory testing.
Table 4.5 Proposed Sampling Techniques for Qatar Soils

Quality
Soil Type Type of Drilling or Exploratory Hole Sampling Technique Class
Aeolian Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler Class 4
Sand Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit with casing) SPT sampler Class 4
Trial pit Bulk sample Class 4
Marine Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler (in sands) Class 4
Sediments Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit open hole) SPT sampler (in sands) Class 4
Open-tube thin wall, or OS-T/W Class 1
Sabkha Light cable percussion boring Piston thin wall, or PS-T/W Class 1
(preferred method) Open-tube thin wall Class 1
Open-tube thick wall Class 2
SPT sampler Class 4
Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit or cased) Open-tube thin wall Class 1
SPT sampler Class 4
Residual Light cable percussion boring SPT sampler Class 4
Soils Bulk sample Class 4
Rotary (usually tricone bit cased hole) SPT sampler Class 4
Note:
SPT = standard penetration test
The precise numbers and types of tests to be undertaken must be based on a

comprehensive understanding of the project and the engineering parameters
required for design. This also requires an appreciation of the different deposits and
variation encountered in the ground investigation exploratory holes. Considerable
experience is required to attain the right balance of cost-effective data.
Table 4.6 provides guidelines on the minimum number of samples to be tested for
each soil stratum in a project element (for example, a bridge or embankment length).
Guidelines on the minimum number of samples to be tested for each rock stratum in
a project element are given in Table 4.7. Further guidance on the minimum numbers
of samples to be tested may be found in Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 2:
Ground Investigation and Testing (BS EN 1997-2:2007).
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4.4.5 Interpretation
Some of the largest errors in the derivation of engineering parameters can arise in
making the interpretative step from a series of in situ or laboratory test results to the
engineering parameter to be used in design calculations. With the natural variability in
soils and rocks (Clause 4.4.2.1 in this Part) and the overall limited extent of in situ and
soils laboratory testing, there is the inevitable risk that soil and rock strengths and
deformation characteristics are inferior to the test results. In cases where soils
laboratory testing is performed on remolded test specimens where larger particle sizes
are removed, those tests will give results that are inferior to the performance of the in
situ materials. Simply taking the average of all the results is seldom appropriate and a
considerable degree of engineering judgment and well-established experience is
required to select the design parameters. Section 10.2 in this Part discusses the
determination of engineering parameters for use in design.
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Particular Soils Laboratory Tests
Number of Samples to be Tested in each Soil Stratum per Project Section
Soil Property or Minimum
Engineering Parameter Number Additional Considerations
Classification Tests
Moisture content (w) 5 These classification tests should be performed on samples on
Plasticity index (Ip), liquid 5 which shear strength, consolidation, elastic properties, or both
limit (wI) and plastic limit are determined. The classification test data will often prove
(wp) helpful in explaining atypical strength, consolidation, or elastic
3 properties test results that lie outside the general data set for a
Bulk density (mass
particular soils stratum. In situ density tests may be performed
density) (γ)
instead of, or in addition to, laboratory bulk density tests.
Particle size distribution 5
(PSD)
Particle density (or 2 None
specific gravity) (ρs)
Compaction, Compaction-Related Tests and California Bearing Ratio
Dry density/moisture 3 The number of tests should be selected considering the
content relationship variation of the particle size distribution and the quantity of
material to be compacted. 4.5 kg rammer tests are mainly
performed with the occasional 2.5 kg rammer test.
California bearing ratio 3 In situ CBR tests may be performed instead of or in addition to
(CBR) laboratory CBR tests. Resilient modulus may be estimated from
CBR and published correlations.
Chemical Tests
Soil sulfate content, 3 None
chloride content and pH
Water sulfate content, 3 None
chloride content, pH
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength 3 Triaxial compression method (without measurement of pore
pressure)
Effective shear strength 3 Direct shear (small shear box) method, consolidated undrained
triaxial with measurement of pore pressure or consolidated
drained triaxial with measurement of volume change or
combination of the three methods of test. For sands, shear box
tests are commonly performed on remolded specimens.
Residual effective shear 3 Direct shear (small shear box) method or ring shear or
strength combination of the two methods of test.
One dimensional 3 Odometer cell or hydraulic cell test or combination of the two
consolidation test methods.
Permeability
Coefficient of 3 Consideration to be given to both vertical permeability (kv) and
permeability (k) horizontal permeability (kh)
Note:
kg = kilograms
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Particular Rock Laboratory Test
Rock Property or Engineering Number of Samples to be Tested in each Rock Stratum per
Parameter Project Section
Minimum Additional Considerations
Number
Moisture content (w) 5 Moisture content and bulk density measurements are
5 often carried out and reported as part of uniaxial
Bulk density (mass density) (γ)
compressive strength testing.
Slake durability index 5 —
Schmitz rebound hardness, 5 —

Shore hardness
Cerchar abrasivity index 5 —
Swelling (strain) index 5 —
Strength Testing
Uniaxial compressive strength 5 —
(UCS)
Point load testing 10 —
Chemical Tests
Carbonate content 3 —
Soil sulfate content, chloride 3 —

content and pH
Water sulfate content, chloride 3 —
content, pH
4.5 Guidelines for Typically Required Engineering

Parameters
Table 4.8 provides a summary of design considerations and engineering parameters
typically required to be assessed by the geotechnical practitioner for road projects.
4.6 In Situ Tests for Determining Soils, Groundwater, and

Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters
Table 4.9 provides a list of the properties and engineering parameters commonly
determined from in situ tests for Qatar road projects. The table also provides
guidance on the standards that should be used for the particular test.
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4.7 Laboratory Tests for Determining Soil, Groundwater, and

Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters
4.7.1 Soils and Groundwater
Table 4.10 lists the soil properties and engineering parameters commonly determined
from laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the
standards that should be used for the particular laboratory test.
Table 4.11 lists the soil properties and engineering parameters occasionally
determined from laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on
the standards that should be used for the particular laboratory test.
Table 4.12 lists the groundwater properties that are commonly determined from
laboratory tests for Qatar road projects. It also provides guidance on the standards
that should be used for the particular laboratory test.
Further guidance on the selection of soils laboratory testing can be found in AGS
Guide: The Selection of Geotechnical Soil Laboratory Testing (Association of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists [AGS], 1998).
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PAGE 44
Table 4.8 Design Considerations, Engineering Parameters and Testing Requirements for Road Projects
Usual Source of Data for
Engineering
Parameter Derivation
Parameters
Normally In situ Laboratory Occasional Other Testing Undertaken and
Structure or Earthwork Design Issue Material Required Testing/Data Testing Other Engineering Parameters Derived
Structures (All) Chemical attack on Soils (All) Chemical — pH, SO4, Cl
buried concrete and steel properties
corrosion
Bridge (including Spread footings Sizing or bearing capacity, Soil (AS) γ, φ’, ks SPT N, CPT, density — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
abutments and cavities beneath tests, records of testing, geophysical testing.
piers), gantry foundation loss of drilling fluid Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
signs and SPT hammer box tests for φ’.
drops (if any) Soil (S, MD)—laboratory triaxial tests for cu
Rock γ, UCS, ks m, s, Fracture indices, UCS (and PL) and c’+ φ’.
RMR rock exposures
preferably (or core
if no exposures
available)
Settlement (components, Soil (AS) E’ — — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
total, differential and Rock E’ (& Es), RMR Fracture indices, UCS with testing.
rate) rock exposures (or Intact Rock Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’.
core if no Modulus Soil(S, MD)—field testing for k and
exposures laboratory odometer tests for mv and cv.
available)
Pile foundations Carrying capacity (axial Soil (AS) γ, φ’, ks SPT N, CPT, — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
and lateral), downdrag or records of loss of testing, geophysical testing, pile load
negative skin friction, drilling fluid and testing
cavities beneath the pile SPT hammer drops Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
toe level (if any) box tests for φ’.
Rock UCS RQD, FI, Records of UCS (and PL) Soil (S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests
loss of drilling for mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu
Bridge (including Pile foundations Settlement or deflection Soil (AS) E’ SPT N, CPT — Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
abutments and (continued) of laterally loaded piles Rock E (& Es), RMR Fracture indices UCS with
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piers), gantry rock exposures Intact Rock

signs (continued) (core if exposures Modulus
not available)
VOLUME 2
Engineering
Parameters
Tunnels Loading on tunnel lining, Soil (AS) γ, φ’, E’, ν, Ko SPT N, CPT — Advice on parameters for design should be
risk of presence of Rock γ,UCS, E (& Es), Fracture indices UCS with with sought from a geotechnical practitioner
cavities, gypsum bands ν, Ko, RMR rock exposures Intact Rock with knowledge and experience in tunnel
along the tunnel (core if exposures Modulus design and construction.
alignment. not available) Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
testing, geophysical testing
Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
box tests for φ’.

Soil (S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests
for mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu and c’+
φ’.
Retaining walls Gravity wall Bearing capacity Soil (AS) γ, φ’, ks SPT N, CPT density — Soil and rock (All)—field pressuremeter
tests testing.
Rock γ, UCS, m, s, Fracture indices UCS (and PL) Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
RMR rock exposures box tests for φ’ (and φ’r where soils are
(core if exposures affected by landslide.
not available)
Retaining walls Gravity wall Sliding resistance Soil (AS) φ’ SPT N, CPT — Soil (AS)—field plate bearing test for E’
(continued) (continued) Rock γ, c’ + φ’ — — Soil(S, MD)—laboratory odometer tests for
Overturning stability and Soil (AS) γ, φ’ SPT N, CPT, density — mv and cv and triaxial tests for cu and c’+ φ’.
engulfing failures, Rock—laboratory rock shear box for c’+ φ’.
settlement, rotation
Cantilever or Wall stability, engulfing Soil (AS) γ, φ’, ks SPT N, CPT, density —
anchored stability, deflection
embedded wall Anchor design Soil (AS) γ, φ’ SPT N, CPT, density —
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Soil cuttings Stability Soil (AS) γ, φ’ SPT N, CPT, density — Soil (AS)—Laboratory small and large shear
Soil (S,MDM) γ, cu, c’+ φ’ Triaxial tests box tests for φ’.
(UU, CU+PWP, Soil (S, MD)—laboratory small and large
PAGE 45
CD) shear box tests for c’+φ’ (and c’r+φ’r where

soils are affected by landslide).
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 46
Engineering
Parameters
Rock cuttings Stability Rock γ, c’ + φ’, RMR’ Discontinuity UCS Rock—laboratory rock shear box for c’+ φ’.
spacing and
orientation rock
exposures (core if
no exposures)
Embankments Stability Soil (AS) γ, φ’ SPT N, CPT, density — Soil (AS)—laboratory small and large shear
Soil (S, MD) γ, cu, c’ + φ’ — Triaxial tests box tests for φ’.
(UU, CU+PWP, Soil (S, MD)—laboratory small shear box
CD) tests for c’+φ’ & (c’r +φ’r where soils
affected by landslip).
Embankments (continued) Settlement (components, Soil (AS) E’ SPT N, CPT — —
total, differential and Soil (S, MD) mv, cv, k, Cc, Cα Permeability test Oedometer
rate)
Road pavement Strength, trafficability, Soil (All) CBR CBR, DCP CBR —
and requirement for
subgrade and/or capping
layer
Excavatability Excavatability Rock UCS RMR Discontinuity — —
spacing and
orientation, rock
exposures
preferably (or core
if no exposures
available)
Structures and earthworks: general Groundwater flow — kv & kh Permeability test Permeability Published correlations for permeability
and infiltration test test based on particle size distribution data.
Notes:
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Triaxial tests: UU = unconsolidated undrained (quick undrained), CU+PWP = consolidated undrained with porewater pressure measurement, CD = consolidated drained.
The geotechnical practitioner will be responsible for making a final determination of the parameters required for design.
Strata abbreviations: AS = aeolian sand, S = sabkha, MD = marine deposits, RS = residual soil, R = rock
For parameter abbreviations, refer to Table 4.3 and Table 4.4.
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Table 4.9 Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for In Situ Measurement Cost/
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Notes Including Comments on Where Commonly
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Applied to Rock
In situ density BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D1556-07, — A/B Refer to Section 7.5 in this Part for more details.
Bulk (mass) density (γ) Cl 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 ASTM D4914-08,
Dry density (γd) ASTM D5030-04,
ASTM D6938-10
Standard Penetration Test BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005 ASTM D1586-08a — A Refer to Section 7.2 in this Part for more details on the
resistance (N) test and the interpretation of engineering parameters.
Often undertaken in weathered bedrock
Shear Strength

Undrained shear strength (cu or cr) BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 4.4 ASTM D2573-08 — A/B Test in boreholes or from ground level.
BS EN ISO 22476-12:2009 ASTM D5778-12
Effective stress strength BS EN ISO 22476-12:2009 ASTM D5778-12 A/B Test from ground level, valid in soils only.
parameters (φ’)
Elastic Properties
Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E), Plate loading test ASTM — B Tests may be undertaken on bedrock.
Pressure Meter Test (PMT) BS 1377-9:1990,Cl 4.1* D1196/D1196M-2012,
ASTM
D1195/D1195M-2009
ASTM D4719-07
California Bearing Ratio
California bearing ratio BS 1377-9:1990,Cl 4.3 ASTM D4429-09a — A/B —
BS EN ISO 22476 2: ASTM D6951/D6951M-09
2005+A1:2011
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Table 4.9 Soil and Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from In Situ Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for In Situ Measurement Cost/
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Notes Including Comments on Where Commonly
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Applied to Rock
Permeability
Coefficient of Permeability (k) Constant and variable Constant and variable — A/B In boreholes and piezometers. May be undertaken in
head tests head tests ASTM D6391-11 bedrock.
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010,
Cl 25.4
Packer test (single and Packer test (double — B In boreholes. Test in bedrock.
double packer) packer)
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010, ASTM D4630-96(2008)
Cl 25.5
Pumping test ASTM D4050-96(2008) — C * Test also provides coefficient of transmissivity and
BS 5930:1999+A2:2010, coefficient of storage.
Cl 27*
Infiltration rate — ASTM D3385-09, — A/B BRE Digest 365 (2003) is also a common test method
ASTM D5093-02(2008)
Corrosivity
Resistivity (rs) BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 5.1 ASTM G57-06(2012) — A —
Redox potential (Eh) BS 1377-9:1990, Cl 5.1 ASTM G200-09(2014) — A —
Notes:
a Cost/complexity category definitions:
A = Low cost routine test. Normally carried out in large numbers to classify soils and to assess consistency of soil parameters.
B = More expensive, relatively routine test. Normally carried out selectively to determine design parameters.
C = High cost complex test. Normally carried out only when necessary to establish or confirm design parameters.
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Table 4.10 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Notes Including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Moisture content (w) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 3 ASTM D2216-10 — A —
Plasticity index (Ip), liquid limit (wI) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 4,5 ASTM D4318-10e1 AASHTO A —
and plastic limit (wp) T089-13-UL,
AASHTO
T090-00-UL
Bulk (mass) density (γ) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D7263-09 — A In situ tests are preferred in granular soils.
Dry density (γd) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D7263-09 — A —

Particle density (ρs) BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 8 ASTM D854-10 AASHTO A Obtained by calculation if w and ρ are known.
T100-06-UL
Particle size distribution BS 1377-2:1990, Cl 9 ASTM AASHTO A —
D422-63(2007)e1 T088-13-UL
Shear Strength
Effective stress strength parameters Direct shear (shear ASTM — B/C —
(φ’ and φ’crit) box) methods D3080/D3080M-11
BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 4,5
Compaction, Compaction-Related Tests, and California Bearing Ratio
Dry density and moisture content BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 3 ASTM D698-12e1, AASHTO A/B —
relationship ASTM D1557-12 T099-10-UL,
AASHTO
T-180-10-UL
California bearing ratio (CBR) BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D1883-07e2 — A/B Direct field measurement of CBR is preferred if the
ground conditions are suitable.
Maximum density (ρmax) minimum BS 1377-4:1990, Cl 4 ASTM D4253-00(2006), — A/B —
density (ρmin) ASTM
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D4254-00(2006)e1
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Table 4.10 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Notes Including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Chemical Tests
Sulfate content of soil BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 5 ASTM C1580-09e1 — A BS covers both acid soluble and water-soluble
sulfate. ASTM covers water-soluble sulfate. The
determination of water-soluble sulfate is most
commonly made.
Chloride content of soil BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 7 ASTM AASHTO A ASTM test is used for testing aggregates.
C1524-02a(2010) T291-94-UL
pH value BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 9 ASTM G51-95(2012) — A —
Carbonate Content BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 6 ASTM D4373-02(2007) — A ASTM provides result as calcite (CaCO3) equivalent.
BS results need to be corrected to be in CaCO3
equivalent.
Magnesium value in soil — ASTM C114-13, — B —
Section 16
Notes:
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Table 4.11 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement
Soil Property or Cost/ Complexity Notes including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Engineering Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Dispersibility tests, pinhole BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 6 Pinhole method: — B —
crumb and dispersion ASTM
methods D4647/D4647M-13,
Double hydrometer:
ASTM D4221-11
Organic content (O) BS 1377-3:1990,Cl 3 ASTM D2974-13 — A —
Collapse potential of soils BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 4 ASTM D5333-03 — B ASTM working group currently looking at reworking this
standard

Corrosivity
Resistivity of soil (rs) BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 10 ASTM G187-12a — B/C Field tests are usually preferred when practicable.
using two-electrode
soil box method
Redox potential of soil (Eh) BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 11 — — B/C —
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength Laboratory vane method ASTM — A Often unrepresentative because of small scale and sample
(cu or cr) BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 3 D4648/D4648M-13 disturbance.
Cu can also be assessed from classification tests such as
plasticity index (Ip) and published correlations.
Cu can be assessed from SPT N60 values and static cone
penetration tests in many soil types.
Triaxial compression method ASTM AASHTO A Complementary field strength determinations from in situ
(without measurement of pore D2850-03a(2007) T296-10-UL tests are often useful.
pressure) BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 8,9
Shear Strength
Effective stress strength Direct shear (shear box) with multi- ASTM D6528-07 — B/C φ’crit can be assessed from specific classification test
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parameters reversals BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 4,5 Direct shear of measured in the laboratory using modified British
(c’, (φ’ and φ’crit) cohesive soils Standard test procedures
Consolidated undrained triaxial (with ASTM D4767-11 — C
PAGE 51
measurement of pore pressure)

BS 1377-8:1990, Cl 3 to 7
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Table 4.11 Soil Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement
Soil Property or Cost/ Complexity Notes including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Engineering Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Consolidated drained triaxial (with ASTM D7181-11 — C
measurement of volume change)
BS 1377-8:1990, Cl 3, 6, & 8
Residual effective stress Direct shear (shear box) with multi- ASTM WK3822 — C φ’r can be assessed based on classification tests and
strength parameters (φ’r) reversals BS 1377-7:1990, Cl 4,5 published correlations.
φ’r may be assessed from back analysis of failures.
One dimensional Oedometer cell test methods ASTM AASHTO B mv can be estimated from SPT N60 values in
consolidation/swelling BS 1377-5:1990,Cl 3 D2435/D2435M-11 T216-07-UL overconsolidated clays
properties and pre- Swelling Test Methods ASTM D4546-14 — B mv can be estimated from static cone penetration test
consolidation pressure (mv, BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 4 cone resistance. It can also be assessed based on
mv(rebound),cv, cv(rebound) and Hydraulic Cell methods ASTM — C historical data on the performance of structures.
pc’) BS 1377-6:1990, Cl 3 D4186/D4186M-12 Cv laboratory generally significantly underestimates in situ
performance. A field estimate of cv can be made taking
cv = k/(γwmv) based on the odometer mv value, γw (weight
density of water = 9.81kN/m3)and a field permeability (k)
such as from a borehole or piezometer permeability test.
Permeability
Coefficient of Permeability Constant Head Method ASTM AASHTO B In situ field tests are usually preferred to laboratory tests.
(k) BS 1377-5:1990, Cl 5 D2434-68(2006) T215-70-UL Kv and kh in layered soils can be significantly different
Falling Head Method (Head, 1982) ASTM D5084-10 — B requiring measurement in tests with suitable sample
preparation, orientation, and drainage.
K can be assessed from particle size distribution and
published correlations.
Notes:
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Table 4.12 Groundwater Properties Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Test Methods for Laboratory Measurement Cost/ Notes including Comments on Alternative
Soil Property or Engineering Complexity Indirect Methods of Engineering Parameter
Parameter BS ASTM AASHTO Categorya Assessment
Chemical Tests
Sulfate content of groundwater BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 5 ASTM D516-11 — A —
Chloride content of groundwater BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 7 ASTM D512-12 — A —

BRE Report 279 (1995)
pH value BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 9 ASTM G51-95(2012) — A —
Total dissolved solids BS EN 15216:2007 ASTM D5907-13 — A —
Alkalinity BS EN ISO 9963-2:1996, ASTM D1067-11 — B —

BS 6068-2.52:1996 ASTM G162-99(2010)
Notes:
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4.7.2 Rock
4.7.2.1 Laboratory Testing

Table 4.13 lists the rock properties and engineering parameters commonly
Table 4.14 lists of the rock properties and engineering parameters occasionally
4.7.2.2 Quality and Properties of Rock Mass

In assessing the quality and properties of rocks and rock masses, the geotechnical
practitioner has to make a distinction between the behavior of rock material as
measured in the laboratory on core samples and the behavior of the much larger rock
masses in the field that include structural discontinuities such as bedding planes,
joints, shear zones, and solution cavities (dahal). In assessing rock mass behavior,
consideration needs to be given to the following characteristics of the joints:
• Spacing
• Orientation
• Aperture, persistence (continuity)
• Tightness
• Roughness, including the effects of previous movements on the joints
• Joint infilling
These characteristics can be assessed from logging of nearby rock exposures or by

orientation of recovered rock core. Guidance on the recording of rock exposures is
given in Rock Characterization Testing and Monitoring: I.S.R.M. Suggested Methods
(International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1981), Rock Engineering Guides to
Good Practice: Road Rock Slope Excavation (Transport Research Laboratory, 2011a)
Rock Slope Risk Assessment (Transport Research Laboratory, 2011b), and Rock Slope
Engineering (Hoek and Bray, 1981). A suitably qualified and experienced geotechnical
practitioner will need to determine the method to be adopted on a project.
Estimates of rock mass properties such as strength and stiffness may be obtained by
using the concept of rock mass classification. Further details can be found in “Rock
Mass Classification in Rock Engineering” (Bieniawski, (1976); Engineering Rock Mass
Classification: A Complete Manual for Engineers and Geologists in Mining, Civil and
Petroleum Engineering (Bieniawski, 1989); “Some New Q-value Correlations to assist
in Site Characterisation and Tunnel Design” (Barton, 2002); and “Hoek-Brown Failure
Criterion—2002 Edition” (Hoek et al., 2002).
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Table 4.13 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Commonly Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Rock Property or Engineering Complexity Notes Including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Parameter BS ASTM ISRM or Other Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Water content (w) — ASTM D2216-10 ISRM, 1981 A Normally determined as part of UCS test
Density (ρ) — Part of UCS test ISRM, 1981 A Normally determined as part of UCS test
Chemical Tests
Carbonate content BS 1377-3:1990, Cl 6 ASTM — — —
D4373-02(2007)
Strength

Point load (I) — ASTM D5731-08 Broch and Franklin, 1972 A Tests are typically carried out as axial point load (Ia) or
diametrical point load (Id) or lump tests
Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) — ASTM D7012-10 ISRM, 1981 A Test includes the determination of moisture content
and bulk density.
Elasticity
Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E) — ASTM D7012-10 ISRM, 1981 B Test includes the determination of moisture content
and bulk density.
Notes:
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Table 4.14 Rock Properties and Engineering Parameters Occasionally Determined from Laboratory Tests for Qatar Road Projects
Complexity Notes including Comments on Alternative Indirect
Rock Property or Engineering Parameter BS ASTM ISRM or Other Categorya Methods of Engineering Parameter Assessment
Classification tests
Porosity — ASTM D4404-10, ISRM, 1981 A —
ASTM D4992-07
Strength
Splitting tensile strength (Brazilian) — ASTM D3967-08 ISRM, 1981 A —
Discontinuity peak and residual effective — — ISRM, 1981 B —

shear strength
Slake durability — — ISRM, 1981 B —
Schmidt rebound hardness, Shore — — ISRM, 1981 B —

Hardness
CERCHAR abrasivity index — ASTM D7625-10 — B —
Swelling index — — ISRM, 1981 B —
Notes:
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4.8 Monitoring Instrumentation

When developing ground investigation proposals, the geotechnical practitioner
should consider requirements for instrumentation to obtain data on the following:
• Groundwater levels and their fluctuation, seasonally and in response to outside

influences such as tides and groundwater pumping and recharge
• Ground settlement
• Ground movement (with vertical and horizontal components)
• Applied pressures
Table 4.15 provides a list of the instrumentation that is commonly adopted on Qatar
road projects.
Table 4.15 Typical Instrumentation for Qatar Road Projects

Instrumentation
Groundwater levels Standpipe (slotted tube)a
Standpipe piezometera (ceramic or Casagrande tip)
Vibrating wire or electrical piezometerb
Hydraulic piezometer b
Pneumatic piezometer b
Ground settlement Surface settlement markers monitored by ground survey or levelling
techniquesc
Extensometer
Ground displacement/ Inclinometerd
movement Surface movement markers monitored by ground survey
Slip rod observations of piezometer riser tubes d
Applied pressures Load cells
Notes:
a Typically used in coarser grained soils.
b Typically used in fine-grained soils.
c In cases where very small movements are expected, for accuracy precise levelling equipment and
techniques should be used.

d Can be used to identify landslide slip surface or slip zone.
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5 Ground Investigation
Procurement
5.1 Overview
The ground investigation company can have a substantial influence on the accuracy
and quality of ground investigation data, which may affect ground interpretation,
geotechnical design, and the cost of the project. It is important that an appropriately
experienced ground investigation company with qualified, trained, and experienced
staff and operatives be engaged to undertake any ground investigation works. The
ground investigation company should operate under an appropriate quality assurance
system. The company usually is engaged through a competitive bidding process. This
chapter provides guidance on tender information to be requested from a ground
investigation company to assess its technical competency as part of the tender
process. The chapter also provides guidance on industry standards for ensuring the
quality of ground investigation personnel and laboratory testing. Advice on the
specification of ground investigation and on the preparation of a bill of quantities for
tendering and contract purposes is also given.
5.2 Procurement of a Ground Investigation Company

The procedure for procuring a specialist ground investigation company will depend on
the stage that a project has reached in its development and implementation. The
Overseeing Organization’s procurement procedure should be followed. Assessment of
ground investigation company tenders should include both technical and financial
evaluation. The technical evaluation of a ground investigation company should cover:
• Methodology and approach

• Compliance with local health and safety regulations and local environmental
regulations relevant to the particular aspect of work being carried out
• Quality of personnel, including competency assessment of drillers (refer to
Clause 5.2.1 in this Part)
• Certification requirements
• Technology requirements
• Documentation of operations in similar projects
• Capacity to upgrade and support
• Green procurement initiatives
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• The ability of the company to mobilize and begin work

• Time for program completion and program logic
• Relevant experience in the local market and available resources (plants, office,
software, tools) in Qatar
• Criteria for technical presentation and interviews, if any
Table D.1 and Table D.2 in Appendix D are templates for the technical and health and
safety evaluation of ground investigation companies. Electronic copies of the
templates may be obtained from the Overseeing Organization.
Adherence to quality assurance procedures is of prime importance to the success of

any ground investigation, as a guarantee that specific standards are attained. The
ground investigation company should operate a quality management system, which
should preferably comply and be registered to a recognized industry standard, such as
Quality Management Systems—Requirements (BS EN ISO 9001:2008). The company
should operate an environmental management system, preferably registered to an
international standard such as Environmental Mangement Systems—Requirements
(BS EN ISO 14001:2004) and a health and safety system, preferably registered to an
international standard such as Occupational Health and Safety Management
Systems—Requirements (BS OHSAS 18001:2007).
Further information on the quality management of ground investigation may be

found in Part 2: Planning, Procurement and Quality Management (Site Investigation
Steering Group, 1993a). Further information on the quality of ground investigation
personnel and certification requirements are given in the following clauses.
5.2.1 Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel

Geotechnical practitioners employed on ground investigations carried out by a ground
investigation company must be appropriately qualified with expertise and experience
in geotechnics for the role they undertake. Defined requirements for geotechnical
personnel relative to technical education, professional qualifications, and industry
experience are given in Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this manual.
Appropriate training and continued professional development of such personnel is
important for them to be able to undertake their duties successfully.
Drillers and crew should be appropriately experienced and trained. Studies have
shown that the skill and care of the driller in applying appropriate techniques and
procedures in sinking a borehole can have a significant influence on in situ test results
and the quality of soils sample and rock core recovery (CIRIA, 1995). Therefore, for
quality control it is important that drillers undertaking a ground investigation are
competent in the drilling techniques used. That competency should be a combination
of appropriate training and relevant drilling experience. This should ensure that
drillers are aware of drilling best practices to be employed and the detrimental effect
on data quality of poor drilling that is to be avoided.
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The competency of drillers should be reviewed annually, because such auditing can
improve work quality and safety. The audits should be carried out onsite by suitably
experienced and qualified persons, observing the driller’s work practices and reviewing
an individual’s ability to work according to relevant standards and contract-specific
specifications. The driller’s ability to keep correct and accurate records and to make
appropriate use of method statements and risk assessments should also be assessed.
An inspection of the driller’s rig and all drilling tools should also be made to check that
they are of the required standard. In the absence of a Qatar government or other
independent Qatar organization that performs such audits, international companies,
such as ABS Group Inc., commonly perform third party certified audits, as instigated by
the lead geotechnical practitioner or project consultant engineer. Ground investigation
companies might self-audit with appropriate staff as part of their quality control
procedures. If an independent Qatar body is set up, then it is expected that the ground
investigation company will adopt independent accreditation and auditing of its drillers.
Further information on the competency assessment of drillers may be found at the
British Drilling Association’s website www.britishdrillingassociation.co.uk and the
International Association of Drilling Contractors’ website www.iadc.org.
The following information should be sought from a ground investigation company for
review as part of the technical evaluation of the company:
• Names of the geotechnical practitioners to be employed on the contract, together

with details of their academic and professional qualifications and summary of their
experience
• Names of the drillers (and drilling assistants) to be employed on the contract,
together with evidence of them having been subject to an annual competency
audit (or accreditation by an independent audit body), and a summary of their
experience
• Details of the company training and development policy with training program for
its specialist staff and drilling crews
• Approval to perform work in the State of Qatar
5.2.2 Laboratory Quality

It is important for all ground investigations that there be consistency and quality of
laboratory testing. This ensures accuracy of data and reduces the risk of erroneous
information that could result in interpretation that could be overly conservative thus
giving rise to unnecessary higher project costs or rise to a failure with associated
increase in construction or maintenance costs. It is highly desirable that laboratories
undertaking soils and rock testing and analytical contaminant testing be accredited by
an independent, industry-recognized body such that:
• The test work is conducted using valid, recognized, technical methods suitable for
the purpose required and of established performance characteristics, with
reproducible results.
• The work is carried out by properly qualified and trained staff.
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• The work is carried out on correctly functioning equipment calibrated to provide

traceability to international standards of measurement.
• Data are consistent and of known quality being subject to quality control for
accuracy and precision by techniques that are approved by independent technical
assessors.
Details of independent accreditation—for example, Qatar Ministry of Environment

(MoE) Certificates of Conformity (MoE, 2012)—and of the company’s quality
assurance procedures for testing and results reporting should be sought from a
ground investigation company for review as part of the technical evaluation the
company.
5.3 Ground Investigation Company Performance

During a ground investigation, the geotechnical practitioner should monitor the
performance of the ground investigation company and provide feedback to the
Overseeing Organization that may be helpful with regard to technical evaluation of
the company in future ground investigation tenders. Aspects that the geotechnical
practitioner should typically monitor include:
• Quality of service
• Timeliness of delivery
• Adherence to specifications
• Quality of resources deployed
• Contract compliance
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6 Ground Investigation
Specification and Bill of
Quantities
6.1 Specification and Bill of Quantities
Having established the scope of the required ground investigation (see Chapter 4 in
this Part), and to facilitate the procurement of the ground investigation works, the
geotechnical practitioner should prepare specifications and bill of quantities. To
provide for clear and concise presentation of the requirements of the ground
investigation, published standards should be adopted for the specification and bill of
quantities. Use of standards will provide consistency and quality of documentation
and minimize the risk of the ground investigation company not understanding the
requirements.
The Qatar National Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (MoE, 2011) includes limited
specification and bill of quantities for ground investigation works. Consequently, the
more comprehensive UK Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation
Steering Group, 2012) is commonly used for stand-alone ground investigation contracts
in Qatar. While recognizing common aspects of ground investigation work, the
publication also recognizes that each ground investigation is unique in terms of its aims
and requirements. Consequently, the document makes provision for the geotechnical
practitioner to complete a series of schedules that define investigation specific details
including:
• Description of the site, expected ground and groundwater conditions, drawings,

and documents provided
• Number, type, and location of exploratory holes
• Amendments and additions to the published standard specification
Appendix E contains a Microsoft® Excel workbook template bill of quantities using the
specification format. An electronic file of the template is available from the
Overseeing Organization.
Where ground investigation works are performed as part of a construction, the

ground investigation works will be specified and billed as part of construction contract
using the relevant Qatar Construction Standard.
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6.2 Specification of Ground Investigation of

Contaminated Land
The geotechnical practitioner may require that a ground investigation be performed at
a site or part of a site with known or potentially contaminated soils or groundwater. For
such investigations, the geotechnical practitioner must clearly define the objectives and
anticipated hazards to allow the ground investigation company to select the
appropriate plant, equipment, drilling methods, materials, and protective measures.
Therefore, the geotechnical practitioner should include clauses within the ground
investigation specification related to the investigation of contaminated ground or
groundwater. There should also be bill of quantities items to reflect the additional work
and measures the ground investigation company will have to undertake compared to
those for a ground investigation in uncontaminated conditions. Part 4: Guidelines for
the Safe Investigation by Drilling of Landfills and Contaminated Land (Site Investigation
Steering Group, 1993c) provides advice for the investigation of known or potentially
contaminated sites and includes example bill of quantities items that could be added to
the standard bill of quantities described in Section 5.3 in this Part.
UK guideline Part 4: Guidelines for the Safe Investigation by Drilling of Landfills and
Contaminated Land (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993c) uses a traffic light
system to categories sites based on the risk to human health and controlled waters,
as presented in Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1 Site Categorization in Relation to the Ground Investigation of Landfills

and Contaminated Land
Site
Designation Broad Description
Green Subsoil, hardcore, bricks, stone, concrete, clay, excavated road materials, glass, ceramics,
and abrasives.
Wood, paper, cardboard, plastics, metals, wool, cork, ash, clinker, and cement.
It is possible that bonded asbestos could be contained in otherwise inert areas.
Yellow Waste food, vegetable matter, floor sweepings, household waste, animal carcasses, sludge,
trees, bushes, garden waste, and leather.
Rubber, latex, tires, epoxy resin, electrical fittings, soaps, cosmetics, nontoxic metal and
organic compounds, tar, pitch, bitumen, solidified wastes, fuel ash, and silica dust.
Red All substances that could subject persons and animals to risk of death, injury or impairment
of health.
Wide range of chemicals, toxic metals, and organic compounds; pharmaceutical and
veterinary wastes, phenols, medical products, solvents, beryllium, microorganisms, asbestos,
thiocyanates, clyanides, and dye stuffs.
Hydrocarbons, peroxides, chlorates, flammable and explosive materials, and materials that
are particularly corrosive or carcinogenic.
Notes:
Indiscriminate dumping may have taken place on a particular landfill or contaminated site; therefore, the
categorizations should be treated as a guide only to determining operational procedures.
Landfill sites licensed to accept asbestos waste or other sites where significant deposits of bound or
unbound asbestos occur justifiably have a RED designation, warranting the highest level of caution.
However, many contaminated sites may only have very small quantities of asbestos, often present as
asbestos cement, which (while presenting a hazard) may not warrant the highest level of protection. In
these cases, it may be sufficient simply to add water to the borehole to prevent asbestos fibers becoming
airborne and available for inhalation or to wear disposable paper masks suitable for low levels of asbestos.
The presence of radioactive materials on a site has not been included in the above categorization and
should be considered separately, subject to relevant regulations and codes of practice.
Most dye stuffs are likely to be in the YELLOW category. However, a variety of base materials have been
used for the manufacturing of dyes, so it is possible that some of those, in concentrated form, could be
sufficiently toxic to require a RED designation.
In situations where a preliminary sources study has not been carried out, or the preliminary sources study
has not revealed sufficient information, the site should be given an automatic RED designation.
Source: Part 3: Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993b).
Other references that provide information and guidance in relation to the ground
investigation of contaminated land include:
• Investigation of Potentially Contaminated Sites—Code of Practice (BS 10175:2011)

• Guidelines for Combined Geoenvironmental and Geotechnical Investigations
(AGS, 2000)
• Description and Sampling of Contaminated Soils—A Field Pocket Guide (USEPA,
2002)
• Standard Guide for Site Characterization for Environmental Purposes with
Emphasis on Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone and Groundwater (ASTM D5730-04)
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7 In Situ Testing and

Its Interpretation
7.1 Overview
In situ testing usually forms an important part of any ground investigation for Qatar
road projects. This chapter provides guidance on the execution, interpretation, and
uses of standard penetration testing, cone penetration testing, dynamic penetration
testing and in situ density determinations.
7.2 Standard Penetration Testing

The SPT is the most commonly used in situ test in Qatar and the Arabian Peninsula
and is widely used around the world. The test provides an indicator of the density and
compressibility of granular soils, such as the aeolian sand and marine sediments
(described in Clause 2.2.3 in this Part). It is a particularly valuable test in these types
of soils, as undisturbed samples cannot be easily obtained for laboratory testing. The
SPT can also be used to assess the consistency of cohesive soils such as sabkha,
marine silts and clays, and depression muds, as well as the consistency of weak rocks.
The SPT is a relatively simple test that gives a numerical parameter that can be used
for the following:
• Profiling soils and weak rocks

• Soil classification
• Determination of engineering parameters for use in design based on empirical
design rules, discussed further in Clause 7.2.4 in this Part
• Direct design; discussed further in Clause 7.2.4 in this Part
The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (published
Standard Penetration Test (SPT): International Reference Procedure that describes the
principles constituting acceptable test procedures from which the results are
comparable ISSMFE, 1988). Only standards that comply with the reference test
procedure, such as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3:
Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and Standard Test
Method for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Split Barrel Sampling of Soils
(ASTM D1586-08a) should be used in ground investigations.
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The SPT consists of driving a standard 50 mm outside diameter thick-walled sampler

into the soil at the base of a borehole, using repeated blows of a 63.5-kilogram (kg)
hammer falling through 760 mm. The SPT N value is the number of blows required to
achieve a penetration of 300 mm, after an initial seating drive of 150 mm.
7.2.1 Influence of Different Practices and Equipment on SPT Results

Apart from the soil conditions during the test, the main influences on SPT results are:
• Driller competence and borehole construction

• The SPT equipment
7.2.1.1 Driller Competence and Borehole Construction

Studies reported in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995) have shown that the quality of
drilling equipment and drilling technique can produce some of the largest differences
in penetration resistance in granular soils. The skill and care of the driller in applying
appropriate techniques and procedures in the sinking the borehole can have a
significant influence on the penetration resistance of the soil. The correct execution of
the SPT itself is also of critical importance. Therefore, for quality control it is
important that drillers performing a ground investigation are competent in the drilling
techniques and testing to be used (see Clause 5.2.1 in this Part).
Best practice drilling should be used to minimize the disturbance of soils to be tested
by SPT. In light cable percussion boreholes most commonly used in ground
investigations, these practices include:
• Where drilling in the presence of a groundwater table a water balance should be

maintained within the borehole casing. This prevents a hydraulic gradient at the
base of the hole that would likely cause upward seepage and piping failure within
sand and silt deposits, resulting in them becoming loose.
• SPTs should be carried out below the borehole casing, not within it.
• Standard 35-mm internal diameter split spoon samplers should be used.
• In very loose aeolian sands or in very soft marine deposits the static weight of the
rods and hammer assembly often will be sufficient to push the test equipment
some distance into the ground below the base of the borehole. That distance
should be recorded in accordance with the test standard; otherwise, the
penetration resistance will be overestimated by an unknown quantity.
In Qatar, drilling typically is performed using an 110-mm casing. Drilling in larger

diameter boreholes is not common practice, but the geotechnical practitioner should
be aware that drilling in boreholes of greater than 150-mm diameter may result in
obtaining artificially lowered SPT N values. Therefore, the geotechnical practitioner
should consider this when interpreting test data and make corrections where
necessary.
Further information on the influence of driller competence and borehole construction

on SPT results can be found in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995).
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7.2.1.2 SPT Equipment

The equipment used to perform SPTs can influence measured N values significantly.
To minimize such influences, only equipment complying with such recognized
industry standards as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3:
Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and Standard Test
Method for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Split Barrel Sampling of Soils
(ASTM D1586-08a) should be used in ground investigations. The energy the SPT
hammer delivers to the rods and the consistency of that energy level with each drop
of the hammer influence SPT results. In Qatar, the automatic trip hammer is mostly
used. It provides the most consistent energy application with each hammer drop and
thus is the preferred type of equipment. Further information on the automatic trip
hammer and other types of SPT hammers commonly used can be found in CIRIA
Report 143 (CIRIA, 1995).
Energy Delivered to the Rods

The level of energy application varies depending on the individual hammer used.
Energy losses are induced by the hammer assembly by frictional and other effects,
which cause the hammer velocity at impact to be less than the free-fall velocity.
Further losses of energy arise from the impact of the anvil depending on its mass and
other characteristics. Following studies of energy imparted by hammers, it has been
established that a standard rod energy ratio (Er) of 60 percent of the theoretical free-
fall hammer energy is appropriate for normalizing penetration resistances from
different equipment and systems. The correction of SPT N values to a standard rod
energy ratio of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall hammer energy is applied in
standards such as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3:
Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) and Standard Practice
for Determining the Normalized Penetration Resistance of Sands for Evaluation of
Liquefaction Potential (ASTM D6066-11). The adjusted N value is denoted by the
symbol N60.
In sands, the blow count N is inversely proportional to the energy ratio (Er) of the
hammer and the correction factor that has to be applied (see Clause 6.2.3 in this Part).
To establish the correction factor, the Er value of the particular test hammer has to be
established from calibration testing. SPT hammers should be calibrated by an
appropriate specialist company every 6 months and after damage, overloading, or
repair, as recommended in Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—
Part 3: Standard Penetration Test (BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011). Annex B of
BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011 provides a recommended method to measure the
actual energy imparted by a SPT hammer assembly to the rods. The ground
investigation company should provide a copy of the current certificates of calibration
for SPT hammers used during a ground investigation and referenced to the tests
undertaken as part of its factual reporting of the ground investigation.
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Energy Loss Owing to the Length of Rods

With low penetration resistance (N <50) the energy transmitted down the rods in the
first compressive pulse of force will be reduced due to a reflective tensile wave.
Studies indicate that this has an impact on tests in sand but not in cohesive soils. For
SPT in sands if the rod length is less than 10 m then a further correction to that for the
energy ratio of the hammer should be applied as described in Clause 7.2.3 in this Part.
7.2.2 Corrections Applied to SPT Results
7.2.2.1 Energy Delivered to the Rods

As discussed in Section 7.2 in this Part, for design and comparison purposes SPT
N values should be adjusted to a reference energy ratio of 60 percent of the
theoretical free-fall hammer energy. This adjustment is made using the following
equation:
𝑬𝑬𝒓𝒓
𝑵𝑵𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝒙𝒙 𝑵𝑵
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
where
N = SPT blow count
Er = energy ratio of the SPT hammer (%)
N60 = adjusted N value
7.2.2.2 Energy Loss Owing to Length of Rods in Sands

To correct for energy loss encountered with short rod lengths when testing sands,
correction (λ) to the reference energy correction given in Clause 7.2.3.1 in this Part
should be applied to the SPT N results. Table 7.1 lists the rod length correction
factors.
Table 7.1 Correction Factors in Sands for Rod Length

Rod Length Below the Anvil (m) Correction Factor, λ
>10 1.0
6 to 10 0.95
4 to 6 0.85
<4 0.75
Source: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011)
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To obtain a value corrected to a reference energy of 60 percent of the theoretical

free-fall hammer, SPT N values in sands are adjusted using the following equation:
𝑬𝑬𝒓𝒓
𝑵𝑵𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = ×λ×N
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
where
N = SPT blow count
λ = correction factor related to rod length
N60 = adjusted N value
7.2.2.3 Effect of Overburden Pressure

SPT N60 values may need further correction to account for the effect of overburden
pressure. Several published corrections address effective overburden pressure at the
SPT depth. The correction factors (CN) presented in Geotechnical Investigation and
Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011) also account for the type of consolidation of the
deposit. Suggested CN values to be applied to take account of overburden pressure
and the type of consolidation of the deposit are given in Table 7.2. The adjusted
N60 value is denoted by the symbol (N1)60.
Table 7.2 Correction Factors CN for Vertical Effective Stress (σv’) due to
Overburden of the Soils
Type of Consolidation Correction Factor (CN)
Normally consolidated 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
�
𝛔𝛔𝐯𝐯’
Overconsolidated 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 + 𝛔𝛔𝐯𝐯’
σv’ is the vertical effective stress in kN/m2

Source: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 3: Standard Penetration Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011)
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In sands, therefore, the adjustment to be made to SPT N values to obtain a value

corrected to a reference energy of 60 percent of the theoretical free-fall hammer and
to take account of effective overburden pressure is made using the following
equation:
𝑬𝑬𝒓𝒓
(𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏 )𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = × 𝛌𝛌 × 𝑪𝑪𝑵𝑵 × N
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
where
N = SPT blow count
λ = correction factor related to rod length
CN = correction factor related to effective overburden pressure
(N1)60 = adjusted N60 value
7.2.2.4 SPT Corrections Spreadsheet Template

Table F1 in Appendix F is a template spreadsheet for the application of corrections to
SPT results.
7.2.3 Engineering Parameters and Direct Design Methods
7.2.3.1 Engineering Parameters

SPT results have been correlated to the engineering parameters used in geotechnical
design and for various soils and weak rocks. Table 7.3 lists engineering parameters
commonly derived from SPT results and published correlations. Details of the various
correlations and discussion on their application can be found in CIRIA Report 143
(CIRIA, 1995) and in geotechnical engineering design textbooks such as Foundation
Design and Construction (Tomlinson, 2001).
Table 7.3 Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived from SPT Results

Material type
Cohesive Weak
Granular Soils Soils Rock
Aeolian Sands, Carbonate Required
Parameter Symbol Residual Soils Sabkha Rock Input
Relative density Dr * — — (N1)60
Effective angle of friction

φ’ * — — (N1)60
Undrained shear strength cu — * * N60

Undrained Young’s modulus Eu — * — N60
Drained (effective) Young’s
modulus
E’ * * * N60
Coefficient of volume
compressibility
mv — * — N60
Shear modulus at very small

strain
Gmax * — — (N1)60
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7.2.3.2 Direct Design Methods

Several direct design methods are used for SPT. The N value in these methods
(corrected as appropriate) is the input parameter, and the analysis gives the value to
be calculated. For example, the settlement of a foundation, without estimate of the
engineering parameters of the soil or rock. Direct design methods include:
• Estimating the settlements of shallow foundations on sands

• Designing piles for soils and weak rock
• Determining liquefaction potential in sands
• Estimating sheet pile drivability in granular soils
Direct design methods and their application are contained in CIRIA Report 143 (CIRIA,
1995), Load and Resistance Factored Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures
(FHWA, 2001), Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations (FHWA, 2006), and
such geotechnical engineering design textbooks as Foundation Design and
Construction (Tomlinson, 2001).
7.3 Cone Penetration Testing

7.3.1 Introduction
The cone penetration test (CPT) and CPT with porewater pressure measurement
(CPTU, known as the “piezocone test”) are not widely used in Qatar, because there
are few superficial deposits (soils) and, therefore, shallow bedrock. However, CPTs are
often conducted within reclaimed areas and near the coastline, especially where the
overburden is of considerable thickness; for example, in the Mesaieed and Wakra
areas. Seismic or electrical sondes (probes) can be included in the CPT array to
provide information on sonic velocity or resistivity that can be correlated with
engineering properties. CPTU generally is the preferred method, because the data
obtained are more versatile for interpretation of the ground conditions at a site.
Piezocone tests, however, require additional drilling to avoid loss of saturation within
the piezofilter.
In the text below, CPT is a generic term covering both CPT and CPTU unless stated
otherwise. CPT can be very cost-effective and can provide continuous data on the
strata being tested with good repeatability of observations. CPT can be used for the
following:
• Profiling the soil stratigraphy and identifying the material encountered

• Determining engineering parameters of soils for use in design based on empirical
design rules (discussed further in Clause 7.3.5.1 in this Part)
• Direct design (discussed further in Clause 7.3.5.2 in this Part)
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In most cases, it is desirable that a CPT investigation be supplemented by exploratory

holes, sampling, and testing in order to accomplish the following:
• Provide correlations and verifications of soil type

• Provide complementary information where interpretation of CPT data are difficult
• Evaluate the effect of future changes in soil loading that cannot be assessed from
the CPT
The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering published
the International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) that
describes the principles constituting acceptable test procedures for the CPT from
which the results are comparable (ISSMFE, 1989). Only equipment and procedures
that comply with the reference test procedure, as described in international
standards such as Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 2:
Dynamic Probing (BS EN 1997-2:2007) and Standard Test Method for Electronic
Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration Testing of Soils (ASTM D5778-12) should be
used for CPT investigations.
The CPT consists of pushing a cone attached to the end of a series of rods into the
ground at a constant rate of penetration. During the test, continuous or intermittent
measurements are made of the resistance to penetration of the cone. Measurements
are also made of either the combined resistance to penetration of the cone and outer
surface of a friction sleeve or the resistance of the surface friction sleeve itself. The
standard CPT cone has a 60-degree apex angle and a diameter of 35.7 mm providing a
10 square centimeters (cm2) cross-sectional base area and 150 cm2 friction sleeve
located above the cone, as shown in Figure 7.1. In addition, CPT cones of 15 cm2
cross-sectional base are used, especially where additional sensors are incorporated
into the equipment. International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test
(CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) advises that immediately behind the cone (position u2 in
Figure 7.1) is the preferred location for the filter for the measurement of pore
pressure. Some equipment, however, has the filter on the cone (position u1 in
Figure 7.1 or behind the friction sleeve (position u3).
Electrical strain gauge load cells within the cone penetrometer measure the cone
resistance (qc) and the sleeve friction (fs) of the soils being tested as the cone is
pushed into the ground.
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Source: Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997)
Figure 7.1 Cone Penetrometer Components
7.3.2 Test Methods

Methods for undertaking CPT are set out in such international standards as
International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE,
1989), Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 2: Dynamic
Probing (BS EN 1997-2:2007), Standard Test Method for Mechanical Cone Prnetrtion
Tests of Soil (ASTM D3441-05), and Standard Test Method for Eletronic Friction Cone
and Piezocone Penetration Testing of Soils (ASTM D5778-12).
7.3.3 Factors that Can Affect CPT Results

The factors that typically affect CPT results, with measures to avoid error or to correct
the data, are as follows:
• Skill and care of the CPT operator: Following the correct test procedure is
fundamentally important in ensuring quality and reliability of CPT results. Only
suitably trained and experienced operators should perform CPT testing.
• Calibration of sensor and load cells: Accurate and up-to-date calibration of
sensors and load cells is needed to recording accurate CPT data, and so good
support facilities for calibration and maintenance of the CPT equipment are
important. Calibration records should always be requested for the cone, friction
sleeve, piezometer, and other sensors such as seismic sonde. Such records should
be current at time of commencement of testing and should be consulted at the
end of the investigation to determine if drift in readings may have occurred over
time.
• Porewater pressures: Porewater pressure around a penetrating cone influence
the measured cone resistance and sleeve friction. In clays, a higher rate of
penetration generates higher pore pressures that will result in overestimation of
cone resistance and therefore strength properties. High rates of penetration can
give increased resistance in some sands from dilatancy generating high negative
VOLUME 2 PAGE 75
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porewater pressures. Such rate effects can be avoided by carrying out the test to
the standard rate of penetration. International Reference Test Procedure for Cone
Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) recommends a penetration rate of
20 millimeters per second (mm/sec) ±5 mm/sec.
• De-airing of piezometers: If the piezometer within the CPT array becomes
unsaturated, it will give erroneous pore pressure readings. Piezocones should be
immersed in de-aired water for at least 24 hours before testing. Piezocones should
be regularly replaced with de-aired piezocone elements. CPTUs should be
performed only below free groundwater level.
• Inclination of testing: A test path that deviates significantly off vertical will induce
errors in the depth of the recorded data. To minimize the risk of a test deviating
off vertical, the thrust machine should be set up to obtain a thrust direction as
near to vertical as possible. Deviation of initial thrust direction from vertical should
not exceed 2 degrees, and the axis of the test push rods should coincide with the
vertical thrust direction. Inclusion of a slope sensor in the penetrometer will
monitor and record the verticality of the test path. That information can then be
used to make any necessary corrections to give the correct measurement depth.
• Temperature: Changes in temperature can affect readings. In sands, temperature
may increase from friction between the cone penetrometer and the sand
particles. Temperature effects can be checked by taking a reading at zero-load at
the beginning and end of test at the same temperature as that of the ground. The
inclusion of a temperature sensor in the penetrometer will also allow monitoring
and recording of the temperature. The data can then be corrected based on
laboratory calibrations.
• Cone penetrometer condition: General wear and tear can cause a cone
penetrometer to fall out of standard, to the extent that the accuracy of test data
may be affected. The cone should be inspected before carrying out a CPT survey
to ensure the cone is in good condition. An appropriate inspection and
maintenance schedule for the CPT equipment should be put in place to ensure
that equipment that falls out of standard is identified and taken out of use.
Information on factors that can affect CPT results and measures to avoid error or to
correct the data are found in Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice
(Lunne et al., 1997). Table G.1 in Appendix G summarizes the frequency of checks and
recalibrations that should be made for CPT to ensure data quality.
7.3.4 Presentation of Results

The ground investigation company’s reporting of CPT should contain the following:
• Measured parameters: For each CPT the measured parameters listed below
should be plotted on one sheet with a common set of scales used at any one site:
− Measured cone resistance (qc)
− Measured sleeve friction (fs)
− Pore water pressure (u), where measured
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− International Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

(ISSMFE, 1989) gives recommendations for scales to be used, but those may
be varied where appropriate to ensure best presentation of data.
• Derived parameters: Where possible, the following parameters should be derived
and presented:
− Cone resistance corrected for pore pressure effects (qt)
− Sleeve friction corrected for pore pressure effects (only valid when pore
pressures have been measured at both ends of the friction sleeve)
− Friction ratio (Rf), usually in %, where Rf = fs/qc or is preferably Rf = ft/qt or
more typically Rf = fs/qt
− Pore pressure ratio (Bq), where Bq = Δu/(qt – σvo)
− With Δu = excess pore pressure (u – u0)
− u0 = in situ equilibrium pore water pressure
− σvo = in situ total vertical stress
• On each CPT record:
− Site name
− CPT reference number
− Date of test
− Serial number of the cone penetrometer
− Position of the pore pressure filters on the cone penetrometer
− Groundwater level
− Test company and CPT operator name
• In the factual report:
− Plan showing the location of each CPT coordinated to an agreed Cartesian
system
− Description of the equipment used and name of the manufacturers
− Cone geometry and dimensions and any deviation from International
Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) or
the standard being used
− Calibration factors for all sensors and the load range over which they apply
− Capacity of each sensor
− Zero readings for all sensors before and after each test, and the temperature
at which taken or alternatively the change in zero reading expressed in
kilopascals (kPa)
− Type of liquid used in the pore pressure measurement system
− Observed wear or damage on the cone, friction sleeve or the filter element
− Any irregularities during testing to the standard being used
− Area ratio of the cone and the friction sleeve end areas
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For dissipation tests, note whether the rods were clamped or unclamped during
dissipation.
Table G.2 in Appendix G is a checklist of information required with CPT results to

check that data quality is provided. Appendix I includes a typical CPT field log.
7.3.5 Soils Characteristics, Engineering Parameters, Direct Design Methods

and Other Applications
7.3.5.1 Soils Characteristics and Engineering Design Parameters

CPT is extremely effective for establishing soil type and soils stratigraphy, particularly
when correlated with data from boreholes. CPT results have been correlated to a wide
range of engineering parameters used in geotechnical design and for a wide range of
soil types. Table 7.4 lists the engineering parameters commonly derived from CPT
results and published correlations. Details of the correlations and discussion of their
application can be found in Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne
et al., 1997). Most correlations given in this document are based on empirical results
and data derived for silica or quartz sands. In some instances, these correlations can be
in error for CPT tests in calcareous sands (carbonate content greater than 50 to
70 percent) (Lunne et al., 1997).
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Table 7.4 Soil Characteristics and Engineering Parameters Commonly Derived

from Cone Penetration Testing Results
Material type
Granular Soils Cohesive Soils
Aeolian Sands Sabkha, Marine Deposits
Soil Characteristics and
Parametersa Symbol CPT CPTU CPT CPTU
Soil State
Soil type — B A B A
Soil stratigraphy — A A A A
In situ static pore pressure u — — — A
Unit weight/weight density (bulk γ C
— — —
density/mass density)
Relative density (density index) ID A/B A/B — —
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) — — — B Bb
In situ horizontal stress σh C C B/C B/Cb
Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength cu — — B Bb
Sensitivity — — — C C
Effective angle of friction φ’ B B C B
Deformation
Drained (effective) constrained modulus M B B Cc Bc
Coefficient of consolidation cv — — — A/B
Coefficient of permeability k — — — B
Undrained Young’s modulus Eu — — C B
Drained (effective) Young’s modulus E’ B B — —
Shear modulus at very small strain Gmax B B B B
Notes:
a For details of the correlations and discussion on their application, see Cone Penetration Testing in
Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997). The general applicability of CPT and CPTU data for assessing
soil characteristics and parameters: A high, B moderate, C low, and — not applicable.
b CPTU provides additional approaches compared to CPT to assess this characteristic/parameter
c The coefficient of volume compressibility can be assessed from m = 1/M, but the value tends to be
v
conservative.
In calcareous sands, correction factors should be applied to account for the

crushability of the shell content and hence higher compressibility of the deposits,
which often results in artificially lower CPT cone resistance values compared to silica
or quartz sands of the same relative density.
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7.3.5.2 Direct Design Methods

Several direct design methods have been developed for CPT. In these methods, qc is
usually the only input parameter from the CPT test and there are various formulae and
correlations for the value to be calculated. Design methods that use CPT data include:
• Pile load capacity and pile settlement

• Bearing capacity and settlement of shallow foundations
• Liquefaction potential evaluation
Details of the design methods and discussion on their application can be found in
Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997); Cone
Penetration Testing Methods and Interpretation (CIRIA, 1987); Load and Resistance
Factored Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures (FHWA, 2001); and Design
and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations (FHWA, 2006).
7.3.5.3 Other Applications

Other applications for which CPT data are commonly used are:
• Estimation of SPT N values for use in SPT-based design approaches

• Ground improvement quality control
Details of these and other less common applications in Qatar can be found in Cone
Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al., 1997) and Cone Penetration
Testing Methods and Interpretation (CIRIA, 1987).
7.4 Dynamic Cone Penetration Testing

7.4.1 Introduction
Dynamic cone penetration testing (DCPT) is often used in road and pavement
construction, where there is a need to characterize the field subgrade conditions,
which is otherwise difficult to assess by laboratory testing. Details of DCPT presented
in this section are based on In Situ Foundation Characterization Using the Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (Burnham and Johnson, 1993) and Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
(DCPT) for Subgrade Assessment (Salgado and Yoon, 2003).
7.4.2 Description of DCPT Equipment and Operation of Equipment

As shown in Figure 7.2, the DCPT equipment consists of upper and lower shafts. The
upper shaft has an 8-kg drop hammer with a 575-mm drop height. It is attached to
the lower shaft through the anvil. The lower shaft contains the anvil and a cone
attached at the end of the shaft. The cone is replaceable and has a 60 degree cone
angle. As a reading device, an additional rod is used as an attachment to the lower shaft
with marks at every 5.1 mm.
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Source: Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT) for Subgrade Assessment (Salgado and Yoon, 2003)
Figure 7.2 Structure of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DCPT requires two operators: one to drop the hammer, the other to record
measurements. The first step is to put the cone tip on the testing surface. The lower
shaft containing the cone moves independently from the reading rod sitting on the
testing surface throughout the test. The initial reading is not usually equal to 0 because
of the disturbed loose state of the ground surface and the weight of the testing
equipment. The initial reading is counted as initial penetration corresponding to
below 0. Hammer blows are repeated and the penetration depth is measured for each
hammer drop. This process is continued until a desired penetration depth is reached.
DCPT results consist of number of blow counts versus penetration depth. Since the
recorded blow counts are cumulative values, results of DCPT in general are given as
incremental values.
7.4.3 DCPT Application

DCPT can be used to characterize the subgrade and base material properties. Its
greatest strength is its ability to provide a continuous record of relative soil strength
with depth. The following applications use DCP testing.
• Soils surveys: DCPT can be carried out as part of a ground investigation to map
areas of weak material and to locate potentially collapsible or moisture sensitive
soils. By carrying out an initial DCPT, flooding the location with water, and running
the test again, a noticeable increase in the penetration index value (PIdc) reflecting
a lower shear strength would indicate the presence of collapsible or moisture
sensitive soil.
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• Construction control: DCPT is useful in testing highway pavement subgrade and

formation soils to verify consistency and compliance with construction
specifications.
• Structural evaluation of existing pavements: DCPT may be used to verify the
strength of pavement layers with depth. DCPT results can be compared with
Standard Pavement Balance Curves for classification purposes.
7.4.4 DCPT Data Analysis

DCPT results are expressed in terms of the penetration index (PIdc), defined as the
downward vertical movement of the DCP cone produced by one drop of the sliding
hammer (mm/blow). Stiffer or stronger soils require more blows or drops of the
hammer to achieve a given penetration.
Test results normally are processed on a worksheet. Depth readings are averaged, and
strength of a soil layer between DCP readings is represented by a uniform PIdc at the
midpoint of the layer. The PIdc is calculated by dividing the difference in the present
and previous DCP depth readings by the number of hammer blows between readings,
as indicated in the following equation (Salgado and Yoon, 2003):
∆DP
PI dc =
∆BC
where
PIdc = DCP penetration index in units of length divided by blow count;
ΔDp = penetration depth;
BC = is the blow count corresponding to penetration depth ΔDp
A graph of penetration index (PIdc) versus penetration below the surface should be
prepared, indicating a profile of different strength layers. The results can become
unrealistic if the DCP encounters an obstruction during testing (one or two points with
near zero penetration).
7.4.5 Relationship between Penetration Index and Other Geotechnical

Parameters
A series of correlations have been developed between penetration index and SPT
N values and specific geotechnical parameters:
• California bearing ratio (CBR)

• Undrained shear strength (cu)
• Elastic modulus (E)
• Shear strength of granular (cohesionless) materials
• Standard Penetration Resistance (SPT)
• Clegg Hammer and Benkelman Beam
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7.5 In Situ Density Tests

Soil bulk density, or mass density, is an important parameter required for
geotechnical engineering design. As described in Section 4.4 in this Part, routine
sampling techniques cannot provide samples of the type and quality suitable for bulk
density determination for aeolian sand deposits, which predominate in Qatar.
However, the bulk density of deposits can be determined by testing the soils in situ.
Table 7.5 lists the tests commonly undertaken for Qatar road projects to establish
soils bulk density in situ.
Table 7.5 Tests Commonly Undertaken for Qatar Road Projects for Determining
the In Situ Density of Soils
Test Method BS ASTM Notes
Sand BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM Suitable for fine and medium grained
replacement Cl 2.1, small pouring D1556-07, sand- soils or aeolian sand.
cylinder cone method
BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM Suitable for fine-, medium-, and coarse-
Cl 2.2, large pouring D4914-08, sand grained soils or aeolian sand.
cylinder replacement
method
Water BS-1377-9:1990, ASTM D5030-04 Used rarely in coarse and very coarse
replacement Cl 2.3 soils wadi deposits.
Core cutter BS-1377-9:1990, — Suitable for cohesive soils free from
Cl 2.4 coarse-grained material. Used rarely, for
example, in cement stabilized fill.
Nuclear BS 1377-9:1990, ASTM D6938-10 Commonly used. The ground
Cl 2.5 investigation company personnel
undertaking this test require a Ministry
of Environment (2012) license in
conjunction with a thermoluminesence
dosimetry certificate. Suitable for fine
grained materials like aeolian sand.
Technique much less reliable in coarse,
gravelly soils.
Lightweight — ASTM E2835-11, Relatively new technique. Used for
deflectometer ASTM E2583-07 measuring the bearing capacity or
deflection of subgrade, subsoils,
unbound base layers, granular layers,
and backfilling materials.
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7.6 Pressuremeter Tests

7.6.1 Introduction
The following description of pressuremeter testing is based on BS5930:1999+A2:2010.
Pressuremeters are cylindrical device with a flexible membrane, which imposes a
uniform pressure on a borehole wall. Measurement of the applied pressure and the
resulting deformation of the membrane enable in situ stress, stiffness, and strength of
the ground to be established. Pressuremeters categorise as either:
• Preborded pressuremeters
• Self-bored pressuremeters
• Push-in pressuremeters.
Pressuremeters are normally between 40 mm and 100 mm in diameter and up to 1 m

long, with the expanding section being between five and six times the diameter of the
instrument. The displacement capacity of the instrument is a function of the
instrument design but normally exceeds 10 percent of the instrument diameter.
Pressuremeters can be used in most ground conditions, but not all pressuremeters
can be used in any one-ground condition. The results from any individual test depend
on the equipment used and the procedures adopted for installation, testing, and
interpretation. This means that results from different tests may not necessarily be
compatible. Prebored pressuremeters, such as the Menard pressuremeter, can be
used in most soils and rocks. The results obtained depend on the quality of the pre-
drilling. The Cambridge type self-boring pressuremeters can be used in most clays and
sands provided they do not contain excessive amounts of gravel size particles. It may
be necessary with the self-boring pressuremeter to use a second rig to clear
obstructions encountered during drilling. The weak rock self-boring pressuremeter
can be used in dense sands, hard clays, and weak rocks. This instrument has to be
used with a rotary rig. The cone pressuremeter can be used in those soils into which it
is possible to push a static cone.
There are three main pressure capacities for pressuremeters: 0 MPa to 4 MPa for
soils; 0 MPa to 10 MPa for weak rocks; and 0 MPa to 20 MPa for moderately strong
rocks.
7.6.1.1 Prebored Pressuremeters

Prebored pressuremeters are lowered into pockets drilled specifically for the tests.
The Menard pressuremeter is a prebored pressuremeter and consists of three
expanding cells connected to the surface by drill rods and flexible hoses. The central
cell is inflated with water under pressure and readings of the pressure and volume
change are taken at the ground surface. The other cells, normally inflated by gas
pressure, ensure a condition of plane strain around the central cell. The other types of
prebored pressuremeters are mainly single expanding cell systems in which the radial
or diametrical displacement is measured directly with transducers mounted in the
instrument. The membrane is inflated with gas or oil under pressure, which is then
measured with a transducer mounted in the instrument.
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The probe is typically inserted into a prebored pocket at least 1.5 m long, drilled in
such a manner that disturbance to the borehole walls due to erosion softening are
minimized. The hole diameter should normally be no greater than 110 percent of the
probe diameter and the probe installed in the hole as soon as possible after drilling.
7.6.1.2 Self-bored Pressuremeters

Self-bored pressuremeters are single cell instruments attached to a drilling head so
that they can be drilled into the ground with reduced the disturbance to the borehole
walls. The head contains a drill cutter, which is turned by inner rods that pass through
outer rods. The outer rods connect the instrument to the surface and are used to
push the probe into the ground. Mud or water is pumped down the inner rotating
rods and back up the annulus between the inner and outer rods. This removes the
parings from the cutter and retains pressure on the soil. Radial displacement of the
membrane is measured directly with transducers mounted within the instrument. The
membrane is inflated with gas or oil under pressure, which is then measured with a
transducer mounted in the instrument.
7.6.1.3 Pushed-in Pressuremeters

The push-in pressuremeter is a single cell pressuremeter most commonly mounted
behind an electric cone penetrometer. The membrane is usually inflated by oil or
water under pressure, which is measured ideally by a transducer mounted in the
instrument. Displacement of the membrane is either measured directly with
transducers mounted within the instrument, recording radial displacement or by
volume change measurements.
7.6.2 Test methods

Pressuremeter tests can be either stress-controlled or strain-controlled. In a test, the
pressure is increased in increments and the displacement of the membrane is
recorded. In stress-controlled tests there should be at least 15 increments of pressure
during the loading phase, each increment being held for 1 to 2 minutes. Strain-
controlled tests are actually also under stress control, but a feedback system is used
to ensure that the displacement of the membrane satisfies a preset strain rate.
The Menard test method is a stress-controlled test for establishing parameters that
can be used directly in design formulae developed from observations of full-scale
tests. It is common practice to carry out at least one unload reload cycle within the
test from which a value of stiffness may be obtained and usually two or three unload
reload cycles are undertaken.
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In Qatar, pressuremeter testing typically comprises the following two phases:
• Phase 1: For the assessment of earth pressure coefficient at rest, a stress-

controlled test with increments of 0.1 MPa or less is performed from the
beginning of test until a pressure of 2 MPa has been reached.
• Phase 2: For the assessment of shear stiffness, at least three unload-reload loops
are included in the loading sequence with increments not greater than 0.5 MPa
and adjusted so that there are at least 15 increases in pressure throughout the
loading stage (excluding any unload-reload cycles). The unload-reload loops may
comprise:
- The first unload-reload loop taken at a pressure of 2 MPa or at a cavity strain
of 1 percent in excess of that required for the membrane to make contact
with the borehole and wall, whichever comes sooner.
- The second loop:
 Within Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone) and
upper Rus Formation: A pressure of 6 MPa or cavity strain of 2 percent
in excess of that required for the membrane to make contact with the
borehole, whichever comes sooner.
 Within Midra Shale Unit and lower Rus Formation: A pressure of 6 MPa
or at a cavity strain of 5 percent in excess of that required for the
membranes to make contact with the borehole wall, whichever comes
sooner.
- The third loop:
 Within Umm Bab Member (formerly named Simsima Limestone) and
upper Rus Formation: A pressure of 10 MPa or cavity strain of
3 percent in excess of that required for the membrane to make
contact with the borehole, whichever comes sooner.
 Within Midra Shale Unit and lower Rus Formation: A pressure of
10 MPa or at a cavity strain of 10 percent in excess of that required
for the membranes to make contact with the borehole wall,
whichever comes sooner.
• Final loop: the pressure is increased until rock failure or a maximum pressure of
18 MPa. When failure becomes imminent, the stress-controlled test should be
changed to a strain-control with an increment period per stage of 3 minutes.
7.6.3 Factors that can affect pressuremeter test results

Ground disturbance can significantly influence pressuremeter testing and give rise to
results unrepresentative of the actual insitu ground conditions. It is essential that
preboring and self-boring are designed to minimize the disturbance to the
surrounding ground and that tests are undertaken at sufficient depth below the base
of a borehole. Pushing-in pressuremeter tests are intended to produce the same
amount of disturbance each time. The minimum spacing between tests should be at
least 1 m.
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Calibrations also need to be made to take account of variations in key elements of the
pressuremeter test equipment to give consistency of test observations and data for
interpretation of soil or rock performance. The calibrations to be made depending on
the type of pressuremeter being use as follows:
• Line or transducer calibrations; Line calibrations are necessary for volume change
systems such as the Menard pressuremeter. Transducer calibrations are necessary
for all pressuremeters that contain displacement or pressure transducers within
the probe.
• Membrane stiffness; Membrane stiffness is the pressure required to inflate the
membrane in air and is normally required for all instruments
• Membrane compression; Membrane compression is the change in thickness of the
membrane under pressure. It is most applicable for tests at high pressures in rocks
using instruments containing displacements transducers.
7.6.4 Data Processing and Results Presentation

It is usual to present pressuremeter test data as a graph (curve) of applied pressure
against cavity strain. The curve can then be interpreted to give parameters that are
relevant to the particular instrument in use and the ground conditions.
There are two approaches to the use of pressuremeters in ground investigation. The
first is based on the method developed by Menard in which the pressuremeter is used
to obtain design parameters directly. The second is to analyse pressuremeter tests to
give properties of the ground.
The Menard method is an empirical design method based on pressuremeter tests. It is

essential that the instrument, installation procedure, test procedure and
interpretation be followed if these design rules are to be used.
Theories of cavity expansion are well documented. The interpretation of a test is

based on these theories but the parameters obtained may be empirical. Estimates of
in situ stress can be obtained from self-bored pressuremeter tests and in some cases
prebored tests.
Average cavity stiffness can be obtained from unload-reload cycles from all
pressuremeter tests. The average cavity stiffness can be converted to a material
stiffness. The values of stiffness vary with the strain and stress level over which they
are carried out. The reliability of interpretations of deformation modulus therefore
require the influence of strain magnitude on the modulus to be assessed and in soils
where drainage occurs during a test the influence of changes in effective stress on the
deformation modulus. Undrained shear strength can be obtained directly from self-
boring pressuremeter tests and estimated from other pressuremeter tests. Angle of
friction of sands can be determined from self-bored pressuremeter tests and
estimated from pushed in pressuremeter tests.
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The specialist company undertaking the presuremeter tests normally processes the
test data, often using their own propriety software. Analysis of the data is typically
interpreted in general accordance with Code of Practice for Site Investigations
(BS5930:1999+A2:2010) and “A Model Specification for Radial Displacement
Measureing Pressuremeters” (Clarke and Smith, 1992) and depending on material
type and obtaining suitable data published references to estimates of the following
parameters:
• In situ cavity pressure (after Marsland and Randolph, 1977; and modified by
Hawkins et al, 1990)
• Undrained shear strength and limit pressure during loading (after Gibson and
Anderson, 1961); and modified by Windle and Wroth, 1977)
• Undrained shear strength during unloading (after Jefferies, 1988)
• Drained shear strength during loading (angle of friction and dilation) (after
Hughes et al, 1977)
• Shear modulus from linear fit to unload-reload loops (after Windle and Wroth,
1977)
• Undrained shear modulus – shear strain relationship (non-linear stiffness
response) (after Bolton and Whittle, 1999)
• Consistency of undrained parameters using curve fitting method (after Whittle,
1999)
• Earth pressure coefficient at rest (after Clarke, 1997)
• Stiffness from the unload-reload cycles (after Palmer, 1972; Windle and Wroth,
1977; or Clarke, 1997)
The British Standards Institution is currently developing the Geotechnical

Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 4: Ménard Pressuremeter Test
(BS EN ISO 22476-4:2012), Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—
Part 6: Self-Boring Pressuremeter Test (BS EN ISO 22476-6), and Geotechnical
Investigation and Testing—Field Testing—Part 8: Full Displacement Pressuremeter
Test (BS EN ISO 22476-8) for presuremeter testing, and Geotechnical Investigation and
Testing—Field Testing—Part 5: Flexible Dilatometer Test (BS EN ISO 22476-5:2012) for
dilatometer testing. These standards should be used after they are published.
The reporting of pressuremeter testing should normally include:
• Calibration data:
- A graph of displacement or pressure (as appropriate) against measured output.
- The calibration coefficients derived for each calibration with relevant graphs
with the date and time of each calibration stated.
- Tabulated output for the transducers against time, time of start and finish of
test, and rates of stress and/or strain.
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• Test data:
- A graph of effective pressure against effective strain for Phase 1 (0 MPa to
2 MPa).
- A graph of total pressure against percentage cavity strain (Phase 2) for the
loading, unload-reload cycles and final unloading stages of the test for each
displacement transducer.
- A graph of total pressure against rate of change of cavity strain (creep) prior to
unload-reload cycles (if delay period used) (Phase 2).
- Estimate of stiffness Gi and Gur should be made. The measurement of Gi being
calculated for a change in pressure equal to that used for the first unload-
reload cycle. The change in cavity strain over which Gur is calculated will be test
dependent and is normally stated. The following information is also normally
presented for each estimate of be quoted for each estimate of Gi or Gur:
 The cavity pressure at the start of unloading
 The cavity strain at the start of unloading
 The change in cavity pressure during unloading
7.7 Packer Testing (Lugeon)

7.7.1 Introduction
The following description of the packer or Lugeon test is based on Code of Practice for
Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010). The packer or Lugeon test gives a
measure of the acceptance of water under pressure by in situ rock. The test
comprises the measurement of the volume of water that can escape from an uncased
section of borehole in a given time under a given pressure. Flow is confined between
known depths by means of packers, hence the more general name of the test. The
flow is confined between two packers in the double packer test, or between one
packer and the bottom of the borehole in the single packer test. The test is generally
used to assess the amount of grout that rock may accept, to obtain a measure of the
amount of fracturing of rock or to give an approximate value of the permeability of
the rock mass local to the borehole.
The results of the test are usually expressed in terms of Lugeon units. A rock is said to
have a permeability of 1 Lugeon if, under a head above groundwater level of 100 m, a
1 m length of borehole accepts 1 liter per minute (L/min) of water. Lugeon did not
specify the diameter of the borehole, which is usually assumed to be 76 mm, but the
test is not very sensitive to change in borehole diameter unless the length of borehole
under test is small.
7.7.2 Test Methods

Packer permeability tests are normally performed in accordance with Code of Practice
for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) and Geotechnical Investigation and
Testing—Geohydraulic Testing—Water Pressure Tests in Rock
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(BS EN ISO 22282-3:2012). Cores retrieved from boreholes are usually initially
assessed to confirm the suitability of packer testing. The test setup should normally
be capable of providing sustained flow of up to 20 liters per second (L/sec). A
combination of pumps and flow meters may be required to cover the range of flows
up to this limit. The connecting length of surface pipe work should be kept as short as
possible to minimize head loss and a surge chamber will normally be used.
7.7.3 Factors that can affect packer test results

Smearing of the rock making up the borehole wall itself or of clay type materials on
the face of the wall can significantly affect test results. It is essential, therefore, that
the borehole wall test section is cleaned prior to test to remove such materials as far
as in practicable. The cleaning of the borehole wall is normally achieved by water
jetting or brushing.
It is also important during the test that the rock is not fractured hydraulically, that
fractures are opened or material within the fractures is washed out as this will likely
result in artificially higher permeability of the strata. To avoid the development of
these factors the water pressures within in the test section is normally applied in two
equal increments up to the maximum effective overburden pressure at the test
section.
7.8 Falling/Rising/Constant Head Permeability Tests

7.8.1 Introduction
The permeability of soils or rock strata is strictly its hydraulic conductivity, a measure
of the rate of water flow. Before carrying out any permeability testing it is important
to understand whether the stratum to be tested is confined or unconfined and that
may influence the test method and the analysis of the test data. Permeability testing
in boreholes involves the application of hydraulic pressure in the borehole that is
different from that in the ground and the measurement of the rate of flow due to that
difference. The following methods of test are commonly used and should be selected
to reflect the nature of the stratum being tested:
• Falling head (or inflow) test: in which the pressure in the borehole is increased by
introducing water into it
• Rising head (or outflow) test: in which the pressure in the borehole is reduced by
pumping water out of it or by displacing water out of it
• Constant head test: in which a pressure difference is held constant during a test
(constant head test) or it may be allowed to vary (a variable head test). It is
preferable to use this test in high permeability soils.
7.8.2 Test Methods, Data Processing, and Results Presentation

Falling, rising and constant head permeability tests are normally performed, data
processed and results presented in accordance with Code of Practice for Site
Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010) and Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—
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Laboratory Testing of Soil—Part 11: Determination of Permeability by Constant and

Falling Head (ISO/TS 17892-11:2004).
The observations of water levels during the tests may be recorded by automatic data
loggers (divers) and checked by manual dip meter readings or solely by manual
readings. However, manual readings should be avoided in highly permeable soils.
7.9 Infiltration testing

The rate of infiltration of a liquid (typically water) into soils can be assessed by specific
field testing. This test method does not provide a measurement of hydraulic
conductivity. Infiltration the testing may be conducted at the ground surface or at
shallow depths (0.5 to 1.0 m typically), taking account of health and safety
considerations when working in pits. The tests may also be performed on bare soil or
with vegetation in place depending on the conditions for which infiltration rates are
required. The tests should only be conducted in or on ground above the general
groundwater table or any perched water table.
Infiltration testing is normally undertaken using double-ring infiltrometers in

accordance with either Standard Test Method for Infiltration Rate of Soils in Field
Using Double-Ring Infiltrometer (ASTM D3385-09) or Standard Test Method for Field
Measurement of Infiltration Rate Using Double-Ring Infiltrometer with Sealed-Inner
Ring [ASTM D5093-02(2008)], depending on the soils to be tested.
The test method described in ASTM D3385-09 is particularly applicable to relatively

uniform fine-grained soils, with an absence of very plastic (fat) clays and gravel-size
particles and with moderate to low resistance to ring penetration. The test method is
difficult to use or the results may be unreliable, or both, in very pervious soils with a
hydraulic conductivity greater than about 1 x 10-4 meters per second (m/sec) or
impervious soils with a hydraulic conductivity of less than about 1 × 10-8 m/sec, or in
dry or stiff soils that most likely will fracture when the rings are installed. For soils
with hydraulic conductivity in the range of 1 x 10−7 m/sec to 1 x 10-10 m/sec test
method ASTM D5093-02(2008) should be used.
At the end of each infiltration test, a bulk disturbed sample of the soil at the test
formation level should be taken for particle-size distribution analyses including
sedimentation according to Geotechnical Investigation and Testing—Laboratory
Testing of Soil—Part 4: Determination of Particle Size Distribution
ISO/TS 17892-4:2004 as required.
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8 Geophysical Surveys
8.1 Introduction
Geophysics is a very broad category of nondestructive methods of ground
investigation. Geophysical techniques, including electrical, gravity, magnetic, seismic,
or thermal are used to measure the physical, electrical, or chemical properties of the
soil, rock and pore fluids. In general, geophysical surveys are noninvasive and enable
correlation between known points of control. No single typical method can be used in
every instance. Selection of a geophysical method should be based on knowledge of
the existing ground conditions and the information that must be obtained.
Data gathering and data interpretation in geophysical surveys are all-important and
require specialist knowledge and experience. No samples to be handled or stored can
be checked at a later point. Most geophysical methods require processing of data
after they are gathered so that an interpretation can be made. The specification of
the geophysical survey is thus very important, and the selected specialist company
must be able to demonstrate the ability to provide the needed solutions.
Geophysics can provide information over a much broader area than can be obtained
by ground investigation exploratory holes. It can provide mapping of the natural
conditions of a site and establish anomalous conditions that could present increase
risk to road structures or earthworks. For example, geophysics can be used to
investigate possible cavities (dahal) within limestone and gypsum rich strata that
could affect construction or performance of bridge foundations. Geophysics could be
used to determine soils stratigraphy if a preliminary sources study identified a
possible buried channel or similar feature that could affect proposed earthworks or
road structure. Geophysics is a useful technique to reduce the risk of unknown
conditions.
This chapter gives an overview of geophysical techniques typically used in Qatar and
others techniques that may be useful. Further detailed information on the
geophysical methods described can be found in the following sources:
• Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM

D6429-99(2011)e1]
• Geophysics in Engineering Investigations, CIRIA Report C562 (CIRIA, 2002a)
• Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk
Geosciences, 2003)
• “Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation” (McCann et al.,
1997)
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• Engineering Geology Field Manual (Bureau of Reclamation, 2001)

• Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).
8.2 Planning
The design and planning of geophysical surveys for transportation projects depends
on factors such as these:
• Physical properties of interest

• Techniques that can provide the information at the resolution required
• Geophysical tools that can perform well under the study conditions
• Techniques that can provide complementary data
• Nongeophysical control to interpret the acquired geophysical survey data
Numerous references are available to assist in planning a geophysical survey.

Guidance can be found in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
[ASTM D6429-99(2011)e1]; Standard Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole
Geophysical Logging [ASTM D5753-05(2010)]; and Circular E-C130, Geophysical
Methods Commonly Employed for Geotechnical Site Characterization (Transportation
Research Board, 2008).
Geophysical surveys can be used as a screening tool to provide a quick understanding

of the ground conditions at a site. They can also be used to provide detail on the
specifics of a site. The first aspect of planning a geophysical survey is to determine
why the survey is to be performed and what questions are to be answered when the
survey is complete. For the various geophysical methods that can be used, each has
its own set of advantages and limitations. Table 8.1 summarizes the common
applications of land-based geophysical surveys in Qatar and the preferred geophysical
methods for that application. See also Table H.1 in Appendix H. For information on
the use of geophysics in the marine environment, refer to Geotechnical and
Geophysical Investigations for Offshore and Nearshore Developments (International
Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering [ISSMGE], 2005).
For the geophysical methods listed in Table 8.1, the interpretation of data should be
calibrated against the ground conditions established from boreholes or trial pits at the
site. Such calibration preferably is performed at the time of original data processing. If
that is not possible and borehole or trial pit information is obtained at a later date,
then the results of the geophysical survey should be reviewed and updated in light of
actual ground conditions as found in the exploratory holes.
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Table 8.1 Summary of Geophysical Survey Techniques and their Application

Geophysical Survey Techniquea
Ground
Seismic MASW/ Penetrating Seismic
Application Refractionb SASWc Resistivity Radar Reflectiond Gravity
Unconsolidated layer or P P — P P —
soil stratigraphy
Rock Stratigraphy S P — S — —
Depth to bedrock P P P P S
Depth to water table P — — P — —
Fractures and fault zones S S S S P S
S
Soils and rock properties P P S — —
(density)
Cavities or sink holes — P P P S P
Saltwater intrusion — — P S — —
Buried objects — — — P — S
Notes:
a Refer also to Table 1 in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM
D6429-99(2011)e1], and Table 2 in "Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation,"
(McCann et al., 1997).
b See Standard Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for Subsurface Investigation [ASTM D5777-
00(2011)e1].
c MASW = multichannel analysis of surface waves; SASW= spectral Analysis of Surface Waves.
d Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation [ASTM
D7128-05(2010)].
P = primary method of choice
S = secondary method of choice or alternative
8.3 Seismic
Seismic techniques, including seismic refraction, seismic reflection, and multichannel
analysis of surface waves (MASW), measure the travel time of direct and indirect
acoustic waves as they travel from a sound source at ground surface to a series of
geophone receptors placed on in the ground surface at a range of distances from the
sound source. Acoustic waves are generated by a sledgehammer striking a metal plate
with a weight-drop source or by a large vibratory weight-drop source (Blackhawk
Geosciences, 2003).
Figure 8.1 shows the theory behind seismic data gathering.
The geotechnical practitioner needs to understand the limitations of geophysical

techniques in the ground conditions in Qatar. Notably, the MASW survey generally is
limited to 20 m to 25 m depth below ground, and the use of seismic refraction is
limited in depth to the top of the Midra Shale because of the velocity inversion at this
horizon. A typical MASW survey result is provided in Appendix J.
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Source: Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk Geosciences, 2003)
Figure 8.1 Refraction Methodology
Table 8.2 summarizes the uses and limitations of frequently used seismic methods.
Table 8.2 Summary of Uses and Limitations of Frequently Used Seismic Methods
Method Data Collected and Uses Limitations Additional Comments
Seismic P wave velocity Layers must be relatively thick Resolution is a function of the
Refraction (compressional wave) to in order to be detected. Only source and the geophone
determine velocity layers of increasing velocity can spacing.
differentiation of be recorded. Weaker materials
geologic layers. Able to at depth will not be recorded
determine differences in (for example, Midra Shale). The
material properties for acoustic (seismic) velocity
thick layers. through water (the water table;
Provides data along 1,400 m/sec) may mask some
continuous lines. weaker weathered rock layers.
Seismic Records the reflection of — Resolution is a function of the
Reflection waves source and geophone spacing.
Groundtruth or information on
ground conditions are required
to change from travel time to
depth.
Multichannel Measures propagation of The acoustic (seismic) velocity Resolution is subject to the
Analysis of surface waves from which through water (that is, the geophone spacing and the
Surface shear wave velocity may water table; 1,400 m/sec) may acoustic frequency being
Waves be interpreted. Able to mask some weaker weathered recorded by the geophone.
obtain data below weak rock layers. Penetration is Data can be collected in noisy
layers. Able to delineate limited by the source of acoustic areas using just the traffic noise
voids or cavities (dahal). waves generated. as an acoustic source if depth of
data collection is not too deep.
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8.4 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity surveys measure the resistivity of the earth materials relative to a
current induced into the ground. There are numerous types of resistivity surveys, but
all generally induce a current into one electrode and measure the current received at
receptor electrodes. As the current input is known, the apparent resistivity between
the two or more electrodes can be calculated. There are three commonly used
resistivity arrays, the difference being in the spacing of the receiving electrodes:
• Wenner: Four equally spaced electrodes, with current placed on the outer
electrodes and readings on the inner electrodes.
• Schlumberger: Four electrodes, but the inner (potential) electrodes are less than
one-fifth the distance between the center of the spread and the outer current
electrode.
• Resistivity profiling: Electrode spacing is constant, but the induced current is
moved along the line.
A material’s electrical resistivity depends on its porosity and the salinity of the water
within the pore spaces. If the surface material is pavement, very dense material, or
bedrock then the electrode locations need to be predrilled in order to insert the
electrode into the ground surface. In soils, it may be necessary to wet the electrodes
with saline water to increase the amount of electric current directed into the ground.
In dry conditions, as with dunes, very large quantities of water may need to be
available.
Electrical resistivity can be performed as point surveys using the Wenner or

Schlumberger arrays. Single point surveys are used primarily in corrosion surveys for
steel (such as sheet pile walls) or to determine ground characteristics for earthing
design of electrical substations. Gridded surveys along transects using profiling
methods are usually performed for trying to find cavities or other anomalies.
Electrical resistivity surveys can be used to map sand and gravel deposits, determine
parameters for cathodic protection, and map variations in groundwater salinity. They
do not provide information on rock properties. Electrical resistivity surveys can be
used to locate voids or cavities (dahal), especially where the cavities are above the
water table. In areas where cavities are below the water table, a lack of contrast
between the electrical resistivity of the host rock and groundwater can make the
results more difficult to interpret.
8.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a quick method of evaluating shallow near-surface
geology, including the location of buried objects such as pipes, boulders, and near
surface cavities (dahal). GPR can be used for near surface underground utility
detection, since it can pick up polyvinyl chloride cable ducts and similar pipelines that
may not be active and therefore, would not be visible to other pipeline detection
methods. GPR is limited in its usefulness because conductive materials such as saline
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water or the water table limits the depth of penetration. The method uses many
different antennae configurations so it is very important to provide the specialist
geophysics survey company with a clear directive on the purpose of the survey and
the suspected ground conditions or the buried structure that is being sought. GPR
data do not require excessive processing, and therefore the specialist field engineer
can usually review the survey findings as work progresses to assess if the investigation
needs are being met.
GPR surveys can be used in evaluating road pavement (including concrete) and bridge
decks, but in conjunction with other nondestruction testing or coring methods, or both,
to obtain the necessary data for calibration of GPR data (Blackhawk Geosciences,
2003).
Use of this system in Qatar is limited, as the depth to groundwater in much of the
developed areas of Qatar, such as Doha, is within 2 to 3 m of ground surface. It could
be useful in areas where the groundwater table is deeper or is lowered by
dewatering.
8.6 Microgravity
Microgravity or gravity measurement techniques measure the local variations in the
gravitational pull of the earth that features such as underground cavities (dahal),
buried channels, or underground structures can create. Measurements are made
using a gravity meter at intervals along traverses crossing an expected or known area
of interest. The variations in measured relative gravity can be used to identify the
likely position of the underground feature. The method can provide very accurate
sizing and depth of void or anomaly. To achieve accuracy, the microgravity survey
data must be correlated with other ground investigation data and information. The
microgravity method is labor-intensive and requires that the initial point of
measurement (base station) be reoccupied frequently to monitor drift in the
recording of the instrument. Extremely accurate elevation data are also required
(±3 mm). The distance between readings taken along a traverse should be based on the
expected size of the void or anomaly to be detected, with close spacing for small size
voids and larger spacing for large voids. The gravitational anomaly that occurs with a
void decreases with depth. If the void is in the bedrock, the top of the bedrock surface
below the overburden soils must be taken into account. That information usually
requires the use of a second technique such as seismic refraction or MASW.
Microgravity surveys can be made inside buildings and structures and in urban areas, as
shown in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM
D6429-99(2011)e1].
8.7 Borehole Geophysics

Several borehole geophysics techniques can be used to identify strata stratigraphy, to
establish particular geotechnical properties, and to characterize groundwater.
Tables H.2 and H.3 in Appendix H list methods of borehole geophysical survey and their
applications. Several of the techniques require the use of a shielded radioactive source.
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Thus, some of the listed methods that are available in the U.S. or the UK may not be
available for use in Qatar owing to permitting issues. Local geophysical survey
companies should be consulted to confirm the types of borehole geophysical survey
that can be provided.
8.8 Procurement of Geophysical Survey Work

Geophysical surveys and their interpretation is specialist work, and accurate definition
of scope is extremely important. It is also important that an experienced specialist
geophysical survey company undertake the survey work and its interpretation. It can be
advantageous to seek the advice of the specialist geophysical survey company in
determining the final scope of a geophysical survey. To facilitate this, geotechnical
practitioners (in addition to providing initial information about the type of survey
required), should provide the specialist geophysical survey company with the following:
• Details of the known or anticipated ground conditions, including groundwater

level and groundwater salinity (if available).
• Information on what is desired of the geophysical survey. For example, the
location of cavities, the determination of ground parameters, the location of
saltwater interface or locations of underground utilities.
• Proposed depth of investigation from the ground surface.
• Presentation of results. How will the data be used? Requirements for the data to
be coordinated to local grid and elevation. Requirements for the data to be
presented in electronic format (for example, computer-aided drafting) and hard
copy.
• Expected result presentation, in terms of interpreted profiles and slices,
identification of anomalies, and scale of the drawings. The level of detail required
to be detected from the reported data (for example, 0.5-m or 10-m anomalies).
The geophysical survey company can then advise on any changes in the scope of the
geophysical survey or techniques that might be employed to maximize the benefit
from the proposed survey work.
The procurement process should also include the following minimum requirements of
the report to be provided (Anderson et al., 2008).
• Executive summary
• Purpose and scope of study
• Dates and location of survey (including base plan)
• Personnel and organization involved
• Summary of data collection procedures used at the site
• Summary of data processing methodology
• Quality and reliability of the acquired data
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• Interpretation of the data including summary of the procedure used and

verification processes (ground truthing or modeling, or both)
• Conclusions and recommendations
In some instances, a phased program of geophysical survey work, using different

techniques, may be most appropriate and provide the best value. For example, for the
investigation of possible underground cavities, it might be appropriate first to
undertake a wide area resistivity or MASW survey of a site. Anomalies that are found
would be verified using either boreholes or diagraphy drilling to confirm the presence
or otherwise of any cavities. The size of the cavities might then be confirmed using
cross-hole borehole geophysical surveys or with a micro gravity survey.
Geophysical surveys can be included in the ground investigation standard

specification and bill of quantities described in Section 5.3 in this Part. In some
instances, it may be appropriate to include multiple geophysical survey methods in
the documentation to establish any significant price difference between techniques,
for example, resistivity or MASW, as the price may vary between sites depending on
surface conditions and project requirement.
The geophysical survey contract should include a “field release clause” that permits
contract termination if preliminary results do not justify continuation of the survey
(Anderson et al., 2008). The clause might be invoked if the ground conditions differ
from what was expected or if the geophysical method does not achieve the data
objectives including depth of penetration.
The geophysical survey company should be required to include in any tender return
evidence that the company has used the geophysical survey method proposed
successfully at similar locations with similar ground conditions. The tender should
include a method statement indicating the proposed working method including at
least the following items:
• Proposed spacing of geophones or electrodes

• Daily quality assurance checks
• Methods to be used in analyzing the data
• Equipment that will be used including external source, data storage and data
backup during the survey
• Staff, including curriculum vitae of team leaders for data collection and data
interpretation
• Methods to be used for interpretation of the data, including details of the data
processing programs that will be used
• Schedule of works based on a notice to proceed date.
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The geotechnical practitioner should supervise the field geophysical survey work to
confirm the quality of work and to enable changes in the scope of the geophysical
survey in the light of survey findings.
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9 Ground Investigation Reporting

9.1 Description of Soils and Rocks, Borehole and Trial Pit
Records
The description of soils and rocks and the preparation of borehole and trial pit records
should be undertaken to an appropriate standard, such as Code of Practice for Site
Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010). Example borehole records are provided in
Appendix I.
9.2 Laboratory Test Reporting

Generally, the information required to be reported for soils and rock laboratory tests
is given in the relevant standard to which the test is being undertaken. Laboratory
testing and test reporting should be undertaken in accordance with industry-
recognized quality assurance and quality control procedures.
9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical Data

To facilitate the electronic transfer of geotechnical data without the need for re-input
of information, which can lead to transcribing errors, the Association of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Specialists developed its Data Interchange Format (commonly
referred to as AGS format) (AGS, 2011). The AGS format provides a set of rules for the
electronic transfer of geotechnical data, including exploratory hole records and both
in situ and laboratory testing results.
AGS format data files can be readily imported into geotechnical database programs
such as Holebase and gINT. In addition, several available utility programs allow the
user to check AGS data files for errors and convert the data to Excel spreadsheets,
including free downloads. Example utility programs include these:
• KeyAGS software at www.keynetix.com (Keynetix Ltd, 2014)

• gINT software at www.gintsoftware.com (Bentley Systems, 2014)
When specifying the ground investigation, the geotechnical practitioner should

include the requirement that the ground investigation company supplies the
investigation records in AGS format in addition to hard copy reports.
More information on the AGS format can be found in Electronic Transfer of

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Data (AGS, 2011) and on the AGS website
www.ags.org.uk (AGS, 2014).
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Geophysical survey data shall also be required in both electronic raw data and hard
copy and electronic report formats.
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10 Geotechnical Design
10.1 Interpretative Ground Model
The derivation of the ground model is important in the geotechnical practitioners’
evaluation of ground and groundwater conditions at a site, and in assessing the
effects of those conditions on the proposed earthworks and structures. Geotechnical
practitioners should develop a detailed ground model of the relative location and
thicknesses of the types of strata known or expected to be present, of their
properties, and of groundwater conditions based on their evaluation of the geological,
hydrogeological, and geotechnical data. In preparing the ground model, geotechnical
practitioners should use the available factual information, such as the exploratory
hole records from ground investigations undertaken as part of current or previous
projects, and published records, such as geological maps. The published geology and
hydrogeology information will assist in classifying the materials encountered and
indicate their likely extent both over the site and at depth. These provide useful
records against which the strata encountered in the exploratory holes can be
correlated.
Presentation of a detailed ground model solely in descriptive text can be difficult for a
reader to grasp, except for the simplest of models. Generally, it is preferable to use a
series of ground model sections, both along the road alignment and typically
perpendicular to it. When preparing sections, the degree of uncertainty in
interpolating between positions and projecting or extrapolating data should be
highlighted. Typically, sections should be prepared to natural scale; that is, the same
scale in both directions. For long linear sites in particular, the subsurface profile
should be presented at a scale appropriate to the depth and frequency of the
exploratory holes and the overall length of the section. Exaggerated vertical:horizontal
scales of 1V:10H and 1V:20H can be useful. Appendix J contains an example section. In
very special circumstances, it may be appropriate to prepare a three-dimensional
ground model.
Contour plans of groundwater levels and boundaries, such as rockhead, strata

thicknesses, and isometric views can also greatly assist geotechnical practitioners in
interpreting the ground conditions at a site. The plans can highlight such features as
buried channels and any sharp changes in thickness or dip of strata that could have a
significant impact on the proposed earthworks or structures. Plans and illustrations
are also useful in presenting the ground model.
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10.2 Selection of Geotechnical Design Parameters

Design by calculation is the most commonly used method of geotechnical design. The
calculation may consist of an analytical analysis, use of semi-empirical rules or
numerical modeling (such as finite element or finite difference methods) for which
key geotechnical parameters will be required. Selection of geotechnical design
parameters requires a knowledgeable and experienced geotechnical practitioner.
When assessing geotechnical parameters from test results, the geotechnical
practitioner should account for possible differences between the properties obtained
from the tests and those governing the behavior of the ground mass or the
geotechnical earthwork (or both) or structure. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—
Part 1: General Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004) states that differences may be due to such
factors such the following:
• Many geotechnical parameters that are not true constants but depend on stress
level and the mode of deformation
• Soil and rock structure (for example, fissuring, laminations or large particles),
which can influence test results differently to mass behavior
• Time effects
• Percolating water, which can have a softening effect on soils or rock strength
• Dynamic loading, which can have a softening effect on soils and rock strength
• Brittleness of the soil and rock tested
• The method of installation of the geotechnical structure
• The influence of workmanship on artificially placed or improved ground
• The effects of construction on ground properties
The geotechnical practitioner should also take into account the following:
• Published and well-recognized information relevant to testing in the ground

conditions
• Extent of field and laboratory investigation
• Type and number of samples, and the scatter of the results
• The extent of the ground zone governing the behavior of the geotechnical
structure
• Geological and other published and background information, such as data from
previous projects
• The value of geotechnical parameter as compared with published data and local
and general experience
• Variability of the ground, and variation of geotechnical parameters relevant to the
design
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• The results of large-scale field trials and measurements from neighboring

constructions
• Significant possible deterioration in ground material properties during the lifetime
of the structure
Statistical approaches to the derivation of parameters are described in documents

including Designers’ Guide to EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—General
Rules (Frank et al., 2004). However, statistical approaches do require a sufficiently
large number of test results for the method to be valid. When statistical methods are
used, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules (BS EN 1997-1:2004)
recommends that there be no greater than 5 percent probability that the determined
characteristic value (defined below) of a parameter will be worse than that value.
Most often, however, insufficient data are available for a purely statistical approach.
Parameter selection is therefore often very dependent on the knowledge and
experience of the geotechnical practitioner and usually is broadly based around
published guidelines. Mostly lower value conservative parameters are adopted for
use in design, for example, the effective shear strength of a soil in assessing slope
stability. For particular designs and design circumstances, however, other parameter
values may be needed. For example, mid-range (mean or median) values are often
adopted for bulk density and deformation properties and upper value conservative
parameters may be used to assess pile drivability.
Design of Retaining Walls Embedded in Stiff Clay (CIRIA, 1984) uses the following
terminology with regard to geotechnical design parameters:
• Moderately conservative parameters, which are a conservative best estimate

• Worst credible parameters, which are the worst that the geotechnical practitioner
realistically believes might occur
BS EN 1997-1:2004 uses the following terminology:
• Characteristic value soil parameters, defined as being a cautious estimate of the

value affecting the occurrence of the limit state. This is essentially the same as the
aforementioned moderately conservative parameters.
Examples of moderately conservative and worst credible values and parameters are
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Figure 10.1 Examples of Moderately Conservative and Worst Credible Values and
Parameters
10.3 Geotechnical Design

Geotechnical design should be undertaken where possible to published International
Standards. In some cases, a design procedure may not be covered by or fully
prescribed by a standard. In such cases, geotechnical practitioners (based on their
specialist knowledge and experience) may adopt other industry recognized and
proven published design procedures and guidelines.
Traditionally, geotechnical design of highway substructures has been carried out using
the allowable stress design (ASD) approach, also known as the working stress design
approach. In that design approach all uncertainty in the variation of applied loads and
the ultimate geotechnical capacity of the soil or rock to support foundations are
allowed for by use of a single (or lumped) factor of safety, used to reduce the
potential for failure of the foundation. The traditional approach to the design of
superstructures has been the load-factored design approach. The application of ASD
approach for the substructure design and load-factored design for the superstructure
design has resulted in uncertain and incompatible safety margins in the design of the
structural elements (FHWA, 2001).
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In recent years, the demand for more economical geotechnical design and attempts
to improve structural safety and reliability have resulted in the re-examination of the
entire design process. This has resulted in a global shift towards adopting a uniform
approach for the design of both substructure and superstructure elements namely,
the limit state design (LSD) approach (NCHRP, 2010).
Limit state is a condition beyond which the structure, or any of its component, fails to
fulfill the purpose for which it was designed. LSD most often refers to two types of
limit states: the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS). The
ULS state deals with the ultimate collapse condition or with structural failure under
normal expected loads or extreme events such as impact or earthquake loading.
Examples of ULS failure are bearing capacity failure or excessive deformation resulting
in loss of overall stability. SLS deals with the functionality and service requirements of
a structure to ensure adequate performance under expected normal loads, such as
settlement or deflection with or without cracking but to an extent, which makes the
structure no more functional or serviceable for its intended use. The most widely used
LSD codes for geotechnical design are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
methodology and Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design—Part 1: General Rules
(BS EN 1997-1:2004).
AASHTO LRFD methodology design specifications incorporate analysis and design

methodologies with load and resistance factors based on the known variability of
applied loads and material properties. The load and resistance factors have been
calibrated from actual statistical data to ensure a uniform level of safety. For
geotechnical design, AASHTO LRFD methodology defines the strength limit state,
service limit state, and the extreme limit state.
BS EN 1997-1:2004 also uses the LSD approach with the use of slightly different
terminology compared to the AASHTO LRFD methodology. It defines ULS and SLS
design conditions and provides guidance related to the selection of partial factors
(load and resistance factors). The code provides guidance on the selection of
characteristic soil parameters through statistical means and the use of partial factors
to derive design values from the characteristic values. However, it also provides
flexibility to directly select design parameters by experienced geotechnical
practitioners having clear understanding of the basic design principles and possible
failure mechanisms and modes of geotechnical failure of the structure.
Table 10.1 lists of typical road structures and earthworks and their related
geotechnical design issues together with the International Standards and other
references commonly used for geotechnical design in Qatar road projects using the
ASD approach. As is the case with the rest of the world, Qatar is fast adopting the LSD
approach in geotechnical design. Table 10.2 lists the relevant LSD Standards.
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10.4 Seismic Loading

Qatar lies within the stable craton that constitutes most of the Arabian Plate, which has
seen no known significant seismic events in the past 2,000 years (Aldama-Bustos,
Bommer, et al., 2009). Although the Arabian Plate itself is a stable land mass, its
northeast border is an active plate boundary with relative convergence occurring
between the Arabian and Eurasian plates. As a result, continental collision is taking
place along the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt in southern Iran (about 200 km from Qatar).
Further east (north of the Gulf of Oman), the oceanic part of the Arabian plate subducts
beneath the Eurasian plate along the Makran subduction zone (Berberian, 1995). Refer
to Figure A.2 in Appendix A (Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, 1998). The
transition from the continental to the oceanic collision is accommodated largely by the
Zendan-Minab fault, a north-northwest trending zone of strike-slip and thrust faults
(Regard et al., 2004 and Regard et al., 2005). The African and Arabian plates diverge
across the Gulf of Aden in the southeast; in the southwest, the interface between the
two plates is defined by the spreading boundary of the Red Sea (Ministry of Petroleum
and Mineral Resources, 1998; Vita-Finzi, 2001).
10.5 Ground Improvement

The need to provide value engineered solutions for structures, including their
foundations and earthworks, that embraces the principles of sustainable construction
has led to the use of a range of ground improvement and strengthened earthworks
techniques on highway projects. Design of these solutions mainly aim at using
materials available on site, reducing the generation of construction waste, reducing
the import of construction materials, and minimizing the land-take requirements.
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Table 10.1 International Standards and References Commonly Used for Geotechnical Design in Qatar Road Projects
Commonly Used Standards (Working Stress Design with Overall Factors of
Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue Safety) and References
Structures (All) Chemical attack on buried concrete and steel Sulphate and Acid Attack on Concrete in the Ground: Recommended Procedures
for Soil Analysis (BRE, 1995)
Bridge (including Spread footings Sizing or bearing capacity BS 8004:1986
abutments and piers), Settlement (components, total, differential and rate) Foundation Design and Construction (Tomlinson, 2001)
gantry signs Stability (including failure of foundations on slopes) Foundation Analysis and Design (Bowles, 1996)
Geoguide 1. Guide to Retaining Wall Design (Geotechnical Engineering Office,
1982)
Pile foundations Carrying capacity (axial and lateral), downdrag, or BS 8004:1986
negative skin friction Methods described in Pile Design and Construction Practice (Tomlinson, 1994)
Settlement or deflection of laterally loaded piles

Retaining walls Gravity wall Wall stability BS 8002:1994
Bearing capacity BS 8004:1986
Sliding resistance BS 8008: 1996+A1:2008
Settlement (total, differential, and rate) Methods described in Foundation Design and Construction (Tomlinson, 2001)
Stability (including slope failures)
Cantilever or Wall stability BS 8002:1994
anchored embedded Anchorage design BS 8081:1989 for anchorage design
wall CIRIA Report C580 (CIRIA, 2003)
Methods described in Pile Design and Construction Practice (Tomlinson, 1994)
Soil cuttings — Stability BS 6031:2009
Rock cutting — Stability BS 6031:2009
Rock Slope Engineering (Hoek and Bray, 1981)
Rock Engineering Guides to Good Practice: Road Rock Slope Excavation (TRL,
2011a)
Embankments — Stability (including internal and surface erosion) BS 6031:2009
Settlement (components, total, differential and rate) BS 8008: 1996+A1:2008
Road pavement — Strength, trafficability, and requirement for capping IAN 73/06 Revision 1 (Department for Transport, 2009)
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Excavatability — Excavatability and Stability “A Revision of the Graphical Method for Assessing the Excavatability of Rock.”
(Pettifer and Fookes, 1994)
Dewatering Groundwater control CIRIA Report 113 (CIRIA, 1986)
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Table 10.2 International Standards—Limit State Geotechnical Design

Limit State Geotechnical Design Standards
Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue (with use of partial factors of safety)
Bridge Spread footings Sizing or bearing capacity BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 6, Annex D, Annex F, Annex G for foundations on rock and
(including Settlement (components, total, differential and rate) Annex H
abutments and Stability (engulfing failure of foundations on slopes) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
piers), gantry AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification, Sections 10
signs and 11 (AASHTO, 2012)
FHWA HI-98-032 (FHWA, 2001)
Pile foundations Carrying capacity (axial and lateral), downdrag, or BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 7
negative skin friction AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification, Sections 10
Settlement or deflection of laterally loaded piles and 11 (AASHTO, 2012
FHWA HI-98-032 (FHWA, 2001)
Retaining walls Gravity wall Wall stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 9, Annex C, Annex H
Bearing capacity BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 for slope stability aspects
Sliding resistance AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification, Section 11
Settlement (components, total, differential, and rate) (AASHTO, 2012
Stability (engulfing failures) NCHRP Report 611 (NCHRP, 2008)
Cantilever or Wall stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 9 and Annex C
anchored Anchorage design BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 8 for anchorage design
embedded wall Stability (engulfing failures) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 for slope stability aspects
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification, Section 11
(AASHTO, 2012
NCHRP Report 611 (NCHRP, 2008)
Soil cuttings — Stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11 and BS 6031:2009
Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011
AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification, Sections 3
and 11 (AASHTO, 2012
FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)
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Limit State Geotechnical Design Standards

Structure or Earthwork Geotechnical Design Issue (with use of partial factors of safety)
Rock cutting — Stability BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011
FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)
Embankments - Stability (including internal and surface erosion) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 11
Settlement (components, total, differential and rate) BS EN 1997-1:2004, Section 12, Annex F
BS 6031:2009
Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 (AASHTO, 2011,

FHWA-NHI-11-032 (FHWA, 2011)
FHWA/NHI 08-098 (FHWA, 2008)
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A brief description of commonly used ground improvement techniques based on

A Guide to Ground Treatment, CIRIA Report 573 (CIRIA, 2002b) includes the following:
• Grouting: to fill voids, cavities or fractures in weathered/fractured rock.

• Dynamic compaction: Dynamic compaction is the process of systematically
tamping the ground surface with a heavy weight dropped from height. It is
generally used to compact loose, granular soils or fills.
• Vibro-compaction: Vibro-compaction (or vibro-flotation) is a technique for
increasing the density of granular soils by the insertion to depth of a heavy
vibrating poker, known as a depth vibrator, vibroflot, or flot, which is inserted into
the ground in conjunction with water flushing.
• Vibro-replacement (stone columns): The formation of columns usually of
compacted stone in the ground using a heavy vibrating poker to displace the in
situ ground and to compact the imported material is referred to as vibro stone
columns or vibro-replacement.
• Pre-compression: Pre-compression is the deliberate act of compressing the ground
under an applied pressure before placing or completing the structural load. Pre-
compression may take the two forms:
− Pre-loading requires placement and removal of earth, water, or some other
dead load, before construction, similar in weight to the structural load (or
final load).
− Surcharging is where the stress intensity from the pre-loading is greater than
the intensity from the final loading.
• Mix-in-place soil: This technique involves creation of columns of soil-cement or
lime stabilized soil in the ground by the introduction of cement or lime paste
through the hollow stem of an auger. The mixing occurs as the auger blades
rotate.
Reinforced soil is the combination of compacted earth fill with tensile reinforcement
elements to create an earth structure whose properties and performance depend on
the interaction between the soil and the reinforcement (CIRIA, 2002). Commonly used
reinforcement techniques include:
• Reinforced earth using geosynthetics (geogrids/geotextiles) or metal strap

elements with hard or soft wrap around facings to construct steepened slopes or
walls.
• Soil nailing: Soil nailing is the insertion of steel or glass fiber rods into the face of
an excavation or an existing slope to reinforce it.
Further details on the design of ground improvement works on highway projects can
be found in A Quarter Century of Geotechnical Research (FHWA, 1999) and A Guide to
Ground Treatment, CIRIA Report 573 (CIRIA, 2002b).
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Among the above-mentioned plate boundaries, the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt zone
most likely contributes to seismic hazard for Qatar, for return periods normally
considered in engineering design of normal structures. The Zagros region has been
responsible for generating numerous large earthquakes of magnitude around M7.0,
with a maximum credible earthquake magnitude of M7.3 (M denoting moment
magnitude). Most historical seismic activity in the Zagros collision zone is constrained
to inland Iran, but some activity has been recorded in the Arabian Gulf, with a
maximum observed magnitude of about M6.0; see Figure A.3 in Appendix A (Aldama-
Bustos, Al Aryani, et al., 2010). Local seismicity in Qatar is characterized by the very
low seismic activity associated with the stable craton of the Arabian Plate, with an
annual occurrence rate of about 0.004 per 106 km2 for events of magnitude M6.0 and
greater (Johnson et al., 1994).
Seismic activity in the stable craton, although low, could be expected to contribute to
the seismic hazard of Qatar for medium and long return periods (that is, ≥500 years),
mainly for peak ground acceleration (PGA) and spectral accelerations (SA) at short
response period (that is, ≤0.4 seconds). Seismic hazard for spectral accelerations at
medium and long response periods is likely to be controlled by seismic activity in the
Zagros for return periods of engineering interest.
At the time this manual was published, there is no published country-specific seismic
hazard assessment available for Qatar, and few seismic hazard studies have been
carried out for the region or neighboring countries provide hazard estimates for
Qatar. Table 10.3 summarizes PGA values reported by different studies for Qatar at
various return periods. Most studies estimate PGA levels for the 475-year return
period in the range of 0.04 g to 0.10 g, with only the GSHAP hazard map presenting
much higher values. GSHAP maps, however, are known to overestimate hazard levels
for Qatar and other neighboring regions, as discussed in Aldama-Bustos, Bommer,
et al. (2009) and Aldama-Bustos, Al Aryani, et al. (2010). Table 10.3 contains best
estimate hazard values for PGA at return periods of 475 years, 1,000 years, and
2,475 years based on consideration of published studies for Qatar and for neighboring
regions. These best estimate values can be used for the preliminary design. For the
detailed design, site-specific seismic hazard analyses should be considered, depending
on the project specific risk assessment.
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Table 10.3 Summary of Seismic Hazard Studies Results for Qatar at Various
Return Periods
Studies Peak Ground Acceleration (in units of g)
Author Year 475 years 1,000 years 2,475 years
ICBO 1997 No seismic action required — —
Grunthal et al. 1999 0.24 — —
Al-Haddad et al. 1994 <0.05 — —
Abdalla and Al-Hamoud 2004 0.10 — —
British Geological 2006 0.05 — —
Society
Malkawi et al. 2007 0.09 0.16 0.22
Pascucci et al. 2008 0.04 — 0.06
Best estimate 0.05 0.06 0.10
Hazard maps developed by the British Geological Society (2006) and Malkawi et al.
(2007) suggest that seismic hazard in Qatar is higher at the northeast tip of the
peninsula and decreases toward the south and southeast. However, the variation in
hazard level across the country is not large enough to justify use of different values in
different locations for the purpose of preliminary design. The values in Table 10.3 are
average values for the country, when a range of values is provided by the cited
reference.
Depending on the design standard specified by the Overseeing Organization or project

owner, other ground-motion parameters or return periods, or both, may be more
appropriate. Basic requirements and suggested design ground-motion parameters are
discussed below.
The AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification
(AASHTO, 2012) is a commonly used standard for the design of transport
infrastructure. According to this specification, the seismic hazard at a site shall be
defined using the PGA and the short- and long-period spectral acceleration
coefficients, Ss and S1 respectively, with a 7 percent probability of exceedence in
75 years (1,000-year return period). These shall be based either on approved state
ground motion maps or on a site-specific probabilistic seismic hazard analysis
generating a uniform hazard spectrum for the required probability of exceedence. The
PGA, Ss, and S1 values corresponding to the 1,000-year return period shall be
multiplied by site factors for the appropriate site class to define design spectral
accelerations and design response spectrum. Approved state seismic hazard maps for
the 1,000-year return period are not currently available for Qatar. A site-specific
probabilistic seismic hazard analysis would be required if seismic design were to be
carried out in accordance with the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Bridge Design Specification (AASHTO, 2012). Table 10.4 presents PGA, Ss, and S1 values
that may be used for preliminary seismic design in accordance with the AASHTO Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification (AASHTO, 2012) if
site-specific values are not available. The values in Table 10.4 were derived based on
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the AASHTO specification spectral shape for site class B (rock site) and the best-
estimate PGA for a 1,000-year return period presented in Table 10.3.
Table 10.4 Suggested Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in
Preliminary Seismic Design
PGA (in units of g) Ss (in units of g) S1 (in units of g)
0.06 0.15 0.06
Note: Suggestions are in accordance with the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Bridge Design Specification (AASHTO, 2012).
According to the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012), each bridge shall be assigned to one of the four seismic
zones set out in the code. The seismic zone classification will depend on the value of
the design long-period spectral acceleration SD1, obtained from the product of the
long-period spectral acceleration coefficient S1 (for rock site conditions) and the
appropriate site factor for long-period motion Fv.
Local authorities or project owners may require the International Building Code (IBC)
for seismic design, although it is not specifically derived for transportation
infrastructure. The IBC is updated every 3 years, and the latest edition is 2012 IBC
(International Code Council, 2012).
Similar to the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012), the 2012 IBC requires ground-motion parameters to be
defined in terms of spectral acceleration at 0.2 sec and 1.0 sec, denoted Ss and S1,
respectively. These parameters should be obtained from regional or national seismic
hazard maps or from site-specific hazard assessments for a return period of
2,500 years (2 percent probability of exceedence in 50 years). Ss and S1 shall be
multiplied by a site factor appropriate for the relevant site class and a factor of two-
thirds to obtain design spectral response acceleration parameters SDS and SD1.
Seismic hazard maps for Ss and S1 are not available for Qatar, and so a site-specific
seismic hazard assessment is required. Table 10.5 presents suggested Ss and S1 values
to be used in preliminary seismic design (International Code Council, 2012).
Table 10.5 Ground-Motion Parameters for Site Class B for Use in Preliminary
Seismic Design
Ss (in units of g) S1 (in units of g)
0.25 0.07
Source: 2012 International Building Code (International Code Council, 2012).
Where the size of the project merits, it is good practice to conduct a site-specific
seismic hazard assessment to evaluate the appropriate ground motions to be used in
the design of transport infrastructure and buildings. Such assessments may lead to
significant savings in construction costs in cases where the site-specific PGA is lower
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than the values given in the state ground motion maps or those in Table 10.4 and
Table 10.5.
In both the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Bridge Design
Specification (AASHTO, 2012) and 2012 IBC (International Code Council, 2012), design
earthquake spectral response acceleration shall account for site class effects. All sites,
then, must be classified in the appropriate site class by stiffness. This can be
determined by average shear wave velocity, standard penetration resistance, or
undrained shear strength in the upper 30 m of the soil deposit, per the relevant
sections of the two codes. Special attention must be given to sites that are vulnerable
to liquefaction or collapse under earthquake loading, that contain very high plasticity
clays, or that are composed of very thick soft clays. In those cases, the site shall be
classified “Class F,” and a site-specific site response analysis shall be performed to
derive the appropriate site factors.
In addition to structural failure and failure of foundation soils under excessive bearing
pressures associated with seismic loading, loose, saturated granular soils may be
subject to liquefaction, and loose dry soils to settlements associated with the
phenomenon of seismic densification. Both liquefaction and seismic densification can
result in significant ground settlements causing distress to and possibly even failure of
highway structures and earthworks.
The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss should be evaluated for site-
specific peak ground accelerations, magnitudes, and source characteristics consistent
with design earthquake ground motion. According to IBC, PGA for a liquefaction
assessment should be determined based on a site-specific study, taking into account
soil amplification effects. Without such information, PGA shall be assumed equal to
SDS/2.5.
Soil liquefaction potential typically is assessed according to the procedures outlined in

“Liquefaction of Resistance of Soils: Summary Report from the 1996 NCEER/NSF
Workshops on Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils” (Youd and Idriss, 2001)
and Soil Liquefaction during Earthquakes (Idriss and Boulanger, 2008), following three
main steps:
1. Calculate cyclic stress ratio induced in the soil by the earthquake.

2. Calculate the cyclic resistance ratio of the soil based on in situ data, typically SPT,
CPT or shear wave velocity data.
3. Calculate the ratio of the values from 1 and 2 above giving the factor of safety
against liquefaction.
According to Youd and Idriss (2001), different empirical methods are available for
calculating the cyclic resistance ratio based on the information available. Correction
factors must be applied to the calculated values to take into account such factors as
earthquake magnitude, the fines content of the soils, and the overburden pressure.
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Settlements in saturated or dry sands due to seismic densification or liquefaction can

be evaluated using guidance available in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
(Kramer, 1996). CPT data are preferred for assessing potential for liquefaction and
seismic densification of loose granular strata during an earthquake event, because of
their greater precision and repeatability when compared to SPT data.
10.6 Underground Structures and Roadway Tunnels

The design of any underground structure (or a roadway tunnel) shall consider the
interaction between adjacent structures under detailed consideration of the ground
behavior. The designer shall satisfy that either sufficient separation is provided in
order to avoid any impact onto the adjacent structures or take measures to ensure
that the structural and serviceability integrity of both the structures is maintained. In
case of existing structures, the designer shall obtain a no-objection certificate from
the owner of the structure and shall satisfy any requirements imposed by him.
The vertical and horizontal clearances required to define the geometry of a roadway
tunnel are part of the geometric and highway design. The vertical clearances of
roadway tunnels have been discussed in Parts 3 and 5 of the QHDM manual.
Discussion on additional design considerations associated with roadway tunnels is
beyond the scope of this manual. Guidance on trenchless installation of services
below roads is provided in Section 11 of this document.
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11 Trenchless Installation of
Services below Roads
11.1 Introduction
Where ducts, pipework, and small service tunnels of utility service providers and
other third parties need to cross the width of a major road, trenchless methods have
certain advantages over open trench excavation. They include minimizing disruption
to the operation of the network and reducing the need to manage traffic. This chapter
contains guidance on the use and limitations of trenchless methods and systems and
on managing the risk associated with the trenchless installations. The guidance covers
installation of new pipe and conduit with internal diameters up to 2.0 m. On-line
replacement of pipe is omitted.
Table K.1 in Appendix K lists terms pertaining to trenchless installation and their
associated definitions.
11.2 Trenchless Technology Methods

Table 11.1 summarizes trenchless technology methods. Appendix K1 contains further
information on those methods. Trenchless methods are continuously improving and
developing, so websites, such as the United Kingdom Society for Trenchless
Technology (www.ukstt.org.uk), where further guidance and information are freely
available, should be consulted.
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Table 11.1 Trenchless Technology Methods

Trenchless
Technology Method Description
Pipe jacking and Pipe jacking is a method by which pipes or sleeves are installed by being
microtunneling pushed through the ground behind a small, steerable, remotely controlled,
tunnel boring or “microtunnel” machine.
Guided drilling and Guided drilling and directional drilling are techniques in which a steerable
directional drilling boring head is pushed through the ground while being rotated. When the
pilot bore is completed, it is enlarged to the required diameter by pulling a
reamer back towards the drilling machine. When the hole has been opened
to the required size the product pipe, duct or cable is pulled into place.
Auger boring Auger boring is a horizontal rotary earth boring process in which a cutter
head connected to continuous flight augers is jacked through the ground,
usually inside a steel casing.
Impact moling and rod Impact moling is a technique in which a percussive tool, usually driven by
pushing compressed air, is driven through the soil, advancing with a hammer action.
The soil in front of the mole is displaced. The mole is connected to the
launch pit by a pneumatic hose.
Rod pushing is a similar technique but advancement is by pushing a head on
rigid rod from the launch pit with soil being displaced by the driving head.
Pipe ramming Pipe ramming is a technique in which a steel casing, usually open-ended,
with a cutter end is driven through the soil by a hammer located in the
launch pit. The casing may be in a single section or welded from shorter
sections during installation. Soil is removed from inside the casing after
driving. The installed casing may itself become part of a product pipe or,
more commonly, a product pipe, cable, or duct is installed inside it.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and
Trunk Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008).
11.3 Managing Risk Associated with Trenchless Methods

The risk associated with trenchless installation of services beneath roads must be
identified, assessed, and appropriately managed. The main risk factors, as listed in
HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways
and Trunk Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008) include the following, listed in
increasing level of risk:
• Inadequate temporary works

• Equipment breakdown
• Unforeseen ground conditions (geotechnical risk associated with inadequate
ground investigation)
• Inadequate skill of operators
• Inadequate ground investigation (geotechnical risk)
• Incorrect choice of technique (method-specific risk)
The consequences of not managing risk adequately tend to be soil movement

(settlement or heave), resulting in damage to utilities (highway and third party) or
highway pavement, or both, and structures and potential compromise of road user
safety.
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Each trenchless technology method poses its own particular risks. Table 11.2 lists the
main risks associated with each method.
The risk of settlement or heave can be mitigated by knowledge of the ground and
groundwater conditions at a site and by using the appropriate trenchless installation
method, good quality equipment, and experienced personnel.
As described in HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services

beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008) the risk and
amount of settlement or heave depends upon the depth and size of the duct, pipework,
or diameter tunnel to be installed. Settlement should be calculated taking into account
ground conditions, depth to axis of the sleeve or tunnel from the road surface, and the
size of the sleeve or tunnel. Heave can be calculated similarly, but generally, it is only
temporary and usually the result of excessive face pressure caused by high jacking
forces. Operatives must be experienced and competent in the use of the equipment,
and familiar with the expected ground conditions.
Assuming there is an adequate level of ground investigation and skilled operatives,

Table 11.3 provides guidance on the risk rating for each trenchless technology
method for the four main risk items.
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Table 11.2 Trenchless Technology Method Main Risks

Trenchless
Technology Method Main Risks
Pipe jacking and 1. Soil movement; settlement and to a lesser extent heave.
microtunnelinga 2. Soil settlement or collapse resulting in a depression in the pavement and
safety concerns for road-users.
3. Incorrect system operation during installation. This may cause direct
damage to the road pavement and affects its traffic-carrying capacity; this
can be a short or long-term risk.
Guided drilling and 1. Settlement or heave. The risk increases with larger diameters (>300 mm)
directional drilling and is low for small-diameter bores.
2. Soil movements resulting from installation problems.
3. “Frac-outs” (blow outs of drilling mud) resulting in drilling mud disrupting
the pavement and being a safety issue for road-users.
Auger boring 1. Inappropriate use in poorly graded granular soils or unstable ground
conditions. This leads to the creation of voids or direct settlement.
2. Allowing the auger to rotate or remove soil with no forward movement.
This will draw soil into the auger and cause voids/settlement above the
bore.
3. Short- and long-term settlement.
4. Damaging existing utilities.
5. Unexpected exit from the ground at the road surface is possible. This is
because auger boring is unsteered; however, the risk is low. The risk can
be negated using guided auger boring.
Impact moling and rod 1. Surface heave due to soil displacement or insufficient cover.
pushing 2. Unexpected exit from the ground at the road surface due to the mole
being unsteered.
Notes:
a For information on reducing risk in tunneling, see The Joint Code of Practice for Risk Management of
Tunnel Works in the UK (British Tunnelling Society and the Association of British Insurers, 2003). While
aimed at larger tunnels many of the principles advocated in the document are applicable to
microtunneling works.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and Trunk
Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008).
Table 11.3 Summary of Levels of Risk for Trenchless Technology Installations

below Roads
Risk Rating for Risk Itema
Trenchless Technology Soil Damage to Road User
Method Settlement Soil Heave Existing Utilities Safety
Pipe-jacking Low Low Negligible Negligible
Microtunneling Low Low Negligible Negligible
Guided drilling Negligible Negligible Low Negligible
Directional drilling Low Moderate Low Negligible
Auger boring Medium Negligible Medium Low
Impact moling or rod pushing Negligible High Medium Medium
Pipe ramming Negligible Medium Medium Low
Working shafts Low N/A Medium Medium
Notes:
a On the basis that there is an adequate level of ground investigation and skilled operatives.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and
Trunk Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008).
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To fully assess and appropriately manage the risks associated with existing services
(including abandoned and disused services) and underground infrastructure, their
presence, form, and location should be established at an early stage and taken into
account in design. Where appropriate, the precise position of services and
underground infrastructure should be established by field investigations.
Services and facilities that may be present include:
• Wastewater (foul) sewers

• Surface water or storm drain
• Combined sewers
• Water mains
• Gas mains
• Irrigation pipes
• District heating pipes
• Industrial pipelines
• Oil transmission pipelines
• Electricity cables
• Telephone cables
• Cable television (TV) cables
• Street lighting cables
• Traffic light cables
• Highway information system cables
• Wildlife tunnels
• Service tunnels
During construction, an observational method to management of the risks should be

undertaken. This should include monitoring of the installation process and of the
ground to verify the magnitude and rate of any settlement or heave as part of a risk
management strategy that should include emergency procedures if significant
problems are encountered.
11.4 Geotechnical Certification

Trenchless installation of services undertaken either as part of a highway project or as
a standalone project is subject to Geotechnical Certification, described in Part 16,
Geotechnical Risk Management, of this manual. The reporting of the geotechnical
design of a trenchless installation need only consist of sections relevant to the works.
Table K.2 in Appendix K2 provides a format for a Geotechnical Design Report for a
standalone project for trenchless installation of services beneath a road. Where the
trenchless installation forms part of a highway project, then the relevant report
sections in Table K.2 should be incorporated into the standard Geotechnical Design
Report format. See Part 16, Geotechnical Risk Management, of this manual.
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ASTM D2216-10. Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture)
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ASTM D2434-68(2006). Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head).
ASTM D2435/D2435M–11. Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties

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ASTM D2573-08. Standard Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil. ASTM
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ASTM D4404-10. Standard Test Method for Determination of Pore Volume and Pore Volume
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ASTM D5333-03. Standard Test Method for Measurement of Collapse Potential of Soils. ASTM
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Robertson, P. K., and K. L. Cabal (Robertson). Guide to Cone Penetration Testing for Geotechnical
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Appendix A
Qatar Geological Map,
Litho-Stratigraphy, Tectonic
Setting, and Earthquake Maps
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^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗dŚĞĞŶƚƌĞĨŽƌ'/^͕DDhW͕^ƚĂƚĞŽĨYĂƚĂƌ
VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table A.1 Lithostratigraphy of Qatar

Approximate
Thickness
Period Epoch Formation Member (m) Lithology or Notes
Quaternary Holocene — — — Mobile sands and bioclastic
beach sands
Pleistocene — — — Fixed dune sands, sabkha
deposits, and cemented
beach rocks (“caprock”)
Tertiary Pliocene or Hofuf Unit 1 — —
Late
Miocene
Lower and Dam — 0 to 30 Fossiliferous marls, clays, and
Middle thin limestone. Occasional
Miocene green and red clay bands.
Middle Upper Abarug Limestone Eroded —
Eocene Dammam Umm Bab Limestone Up to 30 Buff to pale brown chalky
limestone with siltstone
inclusions
Lower Dukhan Alveolina 0 to 1 —

Dammam Limestone
Midra Shale 0 to 10 Yellow brown laminated
shale, fossiliferous with
limonite and phosphate
nodules
Fahahil Velates 0 to 1 Not commonly identified
Limestone
Early Rus Unit 1 Al Khor 0 to 1 Buff to grey brown massive
Eocene Limestone pitted vesicular dolomitic
limestone
Unit 2 Undifferentiated Up to 20 Cyclic deposition of weak
Carbonate carbonate marls, siltstones,
Facies and thin limestone
Undifferentiated Up to 60 Thick deposits of anhydrite
Sulfate Facies and gypsum with marl and
thin limestone
Source: Geologic Description of the Qatar Peninsula (Arabian Gulf) (Cavelier, 1970)
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Source: Tectonic Map of Saudi Arabia and Adjacent Areas (Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, 1998)
Figure A.2 Tectonic Setting of the Arabian Plate
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Source: “An Earthquake Catalogue for Seismic Hazard Analysis in the United Arab Emirates” (Aldama-Bustos,
Al Aryani, et al., 2010)
Figure A.3 Earthquake Catalogue for the Arabian Gulf Region
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Appendix B
Qatar Soils and Rock Strata
Typical Geotechnical Hazards
and Risks
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Table B.1 Qatar Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks

Strata or Feature Typical Risk or Undesirable Consequence
Soils and Rock Strata
Aeolian Sand Very loose and loose deposits are prone to erosion, mobility, and settlement.
Possible metastable structure leading to collapse settlements.
Very loose and loose deposits can be expected to have a lower effective shear strength
compared to deposits of greater relative density. Therefore, there is a greater risk of
instability of slopes and of lower bearing capacity for foundations in very loose and loose
deposits compared to denser deposits.
Normally uniformly graded deposits that are difficult to compact to engineering
standards when not confined.
Depending on the origin, possible high salt content that gives rise to an aggressive
chemical environment for buried concrete and steel.
Sabkha Significant local variability (both horizontally and vertically) within the deposits with
resultant variation in material properties and differential in engineering performance.
Some deposits can have high fines content and be highly compressible, giving rise to
large settlements and large differential ground displacements. This can adversely affect
the construction and performance of infrastructure.
Loss of strength and possible dissolution when saturated (for example, rainfall, flash
floods, storm tides inundation, or absorption of water in humid weather conditions)
resulting in ground instability under loading conditions and adverse impact on
infrastructure.
High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried
concrete and steel.
Presence of gypsum and anhydrite minerals that can undergo alternate dehydration and
rehydration due to changes in the environment. These changes may be due to natural
causes such as seasonal variation, or may be due to manmade causes such as irrigation
systems. The resultant shrinkage and swelling within the deposits that can adversely
affect the engineering performance of foundations and road pavements.
Marine Sediments Parts of the coastal fringe in Qatar contain significant thicknesses of marine sediments
generally overlain by fill (made ground). These vary in composition but are typically silts,
clayey silts, sands, and gravels. The silt layers are very compressible, and therefore, are
unsuitable as founding layers and may cause problems during construction.
Residual Soils Variable grading of the deposits. This gives rise to variability in the characteristics of the
deposits and their engineering performance.
Because it is generally a weathered bedrock material, it may have high salt content,
which gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried concrete and steel.
Weathered Umm Bab High attapulgite clay content in the matrix material may be indicative of swelling
Limestone (formerly possibility after water is reintroduced into the formation.
known as Simsima High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried
Limestone) concrete and steel.
Umm Bab Limestone High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried
(formerly known as concrete and steel.
Simsima Limestone) (all
strata)
Gypsum Gypsum dissolution natural cavities (dahal), the presence of which can affect
engineering design and construction. The collapse of cavities can affect engineering
construction and the performance of completed engineering works.
Massive (limited discontinuities) strong units of gypsum can be difficult to excavate. This
can give rise to claims or construction delays, or both.
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Table B.1 Qatar Typical Geotechnical Hazards and Risks

Strata or Feature Typical Risk or Undesirable Consequence
Sandstone, siltstone, Depending on the origin, possible high salt content that gives rise to an aggressive
and mudstone chemical environment for buried concrete and steel.
In extreme cases with high gypsum content, strata are susceptible to collapse because of
the dissolution of the gypsum.
Slopes excavated in the strata can be prone to deterioration and failure.
Calcarenite Typically is of low strength.
Depending on the origin, highly porous strata can give rise to groundwater flow bringing
in high salt concentrations that give rise to an aggressive chemical environment for
buried concrete and steel.
Limestone Stronger, massive strata can be difficult to excavate. This can give rise to claims or
construction delays, or both.
Other Factors
Groundwater High salt content that gives rise to an aggressive chemical environment for buried
concrete and steel.
Lowering of groundwater for an excavation may cause adverse settlement, for example,
from changes in effective stress in compressible deposits by ground loss unrestricted
flow of water into excavations resulting in piping erosion loss of fines from the ground
into poorly designed wells.
Seismic activity Liquefaction of some soils and associated ground settlement and lateral spreading with
adverse impact on infrastructure.
Increased loading on structures that may exceed load carrying capacities in terms of
serviceability and ultimate limit states adversely affecting structure performance and
may give rise to failure and collapse.
Flash floods Flash floods are common. They occur in desert areas and in developed areas with hard
surfaces, such as roads. Flash floods can result in severe erosion and damage to the
natural and manmade environment.
Sand accumulation Construction of barriers to wind flow (for example, road embankments) in areas of
windblown sand results in deposition and accumulation of sand. This can cause ongoing
maintenance and operational difficulties.
Boreholes Ground investigation techniques commonly used in the region are relatively poorly
developed, commonly resulting in poor quality boreholes and nonrepresentative
borehole records. In particular, rotary coring is common with SPTs between drill strings
and the SPTs are used as the key source of parameters. Core recovery rates are
commonly poor, and normal drilling techniques are not able to recover the weak silty
layers that are found within some of the weak rock units. This can be significant when
considering settlement of foundations.
Notes:
The term “high salt content” is used in this table. Sulfates tend to dominate with concentrations of over 50 percent
being reported (Fookes et al., 1985). This affects the durability of concrete and steel and it is essential that the
aggressive conditions are understood and designed for CIRIA Report C577 (CIRIA, 2002c).
For further information on hazards in the region, refer to “Middle East—Inherent Ground Problems.” (Fookes,
1978).
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Appendix C
Preliminary Sources Study
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Table C.1 General Information Required for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Information Required
1 General 1. Location of site on published maps and charts
topographical land 2. Aerial photographs, all dated where appropriate (available from Qatar Centre
survey for GIS)
3. Site boundaries, outlines of structures and building lines (available from
Qatar Centre for GIS)
4. Ground contours and natural drainage features (available from Qatar Centre
for GIS)
5. Obstructions to sight lines and aircraft movement, for example, transmission
lines
6. Indication of obstructions below ground (utility information available from
Qatar Centre for GIS)
7. Record of differences and omissions in relation to published maps
8. Position of survey stations and benchmarks (with reduced levels)
9. Climate and meteorological information (available from Central Aviation
Authority, Meteorological Division)
2 Permitted use and 1. Planning and statutory restrictions applying to the particular areas under the
restrictions Ministry of Environment (2012)
2. Overseeing Organization regulations on planning restrictions (available from
the Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning [MMUP], 2010])
3. Tunnels rights
4. Ancient monuments and burial grounds (available from the Qatar Museum
Authority and Qatar Centre for GIS)
5. Previous potentially contaminative uses of site and adjacent areas
6. Any restrictions imposed by environmental and ecological considerations,
e.g., natural reserves and protected sites administered by the Qatar Ministry
of Environment (2012) or Qatar Museum Authority
7. Oil and gas fields, Royal Palaces, and military bases
3 Approaches and 1. Road
access (including 2. By water
temporary access) 3. By air
4 Ground conditions 1. Geological maps
2. Geological memoirs or reports
3. Wadi flooding, erosion, and subsidence history
4. Data held by central and local authorities
5. Construction and investigation records of adjacent sites
6. Seismicity
5 Sources of materials 1. Natural materials
for construction 2. Imported materials
6 Drainage and 1. Names of sewage, land drainage, and other authorities’ bylaws
sewage 2. Location and levels of existing systems (including fields, drains, and ditches),
showing sizes of pipes, and whether foul, stormwater, or combined
3. Existing flow quantities and capacity for additional flow
4. Liability to surcharging
5. Charges for drainage facilities
6. Disposal of solid waste
7. Flood risk in wadi areas
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Table C.1 General Information Required for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Information Required
7 Services (water, 1. Names of authorities concerned and their requirements and bylaws
electricity, gas, and 2. Location, sizes, and depths of services, including drawings
telecommunications) 3. Gas and water mains and their pressure characteristics
4. Electricity voltage, phases, and frequency
5. Water analysis
6. Availability of water for drilling
7. Storage requirements
8. Water source for firefighting
8 Air conditioning 1. District cooling
9 Information related 1. History of the site, including details of occupiers and users and any incidents
to made ground (fill) or accidents relating to dispersal of contaminants
and potential 2. Processes used, including their locations
contamination 3. Nature and volume of raw materials, products, and waste residues
4. Soil or waste, or both, disposal activities and methods of soil or waste, or
both, handling
5. Layout of the site above and below ground at each stage of development,
including roadways, storage areas, hard-cover areas, and the presence of any
existing structures and services
6. Presence of any waste disposal tips, abandoned pits, and quarries
7. Presence of nearby sources of contamination from which contaminants could
migrate by air or groundwater, or both, onto site
Source: Code of Practice for Site Investigations (BS 5930:1999+A2:2010)
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Table C.2 Sources of Information for a Preliminary Sources Study

Ref
No. Topic Source of Information
1 Geography 1. Geographic maps for Qatar can be obtained from Qatar Centre for GIS, which
include topographic plans (1-m contours), aerial photo images to 1948 of the
entire country, and yearly photos for Doha and other cities.
2. Google Maps and Google Earth images 2004 to present (these are subject to
licensing).
2 Geology, 1. Geological maps: Geological maps are available electronically from Qatar
hydrogeology, and Centre for GIS.
soils 2. Soils Atlas (Ministry of Municipality Affairs and Agriculture et al., 2005).
3. Borehole core and specimens: There are many collections of ground
investigation data for Qatar but these are not centrally archived but are held
by Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning, Asghal, and Qatar Petroleum.
The Ministry of Energy has recently established a project setting up a new
near-surface geologic database. This is not expected to be completed for at
least 2 years.
4. Hydrogeological maps (Schlumberger Water Services, 2009): Additionally,
Ashghal contracted Schlumberger to install and monitor a series of
monitoring wells throughout Qatar from Al Khor to Messaieed for
groundwater level and groundwater quality of the surficial and shallow
aquifers. Contact Ashghal Drainage Affairs for project CP761.
5. A series of published literature on the geology, soil, and hydrogeology of
Qatar are available online.
3 Meteorological 1. Meteorological information for Qatar is available from the Civil Aviation
information Authority, Metrological Division.
5 Hydrological 1. Water resource data are available from the Ministry of Environment (2012),
information Department of Agricultural and Water Resources.
6 Aerial photographs 1. Aerial photographs of Qatar are available in hard and electronic from Qatar
Centre for GIS.
7 Services 1. Ooredo, Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Karama), and Qatar
Cool.
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Table C.3 Notes on Site Reconnaissance

Ref
No. Topic Action
1 Preparatory work 1. Whenever possible, have the following available: site plan, maps or charts, and
geological maps and aerial photographs.
2. Ensure that permission to gain access has been obtained from both owner and
occupier and is not a restricted area.
3. Obtain entry passes as needed for restricted areas.
4. Ensure safety precautions, equipment, and personal protective equipment
required, particularly with regard to dune and sabkha areas.
5. When undertaking site reconnaissance on potentially contaminated land,
ensure that all likely hazards have been identified, that appropriate safety
procedures are followed, and that necessary safety equipment is used.
2 General 1. Traverse whole area, preferably on foot but by vehicle for larger sites.
information 2. Set out proposed location of work on plans, where appropriate.
3. Observe and record differences and omissions on plans and maps; for example,
boundaries, buildings, roads, and transmission lines.
4. Inspect and record details of existing structures.
5. Observe and record obstructions; for example, transmission lines, ancient
monuments or structures of archaeological importance, trees subject to
preservation orders, gas and water pipes, electricity cables, and sewers.
6. Check site access arrangements; also consider the probable effects of
construction traffic and heavy construction loads on existing roads, bridges, and
services.
7. Check and note water levels, tidal and other fluctuations due to dewatering at
or near to site.
8. Observe and record adjacent property and the likelihood of its being affected
by proposed works, and any activities that may have led to contamination of
the site under investigation.
9. Observe and record quarry workings, old workings, old structures, and any
other features that may be relevant.
10. Observe and record any obvious immediate hazards to public health and safety
(including to trespassers) or the environment.
11. Observe and record any areas of discolored soil, polluted water, distressed
vegetation, or significant odors.
3 Ground information 1. Study and record surface features, on site and nearby, preferably in conjunction
with geological maps and aerial photographs, and note the following:
• Morphology and note if site is dune, sabkha, or made ground
• Type and variability of surface conditions
• In areas of sabkha, note areas of ponding after rain and salt accumulation
• Comparison of surface lands and topography with previous map records to
check for presence of fill, wind erosion, or cuttings
• Steps in surface, which may indicate geological faults or shatter zones. In
cavity areas evidence of subsidence should be looked for compression and
tensile damage in brickwork, buildings and roads; structures out of
intended alignment including verticality
• Crater-like holes in carbonate rocks, which usually indicate swallow holes
filled with soft material.
2. Assess and record details of ground conditions in quarries, cuttings, and rock
outcrops onsite and nearby.
3. Assess and record, where relevant, groundwater level or levels (often different
from watercourse) positions of irrigation wells and occurrence of artesian flow.
4. Study embankments, buildings, and other structures in the vicinity having a
settlement history.
PAGE 164 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table C.3 Notes on Site Reconnaissance

Ref
No. Topic Action
4 Site inspection for 1. Inspect and record location and conditions of access to working sites.
ground 2. Observe and record obstructions, such as power cables, gas mains, oil pipelines,
investigation telephone cables, boundary fences, and trenches.
3. Locate and record areas for depot, offices, sample storage, and field
laboratories.
4. Ascertain and record ownership of working sites, where appropriate.
5. Consider liability to pay compensation for damage caused.
6. Locate a suitable water supply where applicable and record location and
estimated flow.
7. Record particulars of lodgings and local labor, as appropriate.
8. Obtain list of permissions and notices required from land authorities.
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PAGE 166 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix D
Example Template Evaluation
Sheets for Ground Investigation
Companies
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PAGE 168 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2
Table D.1 Example Template Technical Evaluation Sheet for Ground Investigation Companies
Depending on the Evaluation
System used the Headings below
will Vary
Total points
Weighting
Weighting
= Points *
System
Points
Point
Notes for Preparing a List of Technical Information for
Technical Aspect to Be Evaluation to be Submitted by the Ground
Evaluated Investigation Company as Part of its Tender Information Sought from Ground Investigation Company
Methodology and approach 1. The ground investigation company’s methodology Description of the ground investigation company’s proposed
to ground investigation and approach to the proposed ground investigation methodology and approach to the ground investigation. (two A4
can have a substantial influence its successful page sides maximum)
execution and timely completion. Details of these Preliminary method statements for key activities describing the
should be sought as part of a tender package. ground investigation company’s proposed methods, including

temporary works and safety provision. (Each preliminary method
statement should be limited to two A4 page sides maximum.)
Project organization chart detailing lines of responsibility and
communication within the team and with other parties (see
quality of personnel aspect for information to be supplied with
regard to competencies, relevant experience, and qualifications
of key staff). (Two A4 page sides maximum.)
Compliance to environment, 1. The ground investigation company should operate Details and copies of relevant accreditation certificates of the
health, and safety under an environmental management system, ground investigation company’s environmental management
requirements preferably register to BS EN ISO 14001:2004 or policy and any training program for its staff, technicians, and
similar drilling crews. (one A4 page side maximum and certificates)
2. Appropriate environmental management is Details of the ground investigation company’s environmental
important to negate environmental damage and for protection measures with regard to the proposed ground
providing overall success of the ground investigation. investigation works. (one A4 page side maximum)
Details of the ground investigation company’s
environmental management proposals with regard
to the ground investigation should be sought.
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 169
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 170
will Vary
Total points
Weighting
Weighting
= Points *
System
Points
Point
3. It is essential that the ground investigation Complete the health and safety questionnaire (Table D.2).
company appropriately manages the health and Copy of the company’s health and safety policy and its health and
safety aspects of the ground investigation for the safety training program for its staff, laboratory technicians and
protection of its staff, operatives, and other parties drilling crews.
involved in the ground investigation, the public, Evidence of competence to carry out the ground investigation to
and existing infrastructure. Evidence of the health the requirements of health and safety legislation and the named
and safety competence of the ground investigation resources allocated to control and manage the health and safety
company should be sought. risks.
A preliminary assessment of the main health and safety risks
associated with the proposed ground investigation. (two A4 page
sides maximum)
Quality of personnel 1. The ground investigation company should employ Names of the specialists to be employed on the ground
on the ground investigation appropriately qualified investigation together with details of their academic and
staff with appropriate expertise and experience in professional qualifications and a summary of their experience.
work to be undertaken and for the role for which Full curriculum vitae to be provided for senior roles such as site
they are named (refer to Part 16, Geotechnical Risk agent and laboratory manager.
Management, Section 2.3 Definition of
Geotechnical Practitioners, of this manual)
2. Drills and crew appropriately experienced and Names of the drillers (and drilling assistants) to be employed on
trained. Competence assessed and accredited by an the contract together with details of their accreditation, if any,
independent industry body (refer to Clause 5.2.1 and a summary of their experience.
Quality of Ground Investigation Personnel, in this
Part)
3. Company staff, technician and operatives training Details of the company training and development policy and its
VOLUME 2
and development policy and program (refer to training program for its specialist staff, laboratory technicians,
Clause 5.2.1, Quality of Ground Investigation and drilling crews. (one A4 page side maximum)
Personnel, in this Part)
VOLUME 2
will Vary
Total points
Weighting
Weighting
= Points *
System
Points
Point
Certification requirements 1. The ground investigation company should operate Details and copies of relevant certificates for the company’s
under a quality assurance system, preferably quality assurance system. (one A4 page side maximum and copies
register to BS EN ISO 9000:2005 or similar) (refer to of certificates)
Clause 5.2.1, Quality of Ground Investigation An example quality plan for similar previous ground investigation
Personnel, in this Part). work.

2. Laboratories undertaking soils and rock testing and Details and copies of relevant certificates of any independent
analytical contaminant testing should be accreditation held for laboratory testing and results reporting.
accredited by an independent industry recognized (one A4 page side maximum and copies of certificates)
body e.g., United Kingdom Accreditation Service
(UKAS) (2014), American Association for
Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA) (2011), the
AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory (AMRL)
and International Association of Drilling
Contractors (IADC) (refer to Clause 5.2.2,
Laboratory Quality, in this Part).
Technology requirements 1. Where innovative or new technology is required for Statement of knowledge and experience of the particular
a ground investigation the ground investigation technology required to be used. (one A4 page side maximum)
company’s knowledge and experience of that
technology should be established.
Documentation of operations 1. Experience of similar ground investigation works to Details of ground investigations of a similar nature, which have
in similar projects those proposed past similar ground investigation been carried out by the ground investigation company within the
can have a substantial influence on its successful last five years with evidence of satisfactory completion. Details
execution and timely completion. Details of these should include how lessons learnt from previous ground
VOLUME 2 PART 15
should be sought as part of a tender package. investigations would be used to improve performance on the
proposed ground investigation. The statement should include up
to five previous investigations. (three A4 pages sides maximum)
PAGE 171
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 172
will Vary
Total points
Weighting
Weighting
= Points *
System
Points
Point
Capacity to upgrade and 1. Possible requirements for the ground investigation Description with evidence of the ground investigation company’s
support company to upgrade its services and provide capacity to upgrade and support as set out in the tender
additional support to the overall delivery of the documentation. (one A4 page maximum)
ground investigation should be set out in the
tender documentation. This might be to undertake
ground investigation works outside those included
in the bill of quantities or provision of other
specialist staff additional drilling crews, equipment,
and other plant and laboratory testing and
facilities.
The ability of the company to 1. A prompt start is usually important to ensuring that Confirmation and details of the ground investigation company’s
mobilize and begin work a ground investigation is completed in a timely available resources and its ability to mobilize and begin work.
manner within the specified ground investigation (one-half A4 page maximum)
contract program and the overall project program.
Details of the ground investigation company’s
ability to mobilize and begin work should be
sought.
Time for program completion 1. An appropriate program for the execution of the A preliminary-resourced program that shows the periods
and program logic proposed ground investigation works with required and the sequence in which the ground investigation
associated program logic in terms of order of company proposes to undertake the various parts of the ground
execution of those works is important for the investigation and the dates of the principal operations. The
timely execution and completion of the ground details submitted must include an easily understood bar chart
investigation and its successful completion. A program.
preliminary resourced program covering the main
VOLUME 2
elements of the ground investigation should be

sought.
VOLUME 2
will Vary
Total points
Weighting
Weighting
= Points *
System
Points
Point
Relevant experience in the 1. Relevant experience in the local market and having Details of the ground investigation company’s experience of
local market and available appropriate local resources can benefit the timely working in Qatar and of its local Qatar resources, including
resources (plants, office, execution and successful completion of a ground numbers of:
software, tools) in Qatar (and investigation. Details of the ground investigation • Geotechnical practitioners (office and field based) compared
company’s experience of the local market and their with the categories in Part 16, Managing Geotechnical Risk,

neighboring states where
appropriate) local Qatar resources should be sought. Appendix A, Table A1, of this manual
• Office administration support staff
• Drillers and drilling crew related to the type of drilling rig
they operate and whether they are accredited
• Laboratory staff and technicians
• Numbers and types of drilling rigs and other plant
• Numbers and types of laboratory testing machines (for
example, shear box and triaxial test apparatus or odometers)
together with copies of their calibrations certificates
• Confirmation of whether the ground investigation company
can supply AGS data together with a copy of a typical AGS
data file from its database
Copies of the ground investigation company’s typical borehole,
trial pit, and field and laboratory test reporting records.
Details should include how lessons learned from previous ground
investigations in Qatar would be used to improve performance on
this ground investigation. (Two A4 page sides maximum.)
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 173
VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table D.2 Example Template Health and Safety Questionnaire for Ground Investigation
Companies
Included
Response
(If information is part of a separate document or continued
on a separate sheet provided, please give the title and page
Question Yes No NA or clause number)
General Information
1. Company name and Registered

Name………………………………………………………………………...
Address
Address………………………………………………………….……………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Tel………………………………………………………………………………
Fax………………………………………………………………………………
Email……………………………………………………………………………
Internet………………………………………………………………………
Contact Name………………………………………………..……………
2. Give the name and position in

Name……………………………...……………………………………………
the Company of the person who
has overall responsibility for Position………………………….……………………………………………
ensuring adequate resources
Health and Safety
are made available for health
Chart…………………………….………………………………………
and safety.
3. Submit an organization chart for
health and safety.
4. Give the name, qualifications,

Name……………………………...……………………………………………
and experience of the person
nominated to provide specific Position………………………….……………………………………………
Health and Safety advice in the
execution of the contract. Curriculum vitae Included
5. Summarize the main details of

your safety management
system.
6. Do you audit health and safety? If not go to Q.6
7. Give details of recommend-

ations from any audits that have
been undertaken.
8. How do you learn from your

past health and safety
experience?
PAGE 174 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table D.2 Example Template Health and Safety Questionnaire for Ground Investigation
Companies
Included
Response
(If information is part of a separate document or continued
on a separate sheet provided, please give the title and page
Question Yes No NA or clause number)
9. Summarize injuries, diseases,

and dangerous occurrences
during the last 3 years. Provide
the information in the form of
an incidence rate per
100,000 employees. Identify
fatalities separately.
10. Summarize your arrangements

for selecting and controlling
subcontractors with respect to
health and safety.
Project-specific Information
1. Information on similar projects

and experience.
2. Ground investigation risk

management experience on a
project of similar size,
procurement style.
3. A developed health and safety

plan from at least one ground
investigation.
4. Names and experience (health

and safety) of project team.
5. How competence and resource

checks will be done for any
sub-contractors.
6. Confirmation that the compe-

tent personnel are available for
the project program.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 175

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 176 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix E
Template Bill of Quantities for
Ground Investigation
VOLUME 2 PAGE 177

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 178 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Template Bill of Quantities for Ground Investigation

UK Specification for Ground Investigation (Site Investigation Steering Group, 2012) includes a
specification, a model bill of quantities, and schedules that enable the geotechnical practitioner
to define investigation-specific details together with associated notes for guidance. The model bill
of quantities provides a comprehensive list of items correlated to the specification items. It is
intended that the numbering of the model bill of quantities items remain unaltered with items
that are not required for a particular project ground investigation marked either “not used” or
not presented in the project specific bill of quantities. Typically, the project-specific additional
items should be included at the end of each bill. The template bill of quantities for Qatar road
projects included in this appendix follow those principles so the published standard specification
may be used with minimal changes for project-specific requirements.
VOLUME 2 PAGE 179

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VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix F
SPT Corrections Spreadsheet
Template
VOLUME 2 PAGE 209

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 210 VOLUME 2

Form Number Modifications
Project
Type of Test Interpretation of the Standard Penetration Test Results
Test Method ASTM:D1586-08A BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005
Contract No
Consultant
Contractor
Date
Borehole No.
Material
Description
Input Data
Soil Type Granular Notes:
Soil weight density kN/m^3 19 1. The calculation of Ȝ (correction factor for rod length) is simplified
in this spreadsheet to ground level, BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005 takes
Depth to water table (m) 1
the full rod length below the SPT anvil.
Water weight density kN/m^3 9.81 2. BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005 recommends that values of
Energy ratio of SPT hammer (Er) 59 overburden correction factor C N greater than 2.0 and preferrably 1.5
Consolidation status Overconsolidated should not be applied.
SPT depth N60 derivation (N1)60 derivation

Effective Measured
below N60 Correction factor
stress ı'Ȟo blow count N60 corrected for Overburden correction
ground corrected Ȝ related to rod (N1)60
(kPa) N Er & Ȝ factor CN
level (m) for Er length
1 19.0 5 5 0.75 4 1.91 7
2 28.2 6 6 0.75 4 1.73 8
3 37.4 7 7 0.75 5 1.58 8
4 46.6 8 8 0.85 7 1.46 10
5 55.8 9 9 0.85 8 1.35 10
6 65.0 10 10 0.95 9 1.26 12
7 74.1 11 11 0.95 10 1.18 12
8 83.3 12 12 0.95 11 1.11 12
9 92.5 13 13 0.95 12 1.05 13
10 101.7 14 14 1.00 14 0.99 14
11 110.9 15 15 1.00 15 0.94 14
12 120.1 16 16 1.00 16 0.89 14
13 129.3 17 17 1.00 17 0.85 14
14 138.5 18 18 1.00 18 0.82 14
15 147.7 19 19 1.00 19 0.78 15
16 156.9 20 20 1.00 20 0.75 15
17 166.0 21 21 1.00 21 0.72 15
18 175.2 22 22 1.00 22 0.69 15
19 184.4 23 23 1.00 23 0.67 15
Remarks
Prepared by Checked by Approved by

Name Name Name
Signature Signature Signature
VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 212 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix G
Cone Penetration Testing
VOLUME 2 PAGE 213

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 214 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table G 1 Summary of Typical Checks and Recalibrations to be made for CPT

Frequency
At Start of Test At Start of At End of At Three-Month
Check or Recalibration Program a Sounding Sounding Intervals
Verticality of thrust machine ‒ * ‒ ‒
Straightness of push rods * * ‒ ‒
Precision of measurements * ‒ ‒ *
Zero load error (taking
‒ * * ‒
baselines)
Wear
Dimension of cone or friction
* * ‒ ‒
sleeve
Roughness * * * ‒
Filters ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Seals
Presence of soil particles * * ‒ ‒
Quality * * * ‒
Calibration
Load cells and pressure
* ‒ ‒ *
transducers
Unequal end area ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Temperature ‒ ‒ ‒ *
Note:
a Also regularly during a long testing program
VOLUME 2 PAGE 215

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table G 2 Checklist for Information Required for CPT to Check Data Quality
Question Answer Notes
Manufacturer, capacity, type. International
1 Type of cone penetrometer Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test
(CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989) standard.
Adhering to international standard (i.e., Compare with requirements in International
2 10 cm², 60 degrees, sleeve area = 150 cm² Reference Test Procedure for Cone Penetration Test
etc.) (CPT) (ISSMFE, 1989).
x-sect area =
If answer to 2 is no, what cone is being If A = 15 cm², α = 60 degrees
3 cone angle =
used? and Asl = 202 cm²; then okay.
sleeve area =
Location of filter(s) for measuring pore
4
pressure and type of fluid
5 Area ratio (a) of cone tip Normally in range a = 0.59 to 0.85.
6 End areas of friction sleeve Best if they are equal.
Compare with formulas given in Cone Penetration
7 Is qc corrected for pore pressure effects? Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al.,
1997).
Compare with formulas given in Cone Penetration
8 Is ƒs corrected for pore pressure effects? Testing in Geotechnical Practice (Lunne et al.,
1997).
Assumed? Based on measurement of bulk density
9 What is basis for σ’vo? (ρ) on samples?
Compare with requirements given in specifications
When were sensors (qc, u, ƒs) last or Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical
10
calibrated? Practice (Lunne et al., 1997).
Zero readings before and after each test Important to check if results appear “abnormal.”
11
reported?
Where were readings zeroed? (for
12 example, sea bottom or bottom of Important for overwater testing
borehole)
13 Depth of any predrilling Explains any missing data.
What is frequency of readings? The commercial rate is one set every second (that
14 is, every 2 centimeters). Decided by project
requirements.
For dissipation testing; How well was the initial part of the dissipation
15 (a) Were the rods clamped or unclamped? curve defined—faster sampling rate to start with?
(b) Frequency of readings
PAGE 216 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix H
Borehole Geophysical
Techniques
VOLUME 2 PAGE 217

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 218 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table H.1 Tools and Methods for Subsurface Investigations

Method Principle and Application Limitations
Surface seismic Determine bedrock depths and characteristic May be unreliable unless velocities increase
refraction wave velocities as measured by geophones with depth and bedrock surface is regular.
spaced at intervals. Data are indirect and represent averages.
Limited to depths of about 30 m.
High-resolution Determine depths, geometry, and faulting in Reflected impulses are weak and easily
reflection deep rock strata. Good for depths of a few obscured by the direct surface and shallow
thousand meters. Useful for mapping offsets refraction impulses. Does not provide
in bedrock. Useful for locating groundwater. compression velocities. Computation of depths
to stratum changes requires velocity data
obtained by other means.
Vibration Travel time of transverse or shear waves Velocity of wave travel and natural period of
generated by a mechanical vibrator is vibration gives some indication of soil types.
recorded by seismic detectors. Useful for Data are indirect. Usefulness is limited to
determining dynamic modulus of subgrade relatively shallow foundations.
reaction for design of foundations of vibrating
structures.
Uphole, downhole, Obtain velocities for particular strata; Unreliable for irregular strata or soft soils with
and cross-hole dynamic properties and rock-mass quality. large gravel content. Cross-hole measurements
surveys (seismic Energy source in borehole or at surface; best suited for in-place modulus
direct methods) geophones on surface or in borehole. determination.
Electrical resistivity Locate fresh and saltwater boundaries; clean Difficult to interpret and subject to wide
surveys granular and clay strata; rock depth; and variations. Difficult to interpret strata below
depth to groundwater. Based on difference in water table. Does not provide engineering
electrical resistivity of strata. properties. Used up to depths of about 30 m.
Electromagnetic Measures low frequency magnetic fields Fixed coil spacings limited to shallow depth.
conductivity surveys induced into the earth. Used for mineral Background noise from natural and
exploration; locating near surface pipes; constructed sources (manufactured) affects
cables, and drums and contaminated plumes. values obtained.
Magnetic Mineral prospecting and locating large Difficult to interpret quantitatively, but
measurements igneous masses. Highly sensitive proton indicates the outline of faults, bedrock, buried
magnetometer measures Earth’s magnetic utilities, or metallic objects in landfills.
field at closely spaced intervals along a
traverse.
Gravity Detect major subsurface structures, faults, Not suitable for shallow depth determination
measurements domes, intrusions, and cavities. Based on but useful in regional studies. Some
differences in density of subsurface materials. application in locating caverns in limestone.
Ground-penetrating Locate pipe or other buried objects, bedrock, Does not provide depths or engineering
radar boulders, near-surface cavities, extent of properties. Shallow penetration. Silts, clays,
piping caused by sinkhole, and leakage in salts, saline water, the water table, or other
dams. Useful for high-resolution mapping of conductive materials severely restrict
near-surface geology. penetration of radar pulses.
Source: Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).
VOLUME 2 PAGE 219

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table H.2 Geophysical Methods and Techniques for Logging Boreholes

Method Principle and Application Limitations
Electrical logging Several different methods available. Provides Provides qualitative information. Best used with
continuous record of resistivity from which test-boring information. Limited to uncased
material types can be deduced when correlated hole.
with test-boring data.
Neutron Provides continuous measure of natural Data from neutron probe is limited to in-place
radiation logging moisture content. Can be used with density moisture content values. Often differs from
probe to locate failure zones or water bearing oven-dried moisture content and requires
zones in slopes. correction.
Gamma-gamma Provides continuous measure of in-place density Data limited to density measurements. Wet
logging of materials. density usually more accurate than dry density.
Scintillometer Provides measure of gamma rays. Used to locate Quantitative assessments of shale or clay
(Gamma ray shale and clay beds and in mineral prospecting. formations.
logging)
Acoustic Sonic energy generated and propagated in fluid Must be used in fluid-filled borehole unless
borehole imaging such as air to water. Provides continuous casing is being inspected. Tool must be centered
360-degree image of borehole wall showing in the borehole. Logging speed is relatively low
fractures and other discontinuities. Can be used between 20 and 75 mm/sec. Imaging less clear
to determine dip. than house-obtained with borehole cameras.
Acoustic velocity Can determine lithologic contracts, geologic Borehole must be fluid-filled and diameter
logging structure, cavities, and attitude of accurately known. Penetration beyond borehole
discontinuities. Elastic properties of rock can be wall of about a meter or so. Geologic materials
calculated. Compression (P-water) is generated must have P-water velocities higher than
and measured. Used almost exclusively in rock. velocity of the borehole fluid.
Crosshole seismic Seismic source in one borehole; receivers at Borehole spacing is critical and should be >3 m
tests same depth in other boreholes. Material and <15 m. Precise borehole spacing must be
properties can be determined from generated accurately known for data to be useful.
and measured compression and shear waves.
Low-velocity zones can be detected under high-
velocity zones.
Borehole Borehole TV or film type cameras available. TV Requires open hole. Images are affected by
cameras viewed in real time. Can examine cavities, water clarity. Aperture on film camera must be
discontinuities, joints, faults, water well screen, preset to match reflectivity of borehole wall
concrete-rock contacts, grouting effectiveness, materials.
and many other situations.
Borehole caliper Used to continuously measure and record Diameter ranges from about 50 mm to 900 mm.
logging borehole diameter. Identify zones of borehole Must calibrate caliper against known minimum
enlargement. Can evaluate borehole for and maximum diameter before logging. Special
positioning packers for other tests. One- to six- purpose acoustic caliper designed for large or
arm probe designs. cavernous holes (dia) 1.8 m to 30 m.
Temperature Continuous measure of borehole fluid Probe must be calibrated against a fluid of
logging temperature after fluid has stabilized. Can known temperature. Open boreholes take
determine temperature gradient with depth. longer to stabilize than cased holes. Logging
speed 15 to 20 mm/sec.
Source: Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).
PAGE 220 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2
Table H.3 Borehole Logs and their Applications and Limitations
Log Type (“1” indicates the log Type Means is Suitable for the Application Listed)
Conductivity
Introduction
temperature
Flow meter
Televiewer
Resistivity
Formation
Television
Spontane
Electrical
Diameter
Potential
Spectral
Neutron
Gamma
Gamma
Gamma
gamma
Natural
Caliper
Sonic
Micro
Fluid
Fluid
Application Limitations
Lined hole — — 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — — —
Open hole 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Air-filled — — 1 — — — — 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 — —

Water- or mud-filled 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Diameter — — — — — — — — 1 — — — —— — — —
Casing — — — 1 — — — 1 1 — — — 1 — 1 —
Fractures or joints 1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 — — 1 —
Cement bend — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Bed boundaries 1 1 1 1 — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bed thickness 1 1 1 — — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Bed type — — 1 — — — — — — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Porosity — — — — — — — — — 1 1 1 — 1 1 —
Density — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — —
Permeable zones 1 1 — — 1 1 1 — 1 — 1 1 — — — —
Borehole fluid quality — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — —
Formation fluid quality — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 1
VOLUME 2 PART 15
Fluid movement — — — — 1 1 1 — — — — — — — — —
Direction of dip — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — —
PAGE 221
Shale or sand indication — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — 1

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 222 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix I
Example Exploratory Hole
Record
VOLUME 2 PAGE 223

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 224 VOLUME 2

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VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix J
Example Geological Profiles
VOLUME 2 PAGE 229

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 230 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 232 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Appendix K
Trenchless Installations
VOLUME 2 PAGE 233

VOLUME 2 PART 15
PAGE 234 VOLUME 2

VOLUME 2 PART 15
Table K.1 Trenchless Installations Terms and Definitions

Term Definition
Auger boring Method for forming a bore, usually from a drive pit, by means of a rotating cutting head.
Spoil is removed back to the drive pit by helically wound auger flights rotating in a steel
casing. The equipment may have limited steering capability. See also “Guided auger
boring” in this table.
Back reamer Cutting head attached to the leading end of a drill string to enlarge the pilot bore during
a pullback operation to enable the product pipe to be installed.
Bore Void that is created to receive a pipe, conduit, or cable.
Cased bore Bore in which a pipe, usually a steel sleeve, is inserted simultaneously with the boring
operation. Usually associated with auger boring or pipe jacking.
Casing Pipe to support a bore. Usually not a product pipe.
Cutting or cutter head Tool or system of tools on a common support that excavates at the face of a bore.
Usually applies to mechanical methods of excavation.
Directional drilling Steerable method for the installation of pipes, conduits, and cables in a shallow arc
using a surface-launched drilling rig. In particular, the term applies to large-scale
crossings where a fluid-filled pilot bore is drilled without rotating the drill string, and
then enlarged by a wash-over pipe and back reamer to the size required for the product
pipe. The required deviation during pilot boring is provided by the positioning of a bent
sub.
Drill bit or head Tool that cuts the ground at the head of a drill string, usually by mechanical means.
Drilling fluid or mud Mixture of water and usually bentonite or polymer continuously pumped to the cutting
head or drill bit to facilitate the removal of cuttings, stabilize the bore, cool the head,
and lubricate the passage of the product pipe. In suitable ground conditions, water
alone may be used.
Drill string or stem The total length of drill rods, pipe, bit, or swivel joint in a bore.
Drive, entry shaft, or Excavation from which trenchless technology equipment is launched for the installation
pit or renovation of a pipeline, conduit, or cable. It may incorporate a thrust wall to spread
reaction loads to the ground.
Earth pressure Type of microtunneling machine in which mechanical pressure is applied to the material
balance (EPB) at the face and controlled to provide the correct counter-balance to earth pressure to
machine prevent heave or subsidence. The term is usually employed where the pressure
originates from the main jacking station in the drive shaft or to systems in which the
primary counter-balance to the earth pressures is supplied by pressurized drilling fluid
or slurry.
Face stability Stability of the excavated face of a tunnel or pipe jack.
Grouting Method of filling voids, usually with cementitious grout.
Guided auger boring Method of auger boring in which the guidance mechanism actuator is sited in the drive
shaft. The term may also be applied to those auger-boring systems with rudimentary
articulation of the casing near the cutting head activated by rods from the drive shaft.
Guided boring See definition for “Guided drilling” in this table.
Guided drilling Method for the installing pipes, conduits, and cables using a surface-launched drilling
rig. A pilot bore is drilled using a rotating drill string and is then enlarged by a back
reamer to the size required for the product pipe. The necessary deviation during the
pilot boring is provided by a slanted face to the drill head, an asymmetric drill head,
eccentric fluid jets, or a combination of these, usually in conjunction with a locator.
Guide rail Device used to support or guide, first the shield, and then the pipe within the drive shaft
during a pipe jacking operation.
Heaving Process in which the ground may be displaced causing a lifting of the ground surface.
Horizontal directional See definition for “Directional drilling” in this table.
drilling
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Table K.1 Trenchless Installations Terms and Definitions

Term Definition
Impact Moling Method of creating a bore using a pneumatic or hydraulic hammer within a casing,
generally of torpedo shape. The term is usually associated with nonsteered or limited
steering devices without rigid attachment to the launch pit, relying upon the resistance
of the ground for forward movement. During the operation, the soil is displaced, not
removed. An unsupported bore may be formed in suitable ground, or a pipe drawn in,
or pushed in, behind the impact moling tool. Cables may also be drawn in.
Impact ramming See “Pipe ramming” in this table.
Jacking force Force applied to pipes in a pipe jacking operation.
Jacking pipes Pipes designed for use in a pipe jacking operation.
Jacking shield Fabricated steel cylinder from within which excavation is carried out, either manually or
by mechanical means. Incorporated within the shield are facilities for controlling line
and level.
Launch pit As for drive pit but more usually associated with launching an impact moling or similar
tool.
Locator An electronic instrument used to determine the position and strength of electro-
magnetic signals emitted from a transmitter sonde in the pilot head of a boring system,
in an impact moling tool, or from underground services that have been energized.
Sometimes referred to as a “walkover system.”
Microtunneling Method of steerable remote control pipe jacking to install pipes of internal diameter
less than that permissible for human entry. In North America, the term is used to
describe remote control continuous pipe jacking in all diameters.
Pilot bore First, usually steerable, pass of any boring operation that later requires backreaming or
other enlargement. Most commonly applied to guided drilling, directional drilling, and
two-pass microtunneling systems.
Pipe jacking Method for directly installing pipes behind a shield machine by hydraulic or other
jacking from a drive shaft such that the pipes form a continuous string in the ground.
Pipe ramming Nonsteerable method of forming a bore by driving a steel casing, usually openended,
with a percussive hammer from a drive pit. The soil may be removed by augering,
jetting, or compressed air. In appropriate ground conditions, a closed casing may be
used.
Product pipe Permanent pipeline for operational use.
Pull-back That part of a guided drilling or directional drilling operation in which the drill string is
pulled back through the bore to the entry pit or surface rig, usually installing the
product pipe at the same time.
Reception, exit shaft, Excavation into which trenchless technology equipment is driven and may be recovered
or pit during the installation or renovation of a product pipe, conduit, or cable.
Rod pushing Method of forming a pilot bore by driving a closed pipe head with rigid attachment from
a launch pit into the soil that is displaced. Limited steering and monitoring capability
may be provided, usually in conjunction with a locator.
Subsidence Process in which the ground may be displaced causing a settlement at the surface.
Target shaft or pit See definition for “Reception, exit shaft, or pit” in this table.
Thrust pit See definition for “Drive, entry shaft, or pit” in this table.
Trenchless Methods for utility and other line installation, rehabilitation, replacement, renovation,
technology repair, inspection, location, and leak detection, with minimum excavation from the
ground surface.
Uncased bore Self-supporting bore without a lining or inserted pipe, whether temporary or
permanent.
Walkover system See “Locator” in this table.
Source: HA 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of Services beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads”
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Appendix K1: Information on

Trenchless Installation Methods
This appendix is based on information in HD 120/08, “Guidance on the Trenchless Installation of
Services beneath Motorways and Trunk Roads” (Department for Transport, 2008).
Pipe Jacking and Microtunneling

Pipe jacking is a method by which pipes or sleeves are installed by being pushed through the
ground behind a small, steerable, remotely controlled, tunnel boring, or microtunnel machine.
The technique is called microtunneling, and pipes and sleeves can be installed to very strict
tolerances in line and level. This makes them suitable for gravity mains and minimizes risk from
lack of alignment control where close tolerances are needed and expected, such as under major
roads.
Microtunneling machines generally start at 600 mm internal diameter, although sizes down to
300 mm internal diameter can be obtained. The maximum size of what is generally regarded as a
microtunneling machine is 1,500 mm internal diameter. Above this size, tunneling machines are
regarded as tunnel boring machines (TBMs).
Concrete jacking pipes may be supplied in sizes up to 2.55 m internal diameter. While concrete
jacking pipes can be supplied in smaller sizes, clay, steel, fiber-reinforced, and polymer pipes are
more often used in those applications.
Minimum diameters are also controlled by safety considerations. Code of Practice for Safety in
Tunnelling in the Construction Industry, Section 7.14.1 (BS 6164:2011), states that for small
tunnels, the internal size for human entry should not be less than 1.2 m high by 0.9 m wide. This
limits the size of circular human-entry tunnels to 1.2 m internal diameter. It is recognized that the
excavating space at the front of the tunnel may be slightly larger than the internal diameter of
the finished tunnel, but it is generally accepted that the minimum size refers to the whole tunnel
consistent with access and egress in emergencies.
The use of hand-excavation open pipe-jacking shields should be avoided to manage the risk to
operators of hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) and the more common vibration white finger
syndrome (VWF). Commonly used hand controlled equipment used in excavating tunnels have
high vibration levels and can be used only for a matter of a few minutes before the operator
reaches the maximum daily vibration level of exposure. Consequently, hand excavation using
vibrating tools should be reduced, managed, or preferably eliminated as a working practice.
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Most microtunnels are straight, but specialist surveying equipment and short length pipes can be
provided to allow curved tunnels to be excavated and lined.
There are two types of microtunneling machine: the open-faced auger and the closed-face slurry
machine. The open-faced or “Decon” machine uses a front cutting disc that is driven by a
continuous flight auger string from the shaft bottom. As the cutting disc rotates, the auger
removes cut material along the tunnel to the shaft bottom for disposal. The ground conditions
have to be such that the material can be transported effectively by the screw at a steady rate.
Water-logged ground, unless pretreated, can inundate the face and flood the screw, with
consequential ground loss causing major surface settlements. Due to the length of the driving
auger, the maximum length of this type of microtunnel is about 100 m, but it can be much less in
very stiff clay with cobbles where the torque on the auger can become excessive.
The closed-face slurry machine has a sealed bulkhead in the head of the machine through which
slurry is pumped at sufficient pressure to stabilize loose ground and to balance any water
pressure. The cutter head is situated in front of the bulkhead and is driven by hydraulic motors in
the head. As the ground is cut, the spoil mixes with the slurry and an extraction pump removes
the spoil and slurry mixture from behind the bulkhead. It is pumped down the tunnel to the shaft
and then to the surface for separation. Once separated, the spoil can be disposed of to tip, and
the slurry is returned to the system for reuse. This slurry-type system can be used to operate in
most ground conditions, even rock. The length of the tunnel drives for this type of system
depends on ground conditions and the size of the tunnel.
Drive length also depends on the use of intermediate jacking stations. In small tunnels (<900 mm
diameter), where stations typically cannot be installed for logistical reasons except very close to
the head of the tunnel, drive lengths characteristically extend to over 120 m, possibly up to
150 m.
Larger slurry microtunnels up to 1,500 mm diameter can be equipped with intermediate jacking
stations along the tunnel at regular intervals, which can be used to extend the overall length to
more than 250 m. There is a limit to how many “interjacks” can be used from a logical
perspective. Three is normally accepted as the maximum number.
Face access is another consideration in determining the overall possible drive length. Face access
is feasible in microtunnels above 1,500 mm diameter to facilitate maintenance when back-
loading cutters may be changed. On smaller microtunnels, worn teeth on the cutter heads cannot
be replaced during production and therefore need to be durable enough for the full length of the
drive. If ground conditions are particularly bad, access to the face may be assisted by use of
compressed air in the tunnel to reduce water flows in the face once the bulkhead is opened.
Access shaft diameters depend upon the diameter of the tunnel to be driven, the length of the
pipes to be used, and the ground conditions.
Shafts can be as small as 2.5 m diameter when using a small-diameter microtunneling machine,
half-length pipes, and where ground conditions are good. Forward headings in front of the
machine can be excavated to allow for more space for the machine, pipes, and jacking wall
construction.
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In poor ground, shafts may need to be larger, so 5 m diameter shafts are common. This size
allows for a stronger, thicker jacking wall and a sealing bulkhead at the face of the tunneling
machine to prevent loss of ground when the microtunnel leaves the shaft. Ground loss may be
prevented using ground treatment at the back of the shaft to help resist the jacking loads and at
the exit point of the shield from the shaft.
Excavation methods for shafts also require preplanning, particularly with regard to the
requirements for the health, safety, and welfare of construction workers. In small diameter
shafts, the use of a grab from ground level to excavate the ground will be required to minimize
the need for hand excavation. Shafts larger than 4.5 m in diameter may be excavated by grab or
are large enough to accommodate a mini-digger, skips, and operators.
Guided Drilling and Directional Drilling

Guided drilling and directional drilling are techniques by which a steerable boring head is pushed
through the ground while being rotated. When the pilot bore is completed, it is enlarged to the
required diameter by pulling a reamer back toward the drilling machine. When the hole has been
opened to the required size, the product pipe, duct, or cable is pulled into place. Normal practice
is for the bore to be supported by a drilling fluid during the works. The fluid also assists in cutting
the soil and in removing cuttings from the bore.
The product pipe or duct pulled into place is normally plastic. Polyethylene is the most widely
used pipe material, with either polyethylene or polyvinyl chloride being used for ducts. There are
several different types and pressure ratings of each material available; selection depends on
location and use of the finished pipeline. Joints in the pipes must be capable of resisting the
tension placed on them during installation. This is why many horizontal directional drilling
installers prefer automatic butt fusion welded polyethylene.
Guided drilling can be used for crossings with diameters up to 600 mm and lengths up to 200 m.
Horizontal directional drilling can be used for crossings up to 1,200 mm in diameter and up to
1,800 m in length, given good ground conditions. Both methods are ideal for pressure pipe or
cable installation where a reasonable degree of accuracy is required. Both methods can be used
to install pipes and cables on a curved path. Guided drilling can be used where an irregular
installation path is required. Both methods can be used successfully in a wide range of soils
including clays, silts, sands, mudstones, and soft rocks. Difficulties may be encountered in loose
gravel and cobbles, where creating a stable bore may not be possible.
Auger Boring
Auger boring is a horizontal rotary earth boring process in which a cutter head connected to
continuous flight augers is jacked through the ground, usually inside a steel casing. Although it is
possible to auger without a casing for small diameters or short bores in cohesive materials, this
would not be recommended under a road. In suitable ground conditions and properly executed,
auger boring can be a quick and economic technique.
The most common application for auger boring is for pressure pipelines that are placed inside the
casing. The linings can be metallic, polyethylene, or polyvinyl chloride. The advancement of these
systems has resulted in guided auger boring. This allows pipes to be installed accurately to line
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and level and is widely used for installation of gravity sewers where a clay product pipe can be
directly installed. Crossings up to 80 m in length and diameters up to 1,200 mm can be executed
using auger boring.
Entry and exit pits are required. The entry (working) pit may be very long, because it needs to
accommodate the auger sections, the casing, and the drive unit. Newer systems designed for
accuracy now use small pits where diameters of 2 m are common. This allows operation in
restricted working areas.
The technique can be split into two types of systems. One system is essentially unsteered so only
a straight drive can be undertaken. The capability to correct deviations is limited, and accuracy
depends on accurate alignment of the machine before starting to bore. Typical alignment
accuracy is 1 percent of the driven length. The other type is the guided system, which is
accurately steered through the ground on a straight drive.
Auger boring may be used in a wide range of soils. Even water-bearing ground can be drilled by
using water augers that restrict the ingress of materials.
Noncohesive soils can still be problematic, as excess material can be pulled into the bore, causing
surface settlement. Soft or hard strata that intersect the alignment at shallow angles can also
cause the auger to deviate offline.
Impact Moling and Rod-Pushing

Impact moling is a technique in which a percussive tool, usually driven by compressed air, is
driven through the soil, advancing with a hammer action. The soil in front of the mole is
displaced. The mole is connected to the launch pit by a pneumatic hose. Moles may be fitted with
radio sondes (probes) so their position can be tracked from the surface. Rod pushing is a similar
technique but advancement is by pushing a head on rigid rods from the launch pit with soil being
displaced by the driving head.
The power of the impact moling unit may be used to pull the product pipe, cable, or duct into
place as the impact mole advances. With the rod pusher the product pipe, cable, or duct is
installed by pullback from the target pit.
Impact moling generally is used for straight crossings although steerable equipment is available.
Rod pushing has a limited steering capability but most often is used for straight drives. Both
methods require launch and target pits.
Crossings up to 25 m can be executed with these methods, possibly a little longer with rod
pushing in good soil conditions. Diameters range from 45 mm to 200 mm. Because of soil
compaction and risk of surface movement (heave), typical minimum cover requirements are 1 m
for every 100 mm of mole diameter.
Within their limitations, these methods can be quick and cost-effective for short crossings to
install small pipes, cables, and ducts. Both methods can be used in soils that can be compressed
or displaced. Obstacles such as boulders and cobbles can cause deviation of the bore that cannot
be corrected.
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Pipe Ramming
Pipe ramming is a technique in which a steel casing, usually open-ended, with a cutter end is
driven through the soil by a hammer located in the launch pit. The casing may be in a single
section or welded from shorter sections during installation. Soil is removed from inside the casing
after driving. The installed casing may itself become part of a product pipe or, more commonly, a
product pipe, cable, or duct is installed inside it.
Crossings up to 70 m can be achieved and pipes with diameters up to 2,000 mm have been
installed in suitable ground conditions.
Pipe ramming is unsteerable, so the method is used for straight crossings only. Launch and
reception pits are required. Directional accuracy depends on the accurate alignment of the guide
rails on which the casing and hammer are positioned in the launch pit.
The technique may be used in a wide range of soils above or below the groundwater table. The
rammed casing is stiff and not easily deviated by cobbles or boulders. However, massive
obstructions cannot be penetrated. In very soft soils, pipe ramming is less susceptible to
deviation than impact moling.
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Appendix K2: Format of

Geotechnical Design Report for
Trenchless Installation of Services
Table K.2 provides a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the
headings in the geotechnical design report for trenchless installation of services. Additional
headings to those listed below may be inserted where appropriate with the agreement of the
overseeing organization. Unused headings should not be deleted but should be recorded as “Not
used” at the end of the heading.
The report should include details of the interpretation of design data and justification for the
design, including layout drawings of the works. The report should include proposals for
geotechnical supervision and construction monitoring. Items that require checking during
construction or maintenance after construction should be clearly identified.
Table K.2 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described Under Section Heading
— TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship, and the version
CONTENTS number of the report. The version number and date of the report
should be clearly placed on every page of the report. The contents
of all volumes should be listed in the front of each volume with the
contents of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific
disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Title Provide details.
1.2 Description of project Provide specific description, including an outline description of the
proposed works.
1.3 Scope and objectives of the Provide specific description.
report
1.4 Project previous reports Provide specific description.
2 OPEN EXCAVATIONS
2.1 Ground and groundwater Description of the proposed open excavations and the ground and
conditions groundwater conditions expected. This should include reference to
a geology section.
2.2 Excavation stability Description of the analyses of short-term and long-term stability of
the excavation and proposed support methodology.
2.3 Groundwater control Provide specific description, including, where required, details of
pumping or well pointing, assessment of its effect on surrounding
ground stability, any effects on nearby structures and infrastructure,
and any mitigation measures required.
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Table K.2 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described Under Section Heading
2.4 Spoil handling and disposal Provide specific description.
3 TRENCHLESS METHODS
3.1 Ground and groundwater Description of the proposed alignment and the ground and
conditions groundwater conditions expected. This should include reference to
a geology section.
3.2 Trenchless technique Description of the proposed installation technique, including
methodology in relation to the anticipated ground and groundwater
conditions and any restrictions for installation.
3.3 Ground movement Description of the assessment of potential ground movements
including predicted and critical settlement or heave, analyses
methods, and results. Detail any restrictions that apply for
installation.
3.4 Groundwater control Provide specific description, including, where required, details of
pumping or well pointing, assessment of its effect on surrounding
ground stability, any effects on nearby structures and infrastructure,
and any mitigation measures required.
3.5 Pipe loadings Provide specific description.
3.6 Clearances Clearances adopted to third party services and underground
infrastructure.
3.6 Spoil handling and disposal Provide specific description.
4 INSTRUMENTATION AND
MONITORING
4.1 Full details of purpose, Provide specific description.
installation requirements,
restrictions, and frequency
of readings
4.2 Use of observational Critical readings and restrictions on work.
methods and controls
5 CITED REFERENCES AND Provide details.
OTHER REFERENCES
— APPENDIXES Appendixes as required with information supporting the report text.
— DRAWINGS Copies of site plan, geotechnical sections, and design drawings.
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Volume 2
Part 16
Geotechnical Risk Management
VOLUME 2 PART 16
GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT
Disclaimer
VOLUME 2
‫‪GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 2 PART 16
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose and Scope ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Application of Geotechnical Certification Procedure .................................................. 1
2 The Geotechnical Practitioner .........................................................................................3

2.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 General Role of Geotechnical Practitioners ................................................................ 3
2.3 Geotechnical Practitioners Grades .............................................................................. 5
3 Management of Geotechnical Risk ..................................................................................7

3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Definitions and Abbreviations ..................................................................................... 8
3.2.1 Organizations, Roles, and Responsibilities ................................................... 8
3.2.2 Key Terms ..................................................................................................... 8
3.3 Geotechnical Categories .............................................................................................. 9
3.4 Geotechnical Certification Key Stages ....................................................................... 11
3.5 Geotechnical Certificate ............................................................................................ 16
4 Key Stage 1: Initial Project Review ................................................................................17

4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Initial Project Review ................................................................................................. 17
5 Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment ..........................................................................19

5.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 19
5.2 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study .............................................. 19
5.3 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation Proposals ...................................... 20
5.4 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation....................................................... 20
5.5 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical Interpretative Report ................................ 21
6 Key Stage 3: Geotechnical Design ..................................................................................23

6.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 23
6.2 Geotechnical Design .................................................................................................. 23
7 Key Stage 4: Geotechnical Observations and Feedback .................................................25

7.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 25
7.2 Geotechnical Observations and Feedback ................................................................ 25
8 Geotechnical Risk Register and Risk Assessment ...........................................................27

8.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 27
8.2 Geotechnical Risk Register ........................................................................................ 27
8.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 27
8.2.2 Example Project.......................................................................................... 28
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8.3 Risk Assessment ......................................................................................................... 29

8.4 Further Information and Geotechnical Risk Register Template ................................ 31
References ............................................................................................................................. 33
PAGE II VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2 PART 16
Tables
Table 2.1 Geotechnical Practitioner Grades ....................................................................... 5

Table 3.1 Summary of Geotechnical Certification Process ............................................... 13
Table 8.1 Likelihood Criteria ............................................................................................. 29
Table 8.2 Consequence Criteria ........................................................................................ 30
Table 8.3 Risk-Rating Matrix ............................................................................................. 30
Table 8.4 Indicative Risk-Rating Implications .................................................................... 30
Figures
Figure 3.1 Assessment of the Geotechnical Category of a Project .................................... 11

Figure 3.2 Geotechnical Certification Flow Chart .............................................................. 15
Figure 8.1 Example Assessment of an Identified Hazard ................................................... 29
Appendixes
Appendix A Geotechnical Practitioner Grades and their Definition, and Routes to

Becoming a Geotechnical Advisor ..................................................................... 35
Appendix B Geotechnical Works Checklist ........................................................................... 39
Appendix C Geotechnical Certificate .................................................................................... 43
Appendix D Statement of Intent ........................................................................................... 47
Appendix E Preliminary Sources Study Report ..................................................................... 51
Appendix F Ground Investigation Proposals Report ............................................................ 57
Appendix G Ground Investigation Factual Report and Geophysical Survey Report ............ 61
Appendix H Geotechnical Interpretative Report .................................................................. 67
Appendix I Geotechnical Design Report .............................................................................. 73
Appendix J Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report ............................................ 79
Appendix K Geotechnical Risk Register Template ................................................................ 85
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AGS Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists (United Kingdom)
DGA designer’s Geotechnical Advisor
GA Geotechnical Advisor
H horizontal
UK United Kingdom
V vertical
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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Scope
This Part sets out the role of geotechnical specialists in managing the quality of
geotechnical investigations, ground interpretation, and also geotechnical design and
geotechnical construction. It also sets out the procedure of Geotechnical Certification,
which provides a clear and consistent framework for the management of geotechnical
risk in a project throughout its lifetime. This part also presents the format and timing
of the reports and documents to be prepared and submitted to the Overseeing
Organization under Geotechnical Certification. The documents to be submitted may
include reports covering the preliminary sources study, the planning of ground
investigation works, the interpretation of geotechnical investigations, geotechnical
design, and geotechnical construction.
1.2 Application of Geotechnical Certification Procedure

The Geotechnical Certification procedure set out herein is mandatory for all projects
carried out for the State of Qatar Public Works Authority–Infrastructure Affairs. Other
authorities may adopt the procedure as required.
Where a third-party development is proposed immediately adjacent to, under, or

over a road for which the Public Works Authority is responsible, then Public Works
Authority–Infrastructure Affairs acceptance of the project aspects impacting the road
will be required. In such cases, the third-party developer shall follow the Geotechnical
Certification procedure to achieve appropriate quality management of the
geotechnical risks that could affect the road.
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2 The Geotechnical Practitioner

2.1 Overview
The appointment of experienced and appropriately qualified geotechnical
practitioners to a project is essential for identification of the ground hazards that
could have a major impact on a project and thereby its cost. This chapter describes
the role of geotechnical practitioners in a project and defines categories for
geotechnical personnel relative to their technical education, professional
qualifications, and industry experience.
2.2 General Role of Geotechnical Practitioners

Unlike manufactured construction materials, the properties of soils and rock are the
results of the natural processes that have formed them, and natural or manmade
events following their formation. The replacement of inferior materials is often
uneconomical. The designer of a road project and the contractor undertaking
construction are faced with the challenge of construction on the existing ground and
using materials available on or near the project site. Design and construction of
structures and earthworks for road projects require a thorough understanding of the
properties of the locally available soils and rocks that will constitute the founding
stratum and other components of the works. That understanding should be provided
by practitioners in geotechnical engineering or engineering geology as appropriate. In
the subsequent text in this manual, the general term “geotechnical practitioner” is
used to cover all geotechnical engineering or engineering geology personnel.
Geotechnical practitioners employed on projects must be appropriately qualified with

expertise and experience in geotechnical work for the role they undertake. Defined
requirements for geotechnical practitioners relative to technical education, professional
qualifications, and industry experience are presented in Section 2.3 of this Part.
The role of the geotechnical practitioner in design and construction varies, depending
on the scope of a project. It usually includes the acquisition and interpretation of soil
and rock data for design and construction of the various project elements. Proper
execution of this role requires a thorough understanding of the principles and
practices of geotechnical engineering, subsurface investigation principles and
techniques, design procedures, construction methods, and planned operation of the
completed construction, supplemented with a detailed working knowledge of geology
and hydrogeology.
Involving the geotechnical practitioner from the earliest planning stages of a project is
important. Through possible prior knowledge and research of available information,
the geotechnical practitioner can provide important advice to a project team about
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ground and groundwater conditions. This can provide advantages for reducing cost
and improving constructability.
With regard to the project location, alignment, and anticipated structures and
earthworks geometry, the geotechnical practitioner can identify the ground-related
hazards and associated risk to the project and establish requirements for managing
and mitigating the potential adverse effects.
Within the Geotechnical Certification framework described in this document, the

geotechnical practitioner will typically undertake the following work, which should
comply with local health and safety regulations and local environmental regulations
where relevant to the particular aspect of work being carried out:
• Conduct a preliminary sources study covering the compilation of existing data,

make a field reconnaissance, and assess that information to establish the
geotechnical hazards and risks associated with a project. At this stage the
geotechnical practitioner should consider measures to mitigate risk.
• Design and oversee subsurface investigations and associated soils and rock
laboratory testing of samples recovered. As part of the ground investigation
works, the geotechnical practitioner should visually examine the soils and rock in
situ and the samples and cores obtained in the field, so that a good understanding
of the materials can be developed. The geotechnical practitioner should supervise
the progress and findings of the ground investigation to see that both the field
and laboratory work are adequate and to establish the need, if any, for revision.
Particular attention should be paid to unusual or unexpected ground or
groundwater conditions encountered to obtain the right level of information on
the conditions found and to allow for the full assessment of hazards.
• Interpret the ground investigation and other available geotechnical data to
provide ground and groundwater models and soils and rock parameters for use in
design. The geotechnical practitioner will be responsible for compiling and
evaluating the data obtained, for defining the subsurface stratification (the
ground model) and groundwater conditions, and for developing appropriate soil
and rock design parameters. The geotechnical practitioner normally presents the
results of that work in geotechnical reports.
• Analyze and design foundations and other geotechnical elements of a road project
such as earthworks and ground improvement measures.
• Oversee construction monitoring of geotechnical works and verification of
geotechnical designs based on actual conditions found on-site.
• Provide feedback on the conditions encountered during construction and in
particular any significant differences between the actual conditions found and
those expected that required design changes. The geotechnical practitioner
should highlight any area of the specification or standards used that should be
reviewed in light of problems encountered during construction.
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2.3 Geotechnical Practitioners Grades

Geotechnical practitioners employed on projects should be appropriately qualified
with appropriate expertise and experience in geotechnical work for the role they
undertake. Table 2.1 presents geotechnical practitioner grades relative to technical
education, professional qualifications, and industry experience, based on those of the
UK Site Investigation Steering Group (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993), which
are to be adopted on projects.
Table 2.1 Geotechnical Practitioner Grades

Geotechnical Advisor
Geotechnical Specialist Practice
Increasing levels of:

Experience
Geotechnical Professional (alternative titles often used
are Geotechnical Engineer or Engineering Geologist) Professional
Qualifications
Graduate or Assistant Geotechnical Engineer or
Engineering Geologist Academic
Qualifications
Geotechnician
Source: Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site
Investigation Steering Group, 1993)
Table A.1 in Appendix A provides a full definition of each category of geotechnical

practitioner. Figure A.1 in Appendix A presents the routes of development of
geotechnical practitioners and to becoming a Geotechnical Advisor.
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3 Management of Geotechnical
Risk
3.1 Overview
Ground-related problems can adversely affect projects with regard to completion
times, profitability and cost-benefit, health and safety, and quality and fitness for
purpose, and they can lead to environmental damage and result in a significant
increase in project costs (Tyrrell et al., 1983; Institution of Civil Engineers [ICE], 1991;
Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993). Thorough identification of geotechnical
hazards on projects and appropriate management of risks related to those hazards
help to minimize such adverse impact. The process of Geotechnical Certification has
been developed by the Scottish Development Department (1989) and the
UK Highways Agency (Department for Transport, 2008).
The process of Geotechnical Certification set out in this Part is based on Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department for Transport, 2008), and identifies the
ground-related hazards and their associated risks and appropriate management of
those risks throughout the lifetime of a project to mitigate potential adverse effects.
Geotechnical Certification accomplishes the following:
• Sees that an appropriate and targeted geotechnical investigation is undertaken

• Enables optimized design
• Reduces risk of program delays as a result of unforeseen ground conditions
• Reduces the risk to contractors of unforeseen ground conditions and hence can
be expected to provide for lower cost tenders
• Provides a formalized and managed approach to geotechnical investigation and
design with acceptance at key stages along the way
As part of the Geotechnical Certification process, a project is initially categorized

based on consideration of project complexity, proposed geotechnical works, presence
of geohazards, and the severity of the geotechnical risk. The geotechnical risks are
then proactively managed through a process with four key stages.
Geotechnical Certification applies to projects for new roads, improvement projects,

and also to third-party developments affecting the road network, such as Metro
railway development, drainage projects, or new services passing under a road.
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3.2 Definitions and Abbreviations

3.2.1 Organizations, Roles, and Responsibilities
The organizations and their roles under Geotechnical Certification are summarized
below together with the responsibilities associated with the named roles:
• Overseeing Organization: The authority requiring the implementation of the

geotechnical risk management procedure set out in this manual.
• Designer: The organization employed to carry out the design work for a project.
• Geotechnical Advisor (GA): The geotechnical practitioner with the experience and
qualifications as set out in Appendix A. GAs on projects may include:
− The Overseeing Organization’s GA, the lead professional—an internal staff
member or perhaps an external consultant—overseeing the geotechnical
aspects of a project.
− The designer’s Geotechnical Advisor (DGA), the lead professional overseeing
and ultimately responsible for the planning, interpretation, and design of
geotechnical aspects of a project. The person who also oversees and assumes
ultimate responsibility for the verification of the construction of the
geotechnical aspects of a project. Depending on how a project develops and
the procurement route adopted for construction, the person undertaking the
DGA role may change through the life of a project. At various times the DGA
may be from a consultant working under a direct appointment to the
Overseeing Organization or working on behalf of the contractor appointed to
build a project by the Overseeing Organization.
3.2.2 Key Terms

The following terms are used to describe the procedure for managing geotechnical
risk:
• Geotechnical engineering: The application of sciences of soils and rock mechanics

and engineering geology in projects, which typically involve the construction of
roads and related structures (bridges, tunnels, etc.).
• Geotechnical hazard: Unfavorable ground or groundwater conditions or both that
may pose a risk to construction and to the design life of a structure.
• Geotechnical risk: The risk to the project in construction or its operation created
by the geotechnical hazard.
• Geotechnical asset: A principal element of the road network, such as cuttings,
embankments, structure foundations, and road pavement foundation.
• Geotechnical works: Include without limitation:
− The scoping, executing, managing, or reporting (factual and interpretative) of
ground investigation works
− The design, construction, and maintenance of cuttings (in soil and rock),
embankments, strengthened earthworks (reinforced soil and soil nailing) and
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associated drainage, ground anchorages, earth retaining structures, structural

foundations (including strip, spread, raft, and piled foundations), excavations,
dams and levees, tunnels, underground structures, and service ducts
− The design and implementation of grouting and ground improvement
measures such as preloading or surcharging with or without sand/band
drains, vibro-replacement, vibro-concrete columns, dynamic compaction, soil
mixing, or lime or cement stabilization
− The design, construction, and maintenance of cofferdams and caissons
− The assessment of road pavement and rail subbase and excavation or
assessment or both, below subbase level
− Seepage analyses and design of groundwater control measures
− Geohazards (including soil and rock slope stability, landslides and surface
instability resulting from undermining as a result of natural and
anthropogenic activity), investigation, assessment, management, and design
of mitigation or remediation measures
− Geoenvironmental investigation and assessment of ground and groundwater
at a site, risks posed, and design of mitigation or remediation measures, or
both
− Use of trenchless technology
− Seismic hazard assessment
• Geotechnical review certification
3.3 Geotechnical Categories

At commencement, the project shall be assigned to one of four geotechnical
categories. The assigned category then dictates the action to be taken by the DGA.
The most severe aspect of a project determines the project geotechnical category.
The geotechnical category of the project shall be agreed on between the Overseeing
Organization GA and the DGA at project commencement. For all projects, the DGA
shall complete the Geotechnical Works Checklist (included in Appendix B) and issue it
to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement of the project geotechnical
category.
The geotechnical category of the project shall be reviewed throughout the project
life. If the scope of a project changes or is considered to have changed based on
information that becomes available, the geotechnical category should be reassessed.
The DGA then shall submit an updated Geotechnical Works Checklist to the
Overseeing Organization GA for agreement.
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The geotechnical categories of projects are defined as follows, based on guidance

given in British Standard BS EN 1997-1 (BS EN 1997-1:2004):
• Geotechnical Category 0: Projects that do not have any geotechnical works. For
projects assigned this category, no further action is required regarding
Geotechnical Certification unless the scope of the project changes. An example
would be a highway resurfacing project that only replaces the wearing course
layer.
• Geotechnical Category 1: Projects that include only small and relatively simple
structures or earthworks for which it is possible to satisfy the fundamental
requirements based on experience and qualitative assessment. There should be
negligible risk in terms of overall instability, ground movements, and in terms of
the ground conditions, which should be known from comparable local experience
to be sufficiently straightforward. There should be no excavation below the water
table unless comparable local experience indicates that a proposed excavation
below the water table will be straightforward. An example would be the design
and construction of a low-height embankment with 1 vertical to 4 horizontal
(1V:4H) side slopes above the groundwater table.
• Geotechnical Category 2: Projects that include conventional types of geotechnical
structures, earthworks, or other geotechnical works, with no exceptional
geotechnical risk, unusual or difficult ground conditions, or loading conditions. For
Geotechnical Category 2 projects, ground investigation fieldwork and laboratory
testing should be by routine methods and design work should normally include
quantitative geotechnical data and analysis. Most of the geotechnical work
associated with roads can be expected to fall into this category.
• Geotechnical Category 3: Projects that involve structures, earthworks, or other
geotechnical works that fall outside the limits of Geotechnical Categories 1 and 2.
These include very large, unusual, or complex earthworks, structures, or other
geotechnical works; involve unusual or exceptionally difficult ground conditions;
or have abnormal geotechnical risks. Examples of Geotechnical Category 3
projects are the development of a major road over weak ground (for example,
sabkha) or the development of a road or interchange over ground that may
contain cavities.
Figure 3.1 is a flow chart for the assessment of the geotechnical category of a project.
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Figure 3.1 Assessment of the Geotechnical Category of a Project
3.4 Geotechnical Certification Key Stages

The Geotechnical Certification procedure comprises four key stages summarized here
and in Table 3.1 and described in detail in Chapters 4 through 7 in this Part:
• Key Stage 1: Initial Project Review. This includes initial determination of the
project geotechnical category, preparation of an initial Geotechnical Risk Register,
and the scope of the studies required to manage those risks. The results of this
work are presented in a Geotechnical Works Checklist and in a Statement of
Intent for projects of Geotechnical Category 1, 2, or 3.
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• Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment. This stage has up to four sub-stages

depending on the project, its risks, and its geotechnical classification:
− Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study. This includes a review of available

geotechnical information relevant to the project area and a site
reconnaissance to update and further develop the project Geotechnical Risk
Register. The results of this work are presented in a Preliminary Sources Study
Report.
− Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation Proposals. This is the design of the ground
investigation required to establish the ground and groundwater conditions
and provide information that will facilitate the management of the identified
geotechnical risks. The results of this work are presented in a Ground
Investigation Proposals Report.
− Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation. This includes the execution of the ground
investigation and its supervision. The results of the ground investigation are
presented in a Ground Investigation Factual Report or a Geophysical Survey
Report or both, as appropriate to the investigations undertaken.
− Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical Interpretation. This involves interpretation of
available historic and published data, combined with the ground investigation
results in the context of the proposed development to establish engineering
proposals for appropriately managing the geotechnical risks. The results of
this work are presented in a Geotechnical Interpretative Report.
• Key Stage 3: Geotechnical Design. This stage is the design of the geotechnical
works, including drawings and specification as necessary, with a summary
presentation of the design approach and demonstration of how the geotechnical
risks have been addressed. The results of this work are presented in a
Geotechnical Design Report.
• Key Stage 4: Geotechnical Observations and Feedback. This stage includes the
monitoring of the construction of geotechnical works and associated design
verification together with recommendations for any geotechnical post-
construction design verification monitoring. The results of this work are
summarized in a Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report.
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Table 3.1 Summary of Geotechnical Certification Process

Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment
Sub-stage 2B: Key Stage 4:
Key Stage 1: Sub-stage 2A: Ground Sub-stage 2C: Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical
Initial Project Preliminary Sources Investigation Ground Geotechnical Key Stage 3: Observations and
Key Stage Review Study Proposals Investigation Interpretation Geotechnical Design Feedback
Purpose To review available To define the To establish the To interpret the Design of the To present the
To assess the information about the scope of the ground and available historic and geotechnical works results of
project site to establish an ground groundwater published data with summary monitoring and site
Geotechnical initial ground models investigation conditions and together with the presentation of the observations made
Category. and soils/rock required to provide information ground investigation design approach and to verify
Initial engineering properties manage the that will facilitate results in the context of demonstration of how geotechnical design
identification of to inform preliminary geotechnical risk. the management of the proposed the geotechnical risks during construction
the likely design. the geotechnical development. Establish have been managed. to the client for its
geotechnical risks To establish the project risk. engineering proposals records and for use
and the scope of geotechnical risks and to appropriately on future projects.
the studies mitigation measures manage the
required to needed including geotechnical risk.
manage those ground investigation, if
risks. required.
Input Project Available site Knowledge from Ground Historical and Ground Investigation All previous
(All available complexity. information such as the Initial Project investigation works. published data from Factual Report and geotechnical
information Site ground and published geological Review and the Supervision of Preliminary Sources Geotechnical reports.
should be groundwater records, previous Preliminary ground investigation Study. Interpretative Report. Construction
considered, complexity. exploratory hole and Sources Study. works. Ground Investigation Geotechnical design records, monitoring
selected key other historical Factual Report. details and and geotechnical

sources are records, photographs Scope of the proposed construction observation
listed) and imagery. project. requirements. records.
Site reconnaissance. Geotechnical Risk
Register.
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Table 3.1 Summary of Geotechnical Certification Process
Key Stage 2: Geotechnical Assessment
Sub-stage 2B: Key Stage 4:
Key Stage 1: Sub-stage 2A: Ground Sub-stage 2C: Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical
Initial Project Preliminary Sources Investigation Ground Geotechnical Key Stage 3: Observations and
Key Stage Review Study Proposals Investigation Interpretation Geotechnical Design Feedback
Output Geotechnical Preliminary Sources Ground Ground Geotechnical Design drawings and Geotechnical
Works Checklist Study Report including Investigation Investigation Interpretative Report specification of Observations and
giving project updated Geotechnical Proposals Report Factual Report or including updated geotechnical works. Feedback Report
Geotechnical Risk Register (separate Geotechnical Geophysical Survey Geotechnical Risk Geotechnical Design Geotechnical
Category report not required for Certificate Report, or both Register Report Certificate
Statement of Geotechnical Geotechnical Geotechnical
Intent with Category 1 projects) Certificate Certificate
Geotechnical Risk Geotechnical
Register Certificate
(Geotechnical
Category 1, 2
and 3 projects)
Geotechnical
Certificate
Note:
Iteration of Geotechnical Certification, particularly across Key Stage 2 may occur until all phases of ground investigation and associated interpretation have been completed and all
options have been assessed before going to detail design.
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Iteration may occur, particularly in Key Stage 2, until all phases of ground
investigation (refer to Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects of Geotechnical
Design Guide, of this manual) and associated interpretation have been completed and
all options have been assessed before starting the detailed design.
Figure 3.2 is a flow chart for the Geotechnical Certification procedure.
Figure 3.2 Geotechnical Certification Flow Chart
All geotechnical reports produced under the aegis of Geotechnical Certification are
intended to be open documents and available to all parties throughout the design,
tender, and construction phases of the project.
One hard copy and one electronic copy in Adobe Acrobat “pdf” format of the final
versions of all reports produced for a project will be provided to the Overseeing
Organization.
Factual ground investigation data shall be submitted in Association of Geotechnical

and Geoenvironmental Specialists (AGS)-approved electronic data transfer format
(AGS, 2005; AGS, 2011), unless otherwise agreed by the Overseeing Organization.
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3.5 Geotechnical Certificate

A Geotechnical Certificate signed by the DGA shall accompany each document or
report submitted to the Overseeing Organization. A model Geotechnical Certificate is
provided in Appendix C. On receipt of a Geotechnical Certificate and its accompanying
submission, the Overseeing Organization or its representative will respond within the
period provided for in the relevant contract documentation or within any such other
time limit agreed (generally 28 days). The responsibility for the geotechnical design
rests with the designer. Responsibility for geotechnical construction rests with the
parties executing and supervising those works as set out in the relevant contracts.
Acceptance by the Overseeing Organization of the geotechnical submissions made in
the course of the Geotechnical Certification process shall not relieve the submitting
parties of their responsibility.
The submissions made to the Overseeing Organization will be reviewed and the
Geotechnical Certificate countersigned by the Overseeing Organization GA and
returned to the designer marked with one of the following:
• Accepted: The submission accompanying the certificate is accepted.

• Accepted with comments: The submission accompanying the certificate is
generally acceptable but requires minor amendments that can be addressed in
subsequent revisions of the documents.
• Not acceptable (returned with comments): The submission accompanying the
certificate is unacceptable and should be revised and resubmitted.
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4 Key Stage 1: Initial Project

Review
4.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements for the initial project review under the
Geotechnical Certification process.
4.2 Initial Project Review

This stage is intended to enable early dialogue to be established between the DGA
and the Overseeing Organization GA.
The initial review of the project by the DGA shall include the completion of a
Geotechnical Works Checklist (Appendix B) as part of the process to establish the
geotechnical category of the project. The most severe aspect of a project determines
the category. The Geotechnical Works Checklist shall be issued to the Overseeing
Organization GA for agreement of the project geotechnical category.
Where a project is assessed to be Geotechnical Category 1, 2, or 3, the known or

suspected geotechnical risks identified from the initial project review shall be
presented in a Geotechnical Risk Register, further details of which are provided in
Chapter 8. Those details together with the proposed scope, purpose, estimated
program cost, and estimated cost of work to complete the geotechnical assessment of
the project under Key Stage 2 shall be presented in a Statement of Intent. The format
of the Statement of Intent is provided in Appendix D. The Statement of Intent is
intended to be a brief document; for many projects, it could be a letter.
A Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C) shall accompany the submission of the

Statement of Intent to the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement before
the DGA proceeds to Key Stage 2.
The Statement of Intent may form part of any commissioning report that the designer
is required to produce on appointment. However, the Statement of Intent must still
be submitted to the Overseeing Organization GA as part of the certification process.
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5 Key Stage 2: Geotechnical

Assessment
5.1 Overview
This chapter sets out requirements for the geotechnical assessment of a project under
the Geotechnical Certification process.
5.2 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2A: Preliminary Sources Study

A Preliminary Sources Study shall be completed as a matter of priority after project
inception and shall include a site reconnaissance covering project options. This study
is important because it provides information to the Overseeing Organization to use
when assessing the health and safety hazards and environmental aspects presented
by a project, especially as part of any initial route determination.
For Geotechnical Category 1 projects, the findings of the Preliminary Sources Study
shall normally form part of the Geotechnical Interpretative Report produced under
Sub-stage 2D. For all Geotechnical Category 2 and 3 projects, the findings of the study
shall be presented in a Preliminary Sources Study Report unless the Overseeing
Organization agrees that the details can be included in the Geotechnical
Interpretative Report produced under Sub-stage 2D.
The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall set out the geological, geotechnical,
geomorphological, hydrological, and geoenvironmental or contamination aspects of
the project site, as well as the historical development of the area and its potential
impact on the proposed project. The area under study should not be limited to the
specific project site boundary but should also include review of any ongoing or
planned activities in the surrounding plots which might affect the proposed project or
vice versa. Based on this information, the geotechnical category of the project shall be
reviewed and confirmed or amended as appropriate. Any amendment to the
geotechnical category shall be agreed to by the Overseeing Organization GA. The
Preliminary Sources Study Report shall include a preliminary engineering assessment
of the project in relation to ground and groundwater conditions of the area and other
likely hazards to construction. The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall also include
a Geotechnical Risk Register (presented in Chapter 8). The Geotechnical Risk Register
should be an update of the register prepared for the Statement of Intent. It should
identify the risks and consequences to the project of the identified or anticipated
conditions, and should propose action to manage those risks.
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The format for the Preliminary Sources Study Report is provided in Appendix E. A
Geotechnical Certificate shall accompany the submission of the Preliminary Sources
Study Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement. Further
guidance on undertaking a Preliminary Sources Study is presented in Part 15, Ground
Investigations and Aspects of Geotechnical Design, of this manual.
5.3 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2B: Ground Investigation

Proposals
When the initial project review and Preliminary Sources Study indicate that ground
investigation is required to provide information on the ground and groundwater
conditions at the site to appropriately manage identified geotechnical risks, the scope
and methodology of that investigation shall be developed by the DGA. The ground
investigation proposals shall cover both geotechnical and geoenvironmental aspects
and may include geophysical survey as required, and shall be presented in a Ground
Investigation Proposals Report. The report shall set out the objectives and emphasize
any special problems to be investigated. It should also identify project-specific aspects
regarding health, safety, and the environment that need to be considered. Details of
the field and laboratory work shall be included in the report, together with
anticipated program costs.
The format for the Ground Investigations Proposals Report is provided in Appendix F.
Ground Investigations Proposals Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for
agreement before the DGA proceeds with the ground investigation.
If further phases of ground investigation are required and undertaken at a later date,
an additional Ground Investigation Proposals Report shall be prepared and submitted.
Information regarding the specification for ground investigation and an example bill
of quantities are provided in Chapter 6 of Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects
of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual.
5.4 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2C: Ground Investigation

The ground investigation fieldwork and laboratory testing shall be overseen by the
DGA, with day-to-day supervision led by a Geotechnical Specialist or Geotechnical
Professional or both, as appropriate to the project. The qualifications and experience
required for those roles are defined in Appendix A. The DGA’s site team shall
undertake sample check logging for verification of the ground investigation
company’s exploratory hole records and also inspect their fieldwork, sample or core
storage, and laboratories. A report on the findings shall be issued to the Overseeing
Organization. The reports may take the form of a letter and be used by the
Overseeing Organization in its prequalification assessment of ground investigation
companies for future projects.
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On completion of the ground investigation, the ground investigation company shall

present the exploratory hole records, the results of in situ and laboratory tests, and
any monitoring observations in a Ground Investigation Factual Report. The format for
the Ground Investigation Factual Report is provided in Appendix G. The report shall be
reviewed by the DGA’s team against its check logging and inspection records,
together with applicable specifications and standards, to confirm whether the
required standards have been achieved. Where a geophysical survey is undertaken,
the findings of that work shall be reported in a Geophysical Survey Report. The format
for the Geophysical Survey Report is provided in Appendix G. The report shall be
reviewed by the DGA’s team against other investigations for the site to assess the
validity of interpretation made.
5.5 Key Stage 2 Sub-stage 2D: Geotechnical

Interpretative Report
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall set out the designer’s evaluation of the
geological, geotechnical, geomorphological, hydrological, and geoenvironmental or
contamination conditions at the site, along with any historical development, and will
assess the anticipated impacts on the proposed project. Based on this information,
the geotechnical category of the project shall be reviewed and confirmed or amended
as appropriate. Any amendment to the category shall be agreed to by the Overseeing
Organization GA.
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall include an assessment of the engineering

properties of the soils and rock encountered during the ground investigation. It shall
also present the interpretation of site-wide geotechnical parameters and coefficients
for use in design. Where appropriate, location-specific geotechnical parameters and
coefficients for design of particular structures or earthworks or both might also be
derived and presented. The report will state the assumptions made in the
interpretation of the test results and any known limitations of the results. The report
shall also include an engineering assessment of the project in relation to ground and
groundwater conditions of the area and other likely hazards to construction. The
Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall include a Geotechnical Risk Register, updated
from that prepared previously as part of the Preliminary Sources Study Report, or the
Statement of Intent when a Preliminary Sources Study Report was not prepared.
The Geotechnical Risk Register shall identify the risks and consequences to the project
of the identified conditions and shall propose action to manage those risks.
The format for the Geotechnical Interpretative Report is provided in Appendix H. A

Geotechnical Certificate shall accompany the submission of the Geotechnical
Interpretative Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for their agreement before
the DGA proceeds to Key Stage 3.
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Design
6.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements for reporting geotechnical design under the
Geotechnical Certification process.
6.2 Geotechnical Design

At the detailed design stage, the designer shall complete a Geotechnical Design
Report that presents in detail the design of the project’s geotechnical elements,
making reference to the ground model and engineering parameters derived in the
Geotechnical Interpretative Report and deriving and justifying location-specific
parameters where required. The report shall set out requirements for geotechnical
inspection and monitoring works during and following construction to assess
ground/structure and ground/earthworks performance, and thereby verify the
geotechnical design or identify the need for remedial measures. This might include
further ground investigation work and the installation and monitoring of soils and
rock instrumentation. The report shall demonstrate how the risks identified in the
Geotechnical Risk Register have been managed.
The format for the Geotechnical Design Report is provided in Appendix I. In some
circumstances, and subject to the agreement of the Overseeing Organization GA, the
contents of the report might be incorporated with those of the Geotechnical
Interpretative Report, into a single combined Geotechnical Interpretative and
Geotechnical Design Report.

Geotechnical Design Report to the Overseeing Organization GA for agreement before
construction proceeds. If project amendments are made during design development
and construction that affect the geotechnical design, the Geotechnical Design Report
shall be updated by way of a revision to reflect those changes. Any such revision shall
be submitted under cover of a new Geotechnical Certificate to the Overseeing
Organization GA.
The Geotechnical Design Report may be submitted in whole or in part, to suit the design
and construction program as agreed with the Overseeing Organization GA. Sections of
the Geotechnical Design Report shall be submitted 28 days before the programmed
start date of the work covered by the submission. This time limit may be amended by
contract documentation or with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization. No
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work covered by the Geotechnical Design Report should be commenced by the

contractor before the Overseeing Organization GA accepts of the Geotechnical Design
Report.
If a need arises for additional ground investigations during the course of a main works
contract, such as for contractor design elements of geotechnical works such as piles,
reinforced earth, soil nails, and ground improvement, or if the design is amended
from that contained in the certified Geotechnical Design Report, then the additional
or amended work shall be subject to Geotechnical Certification.
A Ground Investigations Proposals Report (Appendix F) covering the proposed work,

together with a Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C), shall be submitted by the DGA
to the Overseeing Organization GA before additional ground investigation is
performed. Following the completion of the investigation and any design work, the
Geotechnical Design Report shall be updated to include the additional work and any
amendment to the design, and submitted under cover of a Geotechnical Certificate
(Appendix C) to the Overseeing Organization GA.
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Observations and Feedback
7.1 Overview
This chapter sets out the requirements under the Geotechnical Certification process
for capturing information related to actual ground and groundwater conditions
encountered during construction and verification of geotechnical designs. The chapter
also presents the requirements for reporting on information collected so that lessons
may be learned for future projects.
7.2 Geotechnical Observations and Feedback

Throughout the construction of geotechnical works and any geotechnical post-
construction design verification monitoring and assessment, the DGA’s site
supervision staff shall keep records that shall be compiled and summarized in a
Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report. The Geotechnical Observations and
Feedback Report should be ongoing throughout construction and shall be submitted
to the Overseeing Organization GA within 6 months of project completion, along with
a Geotechnical Certificate (Appendix C).
During the course of the construction, the DGA’s site supervision team should verify
the actual ground and groundwater conditions encountered against the interpreted
ground model used in geotechnical design. The conditions encountered should be
recorded. Significant differences between the actual conditions found and those
expected that require design changes shall be reported without delay to the
Overseeing Organization GA. Any such geotechnical problems and their solutions shall
be recorded in the Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report.
The DGA’s site supervision staff shall review the materials used in the geotechnical
works for compliance with the design and specification. The compiled, summarized
records shall be presented in the Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report.
The Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report shall emphasize parts of the
specification or standards used that require review given problems encountered on-
site. It shall also address requirements for ongoing monitoring or abnormal
maintenance requirements.
The format for the Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report is provided in
Appendix J.
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8 Geotechnical Risk Register

and Risk Assessment
8.1 Overview
A Geotechnical Risk Register is a tool for documenting perceived geotechnical risks
and their potential impact to a project. It also provides a means of recording the
action that needs to be taken to appropriately manage those risks and determine who
is responsible for that action. A Geotechnical Risk Register can be a straightforward
document and a powerful means of communicating risk and sharing information
among the various organizations involved in a project or within the same
organization. The principles for preparing a Geotechnical Risk Register and carrying
out a geotechnical risk assessment are presented in this chapter.
8.2 Geotechnical Risk Register

8.2.1 Introduction
The preparation of a Geotechnical Risk Register consists of the following basic steps:
• Consider the geotechnical hazards known to exist or that may exist at the site.
• Identify the types of construction that the project will likely involve.
• Establish the nature of the risks that could be associated with the combination of
the ground conditions and the possible forms of construction.
• Scale or categorize the likelihood and consequence of the hazard to establish the
risk rating; for example, in terms of increase in cost or construction time. This is
often referred to as the risk analysis and is described in Clause 8.2.2 in this Part.
• On the basis of the risk rating, identify how and when (project stage) each risk can
best be managed and by whom.
The Geotechnical Risk Register should be reviewed at regular intervals with new risks
added and a record made of action taken.
Information on the soils and rocks in Qatar and some of the typical undesirable
consequences that they can cause can be found in Part 15, Ground Investigation and
Aspects of Geotechnical Design Guide, of this manual.
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The strategy for responding to geotechnical risks should occur in the following order:
1. Avoid the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with spread foundations on
loose sands, move the road alignment so that the bridge is founded on dense
sand deposits.
2. If unavoidable, transfer the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with spread
foundations on loose sands, adopt pile foundations founding on bedrock.
3. If nontransferable, mitigate the risk. For example, in the case of a bridge with
spread foundations on loose sands, undertake ground treatment to improve the
density of the in situ soils.
4. If unable to mitigate, accept and manage the risk. For example, in the case of a
bridge abutment with pile foundations and an approach embankment on loose
sands, accept any ongoing differential settlement between the embankment and
the bridge abutment and undertake more frequent resurfacing works to make up
levels.
Following this strategy, the geotechnical practitioner should establish the mitigation
action required against each of the identified hazards and enter the details in the
Geotechnical Risk Register.
8.2.2 Example Project

Following is a list of potential geotechnical hazards that might be identified for a road
project in Qatar:
• Loose sands
• High salt content soils
• Dissolution features
Whether the hazards translate into a risk will depend on such factors as these:
• Locations of earthworks or structures

• Type and depth of foundations
• Sensitivity of the earthwork or structure to settlement and differential movement
• Type of concrete used for foundations
A spread foundation for a bridge abutment might be considered risky if the founding
soil is loose sand, because the imposed bridge loading could cause unacceptably large
settlement of the sand. Figure 8.1 shows how the consequence—in this case,
structural damage to the bridge—depends on a number of factors including the
project component, environment, and nature of the undesirable event. Attention to
some or all of the factors linking the hazard to the consequence can reduce the risk.
For example, by taking the bridge loads to underlying bedrock using pile foundations,
the loading and resulting settlement of the loose sand is avoided.
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Figure 8.1 Example Assessment of an Identified Hazard
8.3 Risk Assessment

The risk assessment can take the form of a quantitative assessment if appropriate
data are available, but adoption of a qualitative approach is more common. Examples
of risk scoring and risk matrix approaches to qualitative risk assessment are given in
Managing Geotechnical Risk (Institution of Civil Engineers, 2001) and Landslide Risk
Assessment (Lee and Jones, 2004).
Under the qualitative risk assessment, the identified project risks are classified
according to their severity by assigning a risk rating based on the risk’s likelihood of
occurring and its potential impact (otherwise referred to as consequence) on the
project.
Table 8.1 defines the level of likelihood (from A to E). Table 8.2 presents the criteria
used to assign the level of consequence (from 1 to 5).
Table 8.1 Likelihood Criteria

Level of Risk
Likelihood Guidance
A Rare: less than 5% probability, or occurrence requires exceptional circumstances.
B Unlikely: 5% to 20% probability, or may occur but is not expected to.
C Possible: 20% to 70% probability, or may occur but a distinct probability it may not.
D Likely: greater than 70% probability or balance of probability it will occur.
E Almost certain: 99% probability.
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Table 8.2 Consequence Criteria

Level of Risk
Consequence Guidance
Negligible impact on project construction with no delays to the program and no
1 effect on the performance of the completed earthworks or structures.
Low adverse impact on project construction with minimal delays to the program and
2 minimal associated increased costs, and no significant effect on the performance of
the completed earthworks or structures.
Medium adverse impact on project construction with some delays to the program
3 and some associated increased costs, or possibly some performance of the
completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits, or both.
High adverse impact on project construction with substantial delays to the program
4 and substantial associated increased costs, or performance of the completed
earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits, or both.
Major adverse impact on project construction with extensive delays to the program
5 and high associated increased costs, or failure of the permanent earthworks or
structures, or both.
The risk rating is generated as a function of the likelihood and the consequence
according to the risk-rating matrix in Table 8.3. Table 8.4 presents indicative risk-
rating implications.
Table 8.3 Risk-Rating Matrix

Consequence
Likelihood 1 2 3 4 5
A I I II III III
B I II II III IV
C II II III IV IV
D II III III IV IV
E III III IV IV IV
Table 8.4 Indicative Risk-Rating Implications

Risk Rating Indicative Risk Rating Implications
I Negligible Risk is usually accepted.

Consider need for investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard to
II Low facilitate geotechnical design. It may be that the risk is accepted subject to its
monitoring and management.
Detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard required to
III Medium develop geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk
to acceptable levels.
Extensive detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard
IV High essential to develop geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to
reduce risk to acceptable levels.
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If the geotechnical practitioner identifies significant geotechnical risks that would

normally result in a risk rating of III (Medium) or IV (High), the information on those
risks should be passed to the Overseeing Organization’s project owner so that
appropriate provision for the risks may be made in the overarching project risk
register.
8.4 Further Information and Geotechnical Risk Register

Template
Further information on geotechnical risk registers and risk analysis can be found in
Managing Geotechnical Risk (Institution of Civil Engineers, 2001). A geotechnical risk
register template that lists the most common geotechnical hazards in Qatar is
provided in Appendix K. An electronic copy of the template is available from the
Overseeing Organization
manual provides information on the main soils and bedrock strata units encountered
in Qatar and the typical geotechnical hazards and risks they present.
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References

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Data. 3.1 edition. Kent, England. 2005.

Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Data. AGS4 Addendum 3. Kent, England. October 2011.


Standard Penetration Test. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2005.
Department for Transport. “Managing Geotechnical Risk.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges,
Volume 4 Section 1, Part 2. HD 22/08. UK Highways Agency: London, England. 2008.
Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). Inadequate Site Investigation. Thomas Telford: London,
England. 1991.
Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). Managing Geotechnical Risk—Improving Productivity in UK

Building and Construction. Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, England. 2001.
Lee, E. M. and D. K. C. Jones. Landslide Risk Assessment. Thomas TelfordLtd.: London, England.
2004.
Scottish Development Department. Geotechnical Certification Procedures: Trunk Road Ground

Investigations. Technical Memorandum SH4/89. Road Directorate: Edinburgh, Scotland 1989.
Site Investigation Steering Group. Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site
Investigation Ground is a Hazard. Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, England. 1993.
Tyrrell, A. P., L. M. Lake, and A. W. Parsons. An Investigation of the Extra Costs Arising on
Highway Contracts. Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) Supplementary Report 814.
Transport Research Laboratory: Berkshire, England. 1983.
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Appendix A
Geotechnical Practitioner
Grades and their Definition,
and Routes to Becoming a
Geotechnical Advisor
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Table A.1 Geotechnical Practitioner Grades and Their Definitions

Title Definition
Geotechnical Advisor A Geotechnical Advisor will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering geologist
and have at least 5 years of practice as a Geotechnical Specialist. This individual, who may
be a named person in an organization, advises the client or professional technical advisor of
the geotechnical requirements of the project and oversees the procurement and
interpretation of the necessary information and its validation during construction.
Geotechnical Specialist A Geotechnical Specialist will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering
geologist. A Geotechnical Specialist should preferably have a masters/doctorate level
degree with ground engineering core subjects, a professional qualification (by examination)
and at least 3 years practice in ground engineering post-professional qualification.
A graduate with general experience requires five years of post-professional qualification
practice in ground engineering to compensate for a lack of formal education and training in
ground engineering.
Nongraduate routes require greater years practice in ground engineering as shown in
Figure A.1to compensate for a lack of formal education and training in ground engineering.
Geotechnical A Geotechnical Professional will generally be a geotechnical engineer or an engineering
Professional geologist, recognizing the different but complementary roles they can impart through their
(Geotechnical Engineer/ knowledge and the skills. A Geotechnical Professional should preferably have a masters or
Engineering Geologist) doctorate level degree with ground engineering core subjects and a professional
qualification (by examination). Nongraduate and nonprofessional qualification routes
require greater years practice in ground engineering as shown in Figure A.1 to compensate
for a lack of formal education and training in ground engineering.
Graduate/Assistant A graduate/assistant geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist will have a relevant
Geotechnical Engineer or degree in civil engineering, engineering geology or geology as appropriate.
Engineering Geologist
Geotechnician An individual with specific training and experience in the use of specialist equipment and
procedures for sampling, testing and monitoring.
Source: based on Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site
Investigation Steering Group, 1993)
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Geotechnical Advisor a Academic Qualification
At Least 5 years practice as a Professional Qualification

Geotechnical Specialist
Practice Experience
Geotechnical Specialist a
At least 3 years post-professional qualificationb At least 5 years of post-

At least 5 years of post- professional qualification b
Professional Qualification b practice in ground engineering practice in ground
practice in ground engineering
engineering Geotechnical Professional a
Obtain Professional Obtain Professional Obtain Professional Obtain Professional

Qualification b Qualification b Qualificationb Qualification b
At least 3 years post- At least 3 years post- At least 1 year post-graduate

graduate practice graduate practice in At least 5 years post- At least 15 years At least 25 years
ground engineering c practice in ground engineering c graduate practice in practice in ground practice in ground
ground engineering c engineering engineering
Masters level degree (typically 1 year course) Masters level degree (typically 4-year
or Doctorate level degree in geothechnical course) in engineering or geology d
engineering or engineering geology d
Honors level degree in engineering or School

geology e
Notes
a. Operation at the stated level subject to evidence of competence to operate at that level.
b. Professional Qualification (by assessment of academic qualification(s), practice experience and competency) with International recognition conferring titles such as Chartered Civil
Engineer, Chartered Geologist or Professional Engineer.
c. Prior to attaining a Professional Qualification prefix terms such as Graduate or Assistant, Ground Engineer, Geotechnical Engineer or Engineering Geologist may be appropriate.
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d. MSc/MEng/MRes courses with core subjects including geology, hydrogeology, rock mechanics, soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
e. Courses including BSc/ BEng Civil Engineering, BSc Geology, BSc Engineering Geology.
Source: based on Site Investigation in Construction Series: 1. Without Site Investigation Ground is a Hazard (Site Investigation Steering Group, 1993)
Figure A.1 Routes to Becoming a Geotechnical Advisor

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Appendix B
Geotechnical Works Checklist
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Geotechnical Works Check List
Consultant's logo to be placed here Contractor's logo to be placed here
Project:
Date: Prepared by: Geotechnical Advisor
Tick the box adjacent to the item if the element is expected to be included in works
Bridges and tunnels
New bridge and foundations Modification to existing bridge and foundations
New tunnel Modification to existing tunnel
Retaining walls
Gravity retaining walls Cantilever retaining walls Reinforced earth retaining walls
Embedded/sheet pile retaining walls Gabion basket or crib walls/structures Other retaining walls
Gantries, signs, lighting, cameras
Advance directional signs Informational matrix signs
Road lighting CCTV/traffic cameras
Earthworks and slopes
Embankment construction Existing embankment modification Cutting construction (in soils)
Existing cutting (in soils) modification Rock cutting Rock slope modification or reinforcement
Rock fall protection measures Existing landslide
Carriageway Works
Excavation above sub-base level Excavation below sub-base level
Strengthened Earthworks
Soil nailed slopes Other reinforced soil slopes
Load transfer platforms Ground anchorages
Safety fencing and environmental barriers
Safety fencing (any type) Earth bunds Noise fences
Culverts, ducting, trenching and non-destructive road crossings
Culverts Ducting
Use of trenching techniques Use of non-destructive crossing techniques
Buried tanks and storage
Polution control devices (e.g petrol interceptors) Fuel tanks
Temporary Works
Groundwater control or dewatering Temporary bridges Scaffold structures support or access
Haul roads and piling platforms Propping systems Excavations (>0.5m deep)
Other design or construction activity
Other design or construction activity. Give details below.
Geotechnical Advisor's comments and recommendations:
Geotechnical category assignedd 0 1 2 3
Is Geotechnical Certification required? Yes No

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Appendix C
Geotechnical Certificate
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Project
Contract No. Date
Consultant
Contractor Geotechnical Advisor
GEOTECHNICAL CERTIFICATE
Certificate sequence number:
(* Delete as appropriate)
1 Introduction
We certify that the Geotechnical Reports*, Geotechnical Design Data*, Geotechnical Drawings* or Geotechnical Documents*
for the Geotechnical Activities listed in section 2 below have been prepared by us with reasonable professional skill, care and
diligence, and that in our opinion:
i constitute an adequate and economic geotechnical design for the project
ii solutions to all the reasonably foreseeable geotechnical risks have been incorporated
iii the work intended is accurately represented and conforms to the Employer's*/Client's* requirements
iv with the exception of any item listed below or appended overleaf, the documentation has been prepared in accordance
with the relevant standards from the Qatar Highway Design Manual
where the certificate is accompanying revision to design data already certified the following statement shall also be included:
v* *The design elements covered by this certificate are not detrimental to the design elements previously certified and not
amended by this certificate
2 List of Geotechnical Reports, Geotechnical Design Data, Geotechnical Drawing or Geotechnical Documents
3 Departures from Standards

List of any departures from relevant standards, if none write ‘none’
4* Incorporation of Geotechnical Data into construction details

*where the certificate is accompanying final design data the following statement shall also be included:
*The Geotechnical Reports, Geotechnical Design Data Drawings or Geotechnical Documents listed in Section 2 above
have been accurately translated onto the construction drawings or other design documents bearing the unique numbers
listed below/appended overleaf.
PAGE 1 OF 2
Project
Contract No. Date
Consultant
Contractor Geotechnical Advisor
GEOTECHNICAL CERTIFICATE
Certificate sequence number:
Signed: *Signed:
Designer (Designer’s Geotechnical Advisor) *Contractor (Agent or Contracts Director)
Name: *Name:
Date: *Date:
On behalf of: *On behalf of:
This Certificate is:
Accepted:: The submission accompanying the Certificate is accepted
Accepted with comments:: The submission accompanying the Certificate is generally acceptable but requires minor
amendments that can be addressed in subsequent revisions of the document
Not acceptable (returned with comments):: The submission accompanying the Certificate is unacceptable and should
be revised and resubmitted.
Signed:
Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor
Name:
Date:
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Appendix D
Statement of Intent
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Format of Statement of Intent

Table D.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Statement of Intent. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where
appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA).
Unused headings shall not be deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the
heading.
The Statement of Intent shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The soft copy
of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings shall be
in .DXF files.
Table D.1 Statement of Intent Contents List and Topics to be Described

Section No. Heading Topics to be Described under Section Heading
TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship, and the version
number of the report. The version number and date of the report
should be clearly placed on every page of the report. The contents of
all volumes should be listed in the front of each volume with the
1 PROJECT Project title and details of project, key plan.
2 OBJECTIVES Objectives of the project and the proposed geotechnical studies.
3 EXISTING INFORMATION Summary of existing information that has been identified to date.
4 GEOTECHNICAL RISK Preliminary summary of the geotechnical risks envisaged based on an
understanding of the project objectives and the available information.
An initial Geotechnical Risk Register.
5 PROPOSED STUDIES AND Outline of the proposed studies and investigations that are to be
INVESTIGATIONS undertaken to appropriately manage the geotechnical risks and
achieve Geotechnical Certification.
6 SPECIALIST CONSULTATION Details of any consultations required with reasons.
7 PROGRAM An initial estimate of program of work involved in undertaking the
anticipated studies and reports to the end of Key Stage 2—
Geotechnical Assessment, which could include:
Preliminary sources study and Preliminary Sources Study Report
where appropriate
Ground Investigations Proposals Report
Ground investigation works and associated factual reporting
Geotechnical Interpretative Report.
Each stage may well influence the work required in later stages and
therefore the program will need to be kept under review and advised
to the Overseeing Organization regularly in separate documentation.
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Appendix E
Preliminary Sources Study
Report
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Format of Preliminary Sources Study Report

Table E.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Preliminary Sources Study Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted
where appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor
(GA). Unused headings shall not be deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the
heading.
The Preliminary Sources Study Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client.
The soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All
drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table E.1 Preliminary Sources Study Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
No. Heading Notes on Topics to be Described under Section Heading
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version
CONTENTS number of the report. The version number and date of the report
should be clearly placed on every page of the report. The contents of all
volumes should be listed in the front of each volume with the contents
of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers
should be included within or attached to the report.
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Project title and details of project, key plan.
2 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Project title Provide details.
2.2 Description of project Provide specific description.
report
2.4 Location and extent of the This should be supported by a project location plan.
study area
3 SOURCES OF Under separate headings as appropriate, summarize the enquiries made
INFORMATION and the sources used for gathering geotechnical, historical and other
general information relevant to the project area. Nil or negative
responses should also be reported. The details of all enquiries are to be
described in later sections of the report.
4 INVESTIGATIONS AND
STUDIES
4.1 Previous ground Summaries the scope of previous ground investigations and studies in or
investigations and immediately adjoining the project area. Previous exploratory hole
geotechnical studies locations should be shown on a general plan of the site.
4.2 on Titles as appropriate Under separate headings as appropriate, describe any field activities
undertaken for the preliminary sources study such as a site
reconnaissance, geomorphological/geological mapping, preliminary
ground investigations or geophysical surveys, hydrological studies,
topographical or photographic surveys.
5 SITE CONDITIONS General note: Under the section headings below, describe and assess
the particular topic based on the available information. The available
data should be summarized and presented on a series of plans and
sections as appropriate in support of the report text for ease of
reference and understanding.
5.1 Site description This section should normally be supported by a general plan showing
site features and site photographs of important points of interest.
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Section
5.2 Geology Known or anticipated solid geology (bedrock), geological structure and
soils, including made ground. The soils and rocks at the site should be
classified into appropriate groups for discussion of their properties in
Section 6.
5.3 Hydrology and Provide specific description.
hydrogeology
5.4 Historical development and Chronological description of past historical use and development at the
manmade features site as identified from historical editions of maps, aerial photographs,
as-built records and other pertinent sources of information. The section
should include the details of services at the site.
5.5 Geoenvironmental and Provide specific description.
possible contamination
issues
5.6 Other environmental Provide specific description.
considerations
6 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
6.1 on Titles as appropriate Under separate headings for the identified soils and rock groups known or
expected at the site describe their composition and provide a preliminary
assessment of the engineering properties appropriate for use in
preliminary design work together with a summary tables of the values.
7 PRELIMINARY General note: Under separate headings as appropriate, make a
ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT preliminary assessment of the anticipated impact of the known or
expected ground and groundwater conditions, materials properties and
historical development and services on the design and construction of
all project options. This should include consideration of structures and
earthworks locations, earthworks acceptability criteria, groundwater,
likely difficulties and problems, areas/features to be avoided. Section
headings will typically include those listed below.
7.1 Soils and rock For each soil and rock group as defined in Section 5.2 of the report.
7.2 Cuttings Side slopes (short- and long-term), potential acceptability of materials
for reuse, merits of special drainage or ground treatment, swelling
problems.
7.3 Embankments Side slopes, characteristics and restrictions on use of particular soils,
plant use options, drainage requirements, founding stratum treatment.
7.4 Subgrade Likely California bearing ratio values for cutting areas and for potential
fill materials in embankments, capping layers and availability of
material, drainage requirements.
7.5 Structure foundations Alternative types of foundation likely to be applicable, estimates of
bearing pressures and settlements, groundwater, problem areas/strata,
potential construction difficulties.
7.6 Soil chemistry/ Known or expected soil and groundwater chemistry with regard to
contaminated land aggressive ground and concrete durability. Possibility of harmful
elements present in soil or groundwater and implications of these on
health and safety. Scope for the reuse of marginal/recycled material
within the works.
7.5 Existing geotechnical For example slope failures, slopes with marginal factors of safety, solution
problems features, underground voids, very soft/highly compressible soils.
7.6 Historical development Effects of manmade obstacles/site history.
7.7 Utility services Impact of existing or planned utility services.
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Section
8 GEOTECHNICAL RISK
8.1 Geotechnical category of Review of the geotechnical category of the project based on the study
project findings.
8.2 Seismic category of project Provide specific description.
8.3 Geotechnical risk register An updated Geotechnical Risk Register, in which the risks of the
identified hazards are assessed, the consequences of those risks to the
project determined, and details of how the risks are to be managed
given. This should take account of all geotechnical, geo-environmental,
historical, and other factors discovered which are likely to influence the
project, such as routes, alignment, health and safety or buildability. A
statement of the preferred routes/options (on geotechnical grounds)
should be given if appropriate.
OTHER REFERENCES
— PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs both ground and air obtained for the study should be
reproduced and referenced to the site plan.
— DRAWINGS Drawings typically including:
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible
use of satellite imagery where appropriate.
Project Plan, usually 1:10,000 scale or possible use of satellite imagery
where appropriate. Include where appropriate with study limits and
project options. This information may be included on the General Plan
instead.
General Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the project.
Showing the site features and existing exploratory holes locations.
Site History Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the project.
Showing the historical development and manmade features.
Other Plans, such as geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology,
identified hazards including contaminated ground where appropriate.
Sections, where appropriate showing the existing or proposed project
features if known, geology (soils and rock strata), and groundwater.
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Appendix F
Ground Investigation Proposals
Report
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Format of Ground Investigations Proposals Report

Table F.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Ground Investigations Proposal Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be
inserted where appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical
Advisor (GA). Unused headings shall not be deleted but recorded as “Not used” at the end of the
heading.
Table F.1 Ground Investigations Proposals Report Contents List and Topics to be
Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version number of the
CONTENTS report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed on every
page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front of each
volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No company-specific
1 OBJECTIVES AND For example: To provide information to confirm and amplify the geotechnical and
FORMAT OF ANY geomorphological findings of the Preliminary Sources Study, as reported separately,
INVESTIGATION and to obtain detailed knowledge of the soils and rocks encountered and their likely
behavior and acceptability. To ascertain groundwater conditions and locations of
underground voids, if any. Also, define the limits of work envisaged.
2 SPECIAL PROBLEMS For example: Location of structures. Subsoil conditions below areas of high
TO BE embankment. Underground voids, aquifers and likely water-bearing strata affecting
INVESTIGATED the works. Rock stability problems. Effects on adjacent properties. Any manmade
features to be encountered. Contaminated ground.
3 PROPOSED Fieldwork: Details of exploratory work proposed for specific areas with reasons for
INVESTIGATION choice of investigatory method, covering the type of exploratory holes/investigative
method, soil and rock sampling and in situ testing. Summarized in tables.
Laboratory work: Details of proposals with reasons for choice of test and relevance to
design. Summarized in tables. Requirement for the ground investigation factual data
to be supplied in digital form to Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Specialists (AGS) Format.
4 SITE AND For example: Traffic management, difficult access, utility companies’ plant and
WORKING equipment. Ground Investigation Company to obtain “No Objection Certificates.”
RESTRICTIONS
5 SPECIALIST Details and reasons if proposed.
CONSULTATION
6 PROGRAM, COST, Anticipated start dates, contract periods, restrictions on program, cost estimates for
AND CONTRACT ground investigation. Arrangements for contract work and supervision of contract.
ARRANGEMENTS
7 REPORTING Requirements for reporting of the ground investigation.
8 CITED REFERENCES Provide details.
AND OTHER
REFERENCES
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate.
Ground Investigation Proposals Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the
project. Showing the proposed locations of the various types of exploratory holes
proposed and any geophysical survey arrays. For clarity, it is preferable to avoid
use of generic borehole numbers; for example, BH1, and to use project-specific
unique exploratory hole reference numbers; for example, a borehole for a road
project between Doha and Lusail widening the highway might be DLW-BH1.
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Appendix G
Ground Investigation Factual
Report and Geophysical
Survey Report
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Format of Ground Investigation Factual Report

Table G.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Ground Investigations Factual Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted
heading.
The Ground Investigation Factual Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the
client. The soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat.
The Ground Investigation factual details shall be provided in AGS format data files (refer to
Volume 2 Part 15 Section 9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical Data) and gINT files, duly
verified. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table G.1 Ground Investigation Factual Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
CONTENTS report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed on
every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front
of each volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No
company-specific disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION This should state briefly the nature of the project for which the ground
investigation was undertaken, the company undertaking it, the client, this is the
Overseeing Organization, the name of any consultant who commissioned or
directed the work on behalf of the Overseeing Organization.
2 OBJECT AND SCOPE The purpose of the investigation should be explained briefly and the brief for the
OF THE GROUND work referred to, preferably including it as an appendix. The section should make
INVESTIGATION clear whether the report contains only the factual data or is combined, or should
be read in conjunction, with other geotechnical reports such as those dealing with
specialist testing or geophysics. The arrangements for quality assurance of data
and auditing should be explained. The responsibility for the interpretative
assignment of litho-stratigraphical names in exploratory hole records and the like
should be defined.
3 REPORT STRUCTURE This section should explain the structure of the report, where the descriptive
sections and factual data are to be found and should draw attention to any
general notes that accompany the report.
4 THE SITE This section should describe the location of the project relative to larger features
such as centers of population. The national grid reference at the center or
extremities of the project should be given to the nearest 100 m and a Project
Location Plan (typically of scale 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate) included. The project should be described, noting its
size, shape and location relative to any roads and access. The site topography,
locations of any buildings or other features (actual presence of or any evidence
of) which may affect the project should also be described.
5 FIELDWORK Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should describe the
PROCEDURE procedures followed in undertaking the ground investigation including
commissioning, and the Codes of Practice and any other procedural guidelines
under which the work was undertaken. It should be followed by a description of
each type of exploratory hole undertaken and include reference numbers,
locations (as grid references) and elevations. The range of depths to which each
hole was taken and the dates over which the work was done should also be
included. Any supplementary references which define procedures for each
investigation technique and references appropriate to interpretation should be
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Table G.1 Ground Investigation Factual Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
given. Notes on constraints on access and the limitations these imposed on the
technique used should be given together with any limitations on penetration
which each technique may have experienced. Details of any nonintrusive ground
investigation using geophysical techniques should also be either reported or
presented in a separate report (see Table G.2). The locations of the exploratory
holes and details of the geophysical testing arrays should be presented on site
plans.
The sampling strategy should be stated, the types of samples taken stated and
their transportation and storage described.
Groundwater conditions encountered during the ground investigation should also
be presented. A description of any instrumentation installed and its purpose
should also be given. The results of any monitoring of instrumentation should also
be described and the location of the records within the report identified.
6 IN SITU TESTING Under separate headings as appropriate this section should describe the in situ
tests undertaken with reference to the relevant standards or published methods
used. Calibration certificates for standard penetration test equipment should also
be provided (for further information, refer to British Standard BS EN ISO 22476-3
(BS EN ISO 22476-3:2005+A1:2011). Reference should also be made to the
locations within the report where the test results are presented, for example on
the borehole record where relevant and in summary tables in an appendix.
7 LABORATORY Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should state who devised
TESTING the schedule of laboratory tests on the samples taken and to what standard the
testing was undertaken. The accreditation status of each test performed by the
laboratory should be stated, where this is required.
The type of test, the numbers undertaken and the relevant test reference number
should be given. The test results should be presented in an appendix or
appendixes to the report with presentation of all the details and graphs required
by the standard to which the tests were carried out. The test results should be
tabulated, either based on material type or the test type as appropriate.
Where chemical or microbiological testing to determine the presence and scale of
any contaminants has been undertaken this should be reported. The test
procedure used for each contaminant determination should be stated together
with the method detection limit and the accuracy of the test. The test results
should be reported in an appropriate tabular form and presented in an appendix
to the report.
8 CITED REFERENCES Provide details.
AND OTHER
REFERENCES
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:125,000 scale or possible use of
satellite imagery where appropriate.
Ground Investigation Layout Plan, scale and number of drawings to suit the
project. Showing the locations of the various types of exploratory holes and any
geophysical survey arrays.
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Format of Geophysical Survey Report

Table G.2 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geophysical Survey Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where
appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA). Unused
headings shall not be deleted but shall be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The Geophysical Survey Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The
soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. The raw
data shall be provided in soft copy to the client. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table G.2 Geophysical Survey Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
CONTENTS report. The version number and date of the report should be clearly placed on
every page of the report. The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front
of each volume with the contents of the particular volume highlighted. No
Company specific disclaimers should be included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION This should state briefly the nature of the project for which the geophysical survey
was undertaken, the company undertaking it, the client, this is the Overseeing
Organization, the name of any consultant who commissioned or directed the work
on behalf of the Overseeing Organization.
2 OBJECT AND SCOPE OF The purpose of the geophysical survey should be explained briefly and the brief for
THE GEOPHYSICAL the work referred to, preferably including it as an appendix. The arrangements for
SURVEY quality assurance of data and auditing should be explained. The responsibility for
the interpretative assignment of litho-stratigraphical names in records and the like
should be defined.
3 REPORT STRUCTURE This section should explain the structure of the report, where the descriptive
sections and factual data are to be found and should draw attention to any general
notes that accompany the report.
4 THE SITE This section should describe the location of the project relative to larger features
such as centers of population. The national grid reference at the center or
extremities of the project should be given to the nearest 100 m and a Project
Location Plan (typically of scale 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate) included. The project should also be described, noting
its size, shape and location relative to any roads and access. The site topography,
locations of any buildings or other features (actual presence of or any evidence of)
which may affect the project should also be described.
5 FIELDWORK Under separate headings as appropriate, this section should describe the
PROCEDURE AND procedures followed in undertaking the geophysical surveys, the methods used
RESULTS and limitations affecting the results obtained, on-site instrument calibrations or
checks of equipment performance, description of the measurement stations, line
spacings, or arrays used, interpretation of the findings, and the likely causes of any
anomalies identified in the data.
OTHER REFERENCES
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible use of
satellite imagery where appropriate.
Geophysical survey investigation Layout Plan, locations of test points and
testing arrays, scale and number of drawings to suit the project. Mapping and
profiling surveys results and associated interpretation overlain on survey plan.
— APPENDIXES Copy of site log book.
Calibration certificates and serial numbers of the instruments used.
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Appendix H
Geotechnical Interpretative
Report
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Format of Geotechnical Interpretative Report

Table H.1 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geotechnical Interpretative Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted
heading.
The Geotechnical Interpretative Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client.
The soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All
drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table H.1 Geotechnical Interpretative Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Provide specific description.
2 INTRODUCTION
report
2.4 Site description Description of the location of the site and of the features present
supported by a project location plan and project plans.
2.5 Site history Chronological description of past historical use and development at
the site as identified from historical editions of maps, aerial
photographs, as-built records and other pertinent sources of
information, supported by plans summarizing site history.
2.6 Previous ground investigations Summary of the scope of these.
and geotechnical studies
2.7 Other relevant information May include natural cavities, landslides, erosion and deposition,
seismic.
3 FIELD AND LABORATORY This section summarizes the investigations carried out specifically for
STUDIES the project.
3.1 Walkover inspection survey Provide specific description.
3.2 Topographical surveys Provide specific description.
3.3 Geomorphological/geological If carried out provide specific description.
mapping
3.4 Ground Investigations Description of fieldwork; exploratory holes, soils and rock sampling, in
situ testing including any geophysical surveys. Description of laboratory
soils and rock testing including any contaminant chemical testing.
3.5 Instrumentation monitoring Description of observations of instrumentation installed at the site.
3.6 Drainage studies If carried out provide specific description.
3.7 Pile tests If carried out provide specific description.
3.8 Other fieldwork Provide specific description.
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Section
4 SITE CONDITIONS This section describes the designer’s summary interpretation of the
results of the investigations carried out in Section 3 of the report.
The Site Conditions section should be appropriately sectioned and
should provide the summary interpretation on the topography
geology, hydrology, hydrogeology, geomorphology, manmade
features and historical development of the project. This should be
supported by plans and sections. If appropriate, a general ground
model to be used for design should be presented for the site.
4.1 Geology Description of the solid geology (bedrock), geological structure and
soils including made ground based on published information and the
results of historic and the current ground investigation. The soils and
rocks at the site should be classified into appropriate groups for
discussion of their properties in Section 5 of the report.
4.2 Hydrology and hydrogeology Including description of any groundwater monitoring observations.
4.3 Historical development and Provide specific description.
manmade features
4.4 Geoenvironmental and Provide specific description.
contamination issues
4.5 Other environmental Provide specific description.
considerations
5 GROUND CONDITIONS AND
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
5.1 on Titles as appropriate The designer’s evaluation of the ground conditions and the site
global material properties with a full justification for the parameters
for use in geotechnical design. Under separate headings for the
identified soils and rock groups at the site describe their properties
and provide an assessment of values of the engineering properties
with summary tables of the values. This section should also cover
groundwater and soils chemistry in relation to aggressive ground and
concrete durability and where appropriate the assessment of soils
contamination. This section should normally be supported by tables
and graphs summarizing the results of the in situ and laboratory tests
and their interpretation, presented in an appendix.
6 ENGINEERING ASSESSMENT For some projects, an initial engineering assessment will have been
made as part of a Preliminary Sources Study Report. In those cases,
that engineering assessment should be developed in the light of the
further geotechnical studies and ground investigation undertaken.
Under separate headings as appropriate, this section presents the
assessment of the impact of the ground and groundwater conditions,
materials properties and historical development and services on the
design and construction of the project. This should include
consideration of structures and earthworks locations, earthworks
acceptability criteria, groundwater, likely difficulties and problems,
areas or features to be avoided. Section headings will typically
include those listed below.
6.1 Soils and rock For each soil and rock group as defined in Section 4 of the report.
6.2 Cuttings Side slopes (short- and long-term stability), acceptability of materials
for reuse, merits of special drainage or ground treatment, swelling
problems.
6.3 Embankments Side slopes (short- and long-term stability), characteristics and
restrictions on use of particular soils, plant use options, drainage
requirements, foundation treatment.
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Section
6.4 Subgrade California Bearing Ratio values for cutting areas and for fill materials
in embankments, capping layers and availability of material, drainage
requirements.
6.5 Structure foundations Foundation needs, estimates of bearing pressures and settlements,
groundwater, problem areas or strata, potential construction difficulties.
6.6 Soil chemistry/contaminated Assessment of soil and groundwater chemistry with regard to
land aggressive ground and concrete durability. Assessment of harmful
elements present in soil or groundwater and implications of these on
health and safety. Scope for the reuse of marginal or recycled
material within the works.
6.7 Existing geotechnical problems For example, slope failures, slopes with marginal factors of safety,
solution features, underground voids, very soft or highly
compressible soils.
6.8 Historical development Effects of manmade obstacles and site history.
6.9 Utility services Impact of existing or planned utility services.
7 GEOTECHNICAL RISK
7.1 Geotechnical category of Review of the geotechnical category of the project based on the
project investigation findings.
7.2 Seismic category of project Review of the seismic zone appropriate to the project and associated
seismic loadings to be used in design together with ground risks
associated with a seismic event.
7.3 Geotechnical risk register Updated Geotechnical Risk Register in which the risks of identified
hazards are assessed, the consequences of these risks to the project
determined, and details of how the risks are to be managed given.
This should take account all geotechnical, geoenvironmental,
historical, and other factors discovered that are likely to influence
the project design, health and safety or buildability.
OTHER REFERENCES
— PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs both ground and air obtained for the study should be
reproduced and referenced to the site plan.
Project Location Plan, usually 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 scale or possible
use of satellite imagery where appropriate.
Project Plan, usually 1:10,000 scale or possible use of satellite
imagery where appropriate. Include where appropriate with study
limits and project options. This information may be included on the
General Plan instead.
General Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the project,
showing the site features and exploratory holes locations.
Site History Plan, scale, and number of drawings to suit the project,
showing the historical development and manmade features.
Other Plans, such as geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology,
identified hazards, including contaminated ground where
appropriate.
Sections, where appropriate, showing existing or proposed project
features if known, geology (soils and rock strata) and groundwater.
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Appendix I
Geotechnical Design Report
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Format of Geotechnical Design Report

Table I.1 is a contents list and a summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geotechnical Design Report. Additional headings to those listed below may be inserted where
appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical Advisor (GA).
Unused headings shall not be deleted but be recorded as “Not used” at the end of the heading.
The report should include full details of the interpretation of design data, justification for the
design, and layout drawings of the works. The report is subdivided into sections on cuttings,
embankments, structures and strengthened earthworks, and should be further subdivided for
each unique earthwork or structure. Drainage design relevant to earthworks and subgrade design
should be included. For larger projects, the designer is encouraged to submit this report in parts
to suit the design and construction program for the works. Discussion of potential contamination
and proposed remediation requirements should be included. The report should include proposals
for geotechnical supervision and monitoring of construction. Items that require checking during
or maintenance following construction should be clearly identified.
The Geotechnical Design Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to the client. The
soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of Acrobat. All drawings
shall be in .DXF files. All layers of drawings to be provided.
Table I.1 Geotechnical Design Report Contents List and Topics to be Described
Section
— TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of the authorship and the version
1 INTRODUCTION
report
1.4 Project previous reports Provide specific description.
2 EARTHWORKS
2.1 Cutting stability Full details of the methods of analysis, soil parameters, drainage, slope
angles, California bearing ratio and other considerations. Summary of
design including location, side slopes, maximum and typical depths,
relevant ground investigation, assumed soil strata and groundwater
conditions, earthworks, drainage requirements and pavement design.
This may be either tabulated or submitted as a series of summary
forms.
2.2 Embankment stability Full details of the methods of analysis, soil parameters, drainage, slope
angles, California bearing ratio and other considerations. Summary of
design including location, side slopes, maximum and typical depths,
relevant ground investigation, assumed soil strata and groundwater
conditions, predicted settlements, earthworks, drainage requirements,
and pavement design. This may be either tabulated or submitted as a
series of summary forms.
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Section
2.3 Reuse of materials Discussion of potential for reuse of excavated material and appropriate
earthworks acceptability criteria.
3 STRENGTHENED Under separate headings as appropriate, for each strengthened
EARTHWORKS earthwork provide full details of the method of analysis and soil
parameters assumed in design. Summary of design including allowable
bearing pressures, settlement, differential settlement, and protection
against chemical attack to be provided. This information may be either
tabulated or submitted as a series of summary forms.
4 ROAD STRUCTURES Under separate headings as appropriate, for each road structure type
provide full details of the method of analysis and soil parameters
assumed in design of foundations and retaining elements. Summary of
design including allowable bearing pressures, pile capacity, earth
pressures, differential settlement, and protection against chemical
attack to be provided for each structure. This information may be
either tabulated or submitted as a series of summary forms.
5 DRAINAGE Under separate headings as appropriate, details of how the drainage
design will address the groundwater conditions and how groundwater
risks are to be managed.
6 SUBGRADE AND CAPPING Details of method of assessment, soil parameters, groundwater
assumptions.
7 ASSESSMENT OF
AGGRESSIVE GROUND AND
POTENTIAL
CONTAMINATION
7.1 Aggressive ground Summary of the extent of testing for the assessment of aggressive
ground, conclusions of the assessment, concrete design requirements.
7.2 Potential contamination Summary of the extent of the contamination testing that has been
undertaken. Description of the liaison that has been undertaken with the
statutory authorities and the scope of risk assessments carried out to
comply with regulatory authorities requirements. This section is to include
a summary of the current status with regards to regulatory approval and
should record the acceptance of these risk assessments by the statutory
body. Summary of the findings and conclusions of the risk assessments
including the site remediation requirements that have been agreed with
regulatory authorities should be included. This section should include any
restrictions placed on the chemical content of materials to be used in the
works; that is, what is acceptable to leave on the site and what must be
removed. Details of contaminated materials to be removed from site.
8 SEISMIC ASSESSMENT Provide specific description.
9 GROUND TREATMENT Provide specific description.
INCLUDING TREATMENT OF
ANY UNDERGROUND VOIDS
10 SPECIFICATION APPENDIXES Provide details.
11 INSTRUMENTATION AND
MONITORING
11.1 Full details of purpose, Provide specific description.
installation requirements,
restrictions and frequency of
readings
11.2 Use of observational Predicted and critical readings and restrictions on work.
methods and controls.
11.3 Pile testing requirements If required provide specific description.
11.4 Other testing requirements If required provide specific description.
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Section
OTHER REFERENCES
— DRAWINGS Copies of geotechnical design drawings.
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Appendix J
Geotechnical Observations and
Feedback Report
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Format of Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report

Table J.1 is a contents list and summary of the matters to be covered under the headings in the
Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report. Additional headings to those listed below may
be inserted where appropriate with the agreement of the Overseeing Organization Geotechnical
Advisor (GA). Unused headings shall not be deleted but recorded as “Not used” at the end of the
heading.
The Ground Observations and Feedback Report shall be provided in both hard and soft copy to
the client. The soft copy of the report shall be such that it can be opened by all versions of
Acrobat. The in situ investigation, monitoring, and laboratory factual details shall be provided in
AGS format data files (refer to Volume 2 Part 15 Section 9.3 Electronic Transfer of Geotechnical
Data) AGS and gINT files, duly verified. All drawings shall be in .DXF files.
Table J.1 Geotechnical Observations and Feedback Report Contents List and Topics to
be Described
Section
— TITLE SHEET AND CONTENTS The name of the project, details of authorship, and the version
number of the report. The version number and date of the
report should be clearly placed on every page of the report.
The contents of all volumes should be listed in the front of
each volume with the contents of the particular volume
highlighted. No company-specific disclaimers should be
included within or attached to the report.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.3 Scope and objectives of the report Provide specific description.
1.4 Limits of the area covered by the report Provide specific description.
1.5 Bibliography of project-specific Provide specific description.

geotechnical reports
1.6 Other relevant information Provide specific description.
2 EARTHWORKS
2.1 General description of the earthworks Provide specific description.
2.2 Problems not envisage in the original Provide specific description.
design and solutions.
2.3 Weather conditions Provide specific description.
2.4 Application of acceptability criteria Provide specific description.
2.5 Haul conditions and types of plant used Provide specific description.
2.6 Comparison of predicted and actual Provide specific description.
quantities of acceptable and
unacceptable material
2.7 Topsoil and planting Provide specific description.
2.8 Details of any validation Reports prepared to demonstrate compliance with the site
remediation strategy and the requirements of the regulatory
bodies.
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be Described
Section
3 CUTTINGS
3.1 Cuttings For each cutting, location of materials excavated and their
subsequent destination in the works, with dates.*
3.2 Plant used and details of problems Provide specific description.
encountered
3.3 Instability problems and unusual ground Provide specific description.
conditions
3.4 Groundwater conditions and problems Provide specific description.
and drainage measures to overcome
them.
3.5 Contaminated and hazardous material Provide specific description.
encountered on site and the location of
disposal, both on-site and off-site
4 EMBANKMENTS
4.1 Embankment For each embankment, source and location of all material
placed (with dates).*
4.2 Plant used and details of problems Provide specific description.
encountered
4.3 Instability problems and unusual ground Provide specific description.
conditions
4.4 Foundation treatment, including Provide specific description.
drainage measures and treatment of
soft areas
4.5 Settlement of foundation and fill Provide specific description.
material
5 SUBGRADE/CAPPING/PAVEMENT
5.1 Method of subgrade preparation, details Provide specific description.
of capping materials used and details of
any problems encountered
5.2 Method of placing each pavement layer Provide specific description.
and details of any problems
6 DRAINAGE
6.1 Details of temporary drainage and its Provide specific description.
effectiveness
6.2 Methods of installing permanent Provide specific description.
drainage and details of any problems
encountered
7 IMPORTED MATERIALS
7.1 Types of imported materials and their Provide specific description.
use
7.2 Source of imported materials and their With dates.*
location in the Works
8 STRENGTHENED EARTHWORKS
8.1 Description of Strengthened Earthworks Provide specific description.
types and locations
8.2 Fill materials used Provide specific description.
8.3 Record of soils and groundwater Provide specific description.
conditions encountered and drainage
measures required
8.4 Inspection and maintenance Provide specific description.
requirements
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be Described
Section
8.5 Details of any in situ testing Provide specific description.
8.6 Details of any problems encountered Provide specific description.
9 STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS
9.1 Record of soil and groundwater Provide specific description.
conditions encountered
9.2 Temporary works required and their Provide specific description.
effectiveness
9.3 Details of any problems encountered Provide specific description.
9.4 Pile logs summary, pile test results and Provide specific description.
other relevant information
9.5 Settlement records with dates of each Provide specific description.
major stage including backfill of
abutments and approach fills
9.6 Details of as built foundations Provide specific description.
10 TESTING
10.1 Summary of site laboratory testing Provide specific description.
10.2 ‘Named’ test type Separate section on each type of test with summary of all
results together with comments on them and their
effectiveness.
If a material report is prepared by the testing organization, it
should be used as the basis for this section with the actual
report attached as an appendix to the Geotechnical
Observations and Feedback Report.
11 INSTRUMENTATION
11.1 Location and details of instruments Provide specific description.
11.2 Purpose, performance and usefulness Provide specific description.
11.3 Readings (with dates) and predicted Provide specific description.
values
11.4 Details and effects of resulting action Provide specific description.
11.5 Comment on need to continue Provide specific description.
monitoring
12 SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS
EXPERIENCED AND DESIGN CHANGES
12.1 Summary of problems and details of Provide specific description.
design changes to overcome them.
12.2 Comments on how problems might be Provide specific description.
avoided in the future, including
suggested revisions required to
standards
13 RESIDUAL HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS Details of any residual health and safety risks on the project
that would need to be considered if future work is carried
out by the maintaining authority; for example, residual
contamination, potential ground gas. Make reference to any
project Health and Safety File that might be maintained.
Notes:
Items marked with an asterisk (*) (and possibly others) may be conveniently presented on longitudinal profiles and
accompanying plans compiled as construction proceeds. Alternatively, electronic presentation of data may be
appropriate.
Photographs should be included in the report to illustrate particular points.
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VOLUME 2 PART 16
Appendix K
Geotechnical Risk Register
Template
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VOLUME 2 PART 16
PAGE 86 VOLUME 2
Geotechnical Risk Register Template
PROJECT TITLE GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER Sheet 1 of

Risk Register Reference: Revision: Date: Prepared by: Checked by:
Level of Risk Level of Risk

Guidance Guidance Consequence Risk Rating Indicative Risk Rating Implications
Likelihood Consequence
Risk Rating Matrix
Rare: less than 5% probability, or occurrence requires Negligible impact on scheme construction with no delays to the programme and no affect on the performance of the
A 1 1 2 3 4 5 I Negilgible Risk is usually accepted.
exceptional circumstances completed earthworks or structures
Unlikely: 5% to 20% probability or may occur but not Low adverse impact on scheme construction with minimal delays to the programme and minimal associated increased Consider need for investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard to facilitate geotechnical
B 2 A I I II III III II Low
expected to costs, and no significant affect on the performance of the completed earthworks or structures design. It may be that the risk is accepted subject to its monitoring and management.
Possible: 20% to 70% probability, or may occur but Medium adverse impact on scheme construction with some delays to the programme and some associated increased
C 3 B I II II III IV
there is a distinct probability it may not costs and/or possibly some performance of the completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
Detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard required to develop geotechnical
Likelihood
III Medium
works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk to acceptable levels.
Likely: greater than 70% probability or balance of High adverse impact on scheme construction with substantial delays to the programme and substantial associated
D 4 C II II III IV IV
probability is that it will occur increased costs and/or performance of the completed earthworks or structures outside serviceability limits
Major adverse impact on scheme construction with extensive delays to the programme and high associated increased
E Almost certain: 99% probability. 5 D II III III IV IV
costs, and/or failure of the permanent earthworks or structures
Extensive detailed investigation and assessment of the geotechnical hazard essential to develop
IV High
geotechnical works proposals and geotechnical design to reduce risk to acceptable levels.
E III III IV IV IV
Risk identification Qualitative risk assessment Risk treatment

Consequence
Level of level of
Risk
likelihood of Geotechnical
Status Risk treatment
Geotechnical Hazard on
Construction process or completed infrastructure (select strategy (select
Risk No. Geotechnical hazard Location within scheme Risk/undesirable consequence Risk Owner Hazard being construction or Risk rating Risk mitigation measures Notes, risk mitigation review milestone/date
potentially affected from drop from drop down
present completed
down menu)
(select from drop infrastructure
menu)
down menu) (select from drop
down menu)
Group 1: Aeolian sand
Aeolian sand deposits - very loose and loose Deposits prone to erosion, mobility and settlement
Open C 3 Mitigate
Aeolian sand deposits - very loose and loose Relatively low effective shear strength with risk of instability of slopes
and lower bearing capacity for foundations Open B 3 Transfer
Aeolian sand deposits Deposits prone to liquifaction

Open A 4 Mitigate
Aeolian sand deposits Deposits difficult to compact to engineering standards when not
confined Open E 1 Mitigate
Aeolian sand deposits (depending on origin) High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel Open D 4 Mitigate
Group 2: Sabkha
Sabkha Significant local variation horizontally & vertically giving rise to

variation of material properties and engineering performance - - - Ǧ -
Sabkha - with high fines content High compressibility giving rise to large settlements and possibly
large differential ground movements Open - - Ǧ -
Sabkha Possible loss of strength and dissolution when saturated resulting

ground instability under loading Open - - Ǧ -
Sabkha High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment

for buried concrete and steel Open - - Ǧ -
Sabkha - presence of gypsum and anhydrite Volume change of the deposits can adversely affect the engineering
minerals performance of foundations and road pavements. Open - - Ǧ -
Group 3: Marine sediments
Pseudo-oolitic and conglomeratic limestone Posible presence of voids

(calcarenite) deposits Open D 3 Mitigate
Beach gravels (marine terraces) Deposits difficult to compact to engineering standards when not Accept (and
confined Open A 2
Manage)
Marine calcareous silts and sand Low strength with susceptibility for bearing capacity failure
Open D 2 Mitigate
Group 4: Continental sediments
Depression muds and silts Low strength with susceptibility for bearing capacity failure
- - - Ǧ -
Depression muds and silts High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - - - Ǧ -
Group 5: Residual soils
Residual soils (Upper Umm Bab unit) attapulgite Volume change of the deposits can adversely affect the engineering
clay pockets performance of foundations and road pavements. - - - Ǧ -
- - - Ǧ -
Group 6: Rus Formation Unit 1 (Al Khor

Limestone)
Al Khor Limestone, upper strata at unconformity Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - - - Ǧ -
Al Khor Limestone Dolomitic deposits with high strength difficult to excavate

- - - Ǧ -
Al Khor Limestone High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - - - Ǧ -
Al Khor Limestone Cut slopes with clay interbeds in wet conditions can be prone build
up of porewater pressures initiating failure - - - Ǧ -
Group 7: Rus Formation Unit 2

(Undifferentiated)
Anhydrite/gypsum layers Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - C 1 Mitigate
Anhydrite/gypsum layers Massive units can be difficult to excavate

- C 1 Mitigate
Rus Formation Unit 2 High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment
for buried concrete and steel - C 1 Mitigate
Gypsum, shales/marls Cut slopes prone to erosion and assocaited instability

- C 1 Mitigate
Group 8: Midra Shale
Midra Shale Significant anistrophy influencing engineering properties with

potential adverse impact on performance of structures - - - Ǧ -
Midra Shale Deposits exposed in cut slopes susceptible to disintegration affecting

slope performance and maintenance requirements - - - Ǧ -
PROJECT TITLE GEOTECHNICAL RISK REGISTER Sheet 1 of
Risk Register Reference: Revision: Date: Prepared by: Checked by:
Group 9: Dukhan Alveolina Limestone
Limestone High strength, which may mean strata is difficult to excavate

- - - Ǧ -
- - - Ǧ -
- - - Ǧ -
Group 10: Umm Bab Limestone
Limestone Variable quality and strength over small distances which could have
adverse impact on the performance of structures - D 4 Mitigate
Limestone with high percentage of secondary Wetting/saturation resulting in significant reductions rock mass
attapulgite (>50%) strength affecting performance of structures. - B 2 Mitigate
Limestone Potential for natural cavities which can impact on construction and
performance of completed works - E 5 Mitigate
Group 11: Other
Groundwater High salt content giving rise to an aggressive chemical environment

for buried concrete and steel - C 3 -
Groundwater General groundwater rise which can impact on construction and

performance of completed works - D 4 Mitigate
Groundwater Lowering of groundwater for an excavation may cause adverse

settlement - - - Ǧ -
Seismic activity May cause liquefaction of some soils and associated ground
settlement and lateral spreading with impact on infrastructure - - - Ǧ -
Seismic activity Increased loading on structures may exceed load carrying capacities
in terms of serviceability and ultimate limit states adversely affecting
- A 3 Mitigate
structure performance and may give rise to failure and collapse.
Volume 3
Part 17
Intelligent Transportation Systems
VOLUME 3 PART 17
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 3 PART 17
Contents Page

1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Definition of Intelligent Transport Systems ................................................................. 1
2 Traffic Detection and Monitoring Systems ......................................................................3
2.1 System Purpose ........................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Corridor Detection Systems ......................................................................................... 3
2.3 Point Detection Systems .............................................................................................. 4
2.3.1 Inductive Loops ............................................................................................ 4
2.3.2 Microwave Radar Detection Systems .......................................................... 4
2.3.3 Magnetometer Detection Systems .............................................................. 4
2.3.4 Video Image Vehicle Detection Systems ...................................................... 4
2.4 Select Vehicle Detection .............................................................................................. 5
2.5 Design Considerations ................................................................................................. 5
2.5.1 Predesign Planning ....................................................................................... 5
2.5.2 System Requirements .................................................................................. 5
2.5.3 Detector Technology Selection .................................................................... 5
2.5.4 Deployment Guidelines ................................................................................ 6
2.5.5 Enclosure ...................................................................................................... 6
2.5.6 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning .................................. 6
2.5.7 Communications .......................................................................................... 7
2.5.8 Environmental .............................................................................................. 7
3 Closed-Circuit Television Cameras ...................................................................................9
3.1 System Purpose ........................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Design Considerations ................................................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Predesign Planning ....................................................................................... 9
3.2.2 CCTV Type..................................................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Camera Mount ........................................................................................... 10
3.2.4 Enclosure .................................................................................................... 10
3.2.5 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning ................................ 10
3.2.6 Communications ........................................................................................ 10
3.2.7 Environmental ............................................................................................ 10
3.3 Location Guidelines ................................................................................................... 11
4 Road Weather Information Systems .............................................................................13
4.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Types of Sensors ........................................................................................................ 13
4.3 Design Considerations ............................................................................................... 13
4.3.1 Predesign Planning ..................................................................................... 14
4.3.2 Location and Placement Guidelines ........................................................... 14
4.3.3 Sensor Type and Sensor Mount ................................................................. 14
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4.3.4 Enclosure .................................................................................................... 14

4.3.5 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning ................................. 14
4.3.6 Communications......................................................................................... 15
4.3.7 Environmental ............................................................................................ 15
5 Over-Height and Over-Weight Vehicle Detection Systems ............................................ 17
5.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 17
5.2 Over-Height Detection Systems ................................................................................. 17
5.3 Over-Weight Detection Systems ................................................................................ 17
5.4.2 Enforcement Purpose ................................................................................. 18
5.4.3 Enforcement System Location.................................................................... 18
5.4.4 Enforcement System Signals ...................................................................... 19
5.4.5 Enforcement System Sensors ..................................................................... 19
5.4.7 Communications......................................................................................... 19
5.4.8 Environmental ............................................................................................ 19
6 Dynamic Message Signs ................................................................................................ 21
6.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 21
6.3 Types of Signs............................................................................................................. 22
6.4 Location Guidelines.................................................................................................... 23
6.4.1 Longitudinal Placement .............................................................................. 23
6.4.2 Lateral and Vertical Placement .................................................................. 24
7 Lane Control Signs ........................................................................................................ 25
7.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 25
7.2 Types of Signs............................................................................................................. 25
7.3 Location Guidelines.................................................................................................... 26
7.3.1 Spacing between Signs ............................................................................... 26
7.3.2 Vertical Placement ..................................................................................... 27
7.4.2 Longitudinal Placement .............................................................................. 27
7.4.3 Vertical Placement ..................................................................................... 27
7.4.4 Sign Matrix Type ......................................................................................... 27
7.4.5 Structure ..................................................................................................... 27
7.4.6 Enclosure .................................................................................................... 27
7.4.8 Communications......................................................................................... 28
7.4.9 Environmental ............................................................................................ 28
8 Ramp Metering System ................................................................................................ 29
8.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 29
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8.2 Study Requirements .................................................................................................. 30

8.2.1 Data Collection ........................................................................................... 30
8.2.2 Data Analysis .............................................................................................. 30
8.2.3 Design of System ........................................................................................ 30
8.3.2 Ramp Meter Study ..................................................................................... 31
8.3.3 Lane Configuration ..................................................................................... 31
8.3.4 Ramp Meter Location................................................................................. 31
8.3.5 Vehicle Detectors ....................................................................................... 31
8.3.6 Enclosure Placement .................................................................................. 31
8.3.7 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning ................................ 32
8.3.8 Communications ........................................................................................ 32
8.3.9 Environmental ............................................................................................ 32
9 Toll and Payment Collection..........................................................................................33
9.1 Background Information ............................................................................................ 33
9.2 Types of Collection .................................................................................................... 34
9.2.1 Smart Cards ................................................................................................ 34
9.2.2 Transponders ............................................................................................. 34
9.2.3 Cellular Telephones .................................................................................... 34
9.3 Other Considerations................................................................................................. 34
10 Enforcement Systems ...................................................................................................35
10.1 System Purpose ......................................................................................................... 35
10.2 Automatic Number Plate Recognition ....................................................................... 35
10.3 Speed Enforcement ................................................................................................... 35
10.3.1 Point Speed Cameras ................................................................................. 36
10.3.2 Average Speed Cameras............................................................................. 36
10.4 Other Types of Enforcement ..................................................................................... 36
10.4.1 Bus Lane Enforcement ............................................................................... 36
10.4.2 Red Light Enforcement ............................................................................... 36
10.4.3 Other Enforcement .................................................................................... 37
10.5 Mobile Enforcement .................................................................................................. 38
11 Telecommunications Networks .....................................................................................39
11.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 39
12 Intelligent Transportation Systems in Tunnels...............................................................41
12.1 Vehicle Detection Systems in Tunnels ....................................................................... 41
12.2 CCTV Cameras in Tunnels .......................................................................................... 42
References .............................................................................................................................43
Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................43
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Figures
Figure 6.1 Example of a Dynamic Message Sign................................................................. 21

Figure 6.2 Example of a Pictogram Dynamic Message Sign ............................................... 22
Figure 7.1 Example of a Lane Control Sign ......................................................................... 26
Figure 9.1 Example of a Toll Plaza ...................................................................................... 33
Figure 10.1 Example of an Enforcement Camera ................................................................. 36
Figure 10.2 Example of a Red Light Enforcement Camera ................................................... 37
Figure 12.1 Example of an Intelligent Transportation System in a Tunnel .......................... 41
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ANPR automatic number plate recognition
AQM air quality monitoring
CCTV closed-circuit television
cm centimeter(s)
DMS dynamic message sign
EPS electronic payment system
ESS environmental sensing station
LCS lane control sign
LiDAR light detection and ranging
m meter(s)
RWIS road weather information system
TMC traffic management center
UPS uninterruptable power supply
WIM weigh-in-motion
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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this part is to outline which intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are
available for use in Qatar and to enable designers to determine whether ITS should be
incorporated into their scheme.
The details provided in this part are based on the current Qatar Public Works
Authority (Ashghal) Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013).
Detailed guidance on ITS and its deployment is provided in that document.
1.2 Definition of Intelligent Transport Systems

ITS is a generic term for the integrated application of communications, control, and
information processing technologies to the transportation system (World Road
Association-PIARC, 2005).
ITS covers all modes of transport and considers the dynamic interaction of elements
of the transportation system – the vehicle, the infrastructure, and the driver or user.
The overall function of an ITS is to improve decision-making by transport network

controllers, often in real time, thereby improving the operation of the entire transport
system. The definition covers a broad array of techniques and approaches that may
be implemented through stand-alone technological applications or as enhancements
to other transportation strategies.
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2 Traffic Detection and

Monitoring Systems
2.1 System Purpose
A prerequisite for many ITS is the collection of timely, accurate, and reliable
information about traffic flow and road conditions. Traffic data fall into three classes,
corridor traffic data (for example average travel time), point traffic stream data (for
example average speed), and selected vehicle data (for example, vehicle type).
Traffic detection and monitoring systems are standalone detectors that detect the
presence of vehicles or their characteristics, or both.
2.2 Corridor Detection Systems

Corridor detection systems are useful for collecting data along links. In Qatar, minor
and major arterials and expressways will use detection systems. The systems will
include point vehicle detectors that collect presence, speed, and occupancy data at
each detection location for each lane of travel.
In addition, floating vehicle (probe vehicle) data will also be collected for a
representative sample of vehicles on all corridors to provide for link travel time and
origin-destination data.
Together, the information from the point detectors and the probe vehicle detectors
will provide a comprehensive set of data including real time and historical data, such
as speeds, volumes, vehicle presence, occupancy, gaps, and incident occurrence.
These data can then be used to complete a variety of functions:
• Real-time traffic and incident management

• Traveler information
• Historical analysis
• Travel time information
• Origin-destination information
• Road capacity analysis
• Performance measures
• Planning and design purposes
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2.3 Point Detection Systems

Point detection systems may be used for specific locations, such as at traffic signals as
part of the traffic signal system and urban traffic control system, or at entrance and
exit ramps along the expressway network.
Various point detection technologies are available, as described in the following

paragraphs.
2.3.1 Inductive Loops

Inductive loops can be placed in a roadbed to detect vehicles as they pass through the
loop's magnetic field. The simplest detectors count the number of vehicles that pass
over the loop during a unit of time, whereas more-sophisticated sensors estimate the
speed, length, and the distance between vehicles. Loops can be placed in a single lane
or across multiple lanes, and they work with very slow or stopped vehicles, as well as
vehicles moving at high speed.
2.3.2 Microwave Radar Detection Systems

Radar detectors consist of a sensor mounted on the side of a road or on a gantry,
angled down toward the travel lanes of the road. These sensors use a beam of
microwave energy to collect vehicle data, including speed, volume, and sometimes
occupancy, depending on the manufacturer and detector type.
Detailed guidance about sensor positioning is given in the Ashghal Intelligent

Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013). However, microwave sensors can
experience interference and disruption when obstructions such as barriers or high
retaining walls are within the detection area.
2.3.3 Magnetometer Detection Systems

The magnetometer sensor is a type of magnetic field sensor that is used for traffic
management and vehicle detection. The sensor is designed to detect the passage of a
vehicle by measuring the changes of the Earth’s magnetic field and converting them
into electronic signals. A portion of the vehicle must pass over the sensor for the
vehicle to be detected.
A magnetometer can detect two vehicles that are separated by a distance of

30 centimeters (cm). The sensor is placed in the middle of the traffic lane in a core
drilled in the road surface. The detection data are transmitted in real time over lower-
power radio technology to an access point or a repeater unit, where they are
processed, stored, forwarded to an ITS enclosure, and then sent to the traffic
management center (TMC).
2.3.4 Video Image Vehicle Detection Systems

A video image vehicle detection system consists of a video camera mounted above or
along the road and angled toward the travel lanes. The system is configured using
software to collect data from predetermined zones within the travel lanes. This video
image is then run through software processing to detect vehicle presence, speed, and
volumes.
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Multiple detection zones can be defined within the field of view of the video camera,
thereby providing multiple lane coverage by a single camera. Multiple cameras can be
connected to one processor unit providing wide area coverage and, coupled with
computer software, can reduce the problems caused by shadows, occlusion, and
direct sunlight shining on the cameras.
2.4 Select Vehicle Detection

The detector technologies approved for use in Qatar for point vehicle detection are
inductive loops, microwave radar, video image, and magnetometer. For probe vehicle
detection, also known as floating vehicle data, it is intended that Bluetooth detection
systems will be used.
Bluetooth is an accurate and inexpensive technology for measuring travel time and
conducting origin-destination analysis. Bluetooth is a wireless standard that
communicates between electronic devices such as mobile and smart phones,
headsets, navigation systems, and computers. Bluetooth road sensors can detect
Bluetooth media access control addresses from Bluetooth devices in passing vehicles
(Bluetooth SIG, Inc., 2014). If these sensors are interconnected, they can calculate
travel time and provide data for origin-destination matrices (CTV Calgary, 2012).
A summary of detection options can be found in the Ashghal Intelligent

Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013), which provides the designer with
details of structure type, data that can be provided, accuracy, accessibility, and
system cost considerations.
2.5 Design Considerations

Detailed design considerations for traffic detection and monitoring systems are given
in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013), and are
summarized in the following paragraphs.
2.5.1 Predesign Planning

The designer should consider whether the detector deployment is consistent with the
needs outlined in a concept of operations document and whether deployment is
consistent with the ITS architecture.
2.5.2 System Requirements

The detector deployment must satisfy the precision, spacing, and accessibility
considerations established in the system needs.
2.5.3 Detector Technology Selection

The detector technology chosen must satisfy the accuracy, accessibility, and cost
requirements established in the system needs.
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2.5.4 Deployment Guidelines

Implementation of the detector deployment must minimize the use of new structures
and collocate devices where possible. In addition, detector coverage must satisfy the
system needs.
Detectors of the same type should be consistently placed at regular intervals along a
stretch of roadway where those detectors serve the same function (that is, metrics
collection or incident management detection). The detector must be installed to
provide a detector in each lane for every 500 meters (m) on the expressway network
and on each entry and exit ramp in order to serve a metrics collection function that
supports active traffic management.
A detector must be installed at every approach to traffic signal intersections and at

every entry or exit to major traffic-generating venues and public parking facilities to
facilitate network management and incident management. If the designer is able to
reduce the number of detectors but still provide the functionality required, it may be
that a detector in every lane on the approach to traffic signal intersections is not
required.
2.5.5 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required at the detector location
and whether personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance to

the detector and mounted on an existing structure, where possible.
The location and orientation of the enclosure must provide adequate protection and a
maintainer’s pad must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.
2.5.6 Power Requirements, Availability, and Conditioning

The power requirements for the detector and all system components must be
established and an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance
from the detector site and confirmed with the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer calculations also must be performed and the
metering options identified.
The uninterruptable power supply (UPS) and power back-up options must be
determined and accounted for.
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2.5.7 Communications
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detector and
whether an appropriate communication source has been located and confirmed
within a reasonable distance from the site.
If there are multiple communication options, the designer must consider the
advantages and disadvantages of each option. In addition, if the proposed service will
be using the public communications infrastructure, installation of the service must be
coordinated with the Overseeing Organization.
2.5.8 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, and cultural impact studies, processes, and
concerns must be addressed before system installation.
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3 Closed-Circuit Television
Cameras
3.1 System Purpose
Although the traffic detectors discussed in Chapter 2 in this Part can monitor many
attributes of traffic flow, directly or indirectly, live video images can help the TMC
operator monitor complicated traffic situations and make appropriate decisions.
Therefore, TMC operators use visual images from closed-circuit television (CCTV)
cameras to complement traffic detectors.
The primary function of a CCTV camera is to provide surveillance of the transportation

system and enhance situational awareness. CCTV enables operations personnel to
perform valuable monitoring, detection, verification, and response activities.
Typical CCTV camera uses include the following:
• Detecting and verifying incidents along roads and within tunnels

• Monitoring traffic conditions
• Monitoring incident response and clearance
• Verifying message displays on dynamic message signs (DMSs)
• Assisting emergency responders
• Monitoring environmental conditions, such as, visibility distance and wet
pavements

Detailed design considerations are given in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (2013), but are summarized in the following paragraphs.

The designer should consider whether CCTV deployment is consistent with the needs
outlined in a concept of operations document and whether deployment is consistent
with the ITS architecture.
3.2.2 CCTV Type

The designer must consider the camera type,for example, pan, tilt and zoom, or fixed
and see that it is appropriate for the desired location.
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3.2.3 Camera Mount

The designer must make certain that the Overseeing Organization’s standards have
been followed and consider whether a camera lowering system is required.
3.2.4 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required at the camera location
and whether maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance

from the camera and the enclosure must be mounted on the camera post or an
existing structure, where possible.
The location and orientation of the enclosure must provide adequate protection. A
maintainer’s pad must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.

The power requirements for the camera and all system components must be
established and an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance
from the camera site and confirmed with the utility company.
The UPS and power back-up options must be determined and accounted for.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the camera and if
an appropriate communication source has been located and confirmed within a
reasonable distance from the site.
3.2.7 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, and cultural impact studies, processes, and
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3.3 Location Guidelines

The selection of CCTV camera locations is based on the operational and maintenance
requirements. The desired coverage will often dictate the general camera location.
Local topography will also play a major role. The functional requirement for the
placement of CCTV cameras is to facilitate 100 percent coverage of the roadway.
Placement intervals of CCTV cameras with appropriate lenses on an expressway
would be in the range of 750 to 800 m, with some overlap of viewable areas. The
designer should locate CCTV cameras based on field of view calculations to confirm
100 percent coverage.
Additionally, the system must be installed with consideration of available utilities and
the cost or constraints associated with connection to those utilities.
The site needs to be chosen so that the camera structure is protected, and will
continue to perform as needed without undue maintenance to the structure and
surrounding site.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel, minimize costs, and be in
accordance with the latest version of the Qatar construction standards. For example,
there must be sufficient shoulder on which to park a bucket truck without needing a
full lane closure and significant traffic maintenance.
The chosen site must not obstruct pedestrian or bike movements.
The Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (Ashghal, 2013) gives

more information regarding camera site selection and placement considerations, and
covers visibility, utility availability, safety, device protection, and operational and
maintenance considerations.
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4 Road Weather Information

Systems
4.1 System Purpose
The effects of weather are well known. Poor visibility and wind are the causes of
many road traffic crashes. Therefore, meteorological monitoring systems are designed
to evaluate current and future conditions.
Road weather information systems (RWIS) monitoring stations are usually placed in
fixed sites. RWIS monitor conditions, such as, air, road surface, and structure
temperature, as well as precipitation levels, wind, visibility, humidity, and
atmospheric pressure. Information can be sent to TMCs to enable operators to inform
drivers of adverse conditions using communication methods such as DMSs and radio
announcements. In addition, the operators can take any necessary measures on the
network, such as, rerouting or road closures.
The information obtained from the RWIS can also aid operators in scheduling
maintenance programs.
4.2 Types of Sensors

The system component that collects weather data is called the environmental sensing
station (ESS). An ESS consists of a combination of sensors that gather and transmit
pavement, temperature, wind speed, visibility, and humidity data. These sensors are
controlled by a field controller called a remote processing unit, which sends data to
the TMC.
Air quality monitoring (AQM) sites are typically small structures that measure and
record the concentrations of various air pollutants. The AQM site measures the
concentrations of air pollutants in a specific area and if pollution levels exceed a
certain threshold, the AQM sends a message to the TMC.

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The designer should consider whether the sensor deployment is consistent with the
needs outlined in a concept of operations document and whether the deployment is
4.3.2 Location and Placement Guidelines

The designer must determine whether the RWIS location or AQM location, or both,
have been designed to consider atmospheric pressure.
Any site for an RWIS must be chosen with consideration of the available utilities and
the costs and constraints associated with connection to those utilities.
The site must be chosen so that the RWIS or AQM site structure is protected, and will
continue to perform as needed without undue maintenance to the structure and the
surrounding site.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel and must minimize costs and be in
accordance with the latest version of the Qatar construction standards. For example,
there must be sufficient shoulder on which to park a bucket truck without needing a
full lane closure and significant traffic maintenance.
4.3.3 Sensor Type and Sensor Mount

The designer must consider whether the sensors are appropriate for the desired
location and whether the Overseeing Organization’s standards have been followed in
the design of the mounting and structure. The mounting height must be in
accordance with the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual
(2013).
4.3.4 Enclosure
The designer needs to consider whether an enclosure is required for any new site and
whether maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure.
The designer must consider whether the enclosure can be mounted on the RWIS post
or on an existing structure, with adequate protection in both location and orientation.
Consideration must be given to the provision of a concrete maintenance pad at the
enclosure’s main door.

The power requirements for the RWIS or AQM site components must be established
and an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance from the site
and confirmed with the utility company.
Step-up and step-down transformer requirement calculations also must be performed

and metering options must be identified.
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The designer must consider the communications for the RWIS or AQM site. In
addition, the designer must consider an appropriate communication infrastructure
has been located and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
4.3.7 Environmental
All necessary environmental, community, cultural impact studies, processes, and
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5 Over-Height and Over-Weight

Vehicle Detection Systems
5.1 System Purpose
The purpose of over-height and over-weight detection systems is to prevent
commercial vehicles from exceeding the legal height and weight limits set on roads in
Qatar.
If vehicles exceed the weight and height limits set for Qatar roads, damage can occur
to the infrastructure and the vehicle may become unsafe. The over-height and over-
weight sensor systems should alert the TMC when an over-weight or over-height
vehicle has passed a sensor and should help reduce incidents such as bridge crashes.
5.2 Over-Height Detection Systems

Over-height detectors are used to identify over-height vehicles and warn drivers of an
upcoming obstacle. They can be used for different applications such as bridges, over-
road walkways, tunnels, overpasses, and parking structures.
Over-height detectors should be installed on the network prior to an exit ramp to

enable the over-height vehicle to leave the route before it reaches any at-risk
structure. The system should activate a visual alarm or audible alarm, or both;
warning signs; flashing lights; or traffic signals to prevent vehicle crashes with the
structure.
The system should also send an alert to the TMC when activated.
5.3 Over-Weight Detection Systems

Weigh-in-motion (WIM) devices are devices capable of continuous unbiased weighing
of vehicles that are in motion at speeds up to and including typical road speeds. WIM
devices are designed to capture and record axle weights and gross vehicle weights as
vehicles drive over a measurement site.
Unlike static scales, WIM systems are capable of measuring vehicles traveling at a
reduced or normal traffic speed and do not require the vehicle to come to a stop. This
makes the weighing process more efficient, and, in the case of commercial vehicles,
allows for trucks under the weight limit to bypass static scales or inspection.
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WIM systems are generally divided into three categories:
• Permanent: Sensors and the data acquisition systems collect data at the same
location.
• Semi-permanent: Sensors are built into the pavement while the data collection
system is moved from site to site.
• Portable: Sensors and equipment are moved from site to site.
According to the type of sensor, the WIM systems use features such as bending
plates, bar sensors, capacitive mats, or existing bridges.
Using WIM, authorities have up-to-date and online measurements of axle and vehicle
weights, as well as the loads being borne by the infrastructure.
Applications of WIM systems can include real time uses, such as, load checking,
freight management, and detection of forbidden vehicles. Such systems should be
installed on all key Qatar road network routes and access routes to and from all major
generators of truck traffic. (Ashghal, 2013)
The legal weight limit to be measured should be decided by the Overseeing

Organization.
Details of deployment are provided in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems

Deployment Manual (2013).


The designer should consider whether the deployment is consistent with the needs
outlined in a concept of operations document and whether the deployment is
5.4.2 Enforcement Purpose

The designer must make sure that a comprehensive over-height or over-weight
detection system study has been undertaken and that the results of the study support
continuing with project deployment.
5.4.3 Enforcement System Location

The designer must verify that the proposed sensor location allows enough space to
warn drivers and allow them time to re-route if necessary. The over-weight detection
system should be installed at a location that provides coverage for all key Qatar road
network routes and access routes to and from major generators of truck traffic.
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5.4.4 Enforcement System Signals

The designer must verify that all warning signs are placed at critical points to allow
drivers to stop or exit the road and that all signs are designed and placed in
accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (Ministry of Transport [MOT],
2015).
5.4.5 Enforcement System Sensors

The designer must confirm that the system design includes all of the necessary
detectors and that the complexity and configuration of the system allow for
additional detection areas to enable rerouting if required.

All power requirements for the detector and all system components must be
considered.
The designer must confirm that an appropriate power source has been located within
a reasonable distance from over‐height and over‐weight detection sites and
confirmed with the utility company.
Step‐up and step‐down transformer calculations also must be performed and the
The UPS and power back‐up options must be determined and accounted for.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detectors. In
addition, the designer must determine if an appropriate communication source has
been located and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
5.4.8 Environmental
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6 Dynamic Message Signs

6.1 System Purpose
Because traffic is a dynamic process, permanent road signs often cannot reflect the
real traffic conditions. Dynamic message signs (DMSs) are traffic control devices that
deliver real-time road information to motorists. DMSs can range from simple one- or
two-line manually changed message signs to sophisticated, fully electronic models
that can include graphical displays (see Figure 6.1).
The advantage of DMSs is that they are under direct control of road operators. TMC
operators can decide to use DMSs after receiving information from a variety of
sources, including fixed sensors or CCTV cameras. The TMC can then transmit the
information received through one-to-one communication links, a local network, or
radio communication.
Figure 6.1 Example of a Dynamic Message Sign
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By using pictograms, color, and text messages, DMSs can get the message across in a
fast, highly legible manner (see Figure 6.2). The signs can be seen by drivers traveling
past a fixed point and do not require any onboard equipment. However, only limited
information can be displayed on the signs.
Figure 6.2 Example of a Pictogram Dynamic Message Sign
6.3 Types of Signs

The types of information that can be displayed on DMS include:
• Incident management information, such as, crash detection, route diversion,

congestion detection lane closures, and road works
• Supplementary directional signage that provides additional route information
other than what is listed on permanent road signs
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• Information on events, for example, major sporting events, trade shows, and
festivals
• Services, for example, location of and time estimate to reach services
• Value-added services where onboard navigation systems interface with the DMS
• Travel time estimates showing the approximate time to reach a destination

Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013) states that
DMSs should be deployed at all key strategic decision-making points. Any point on the
roadway network where it is possible for a motorist to make an active route choice to
avoid either congestion or an incident is classed as a key strategic decision-making
point. These locations are of strategic importance for managing the road network, in
terms of their position, and a key tactical decision point on the network in terms of
their ability to allow an alternative route to be taken.
DMSs should also be deployed on variable-speed-limit gantries and entries to

expressways. The site characteristics near the planned DMS must be investigated, as
these characteristics relate to the amount of information that can be displayed.
Relevant characteristics include:
• Operating speed of the road

• Presence and characteristics of any vertical curves affecting sight distance
• Presence of horizontal curves and obstructions such as trees or bridge abutments
that constrain the sight distance to the DMS
• Location of the DMS relative to the position of the sun (for daytime conditions)
• Presence of, number of, and information on static signs in the vicinity
• Location of the DMS in advance of decision points and potential alternate routes
6.4.1 Longitudinal Placement

The main consideration related to longitudinal placement of DMS is the provision of
maximum visibility of the DMS to allow the driver ample time to read, process, and
react to the message.
The approach to a sign can be divided into three zones:
• Detection zones
• Reading and decision zones
• Out-of-vision zone
6.4.1.1 Detection Zone

At expressway speeds between 80 and 120 kilometers per hour (kph), the DMS should
be visible to the approaching driver from 300 to 600 m away. The visibility distance
should be increased if the DMS are placed at an offset from the traveling lane.
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6.4.1.2 Reading and Decision Zones

Generally, the message panels on expressway-deployed DMSs contain room for three
lines of 21 characters each. This assumes a static message. When the DMS displays a
lengthy message that requires scrolling or toggling between two or more screens, the
time required for reading increases dramatically, since the beginning of the message
may not coincide with the driver entering the reading zone.
For deployments on roads with operating speeds less than 80 kph, the reading and
decision zone should be a minimum of 250 m.
For deployments on roads with operating speeds greater than 80 kph, the reading and
decision zone should be a minimum of 300 m.
Individual characters of 30 cm in height can be seen from approximately 200 m away

under normal atmospheric conditions.
Individual characters of 45 cm in height can be seen from approximately 335 m away

under normal atmospheric conditions.
Drivers need approximately 1 second per word to read and comprehend a message.
Traveling at 100 kph, this translates into roughly time enough to read and
comprehend a 10-word message. The character height, cone of vision, and lateral
placement must all be considered when determining the placement of the sign to
meet the sight distance required.
6.4.1.3 Out-of-Vision Zone

Once drivers get too close to the sign, they will not be able to read the message. The
out-of-vision distance is determined by the viewing angle, the structure the sign is
placed on, and the lateral placement of the sign.
6.4.2 Lateral and Vertical Placement

Details of lateral and vertical placements are provided in the Ashghal Intelligent
Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013).
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7 Lane Control Signs

7.1 System Purpose
The primary function of lane control signs (LCSs) is to maximize road capacity and
safety. Information is transmitted through specific dynamic road traffic signs with
relatively small dimensions. Applications for LCS include lane open, close, or change;
variable traffic and speed restrictions; travel times; congestion warnings; temporary
shoulder use; and hazard lane signalization.
A green downward arrow is used to indicate a lane that is open to traffic facing the
signal. A red X indicates that a lane is closed to traffic, and a flashing yellow circle,
arrow, or X indicates to traffic facing the signal to clear the lane immediately. Other
LCSs can show full-color graphics or text, depending on the intended use.
To maximize the effectiveness of LCSs and to reduce potential threats to driver safety,
the sign type, placement, and the supporting structure must all be carefully
considered when designing and deploying any new sign.
7.2 Types of Signs

LCSs are special overhead signs on a street or expressway that indicate whether travel
in a lane is prohibited or allowed. Each sign is controlled independently to indicate the
status of each travel lane.
Graphic displays placed over individual travel lanes displaying colored pictograms
(red X, green arrow, or yellow arrow to the left or right [see Figure 7.1]) indicate lane
usage as follows:
• Steady green indication: Drivers may travel in the lane under a green signal.
• Steady or flashing yellow: Drivers are warned that a lane control change is being
made.
• Steady red indication: Drivers shall not enter or travel in any lane where a red
signal is shown.
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Figure 7.1 Example of a Lane Control Sign

The dimensions and weight of most LCSs allow easy installation and configuration for
various road infrastructures, including tunnels, bridges, and expressway and road
interchanges. All messages need to be visible under any lighting conditions. In the
case of lane closures, the signs must clearly indicate which lanes are open or closed to
avoid driver confusion.
All LCSs shall be coordinated so that all indications along the controlled section of
road are operated uniformly and consistently. For reversible LCSs, the indications
must not be simultaneously displayed over the same lane to both directions of travel.
All LCSs will be located in a straight line across the road, approximately at right angles
to the road alignment.
The site must be safe for maintenance personnel and must minimize costs and be in
accordance with the latest version of the Qatar National Construction Standards
(Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2011). For example, there must be sufficient
shoulder on which to park a bucket truck without needing a full lane closure and
significant traffic maintenance.
7.3.1 Spacing between Signs

Sign placement should allow drivers to decide which lane they need to drive in and
should provide maximum visibility of the message. At expressway speeds, the LCS
should be visible to the approaching driver from 300 to 600 m away. The color of LCS
indications must be clearly visible for 600 m at all times under normal atmospheric
conditions, unless otherwise physically obstructed.
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LCS will be placed at a maximum spacing of 500 m apart on all major arterials and
expressways.
7.3.2 Vertical Placement

The sign placement should not be lower than the required vertical clearance of the
structure to which it is attached.


7.4.2 Longitudinal Placement

The designer must make sure that the LCS is visible and unobscured, and that the
spacing between LCSs is appropriate and allows drivers enough time to change lanes.
7.4.3 Vertical Placement

The approaching segment of road must be relatively flat (between 0 and 4 percent
vertical grade).
7.4.4 Sign Matrix Type

The sign matrix type must be chosen to be consistent with the visibility and message
requirements of the road on which it is deployed.
7.4.5 Structure
The designer must consider visibility, road speed, traffic volume, right-of-way, and
maintenance cost issues when selecting the type of sign structure.
Sufficient vertical clearance must be provided for the sign and the structure.
7.4.6 Enclosure
The designer must consider whether maintenance personnel can safely access the
enclosure and whether the enclosure is located within a reasonable distance of the
LCS.
The sign face must be visible from the enclosure’s location, and the orientation and
location must provide adequate protection for the enclosure.
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All power requirements for the LCS and all system components must be established
and an appropriate power source located within a reasonable distance of the LCS and
confirmed with the utility company.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the LCS. In addition,
the designer must determine whether an appropriate communication source has
been located and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
7.4.9 Environmental
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8 Ramp Metering System

8.1 System Purpose
Ramp metering or control is used to regulate the flow of traffic along a slip road or
ramp onto an expressway to minimize the congesting effect of traffic joining the
mainline road. It is also covered in Part 9 of this Manual.
Ramp meters are traffic signals that control traffic at entrances to expressways and
are installed to address three primary operational objectives:
• Control the number of vehicles allowed to enter the expressway

• Reduce expressway demand
• Disperse platoons of vehicles released from an upstream traffic signal
The purpose of the first and second objectives is to maintain the total traffic entering
an expressway section below the operational or bottleneck capacity of that section. A
secondary purpose of ramp metering is to introduce controlled delay to drivers
wishing to enter the expressway and, as a result, reduce the incentive to use the
expressway for short trips during peak periods.
Easily accessible alternate routes must be available to achieve the desired result of
the secondary purpose. In addition, measures should be implemented to prevent any
traffic diversion to neighborhood or local streets.
The purpose of the third objective is to provide safe and efficient merge operations at
the expressway entrance. Ramp metering has been shown to prevent expressway
disruptions that can cause unsafe queuing conditions by significantly decreasing
expressway capacity. Preventing expressway flow disruptions may reduce the chance
of rear-end crashes.
Most urban expressways are multi-lane facilities that carry heavy traffic during peak
periods. However, traffic demand at a single on-ramp is usually a small component of
the total expressway demand. Therefore, metering a single ramp and even a few
ramps may not be sufficient to achieve the first objective.
When properly installed, ramp metering can potentially provide the following benefits:
• Increased expressway productivity

• Increased speeds
• Safer operation on an expressway and its entrances
• Decreased fuel consumption and vehicular emissions
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8.2 Study Requirements

Ramp metering can improve the safety and efficiency of traffic flow at or around
expressway bottlenecks under certain conditions. A thorough engineering study
should be conducted to determine the applicability of this traffic management
strategy.
Detailed guidance is given in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems

Deployment Manual (2013); however, a brief overview of the study requirements is
given in the following paragraphs.
8.2.1 Data Collection

Detailed data should be collected for the entire expressway section of interest, which
may include one or more bottlenecks and adjacent road facilities.
Site visits should be undertaken to assess where and how the following data can be
collected:
• Crash data for 3 years, if possible

• Traffic data, such as, traffic volumes, speeds, and observations about formation,
dissipation, and impacts of queues on expressway lanes, entrance ramps, and exit
ramps
• Road geometry, including number of lanes, ramp length, and other geometric
features
8.2.2 Data Analysis

The following analyses must be undertaken as part of the study:
• Analyze crash data to identify the locations, numbers, and severity of crashes in
the section
• Assess traffic volume and demand levels to assess whether ramp metering would
be viable
• Analyze the adequacy of ramp geometrics to support efficient ramp metering
operation
8.2.3 Design of System

The design of the ramp metering system must consider individual components,
including loop detectors, appropriate signing and markings, traffic signal controllers,
and traffic signals. More detail about ramp metering systems is provided in Ashghal’s
Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013).
8.2.3.1 Types of Ramp Metering

When the merge area of the expressway is not a bottleneck, an uncontrolled single-
lane expressway entrance ramp may have a throughput capacity of 1,800 to
2,200 vehicles per hour. The same ramp will have a lower capacity when metered.
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The maximum theoretical metering capacity depends on the type of strategy used.
The three metering strategies are as follows:
• Single lane, one car per green indication

• Single lane, multiple cars per green indication
• Dual-lane metering


8.3.2 Ramp Meter Study

The designer must perform a comprehensive ramp meter study and the results of the
study support continuing with the project deployment.
8.3.3 Lane Configuration

The designed number of lanes and vehicles per green indication must support the
projected ramp volume.
8.3.4 Ramp Meter Location

The designer must consider placement of the stop line such that enough storage
space is available on the ramp to accommodate the queues it will generate.
If the ramp meter consists of more than one lane, the designer must provide
sufficient distance for the lanes to merge before the merge with the mainline road
and develop ramp geometry that allows sufficient sight distance to the ramp meter
signals.
8.3.5 Vehicle Detectors

The designer must consider all necessary detection areas — for example, demand,
ramp queue, and mainline.
The complexity and configuration of the system may require additional detection area
in the passage, exit ramp, and entrance ramp, which the designer must consider.
8.3.6 Enclosure Placement

The designer must consider whether an enclosure is required for any metering
components. If an enclosure is provided, the designer must determine whether
maintenance personnel can safely access the enclosure.
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Any enclosure must be located within the manufacturer’s recommended distance

from the detectors and positioned so that maintenance personnel can access the
enclosure while viewing the ramp meter signal heads.
The enclosure should be mounted on an existing structure, where possible, and the
location and orientation must provide adequate protection for the enclosure.
A concrete maintainer’s pad also must be provided at the enclosure’s main door.

All power requirements for the detectors and the system must be considered.
The designer must confirm that an appropriate power source has been located within
a reasonable distance and confirmed with the utility company.
The designer must consider the communication requirements for the detectors. In
addition, the designer must determine whether an appropriate communication
source has been located and confirmed within a reasonable distance from the site.
8.3.9 Environmental
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9 Toll and Payment Collection

9.1 Background Information
In the past, infrastructure operators have recognized the inefficiency of paying fees at
toll plazas and have developed electronic payment methods to speed up the process.
Many modern toll areas have lanes dedicated to those vehicles that have prepaid or
billed electronic payment options (see Figure 9.1). The Qatar Traffic Control Manual
(MOT, 2015) contains details regarding appropriate signs and road markings for such
lanes.
The principal objectives of electronic payment systems (EPS) are to lower costs,
increase revenues for the relevant transportation agency, and enhance customer
satisfaction with transport services. Additionally, EPS typically require less land
acquisition and reduce congestion and, therefore, delays.
Figure 9.1 Example of a Toll Plaza
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9.2 Types of Collection

The most common hardware options for an EPS for the end users are smart cards,
transponders, and cellular telephones.
9.2.1 Smart Cards

Smart cards are ideal for paying transactions that are usually made in cash, for
example, transit fares, and car park fees. Value is stored on a card that is the same
size and shape as a credit card and has an integrated circuit chip embedded in it.
There are two different types of smart card. The “contact” smart card requires
physical contact with the card reader to process a transaction, and the “contactless”
card requires the card to be within a certain distance of the reader to process a
transaction.
9.2.2 Transponders
A transponder operates one of the three components of an EPS, the transponder, the
reader, and the computer system for data processing and storage. The transponder is
secured to the vehicle. The transponder relies on radio frequency identification
technology to operate.
Active transponders contain batteries to power their internal circuitry. Passive

transponders get their power from the radio frequency pulse they receive from the
reader.
9.2.3 Cellular Telephones

Cellular telephones have the potential to be EPS components because cellular
telephones contain an integrated circuit chip that contains the user’s information.
9.3 Other Considerations

An effective communications system must be in place for EPS to be successful. The
internal functions need to be performed with a host computer or a network of
computers to maintain the EPS databases; process and authorize various facets of the
system; and facilitate other functions, such as customer service.
User acceptance is important for successful implementation of EPSs. Where electronic

toll collection has been introduced, it has resulted in shorter queues through toll
plazas.
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10 Enforcement Systems
10.1 System Purpose
In the past, to verify that drivers were actually obeying speed or weight limit laws and
paying tolls, infrastructure operators had little choice but to stop vehicles and request
payment or verify the appropriate data. This has resulted in large tolling areas and
weigh stations that, by their nature, slow traffic down. The EPS, discussed in Chapter 9
in this part, have helped improve traffic flow, but even these systems require some
form of fixed or mobile enforcement.
Radar and infrared technology offer solutions to enforcement issues. Some types of
enforcement are discussed in the following paragraphs.
10.2 Automatic Number Plate Recognition

Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems can be used for multiple
purposes, including identifying untaxed and uninsured vehicles and stolen cars. ANPR
uses optical character recognition on images to read vehicle registration plates.
Authorities use ANPR systems as a method of electronic toll collection and for
cataloging vehicle movements.
10.3 Speed Enforcement

Speeding is a major contributing factor to crashes and increases both the risk of a
crash occurring and the severity of that crash. The introduction of ITS to reduce
speeds can contribute to a reduction in crashes.
Speed enforcement cameras are used to monitor compliance with speed limits using
Doppler radar, light detection and ranging (LiDAR), or ANPR technologies (see
Figure 10.1). In addition, other speed enforcement systems are used that are not
camera-based.
The following paragraphs provide detail on possible solutions.
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Figure 10.1 Example of an Enforcement Camera
10.3.1 Point Speed Cameras

Point speed cameras measure the speed of a vehicle at a short point in the road, such
as a location with a high number of crashes. The camera uses radar detection. Drivers
exceeding the speed limit are fined.
10.3.2 Average Speed Cameras

Average speed cameras are installed over a stretch of road and are linked to ANPR
software that calculates the speed over that length of road. Enforcement is similar as
for point cameras. Average speed cameras do not require film because they use
digital technology.
10.4 Other Types of Enforcement

10.4.1 Bus Lane Enforcement
In some countries, bus-lane-only use is enforced. Some bus-lane enforcement
cameras use a sensor in the road, which triggers an ANPR camera that compares the
vehicle registration plate with a list of approved vehicles and records images of other
vehicles. Other systems use a camera mounted on the bus.
10.4.2 Red Light Enforcement

A red light enforcement camera is a traffic camera that takes an image of a vehicle
traveling through an intersection when the light is red (see Figure 10.2). The system
continuously monitors the traffic signal and the camera is triggered by any vehicle
entering the intersection above a preset minimum speed and following a specified
time after the signal has turned red.
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Figure 10.2 Example of a Red Light Enforcement Camera
10.4.3 Other Enforcement

Cameras can be used in the following enforcement applications:
• Congestion charge cameras are cameras inside a chargeable area that detects
vehicles that have not paid the appropriate fee.
• High-occupancy vehicle lane cameras identify vehicles violating occupancy
requirements.
• Parking cameras are used to issue fines to owners of illegally parked vehicles or
vehicles that were not moved from a street by a posted time.
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10.5 Mobile Enforcement

Mobile speed cameras may be hand-held, tripod-mounted, or vehicle-mounted. In
vehicle-mounted systems, detection equipment and cameras can be mounted to the
vehicle itself, or tripod-mounted inside the vehicle and deployed out of a window or
door.
If the camera is fixed to the vehicle, the enforcement vehicle does not necessarily
have to be stationary. The vehicle can be moved either with or against the flow of
traffic. In the latter case, depending on the direction of travel, the target vehicle's
relative speed is either added to or subtracted from the enforcement vehicle's own
speed to obtain its actual speed. The speedometer of the camera vehicle needs to be
calibrated accurately.
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11 Telecommunications Networks
11.1 Background
The communications protocol for Qatar’s road ITS devices should be based on those
provided in the Ashghal Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual
(2013).

The communication design considerations are provided in detail in the Ashghal
Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual (2013); however, the principal
considerations are as follows:
• The required communications characteristics must be identified, including

bandwidth.
• Telecommunication options must be investigated at or near the planned
deployment sites.
• The Overseeing Organization must be coordinated with so that its requirements
are met.
• If public infrastructure is being used, the telecommunications service providers
must be contacted to find out if the required communications service is available
at the proposed deployment locations.
• The related costs, benefits, and security aspects of various communications
options must be compared. A suitable communications means must be selected
based on the options available at the deployment sites.
• The chosen overall design of the communication means must be incorporated
into, or take into consideration with, the wider area network.
• For security reasons, communications routed through the Internet are acceptable
only on a case-by-case basis. Any connection using public bandwidth must be
accepted by the Overseeing Organization.
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12 Intelligent Transportation
Systems in Tunnels
12.1 Vehicle Detection Systems in Tunnels
Managing traffic in tunnels presents a number of unique challenges. An incident
inside a highway tunnel can have serious repercussions and will affect traffic flow in a
large area surrounding the tunnel. Automatic incident detection systems can enhance
traffic safety in tunnels, particularly longer ones. Figure 12.1 shows an example of an
ITS deployment in a tunnel.
Source: Photo courtesy of Amey UK plc.
Figure 12.1 Example of an Intelligent Transportation System in a Tunnel
A tunnel ITS can use various subsystems, including traffic signals, CCTV cameras, fire
alarms, and emergency telephone broadcasting, all of which are monitored and
controlled by central monitoring systems.
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Properly deployed, ITSs in tunnels can help minimize crashes, make traffic flow more
smoothly, help maintain a comfortable environment inside the tunnel, reduce
electricity consumption, and enable efficient crash management. Such a system relies
on real-time data, as well as historical information and statistics that enable
appropriate analyses.
Other ITSs and services that can be useful in tunnels are emergency call systems that
let drivers notify the authorities immediately about incidents that are not obvious on
cameras.
Traffic signals and control systems can guide the traffic flow. Environment detection
systems and ventilation systems can detect environmental conditions and eliminate
vehicle exhaust, providing warnings when the carbon dioxide levels are too high.
12.2 CCTV Cameras in Tunnels

CCTV coverage should be provided on the approaches to and inside a tunnel.
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References
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Deployment Manual, Version 1.0. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. January 2013.
Bluetooth SIG, Inc. “Fast Facts.” http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Fast‐Facts.aspx. Accessed

2014.
CTV Calgary. “Wireless Waves Used to Track travel Times.” http://calgary.ctvnews.ca/wireless‐

waves‐used‐to‐track‐travel‐times‐1.1054731. Bell Media. November 26, 2012.
Ministry of Transport (MOT). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2015.
World Road Association‐PIARC. ITS Manual, Second edition. Ed. Dr. John C. Miles and Dr. Kan
Chen. PIARC Technical Committee on Network Operations: Paris, France. 2005.
Bibliography
ERTICO, “Intelligent Transport Systems and Services for Europe.” http://www.ertico.com/ertico‐

its‐europe/. Accessed June 2014.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 43
Volume 3
Part 18
Street Lighting
VOLUME 3 PART 18
STREET LIGHTING
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪STREET LIGHTING‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 3 PART 18
STREET LIGHTING
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Hierarchy of Standards ................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Reference Standards and Documents ......................................................................... 3
2 Environmental ................................................................................................................5
3 Software Requirements ..................................................................................................7

3.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Lighting Photometric Performance Software .............................................................. 7
3.3 Lighting Cabling Network Software ............................................................................. 8
4 Classifications and Design Factors ...................................................................................9

4.1 Road Classification ....................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Road Surface Classification .......................................................................................... 9
4.3 Maintenance Factor................................................................................................... 10
4.4 Luminaire Inclination ................................................................................................. 10
5 Lighting Design .............................................................................................................11

5.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 11
5.2 Lighting Level for Various Road Classifications.......................................................... 11
5.3 Roundabouts and Intersections................................................................................. 12
5.3.1 Roundabouts .............................................................................................. 12
5.3.2 Intersections ............................................................................................... 12
5.3.3 Underbridges .............................................................................................. 13
5.3.4 Underpasses ............................................................................................... 13
5.3.5 Pedestrian Crossings .................................................................................. 13
5.3.6 Tunnels ....................................................................................................... 14
5.3.7 Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways......................................................... 14
5.4 Special Lighting Requirements .................................................................................. 15
5.4.1 Lighting near Overhead Lines ..................................................................... 15
5.4.2 Lighting of Bends in Road ........................................................................... 16
5.4.3 Column Setback .......................................................................................... 17
6 Typical Road Lighting Furniture Configurations .............................................................19
7 Standard Lighting Equipment ........................................................................................21

7.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 21
7.2 Luminaires/Lamps ..................................................................................................... 21
7.2.1 Luminaires .................................................................................................. 21
7.2.2 High Pressure Sodium ................................................................................ 21
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7.2.3 LED .............................................................................................................. 22

7.3 Conventional, Non-High Mast Columns..................................................................... 22
7.4 High Masts ................................................................................................................. 22
7.5 Cables ......................................................................................................................... 22
7.6 Earthing ...................................................................................................................... 23
7.7 Feeder Pillars.............................................................................................................. 23
7.8 Ducts .......................................................................................................................... 24
8 Sign Gantry Lighting...................................................................................................... 25
9 Typical Lighting Layouts ................................................................................................ 27

9.1 Design Drawings Symbols .......................................................................................... 27
9.2 Typical Roundabout Layout ....................................................................................... 28
9.3 Typical Intersection Layout ........................................................................................ 29
References ............................................................................................................................. 31
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Tables
Table 3.1 Allowable Voltage Drops ..................................................................................... 8

Table 4.1 Road Lighting Classifications ............................................................................... 9
Table 4.2 Road Surface Classifications ................................................................................ 9
Table 4.3 Maintenance Factors for Lighting Types ........................................................... 10
Table 5.1 Lighting Levels for Road Classification Types .................................................... 11
Table 5.2 Roundabout Lighting Design Criteria ................................................................ 12
Table 5.3 Intersection Performance Requirements for Road Classifications ................... 13
Table 5.4 Minimum Performance Requirements for Underbridge Lighting ..................... 13
Table 5.5 Minimum Illumination Level for Pedestrian Crossings ..................................... 14
Table 5.6 Recommended Illumination Levels for Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways . 15
Table 5.7 Minimum Clearance from Edge of Roadway to Lighting Column Face ............. 17
Table 6.1 Typical Column, Luminaire, Lamp, and Tilt for Various Road Types ................. 19
Table 8.1 Required Illumination Level for Traffic Signboards ........................................... 25
Table 9.1 Drawing Symbols on Design Layout Drawings .................................................. 27
Figures
Figure 5.1 Positioning of Lighting Columns near Pedestrian Crossings ............................. 14

Figure 5.2 Spacing Reduction at Bends and Curves ........................................................... 16
Figure 9.1 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Roundabout ........................................... 28
Figure 9.2 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at T-intersection ......................................... 29
Figure 9.3 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Staggered Intersection ........................... 29
Figure 9.4 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Signalized Intersection ........................... 30
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BS EN British Standard that is the implementation of the European Norm
candelas/m2 candelas per square meter
CIE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
cm centimeter(s)
Cu copper
Eav maintained average illuminance
HPS high-pressure sodium
IP Ingress Protection
Kahramaa Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation
km kilometer(s)
Lave maintained average luminance
LED light emitting diode
lux SI unit of illuminance equal to one lumen per square meter
m meter(s)
m² square meter(s)
mm millimeter(s)
mm2 square millimeter(s)
NFPA National Fire Protection Association (United States)
PVC polyvinyl chloride
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SI International System of Units
SL1 plot accesses/driveways
SL2 road crossings
SL4 road crossings at feeder pillar locations
SR surround ratio
SWA galvanized steel wire armor
TI threshold increment
UL longitudinal uniformity ratio
Uo overall uniformity ratio
W watt(s)
XLPE cross-linked polyethylene
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1 Introduction
1.1 General
This lighting design part of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) has been
prepared as the primary exterior lighting (excluding landscape) design standard for
the State of Qatar.
All roads within Qatar shall be lit, unless specifically instructed by the Head of Street
Lighting within the Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.
The goal of lighting design is to provide a solution that achieves the basic lighting
parameters. There is a fundamental requirement that all design solutions be
constructible, maintainable, and sustainable.
All proposed street lighting and final designs shall be reviewed for maintainability and
compliance with the QHDM. Maintainability design approval shall be obtained from
the Head of Street Lighting within Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance
Department, prior to ordering materials or equipment or the commencement of on-
site works.
Accordingly, this section is intended to provide designers with a clear understanding

of the requirements of the design process, including the identification of the
stakeholders whose specific requirements and inputs are to be considered throughout
the life cycle of each project.
This part provides guidance on good design practice, but designers must ensure that
all materials proposed are in accordance with the latest version of the Qatar National
Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (Ministry of Environment [MoE], 2011).
The State of Qatar Public Works Authority (Ashghal) shall have the sole authority to
instruct if any contradiction or clash arises between standards or codes of practice.
1.2 Hierarchy of Standards
It is recognized that specific design standards can be developed for specific projects.
However, for roads that are to be maintained by Ashghal, the hierarchy of standards
identified below must be adhered to.
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Accordingly, any design to be undertaken adopting the Qatar Highway Design Manual
as the primary design basis should adopt the following hierarchy of standards:
1. Qatar Highway Design Manual

2. Corresponding British and European standards
3. Commission Internationale de lÉclairage (CIE) standards
Should there be any discrepancy with any project design standards or design manuals,
the QHDM shall take precedence over the primary standard that overarches all other
standards, unless prior written approval from Ashghal is received for the project
exception.
1.3 Sustainability
The key sustainability principles for highway design in Qatar are summarized in Part 1,
Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, and Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
Early consideration of potential impacts and how the design can ensure these impacts
are avoided or minimized is a key principle to be followed. Sustainable design should
minimize the need for design rework and achieve optimal economic feasibility
considering costs over the whole asset life, including future costs that may be
incurred from changes to traffic volumes, urbanization, user types, and environmental
conditions. The design should, from the earliest stages, consider opportunities to
design out negative environmental and social impacts and how enhancements can be
incorporated. Specifically relating to the design of street lighting, designers should
consider the following issues (refer to Part 21, Environmental, of this manual):
• Social and economic: Effective lighting benefits the community by reducing

nighttime personal injury accidents, street crime, and fear. Moreover, research
suggests effective lighting facilitates social inclusion and economic development
by supporting a 24-hour leisure economy.
• Safety: Lighting design should incorporate roads, underbridges, underpasses,
tunnels, pedestrian walkways, community gathering spaces, and bike routes.
• Operational energy consumption: The maintenance and upgrading of lighting
systems with efficient light sources, fixtures, and controls can provide several
benefits, such as enhanced aesthetics, reduced lighting energy use, and improved
visual environment. Equipment should be specified to maximize energy efficiency
in use, and designers should incorporate opportunities to co-locate micro-
renewable energy generation with equipment requiring an energy demand.
• Resource efficiency through sustainable procurement: Design should promote
the procurement of equipment that minimizes the quantity of raw, specifically
scarce, materials required. The design should be optimized to minimize waste
during construction, maintenance, and decommission of lighting options.
Operational temperature resistance of equipment should be considered at an
early stage.
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• Reduction of environmentally hazardous waste by-product: Designer shall

consider the material composition of lighting equipment and avoid or eliminate
the use of products that include hazardous materials.
• Visual impact and landscape design: Lighting design should minimize the visual
impact of the road and seek to enhance the visual amenity value of the area
where possible.
• Light pollution and disturbance: Lighting schemes should minimize unnecessary
light pollution and intrusion of local community sensitive receptors. Schemes
should also review the ecological and biodiversity impacts surrounding the
roadway corridor.
• Cultural heritage: Roadway design should optimize the protection, preservation,
and enhancement of sites of archaeological or cultural value through lighting
solutions to avoid or minimize visual intrusion.
• Promoting sustainable transport: Designers should consider lighting
requirements of all road users making suitable provisions for public transport
users in terms of provision of lighting to access and cross the road network.
Where roadways are unsuitable for nonmotorized users, the design should
consider incorporating lit segregated pathways for cycle users.
1.4 Reference Standards and Documents
This lighting design part has been prepared based on the standards listed below.
These national and international standards are appropriate and directly relevant for
providing the highest level of lighting design practice for the Qatar highways network:
• British Standard BS 5489-1: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Lighting—
Part 1: Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity Areas (BS 5489-1)
• British Standard BS 7671: Requirements for Electrical Installations (BS 7671)
• British Standard BS EN 12899-1: Fixed, Vertical Road Traffic Signs—Part 1: Fixed
Signs (BS EN 12899-1)
• British Standard BS EN 13201-2: Road Lighting—Part 2: Performance
Requirements (BS EN 13201-2)
• CIE Standard 88: Guide for the Lighting of Road Tunnels and Underpasses
(CIE 88:2004)
• CIE Standard 115: Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic
(CIE 115:2010)
• CIE Standard 121: The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires
(CIE 121-1996)
• CIE Standard 129: Guide for Lighting Exterior Work Areas (CIE 129-1998)
• CIE Standard 136: Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas (CIE 136-1995)
• CIE Standard 140: Road Lighting Calculations (CIE 140-2000)
• CIE Standard 189: Calculation of Tunnel Lighting Quality Criteria (CIE 189:2010)
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• Electrical and Photometric Measurements of Solid-State Lighting Products

(Illuminating Engineering Society, 2008)
• Qatar National Construction Standards (MoE, 2011)
• Well-lit Highways: Code of Practice for Highway Lighting Management
(UK Lighting Board, 2004)
It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that the most current edition of each
standard is used or referenced.
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2 Environmental
Ashghal places great emphasis on the environmental aspect of any design. This is
especially true of lighting designs, where technological advances are constantly being
made in terms of efficiency and the reduction of the carbon footprint.
The lighting designer must refer to the steps that have been taken in terms of
addressing the issue of environmental sustainability. All lighting design reports must
include, at each design stage, a section relating to environmental considerations,
specifically with reference to Part 21, Environmental, of this manual.
The areas that designers must demonstrate that they have considered must include,
but not be limited to, the following:
• Efficient light sources

• Minimizing light pollution
• Energy efficiency in terms of choice and location of equipment
• Environmental impact ease of maintenance
• Choosing light sources that do not contain hazardous materials
• Achieving sustainable design criteria
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3 Software Requirements
3.1 General
Any calculations relating to lighting design downstream of the feeder pillar must be
carried out using an independent software package. This includes the lighting
performance calculations and all supporting electrical calculations relating to the
cabling network.
For low-voltage power supplies, the designer must liaise with the approving body
within Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa) to ensure that their
specific requirements are met. Specific reference is made to the Kahramaa Workshop
for Consultants—Roads Design & Procedures. However, it is the designer’s
responsibility to strictly adhere to the latest Kahramaa requirements and standards.
3.2 Lighting Photometric Performance Software
Verification calculations of lighting performance must be done using a software

package from an independent, nonluminaire manufacturer. It is recommended that
one of the following packages be used:
• Lighting Reality
• AGI
• Litestar
Designers are permitted to use other independent software packages. However, they
must obtain written acceptance from Ashghal for any alternative software prior to the
commencement of design works. Ashghal reserves the right to ask the designer for a
practical demonstration, prior to approving any alternative.
No manufacturer-related software will be approved by Ashghal.
The designer shall, upon request by Ashghal, provide a copy of the “read only”
software for the lighting software selected.
All lighting design calculations must clearly identify the road lighting classification
being designed to (see Table 4.1), together with the corresponding design values
applicable to the road lighting type (see Table 5.1). Performance calculations must
adhere to the design values for the applicable road classification.
Performance calculations shall provide results that can be achieved by at least three
separate luminaire manufacturers.
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Refer to Chapter 5 in this Part for the lighting performance requirements for the
various lighting parameters.
3.3 Lighting Cabling Network Software
All lighting cable voltage calculations must be carried out using a software package
from an independent, non-cable manufacturer. It is recommended that one of the
following be used:
• Amtech
• Hevacomp
• ETAP
Designers are permitted to use other independent software packages. However, they
must obtain written acceptance from Ashghal for any alternative software prior to the
commencement of design works. Ashghal reserves the right to ask the designer for a
practical demonstration, prior to approving any alternative.
The designer shall, upon request by Ashghal, provide a copy of the “read only”
software for the electrical cable design software selected.
No manufacturer-related software will be approved by Ashghal.
Voltage drop calculations shall be strictly limited to 5 percent from substation to the
last column within each lighting circuit, as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Allowable Voltage Drops

Element of Circuit Considered Maximum Voltage Drop
Substation to Feeder Pillar 2.5%
Feeder Pillar to End of Circuit 2.5%
The breakdown of the permissible volt drops should be the targeted maximum for
each element of the circuit.
There is a degree of tolerance allowed. However, neither of the two elements shall
individually exceed 3 percent, and the maximum of the sum of the two circuit
elements shall not exceed 5 percent.
No voltage drop from substation to end of street lighting circuit shall exceed
5 percent, in accordance with Kahramaa requirements. Any deviation from this
requirement must be supported by written agreement and approval from Kahramaa.
Compliance with voltage drop requirement does not negate the requirement for
cables to be fully compliant with the requirements of the QCS 2010 (MoE, 2011).
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4 Classifications and Design

Factors
4.1 Road Classification
The road classification is determined by the road/highway designers, based on factors

such as the design speed, traffic flow, location, and capacity. For the purposes of
lighting design, the road classifications are as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Road Lighting Classifications

Road Highway Class per Part 2,
Classification Description Sections 3.3 and 3.4
Freeways
A Motorways and expressways
Expressways
B Ring roads and major urban arterial roads Major Arterials
Boulevards
Distributor roads (urban), minor urban arterials,
C Minor Arterials
major urban collectors, and commercial streets Major Collectors
Collector Distributors
Distributor roads (rural), service roads, and minor
D Minor Collectors
urban collector roads Service Roads
E Local urban access and residential roads Local Roads
F Nonvehicular Not applicable
4.2 Road Surface Classification
In addition to the type of road, the reflectivity of the road shall be taken into account
in the lighting design. Table 4.2 defines the various road surface classifications.
Table 4.2 Road Surface Classifications

Surface
Class Q₀ Description Reflectance Mode
Concrete road surface or asphalt road surface with a
R1 0.1 minimum of 12% of aggregates composed of artificial Mostly diffuse
brightener.
Asphalt road surface with an aggregate composed of a Mixed (diffuse and
R2 1 minimum 60% gravel with a size greater than 1 cm and with specular)
10 to 15% artificial brightener in asphalt mix.
Asphalt road surface with dark aggregates or with a rough Slightly specular
R3 0.07
texture after some months of use (typical highways).
R4 0.08 Asphalt road surface with very smooth texture. Mostly specular
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It is the designers’ responsibility to liaise with their own highway design teams, and
Ashghal as required, to ensure that the correct road surface classification is adopted
for each element of the lighting design works.
4.3 Maintenance Factor
The maintenance factor is a key element of any lighting design. It is primarily based on
three factors:
• IP rating of the luminaire

• Depreciation of the light output over a given period of time
• Pollution category
• Cleaning and lamp replacement intervals
Irrespective of road type, the maintenance regime and IP rating of the equipment will
be the same. The only change to this would be for the lighting within structures where
luminaires are more prone to dust ingress. Table 4.3 lists the maintenance factors to
adopt. The maintenance factors denoted below shall be adopted unless advised
otherwise by Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.
Table 4.3 Maintenance Factors for Lighting Types

Luminaire Location Maintenance Factor
Conventional column lighting 0.70
Underbridge/underpass lighting 0.70
High-mast lighting 0.80
4.4 Luminaire Inclination
Luminaire inclination, or tilt, should be no greater than 5 degrees. Lighting designs

requiring limited use of a bracket resulting in luminaire inclinations greater than
5 degrees may be accepted, subject to written approval from the Head of Street
Lighting within Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance Department.
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5 Lighting Design
5.1 General
This section deals specifically with the lighting levels to be adopted for the lighting of
roads, underbridges, underpasses, tunnels, pedestrian walkways, and bike paths.
There are also design levels to be adopted for conflict areas where an increased
lighting level is required for the safety of motorists and to enhance the contrast
between pedestrians and the background.
Conflict areas are defined in BS 5489 as “typically junctions, intersections,

roundabouts and pedestrian crossings, where significant streams of motorized traffic
intersect with each other, or, with other road users such as pedestrians and cyclists”
(BS 5489-1).
5.2 Lighting Level for Various Road Classifications
Table 5.1 identifies the minimum performance requirements for the various road
classifications (see Table 4.1).
Table 5.1 Lighting Levels for Road Classification Types

Maintained Maximum
Average Overall Longitudina Threshold
Road Luminance, Lave Uniformity l Uniformity Increment, TI Surround
Classification (candelas/m²) Ratio, Uo Ratio, Ul (%) Ratio, SR
A 2.5 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
B 2 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
C 2 0.4 0.7 20 0.5
D 1.25 0.4 0.5 20 0.5
E 0.75 0.4 0.5 30 0.5
F Measured in Illuminance. Refer to Section 5.2.7, in this part.
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5.3 Roundabouts and Intersections
5.3.1 Roundabouts
The lighting provided at a roundabout should enable the driver to see clearly any
traffic to the left, at the preceding entry or entries, and traffic already on the gyratory
system of the roundabout. The lighting should also enable the driver to have
adequate forward vision when on the roundabout to see traffic entering from the
right and to decide whether it is safe to proceed.
Roundabouts fall within three categories:
• Motorway or freeway intersection with distributor roads

• Distributor roads with local and residential roads
• Internal local and residential roads
Table 5.2 lists the minimum performance requirements for the various road
classifications (see Table 4.1).
Table 5.2 Roundabout Lighting Design Criteria

Road Classification Maintained Average Illuminance, Eav (lux) Overall Uniformity Ratio, Uo
A 50 0.4
B 30 0.4
C 30 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 20 0.4
F Not applicable Not applicable
Lighting levels for conflict areas are directly linked to the lighting of the approach
road. Where the approach roads to the conflict area (see Section 5.1, in this part)
differ in classification, the highest road classification level is applicable.
For typical roundabout layouts, refer to Section 9.2, in this part.
5.3.2 Intersections
The lighting at intersections should reveal the positions of curbs and road markings,
the direction of roads, the presence of pedestrians or obstructions, and the
movement of vehicles near the intersection. The lighting at the intersection shall be
related to the need of drivers approaching to see vehicles approaching from other
directions.
Depending on the importance of the intersection with respect to traffic flow, lighting
arrangements shall be worked out considering the lighting levels of the roads leading
to and from it. Table 5.3 presents intersection performance requirements.
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Table 5.3 Intersection Performance Requirements for Road Classifications

A 50 0.4
B 50 0.4
C 50 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 15 0.4
For typical intersection layout, refer to Section 9.3 in this part.
5.3.3 Underbridges
An underbridge, in lighting terms, is road covered by a bridge structure that has to be

lit at night to maintain a seamless transition between the entry and exit from the
bridge structure.
To achieve desired driving conditions, nighttime lighting must be equal or greater

than that on the approach road. Table 5.4 lists minimum performance requirements
for underbridge lighting.
Table 5.4 Minimum Performance Requirements for Underbridge Lighting

Maintained Average Illuminance (lux) Overall Uniformity Ratio, Uo
50 0.4
5.3.4 Underpasses
Lighting requirements shall be assessed depending on the length of the structure.
If light penetration into the underpass is sufficient (according to CIE 88:2004,

Section 4) and the length is less than or equal to 75 m, then only uniform night time
lighting is warranted to complement the surrounding roads/area. Refer to
Section 5.2.3 in this part.
Should there not be sufficient light, or the length of the structure is greater than
75 m, then specific tunnel lighting shall be provided. Refer to Section 5.2.6 in this part.
5.3.5 Pedestrian Crossings
Lighting is important to include at all pedestrian crossing locations for the comfort
and safety of the road users. Lighting should be present at all marked crossing
locations. Lighting provides early warning to drivers to expect pedestrians crossing.
Figure 5.1 shows the correct column placement near pedestrian crossings.
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Source: Informational Report on Lighting Design for Midblock Crosswalks (FHWA, 2008)
Figure 5.1 Positioning of Lighting Columns near Pedestrian Crossings
Table 5.5 identifies the minimum performance requirements for pedestrian crossings
within the various road classifications.
Table 5.5 Minimum Illumination Level for Pedestrian Crossings

A 50 0.4
B 30 0.4
C 30 0.4
D 20 0.4
E 15 0.4
5.3.6 Tunnels
Tunnel lighting does not fall under the remit of the Qatar Highway Design Manual.
Designers shall consult the latest edition of CIE Standard 88 (CIE 88:2004) for guidance
on the lighting of tunnels.
Designers shall ensure that any tunnel design complies with the requirements of
Qatar Civil Defence and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), with particular
reference to emergency lighting and illuminated signage requirements.
5.3.7 Bike Paths and Pedestrian Walkways
The purpose of lighting for pedestrian walkways and bike paths is to enable
pedestrians and cyclists to orient themselves, to detect vehicular and other hazards,
and to discourage crime against people and property. Table 5.6 identifies the
minimum performance requirements for area classifications.
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Table 5.6 Recommended Illumination Levels for Bike Paths and Pedestrian
Walkways
Area Classification Maintained Average Illuminance (lux) Minimum Illuminance (lux)
Urban/Residential Area 10 2
Rural Area 5 1
5.4 Special Lighting Requirements
This section relates to the lighting requirements and principles to adopt for specific
elements of road lighting design not covered by Sections 5.1 and 5.2 in this part.
These relate to the following:
• Lighting near overhead lines

• Lighting of bends in road
5.4.1 Lighting near Overhead Lines
Restrictions referred to in this section include the vertical and horizontal right-of-way
area on either side of overhead lines.
The designer shall identify whether there is a requirement for lighting near overhead
lines. When required, the designer shall, wherever possible, maintain the lighting
levels of the main line that the overhead lines are crossing. Any noncompliance must
be agreed in writing by Ashghal. It is the responsibility of the designer to show that all
means of maintaining lighting levels has been undertaken.
The lighting designer must immediately inform Ashghal when lighting designs are to
include lighting within the Kahramaa overhead lines right-of-way areas.
As a guide, the nominal height of road lighting columns shall not exceed 5.5 m. The
luminaire type shall be a cut-off type. However, it is the responsibility of the designer
to discuss and negotiate with Kahramaa to finalize the allowable height and location
of columns.
Kahramaa reference document ENA-M1, Section 1.1 clearly sets out the right-of-way
area parameters for each overhead line voltage level (Kahramaa, 2007). It is the
responsibility of the lighting designer to confirm (with Kahramaa) that the
transmission voltage and corresponding right-of-way area have been correctly
identified.
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5.4.2 Lighting of Bends in Road
The lighting of bends is a key part of any design. The designer shall ensure that
lighting levels are not reduced. This shall be achieved by reducing the spacing
between lighting columns to ensure the design lighting levels, as a minimum, are
maintained. All columns shall be oriented perpendicular to the curbline at each
location.
This shall include all design criteria requirements (LAVE, Ul, Uo, and TI) shall be achieved.
The reduction in spacing is applicable to verge-mountings and to columns in the

center median.
Figure 5.2 identifies typical and anticipated reduction in column spacing relative to
the optimum spacing (S). This diagram is provided for guidance only and does not
absolve the designer from meeting all lighting design criteria.
Figure 5.2 Spacing Reduction at Bends and Curves
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STREET LIGHTING
5.4.3 Column Setback
Many accidents involve a motor vehicle leaving the roadway. If the vehicle collides
with a lighting column, the severity of injury to the occupants is likely to be increased.
The number of such collisions is likely to decrease with increased clearance of the
lighting columns from the edge of the front edge of the curb.
Wherever possible, the designer shall locate the column at the rear of the footpath.
The criteria below should be regarded as the absolute minimum requirements should
it not be possible to site the columns at the rear of the footpath. The minimum
desirable clearances according to the design speed of the road given in Table 5.7 shall
be achieved wherever possible. Any deviation from the minimum distances identified
must be made through prior written agreement with Ashghal.
Table 5.7 Minimum Clearance from Edge of Roadway to Lighting Column Face
Design Speed (kph) Horizontal Clearance (m)
50 0.8
80 1.0
100 1.5
120 1.5
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6 Typical Road Lighting

Furniture Configurations
This section provides guidance to the lighting designer as to the typical furniture
configurations acceptable to Ashghal.
Table 6.1 lists typical column, luminaire, lamp, and tilt for various road types. It should
not be regarded as definitive. Any lighting arrangement that differs from those listed
in Table 6.1 should be discussed with Ashghal before adopting any lighting design.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) should be adopted wherever they can be used, subject to
the availability of an approved luminaire to achieve the required lighting levels.
Table 6.1 Typical Column, Luminaire, Lamp, and Tilt for Various Road Types
Luminaire
Street Lighting Lamp Type Tilt Lighting
Column Height and Rating Minimum Lamp Lumens (degrees) Classifications
70 W HPS 6,500
5 m or 6 m 0 or 5 E&F
LED Equivalent of 70 W HPS
100 W HPS 10,000
8m 150 W HPS 17,200 0 or 5 D&E
LED Equivalent of 100 W/150 W HPS
150 W HPS 17,200
10 m 250 W HPS 33,000 0 or 5 C, D, E
LED Equivalent 150 W/250 W HPS
250 W HPS 33,000
12 m 0 or 5 B&C
400 W HPS 56,500
400 W HPS 56,500
16 m 0 or 5 A
600 W HPS 90,000
Notes:
HPS = high-pressure sodium
m = meters
W = watts
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7 Standard Lighting Equipment

7.1 General
This section deals with the choice of equipment when undertaking lighting designs.
Full details of material requirements.
Lighting designs should consider the future maintenance of the installation,

particularly concerning proposed equipment.
The designer should take into consideration the fact that Ashghal is required to stock
replacement equipment for all types of equipment that falls within its Operation and
Maintenance purview. Wherever possible, the designer shall, standardize materials
and equipment from the Ashghal Approved Materials list. Approval must be sought
from the Head of Street Lighting within Asset Affairs, Roads Operation & Maintenance
Department, for all proposed materials, apparatus, and equipment.
Note that compliance with the standardization of equipment does not necessarily
imply full compliance with Ashghal requirements. For full compliance, the equipment
should be in accordance with the latest edition of Qatar National Construction
Standards (MoE, 2011) and approved by the Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance
Traffic Section.
7.2 Luminaires/Lamps
7.2.1 Luminaires
Proposed equipment, including choice of luminaire used for lighting performance

calculations, must be acceptable to and approved by Ashghal.
7.2.2 High Pressure Sodium
With the exception of LED lighting, as identified in Section 7.2.3 in this part, designers
shall adopt high-pressure sodium (HPS) as the light source for road lighting designs to
be adopted by the Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Department. Alternates
shall be accepted only by prior written approval by Ashghal.
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7.2.3 LED
The use of LEDs in road lighting is becoming more prevalent and shall become the
preferred light source for all road classifications as the technology advances.
The designer shall consult with Ashghal prior to adopting non-LED solutions for any
other lighting application.
7.3 Conventional, Non-High Mast Columns
Conventional, non-high-mast lighting columns shall be adopted wherever possible.

Columns must be capable of carrying the required luminaire weight and windage of
160 kilometers per hour (kph).
7.4 High Masts
The use of high-mast lighting shall be limited to the following:
• Grade-separated interchanges
• Road Classification A, B, and C intersections where lighting levels cannot be
achieved by conventional lighting
• Classification A main lines where lighting levels cannot be achieved by
conventional lighting
All high masts shall be either 25 m or 30 m in height. The designer must demonstrate
that conventional lighting solutions are not viable prior to adopting a high-mast
solution.
7.5 Cables
Road lighting cable selection shall be derived from compliant electrical calculations
with the following principles in mind:
• Enable safe operation of the circuit allowing disconnection of the electrical supply,
thus eliminating damage to components or injury to persons if an electrical fault is
present
• Enable the electrical equipment to function and operate correctly
• Ensure compliance with regulations governing electrical cabling systems
All cables shall be XLPE/SWA/PVC/Cu, meaning:
• All cables outer sheathing shall be cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE).

• Galvanized steel wire armor (SWA) shall be utilized as additional earthing.
• Inner sheathing shall be polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• Conductors shall be insulated copper (Cu).
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STREET LIGHTING
Note: All road lighting cables shall have a separate earthing cable that is, as a
minimum, 50 percent of the size of the lighting cable conductor.
7.6 Earthing
Full earthing requirements are identified within the relevant section of the QCS 2010
(MoE, 2011). Guidelines for the earthing of installations are as follows:
• Earthpit/earthrod at the end of each lighting circuit

• Earthpit/earthrod within 2 m of each road lighting feeder pillar
• Separate individual earthpit/earthrod at each high mast
• Separate earthing cable for each lighting cable that is, as a minimum, 50 percent
of the size of the lighting cable conductor
• The resistance of the earth electrodes shall not be more than 10 ohms when
measured
The designer must perform calculations to confirm that the lighting circuit is
adequately earthed.
7.7 Feeder Pillars
Feeder pillars shall be located, wherever possible, at the rear limits of the right–of-
way in order to minimize the potential for impact by vehicles.
At a minimum, all feeder pillars must be located at the rear of footways and paths,
and must be installed above the expected water table. For the safety of maintenance
personnel and to avoid single or multiple lane closure on divided highways, feeder
pillars shall not be installed in the medians.
All feeder pillars shall comply with the Kahramaa requirement for metering, whether
within the road lighting feeder pillar or in a separate housing pillar.
It is the designer’s responsibility to liaise with Kahramaa Customer Services

Department to ensure that the latest Kahramaa metering requirements are met.
Refer to the relevant section within the latest Qatar National Construction Standards
(MoE, 2011), for full construction details, referencing, and labeling of feeder pillars.
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STREET LIGHTING
7.8 Ducts
Road lighting cables shall be routed through ducts at the following locations:
• Plot accesses/driveways (SL1)

• Road crossings (SL2)
• Road crossings at feeder pillar locations (SL4)
• Additional ducts on main line to ensure there is no distance greater than 500 m
between ducts
The SL references above indicate that the ducts are for the purposes of street (road)
lighting with the following numeral identifying the number of ducts.
Ducts shall be made of PVC, 150-mm internal diameter. Where ducts cross roads,
driveways, or access points, they must be encased in concrete. Ducts crossing roads
must be routed into an inspection chamber at both ends.
For construction requirements, refer to the relevant section of QCS 2010 (MoE, 2011).
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8 Sign Gantry Lighting

All sign gantries shall be illuminated, irrespective of road classification, unless
otherwise advised by Ashghal Roads Operation & Maintenance Traffic Section.
The power supply for gantry sign lighting shall be taken from the nearest road lighting
feeder pillar via a dedicated outgoing circuit.
It is acceptable for multiple gantry signs to be serviced from a single feeder pillar
circuit. However, there shall be no road lighting connected to sign gantry lighting
circuits or sign gantry connected to road lighting circuits.
No power supply shall be taken directly from road lighting column cut out.
The illumination levels required are dependent on the lighting levels adopted for the
particular road where the gantry is located. Table 8.1 identifies the requirements for
gantry sign lighting.
Table 8.1 Required Illumination Level for Traffic Signboards

Maintained Average Uniformity
Location Illuminance (lux) Ratio (Uo)
Area with low or medium background luminance 100 ≤ E < 400 ≥0.33
Area with high background luminance 400 ≤ E < 1,500
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9 Typical Lighting Layouts

9.1 Design Drawings Symbols
The symbols in Table 9.1 shall be adopted for lighting design layout drawings that are
to be issued to Ashghal for approval. Any deviation from the symbols identified in
Table 9.1 must first be agreed to by Ashghal.
Table 9.1 Drawing Symbols on Design Layout Drawings

Symbol Description Symbol Description
30-m high mast 8x600W SON/T 16-m column 1x600W SON/T
luminaire equally distributed luminaire




luminaire back to back arrangement luminaire

30-m high mast 8x400W SON/T 10 m column 1x250W SON/T



luminaire single sided arrangement luminaire

luminaire single sided arrangement luminaire
16-m column 3x600W SON/T Feeder pillar

luminaire
16-m column 2x600W SON/T Earth pit/earth rod

luminaire
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9.2 Typical Roundabout Layout
Figure 9.1 provides guidance for the siting of columns near roundabouts. It is the
responsibility of the designer to ensure that the column layout complies with the
relevant lighting requirements.
Figure 9.1 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Roundabout
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9.3 Typical Intersection Layout
Figure 9.2 through Figure 9.4 provide guidance for the siting of columns near
intersections. It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that the column layout
complies with the relevant lighting requirements.
Figure 9.2 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at T-intersection
Figure 9.3 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Staggered Intersection
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Figure 9.4 Typical Column/Luminaire Layout at Signalized Intersection
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References
BS 5489-1. Code of Practice for the Design of Road Lighting—Part 1: Lighting of Roads and Public
Amenity Areas. British Standards Institution: London, England. 2003.
BS 7671. Requirements for Electrical Installations. British Standards Institution: London, England.
2013.
BS EN 12899-1. Fixed, Vertical Road Traffic Signs—Part 1: Fixed Signs. British Standards
BS EN 13201-2. Road Lighting—Part 2: Performance Requirements. British Standards Institution:

CIE 88:2004. Guide for the Lighting of Road Tunnels and Underpasses. Commission Internationale
de l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. 2004.
CIE 115:2010. Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic. Commission Internationale de
l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. 2010.
CIE 121-1996. The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires. Commission Internationale

de l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. 1996.
CIE 129-1998. Guide for Lighting Exterior Work Areas. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE): Vienna, Austria. 1998.
CIE 136-1995. Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE): Vienna, Austria. 1995.
CIE 140-2000. Road Lighting Calculations. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna,
Austria. 2000.
CIE 189:2010. Calculation of Tunnel Lighting Quality Criteria. Commission Internationale de

l’Eclairage (CIE): Vienna, Austria. 2010.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Informational Report on Lighting Design for Midblock
Crosswalks. Publication No. FHWA-HRT-08-053. U.S. Department of Transportation; Turner-
Fairbank Highway Research Center: McLean, Virginia, United States. April 2008.
Illuminating Engineering Society (IES). Electrical and Photometric Measurements of Solid-State

Lighting Products. IES LM-79-08. New York, New York, United States. 2008.
Kahramaa. Regulations for Clearances and Works in the Vicinity of Extra-High Voltage
Installations. EN-M1. Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation: Doha, Qatar. 2007.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 31
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STREET LIGHTING
UK Lighting Board. Well-lit Highways: Code of Practice for Highway Lighting Management. Road
Liaison Group: London, England. 2004. Last updated 13 August 2013.
PAGE 32 VOLUME 3
Volume 3
Part 19
Pedestrian, Bike, and Public
Transportation
VOLUME 3 PART 19
PEDESTRIAN, BIKE, AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪PEDESTRIAN, BIKE, AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫يجب التأكيد ع ى إن وزارة املواصالت‪ ،‬وتحت أي ظرف من الظروف‪ ،‬ال تج أو تتعهد أو ُتصادق ع ى أن تكون املعلومات املتضمنة ي هذين‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
‫ُ‬
VOLUME 3 PART 19
Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Structure ...................................................................................................................... 1
2 Pedestrian Facilities ........................................................................................................3

2.1 Introduction to Pedestrian Facilities Guidelines and Standards in Qatar ................... 3
2.2 Definitions.................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Sidewalks ...................................................................................................... 4
2.2.3 Off-Road Pedestrian Paths ........................................................................... 5
2.2.4 Shared-Use Paths ......................................................................................... 5
2.2.5 Segregated Paths.......................................................................................... 6
2.2.6 Integrated Facilities ...................................................................................... 6
2.2.7 Highway Verges and Shoulders .................................................................... 7
2.3 Design Criteria for Pedestrian Paths ............................................................................ 7
2.3.1 Pedestrian Envelopes ................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Pedestrian Path Width ................................................................................. 7
2.3.3 Cross Slope ................................................................................................... 8
2.3.4 Vertical Clearance ........................................................................................ 9
2.3.5 Gradients ...................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Steps and Ramps ......................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Ramps ........................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Steps ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.3 Handrails .................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Pedestrian Crossing Treatments ................................................................................ 12
2.5.1 General ....................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Level of Service ........................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 Dropped Curbs ........................................................................................... 17
2.5.4 Tactile Paving ............................................................................................. 19
2.5.5 Pedestrian Refuge Islands .......................................................................... 24
2.6 Speed Humps and Tables........................................................................................... 25
2.6.1 General ....................................................................................................... 25
2.6.2 Rumble Strips ............................................................................................. 28
2.6.3 Drainage ..................................................................................................... 28
2.6.4 Separation Strip .......................................................................................... 29
2.6.5 Pedestrian Guardrail .................................................................................. 29
2.7 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities .................................................................................... 30
2.7.1 Zebra Crossings .......................................................................................... 30
2.7.2 Signal-Controlled Pedestrian Crossing ....................................................... 32
2.7.3 Siting of Crossings ...................................................................................... 33
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2.8 Pedestrian Facilities at Intersections ......................................................................... 33

2.9 Grade-Separated Facilities ......................................................................................... 33
2.10 Surface Treatments .................................................................................................... 35
2.11 Pedestrian Path Lighting ............................................................................................ 37
3 Bicycle Facilities ............................................................................................................ 39

3.1 Types of Bicycle Facilities ........................................................................................... 39
3.1.1 On-Road Facilities ....................................................................................... 39
3.1.2 Off-Road Facilities ...................................................................................... 39
3.2 Design Criteria: On-Road Bicycle Facilities ................................................................ 40
3.2.1 Level of On-Road Provision ........................................................................ 40
3.2.2 Full Integration ........................................................................................... 40
3.2.3 Partial Integration....................................................................................... 40
3.2.4 Paved Shoulders ......................................................................................... 41
3.3 Design Criteria—Off-Road Bike Paths ........................................................................ 42
3.3.1 Design Speed .............................................................................................. 42
3.3.2 Visibility ...................................................................................................... 43
3.3.3 Sight Distances on Nonmotorized User Routes.......................................... 43
3.3.4 Eye and Object Heights .............................................................................. 43
3.3.5 Street Furniture and Other Obstructions ................................................... 44
3.3.6 Visibility to and from Nonmotorized User Crossing Points ........................ 44
3.3.7 Visibility Splays at Intersections on Nonmotorized User Routes ............... 44
3.3.8 Horizontal Alignment.................................................................................. 46
3.3.9 Vertical Alignment ...................................................................................... 46
3.3.10 Gradient ...................................................................................................... 46
3.3.11 Cross Section .............................................................................................. 48
3.3.12 Boundary Treatments ................................................................................. 49
3.3.13 Physical Separation..................................................................................... 50
3.3.14 Crossfall ...................................................................................................... 54
3.3.15 Vertical Clearance ....................................................................................... 55
3.3.16 Bike Path Shading and Water Stations ....................................................... 55
3.4 Off-Road Bike Path Intersections ............................................................................... 55
3.4.1 Path-Path Intersections .............................................................................. 55
3.4.2 Path–Road Intersections ............................................................................ 56
3.4.3 Road Intersections ...................................................................................... 57
3.5 Bike Path Terminal Treatments ................................................................................. 57
3.5.1 Path Terminal Treatments .......................................................................... 57
3.5.2 Separate Entry and Exit Treatment ............................................................ 57
3.5.3 Bollards and U-Rails .................................................................................... 58
3.5.4 Staggered Fence Treatment ....................................................................... 61
3.5.5 Offset Path Treatment ................................................................................ 62
3.6 Bicycle Provision at Structures................................................................................... 63
3.6.1 General ....................................................................................................... 63
3.6.2 Protective Railings ...................................................................................... 64
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VOLUME 3 PART 19
3.6.3 Cycle Wheeling Ramps ............................................................................... 64

3.7 Bicycle Parking ........................................................................................................... 65
3.7.1 High-Security Facilities ............................................................................... 66
3.7.2 Medium-Security Facilities ......................................................................... 66
3.7.3 Low-Security Facilities ................................................................................ 66
4 Public Transport Facilities .............................................................................................69

4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 69
4.1.1 Public Transport Facilities .......................................................................... 69
4.1.2 Requirements ............................................................................................. 70
4.2 Bus Facilities .............................................................................................................. 70
4.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 70
4.2.2 Bus Operator .............................................................................................. 70
4.2.3 Bus Terminal Design ................................................................................... 71
4.2.4 Park-and-Ride Facilities .............................................................................. 72
4.2.5 Bus Stops .................................................................................................... 73
4.3 Planning Process for Bus Stops .................................................................................. 76
4.4 Introduction to Design Process for Bus Stops ........................................................... 76
4.4.1 Initial Information for Agreeing Project Brief ............................................ 76
4.4.2 Available Drawing Information .................................................................. 76
4.4.3 Utility Information ...................................................................................... 77
4.4.4 Identify Preliminary Bus Stop Locations from Satellite imagery ................ 77
4.4.5 Bus Stop Shelter ......................................................................................... 77
4.4.6 Highway Designs of Bus Stops .................................................................... 77
4.4.7 Design Location of Bus Stops and Bus Shelters .......................................... 77
4.3 Qatar Bus Stop Design Guide..................................................................................... 78
4.4 Bus Shelter Design ..................................................................................................... 79
References .............................................................................................................................81
VOLUME 3 PAGE III

VOLUME 3 PART 19
Tables
Table 2.1 Paved Widths for Pedestrian-Only Paths ............................................................ 8

Table 2.2 Paved Widths for Sidewalks—Rural Roads.......................................................... 8
Table 2.3 Acceptable Cross Slope Gradient for Pedestrian Paths ....................................... 9
Table 2.4 Maximum Ramp Gradients ................................................................................ 10
Table 2.5 Recommended Dimensions for Steps ............................................................... 11
Table 2.6 Pedestrian Facilities Classifications ................................................................... 13
Table 2.7 Selection of Pedestrian Facility for Urban Roads .............................................. 14
Table 2.8 Queuing Area Level of Service Criteria .............................................................. 15
Table 2.9 Pedestrian Level of Service Criteria for Signalized Crossing Delay .................... 16
Table 2.10 Pedestrian Level of Service Criteria for Unsignalized Crossing Delay ............... 16
Table 2.11 Tactile Paving ..................................................................................................... 20
Table 2.12 Visibility of Pedestrian Crossings to Drivers ...................................................... 33
Table 2.13 Vertical Clearances for Footbridges and Subways ............................................ 34
Table 2.14 Minimum Width of Pedestrian-Only Subways .................................................. 34
Table 2.15 Considerations in the Design of Grade-Separated Facilities ............................. 35
Table 2.16 Surface Treatment Options ............................................................................... 36
Table 3.1 On-Road Bicycle Facilities .................................................................................. 39
Table 3.2 Off-Road Bicycle Facilities.................................................................................. 39
Table 3.3 Relationship of Road Type, Traffic Volumes, and Bicycle Facilities Required ... 40
Table 3.4 Suggested Widths of Paved Shoulders .............................................................. 42
Table 3.5 Design Speeds for Off-Road Bicycle Routes ...................................................... 43
Table 3.6 Sight Distances for Off-Road Bicycle Routes ..................................................... 43
Table 3.7 Minimum “x” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings...................................... 45
Table 3.8 Preferred Minimum “y” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings ..................... 45
Table 3.9 Preferred Minimum Radii for Bike Paths ........................................................... 46
Table 3.10 Minimum Paved Width of Off-Road Bicycle Facilities ....................................... 48
Table 3.11 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops ..................................................... 52
Table 3.12 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles .................................... 52
Table 3.13 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles ......................................... 53
Table 3.14 Acceptable Bike Path Crossfall Gradient ........................................................... 54
Table 3.15 Classifications of Bicycle Parking Facilities ........................................................ 66
Table 3.16 Layout of Bicycle Rails and Racks ...................................................................... 66
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VOLUME 3 PART 19
Figures
Figure 2.1 Minimum Pedestrian Envelopes ......................................................................... 7

Figure 2.2 Profile of Dual-Height Handrails for Ramps ...................................................... 12
Figure 2.3 Profile of Handrail Provision for Steps .............................................................. 12
Figure 2.4 Queuing Area Level of Service ........................................................................... 15
Figure 2.5 Curb and Pedestrian Path Details—Dropped Curb and Median Crossing ........ 18
Figure 2.6 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at Signal-Controlled Crossing ................. 22
Figure 2.7 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at Flat-Top Hump ................................... 23
Figure 2.8 Layout of Corduroy-Type Tactile Paving at Top and Bottom of Stairs .............. 23
Figure 2.9 Layout of Ladder-Type Tactile Paving at Intersection between Segregated
Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths............................................................................. 24
Figure 2.10 Details of Speed Humps and Tables with Standard Dimensions ....................... 27
Figure 2.11 Detailed Layout of Rumble Strips ...................................................................... 28
Figure 2.12 Typical Pedestrian Guardrail at Crossings ......................................................... 30
Figure 2.13 Typical Zebra Crossing Layout ........................................................................... 31
Figure 3.1 Vehicle Positions on Roadway Associated with Wide Curbside Lanes ............. 41
Figure 3.2 Forward Visibility for Cyclists ............................................................................ 44
Figure 3.3 Visibility Splay for NMU Routes......................................................................... 45
Figure 3.4 Maximum Lengths of Gradients for Ease of Cycling.......................................... 47
Figure 3.5 Boundary Treatments for Pedestrian/Bike Paths ............................................. 50
Figure 3.6 Separation Width between Pedestrian/Bike Paths and the Roadway .............. 50
Figure 3.7 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops ..................................................... 51
Figure 3.8 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles ................................... 52
Figure 3.9 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles ......................................... 53
Figure 3.10 Example of a Partial Barrier Fence .................................................................... 53
Figure 3.11 Example of a Full Barrier Fence ......................................................................... 54
Figure 3.12 Intersections between Bike Paths and Shared-Use Paths................................. 55
Figure 3.13 Crossing Angle ................................................................................................... 56
Figure 3.14 Separate Entry and Exit Terminal ...................................................................... 58
Figure 3.15 Bollard-Restricted Terminal Point ..................................................................... 59
Figure 3.16 Example Bollard Treatment............................................................................... 60
Figure 3.17 Example of U-Rail and Bollard Treatment ......................................................... 60
Figure 3.18 Details of a Bollard and U-Rail ........................................................................... 61
Figure 3.19 Staggered Fence Treatment .............................................................................. 62
Figure 3.20 Offset Path Treatment....................................................................................... 63
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Figure 3.21 Bicycle Safety Railing ......................................................................................... 64

Figure 3.22 Bicycle Wheeling Ramp Key Dimensions ........................................................... 65
Figure 4.1 Parallel Bus Parking Layout................................................................................ 71
Figure 4.2 Angled Bus Parking Layout ................................................................................ 72
Figure 4.3 Linear Bus Parking Layout.................................................................................. 72
Figure 4.4 Off-line Bus Stops .............................................................................................. 75
Figure 4.5 Typical Bus Stop Layout Using Existing Wide Pedestrian Paths ........................ 79
Figure 4.6 Typical Layout for an Off-Line Bus Stop on a High-Speed Road ........................ 79
PAGE VI VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 19
k-value modulus of subgrade reaction; measured in pounds per cubic inch
m meter(s)
m2/p square meters per person
mm millimeter(s)
Mawani Qatar Qatar Ports Management Company
NMU nonmotorized user
ROW right-of-way
VOLUME 3 PAGE VII

VOLUME 3 PART 19
PAGE VIII VOLUME 3

VOLUME 3 PART 19
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Part is to help designers provide adequate facilities, safety and
access for nonmotorized users (NMUs) and for public transport users. For the
purposes of this manual, NMUs are pedestrians and cyclists, and public transport
refers to bus transit and bus facilities.
1.2 Structure
Chapter 2 in this Part provides information and guidance relating to the provision of
pedestrian facilities including different types of pedestrian facilities, recommended
geometric design criteria, and consideration of features to improve pedestrian safety.
Chapter 3 in this Part provides information and guidance relating to the provision of
bicycle facilities recommended geometric design criteria, integration of bicycle
facilities with the highway network, and design of other bicycle-related features.
Chapter 4 in this Part discusses the provision of public transport facilities, particularly
the design of bus park-and-ride facilities for bus riders, bus stops, and bus terminals.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 1
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PAGE 2 VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 19
2 Pedestrian Facilities
2.1 Introduction to Pedestrian Facilities Guidelines and
Standards in Qatar
The pedestrian network in Doha and the regional cities is well established, but there
are many interruptions and discontinuities. Most new roads are constructed with
sealed pedestrian paths on both sides. It is important that this policy framework be
continued and expanded, including retrofitting of pedestrian paths on older roads and
some inter-urban roads.
The high speed limits of 80 kilometers per hour (kph) and above on the main roads
and urban arterials in the town centers can deter pedestrian activity. Review of speed
limits, related enforcement, and improved pedestrian facilities such as signal-
controlled intersections can contribute to safe, comfortable, and convenient
pedestrian access.
Doha road hierarchy has limited access from the local road network, including
arterials and collectors, to the main roads. This has a positive effect on the local
streets, which carry relatively low volumes. In contrast, virtually the entire
transportation function is performed by the arterials. This results in very high traffic
volumes throughout the day and long traffic queues and intersection delays during
peak periods. This issue can affect pedestrian accessibility, as well as congestion and
delay for general traffic.
Design for pedestrian facilities should be more inclusive of the entire Qatari
community by considering the needs of children, the elderly, and persons with
disabilities and encouraging consistent access design standards in all new and retrofit
projects. The Qatari community would benefit substantially from consistent design
standards that recognize the need for less ambulant people, such as the elderly,
people pushing prams or strollers, and people with temporary or permanent
disabilities.
To improve pedestrian accessibility, addressing pedestrian desire lines based on

demand, analyzing crash records, and community engagement, can lead to practical
local solutions to reduce pedestrian severance along the arterials by encouraging the
removal of pedestrian fencing, retaining walls, and other obstacles. Pedestrian
facilities such as pedestrian footbridges, at-grade signal-controlled facilities, and
improved pedestrian crossing measures at signalized intersections should be
considered to improve pedestrian accessibility. In addition, well-lit and secure
pedestrian subways can provide a safer environment for pedestrians to walk.
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Promoting increased pedestrian crossing opportunities in Doha and other town

centers, particularly on the main road network by developers and planners, requires a
consistent design approach during the planning and approval stages by the
Overseeing Organizations.
The introduction of traffic calming or “local area traffic management” is reasonably

well established in Doha, with many local streets featuring some form of speed
control. Residential, office, and commercial buildings and shopping centers in Doha
and the surrounding town centers are anticipated to increase over the next 10 years.
Therefore, the design detail standardization of raised devices and platforms such as
speed humps and speed tables are encouraged to accommodate the needs of
pedestrians and cyclists.
Regular reviews should be conducted of obstacles and discontinuities in sidewalks,

including posts, bollards, parked cars, damaged services covers, spill-over from
building construction sites, uncompleted paths, narrow paths at critical locations and
discontinuous paths. These reviews can assist in planning and budgeting a
comprehensive routine program for the repair of pedestrian path by the Overseeing
Organization.
In many instances in Qatar, towns are closely spaced and significant volumes of
pedestrians can be observed along the road shoulders and roadsides. Consideration
should therefore be given to promoting pedestrian facilities along such roads. More
sidewalks and supplementary facilities, such as shade, seating, rest areas, and
drinking water facilities, are recommended, as are more crossing facilities at locations
with urban land uses to encourage pedestrian activities.
The pedestrian facilities guidelines in the Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
Transport Master Plan for Qatar (MMUP, 2008) provides planning lists for a range of
facilities that provide suitable levels of comfort and protection for pedestrians.
2.2 Definitions
2.2.1 Introduction
The pedestrian facilities discussed herein typically are provided along roadways and at
intersections. The type, quality, and design for pedestrian facilities are related to the
function of the roadside development that generates pedestrian trip demands.
Generally, public urban roads should be designed to provide for the safe passage of
pedestrians within the right-of-way (ROW). Exceptions will reflect specific land uses or
conditions in which pedestrians are prohibited for public safety or security reasons.
2.2.2 Sidewalks
Sidewalks are facilities included within the public ROW intended for use by
pedestrians. They are physically separated from the roadway by space and the
presence of curbs or barriers.
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Sidewalks represent the transportation network for those on foot. In urban areas,
sidewalks should generally be provided on both sides of the road to create continuous
and convenient pedestrian routes and to minimize the need for pedestrians to cross
the roadway to continue their trip.
In urban areas, sidewalks shall be provided on both sides of the road to create
continuous pedestrian routes regardless of the fact that some plots of land along the
road are undeveloped or under construction.
On rural roads, pedestrian traffic is less frequent or prevalent. Even so, the roadway
should be designed so that pedestrians using the ROW are sufficiently separated from
the high-speed motor vehicle traffic common to rural highways. Wide paved
shoulders serve pedestrians. In some cases, a separate pedestrian path or shared use
path outside the shoulder may be desirable. In that case, the pedestrian path should
be placed beyond the limits of the drainage ditch to provide maximum separation
from the traveled way. Rural pedestrian paths may be appropriate within sections of
road in areas of substantial residential or commercial development in otherwise rural
areas.
Pedestrian includes handicapped and visually impaired users. The design of new
pedestrian paths shall consider the needs of all potential users, including the visually
impaired and wheelchair users. The following sections provide specific guidance
design guidance for these users.
At corners and intersections, the internal corners of paths should be splayed to assist
the passage of wheelchairs and strollers. Surface undulations, steps, and gaps may
cause problems for people with mobility or sensory impairments.
Many pedestrians begin their journey as drivers or occupants of motor vehicles.

Pedestrian paths should be provided where parking on the roadway is permitted.
2.2.3 Off-Road Pedestrian Paths

An off-road pedestrian path, paved or unpaved, can be an appropriate facility in rural
or low-density suburban areas. Off-road pedestrian paths may be on independent
alignment within their own ROW. These may serve walking trips to land uses such as
parks, public plazas, schools or other public facilities. An off-road pedestrian path may
be designed within the ROW of a roadway as a separate facility with its own
alignment. Such pedestrian paths are usually set back from the road and separated by
a green area, ditch, swale, or trees.
2.2.4 Shared-Use Paths

Shared-use paths are designed for use by both pedestrians and cyclists. They would
be signed for shared use and may be marked to separate opposing flows of bike
traffic.
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For both unsegregated and segregated paths, particular care needs to be taken:
• Where cyclists join the shared route to ensure they can do so safely and without
conflict with pedestrians
• Where the shared routes ends, to ensure that cyclists do not continue to use a
route intended for pedestrians only
• Where one route crosses other pedestrians, cyclists, or a shared-use route
• To make sure there is adequate forward visibility for cyclists, who are generally
moving more quickly than pedestrians are moving
• To provide adequate signing to indicate the presence of pedestrians and cyclists
Other factors to consider include:
• Leave a lateral clearance distance of 1 meter (m) on both sides of the path to
allow for recovery by cyclists after a loss of control or swerving.
• Maintain an overhead clearance of minimum 2.3 m over the path.
• Ideally, keep a 1.5-m separation between the path and any adjacent roadway.
2.2.5 Segregated Paths

Both pedestrians and cyclists intend to use segregated paths; however, the paths are
designed to provide physical separation between walkers and cyclists. Segregation
may be achieved by a white line or by a physical feature such as a shoulder, a fence,
or curbed level difference. Provision of street lighting can mitigate safety issues using
curbed level difference especially at night.
2.2.6 Integrated Facilities

Integrated facilities are defined by the presence of pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicles
operating together in one shared street space. These facilities are often referred to as
shared zones or pedestrian zones.
Pedestrian zones are often provided on roads in commercial or shopping areas. They
are appropriate where all of the following conditions exist:
• The road is not a through route; normal through traffic is prohibited in pedestrian
zones.
• Pedestrian movement predominates, entering controlled pedestrian zones.
• A restricted level of vehicle movement is allowed, usually for special needs and
often restricted by the time of day to minimize conflicts with pedestrians. For
example, allowing service delivery traffic to businesses and offices permitted
during off peak periods only.
Vehicle speeds in such zones should not exceed 20 kph. Traffic calming measures
should be used to identify the gateways to the pedestrian space and restrict both
entry and speed of vehicles in an appropriate manner to safeguard pedestrians.
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Shared zones should be designed to clearly demonstrate the unique character of the
area. The roadway and urban designer selects materials, dimensions, and signs that
communicate the altered environment so that the zone is obviously different from
other streets. Alteration can be achieved by applying different colors and textures of
paving, using full-width paving between property lines, and placing planters and other
aesthetically pleasing landscaping in key locations that inhibit easy vehicular traffic flow.
Appropriate signage should be used to warn motorists of the likely presence of

pedestrians. Reduced speed limits to improve pedestrian safety should also be
adopted in shared zones and vehicle restrictions introduced.
2.2.7 Highway Verges and Shoulders

Highway verges and shoulders are not intended for use by pedestrians. However,
where provision of no other pedestrian facility is possible, verges or shoulders should
be able to accommodate occasional pedestrian usage, particularly in rural areas
where pedestrian paths are unlikely to be provided.
2.3 Design Criteria for Pedestrian Paths

2.3.1 Pedestrian Envelopes
The physical characteristics of humans, their capabilities in walking, and their comfort
levels and desires with respect to privacy and proximity to other pedestrians are all
inputs to design for pedestrian. The term “pedestrian envelope” describes these
considerations. Figure 2.1 shows typical minimum pedestrian envelopes. The
pedestrian envelop encompasses the different needs of pedestrians, be they semi-
mobile, on wheels, or completely or slightly ambulatory.
Figure 2.1 Minimum Pedestrian Envelopes
2.3.2 Pedestrian Path Width

The width of pedestrian paths should be based on the expected use, taking into
consideration the location of the path and the type and density of land use that will
generate pedestrian trip demand. In most cases, usage should be assessed at the
concept and preliminary design stages. Studies should be undertaken as necessary to
obtain estimates of pedestrian volumes and movements. Table 2.1 provides values for
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general pedestrian path paved widths. The minimum value should be used only where
space is constrained, and only over short distances.
Table 2.1 Paved Widths for Pedestrian-Only Paths

Road Classification Desirable Minimum Minimum
Urban Local or Service Road 3.0 m 1.8 m
Urban Minor/Major Collector Road 3.0 m 2.0 m
Boulevard or Urban Minor/Major Arterial 4.5 m 3.0 m
Expressway Segregated Segregated
Note:
m = meters
Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidelines (MMUP, 2008)
Ideally, roadway elements necessary for either the road or pedestrians should be
located outside the designated pedestrian path. These will include light poles, utility
poles, signposts, and bollards or other features added to the roadway for aesthetics.
Where ROW is limited, it may be necessary to locate such potential obstructions to
pedestrians within the pedestrian path. If so, the unobstructed width of pedestrian
path between the obstruction and the building line or curb should be at least 1.5 m.
A 1.5-m width is adequate for a wheelchair to traverse the pedestrian path. Table 2.1
lists minimum values; these widths should be increased to at least 3.0 m where
significant pedestrian volumes are anticipated, particularly near schools, at large
sports venues, in commercial areas, and at bus stops. Table 2.2 lists the pedestrian
path widths for rural roads. In rural areas, a range of 1.8- to 3.0-m widths is desirable
on arterial, collector, and local roads.
Table 2.2 Paved Widths for Sidewalks—Rural Roads

Road Classification Desirable Range a
Local road 1.8 to 3.0 m
Collector road 1.8 to 3.0 m
Arterial 1.8 to 3.0 m
Expressway None
Notes:
a Provided as part of the verge width.
m = meters
Source: Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual (Dubai Municipality, 2003)
2.3.3 Cross Slope

Cross slope is applied to pedestrian paths principally for the purpose of drainage. Lists
acceptable gradients for cross slope are shown in Table 2.3. Values greater than these
should be avoided other than for short distances, because they are uncomfortable for
pedestrians and can cause difficulty for persons with disabilities.
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Table 2.3 Acceptable Cross Slope Gradient for Pedestrian Paths
Recommended Cross Slope to Pedestrian Path 1:50 (2.0%)
Maximum Permitted Cross Slope 1:40 (2.5%)
A flatter cross slope may be adopted if drainage is facilitated to avoid ponding of

water in the pedestrian path.

Adequate vertical clearance for pedestrians should be provided under overhanging
tree branches, road signs, and overhead structures. For vegetation, the maintenance
regime should be designed to be sufficient to maintain the required minimum vertical
clearance. See Section 2.8 in this Part for guidance on vertical clearance for subways
and underpasses.
The standard minimum vertical clearance to overhead obstructions is 2.3 m. This

distance should be increased to 2.6 m for obstacles longer than 20 m.
2.3.5 Gradients
Where pedestrian paths are provided adjacent to roads, the longitudinal gradient will
be consistent with that of the road. Pedestrian path gradients of up to 1:20, or
5 percent, are considered to be acceptable. Where the gradient exceeds 5 percent,
the designer should consider the need to separate the pedestrian path from the road
and should consider the pedestrian path as a ramp for design purposes. However, a
maximum gradient of 1:12 can be used over very short lengths in exceptional
circumstances. Section 2.4 in this Part provides ramp design details.
2.4 Steps and Ramps

Where there is a significant change in level between two sections of pedestrian path,
it may be necessary to construct steps and ramps. Steps are inaccessible to
wheelchair users; therefore, ramps are preferable to steps to provide access for
people with disabilities. Because steps can form a significant barrier to pedestrians
with movement disabilities, ramps should be provided wherever possible.
2.4.1 Ramps
Ramps should be built with a minimum width of 1.8 m, preferably 2.0 m, and have a
nonslip surface.
Rest areas or flat sections (with very shallow gradients) of a minimum 1.5-m length
should be provided over the full width of the ramp when:
• The ramp is continuous over a length of 10 m

• There is a change of direction
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Level areas, known as landings, at least 1.2 m in length should be provided at the
bottom and top of the ramp and over the full width of the ramp.
The maximum permitted gradient should be 1:12; lesser gradients should be used
depending on the ramp length and the distance between landings and rest areas.
Table 2.4 lists suggested gradients for different ramp lengths.
Table 2.4 Maximum Ramp Gradients
Ramp Length (between Rest Areas) Maximum Gradient
>2 m 1:12
5m 1:15
10 m 1:20
Note:
m = meters
A slightly steeper gradient of 1:10 is acceptable over very short distances; for
example, a ramp covering a distance of 600 millimeters (mm). Gradients steeper than
1:10 are not only physically difficult to manage but also may cause wheelchairs to tip.
Ramp edges should be protected by a raised solid curb at least 100 mm in height.
Crossfalls are rarely needed on ramps. If drainage is deemed a problem, the use of a
pervious surface should be considered.
2.4.2 Steps
Steps may be the only option at locations where it is not practicable to provide ramps at
suitable gradients. However, alternative means of access for persons with disabilities
shall be provided such as stair lifts. Table 2.5 lists the dimensions recommended for
steps.
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Table 2.5 Recommended Dimensions for Steps
Design Parameter Dimensions
Width Preferred 1.2 m

Minimum 1.0 m
1.8 m where there is concurrent two-way
movement
3.0 m where steps lead to a platform where people
are carrying luggage
Height of risers (constant over whole flight of Preferred 150 mm

steps) Minimum 100 mm
Maximum 170 mm
Tread depth (constant over whole flight of steps) Preferred 300 mm

Minimum 250 mm
Maximum number of risers in a flight 12
Minimum number of steps in a flight 3
Note:
m = meters
mm = millimeters
Open risers should be avoided to reduce the risk of tripping.
Resting places at least 1.2 m long, preferably 1.8 m long, across the full width of the
stairway should be provided between flights of steps.
An unobstructed landing space should be at the top and bottom of each flight of steps
of a length at least equal to the unobstructed width of the stairway.
The nose of each step should be rounded to a 6-mm radius without overhang. People
with walking difficulties often pull their feet up the face of the riser; an overhang
would catch their feet.
Steps should be surfaced with a slip-resistant material. Color contrast on the step
noses is essential for visually impaired persons and should extend across the full
width of each tread, 55 mm deep on both tread and riser.
Tactile warning surfaces should be provided at the bottom and top of the steps. The
depth of warning surface should be 800 mm when steps are in direct line of travel and
400 mm otherwise.
2.4.3 Handrails
Smooth handrails roughly 45 mm wide or in diameter shall be provided on both sides
of ramps and steps, with a minimum clear width rail to rail of 1,000 mm. Where the
unobstructed width exceeds 2,000 mm, a central, continuous handrail may be used as
an alternative to a handrail on each side.
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Handrails should be continuous over the entire length of the ramp or flight of steps.
Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 show the recommended profiles for handrails.
Figure 2.2 Profile of Dual-Height Handrails for Ramps
Figure 2.3 Profile of Handrail Provision for Steps
2.5 Pedestrian Crossing Treatments

2.5.1 General
Facilities to enable pedestrians to cross roads and to control the level of
pedestrian/vehicles interaction may be broadly classified into four groups:
• Physical pedestrian aids, which assist in reducing conflict and simplifying

decisions for pedestrians and drivers. Examples are traffic islands, separation
strips, pedestrian guardrails, and speed humps. Pedestrian refuge islands are also
used with signal-controlled pedestrian crossings.
• Time-separated facilities, which allot short periods for use of a section of road.
Examples are signal-controlled pedestrian crossings, signalized midblock
crossings, other forms of signal-controlled crossings, and signal-controlled
intersections with pedestrian phases.
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• Physically separated facilities, which eliminate conflict between vehicles and

pedestrians. Examples are overhead pedestrian bridges and subways.
• Integrated facilities, where pedestrians and vehicles share road space. Examples
are shared zones, pedestrian zones, school zones, and lighting.
Table 2.6 sets out the expanded objectives and sample treatments. Source: Pedestrian
and Cyclist Design Manual (Dubai Municipality, 2003)
Table 2.7 provides guidance on how to select an appropriate pedestrian facility based
on the road type and posted speed.
Table 2.6 Pedestrian Facilities Classifications
Classification Objectives Treatments
General Crossing Increase safety of pedestrians by use of Pedestrian refuge islands

Treatments physical aids within the roadway to Traffic islands
reduce the conflict or degree of hazard Separation strips or islands
between vehicles and pedestrians and to Pedestrian guardrails or barrier
simplify the decisions that will be made separating pedestrians from traffic
by both drivers and pedestrians. Speed humps
Time-Separated Minimize conflict between pedestrians Zebra crossings

(Traffic- and vehicles by allotting short periods for Signalized midblock crossing:
Controlled) use of a section of road by pedestrians, Signal-controlled pedestrian crossings
Facilities alternating with periods for use by Signal-controlled intersections with
vehicles. pedestrian phases
Grade- (Spatially) Increase the safety of pedestrians by Subways and bridges

Separated eliminating conflict between vehicles and
Facilities pedestrians.
Integrated To provide an environment in which Pedestrian zones

Facilities pedestrians and vehicles may share road Shared zones
space in a largely unsupervised manner. School zones
(Lighting to improve pedestrian safety
and security for above zones)
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Table 2.7 Selection of Pedestrian Facility for Urban Roads

Peak Hour
Posted Pedestrian Crossing
Pedestrian Permitted Road Speed Flows (pedestrians Recommended
Crossing Facility Type (kph) per hour) Provisions
Pedestrian Island Collector ≤50 <50 None
Refuge Service road
Local road
Zebra Crossing Collector ≤50 <400 Not to be used near
Service road signal-controlled
Local road crossings
Signalized Boulevard ≤50 50–600 Vehicle actuation and
Midblock Crossing collector advance warning
Service road signs
Local road Minimum 2.4 m wide
600–1,250 Consider additional
speed-reduction
measures (rumble
strips and road
markings) on divided
roadways. Add 0.5 m
for every
125 pedestrians per
hour above 600
Pedestrian Phase Arterial boulevard ≤80 >50 Vehicle actuation and
at Signal- Collector advance warning
Controlled Service road signs
Intersection Local road Consider additional
>300
speed reduction
measures, such as
rumble strips and
road markings, on
divided roadways
Grade Separation Expressway ≥80 >600 May be required at
Arterial lower speeds or lower
pedestrian crossing
flows
Note:
At all pedestrian crossing points, consideration should be given to the provision of

dropped curbs and tactile paving to assist pedestrians with disabilities.

The pedestrian level of service (LOS) provides a useful means of evaluating the capacity
and comfort of queuing areas, such as areas adjacent to pedestrian crossings. LOS for
queuing areas are based on available standing space, perceived comfort and safety, and
the ability to maneuver from one location to another, as shown in Figure 2.4. Because
pedestrian LOS is based on the amount of pedestrian space available, the LOS
thresholds can be used to specify desirable design features such as pedestrian path
width, pedestrian refuge size, and width of the pedestrian crossing facility.
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Source: Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board, 2010)
Figure 2.4 Queuing Area Level of Service
Table 2.8 lists LOS for queuing and waiting areas. The thresholds were developed
based on average pedestrian space, personal comfort, and degrees of internal
mobility. LOS is presented in terms of average area per person and average
interpersonal space, which is the distance between people.
Table 2.8 Queuing Area Level of Service Criteria

Average Pedestrian Area
Level of Service (square meters per person) Average Interpersonal Spacing
A >1.2 > 1.2
B 0.9–1.2 0.9–1.2
C 0.7–0.9 0.7–0.9
D 0.3–0.7 0.3–0.7
E 0.2–0.3 < 0.3
F <0.2 Negligible
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The LOS required for waiting at a facility is a function of the amount of time spent
waiting, the number of people waiting, and a desired level of comfort. Typically, the
longer the wait, the greater the space required per person. A person’s tolerance of
crowding varies with time. People will accept being tightly packed on an elevator for
30 seconds, but not in a waiting area for 15 minutes.
A person’s acceptance of close interpersonal spacing will also depend on the

characteristics of the population, weather conditions, and facility type. As an example,
commuters may be willing to accept higher levels or longer periods of crowding than
intercity and recreational travelers.
Although the primary method of evaluating pedestrian LOS at crossings should be

based on the space criteria presented above, the designer may also consider the
average delay per pedestrian. These criteria are presented in Table 2.9 and
Table 2.10.
Table 2.9 Pedestrian Level of Service Criteria for Signalized Crossing Delay
Average Delay per Pedestrian Likelihood of Risk-Taking
Level of Service (seconds) Behavior
A <10 Low
B 10–20 Low to moderate
C 20–30 Moderate
D 30–40 Moderate to high
E 40–60 High
F >60 Very high
Table 2.10 Pedestrian Level of Service Criteria for Unsignalized Crossing Delay
Average Delay per Pedestrian Likelihood of Risk-Taking
Level of Service (seconds) Behavior
A <5 Low
B 5‒10 Low to moderate
C 10‒20 Moderate
D 20‒30 Moderate to high
E 30‒45 High
F > 45 Very high
LOS criteria provide a useful means of determining the environmental quality of a

pedestrian space, but that they are no substitute for judgment. All elements of
pedestrian way design should be examined, including magnitude and duration of
traffic peaks, surging, or platooning caused by traffic signal cycles or public transport
arrivals, and the economic ramifications of use of space. When designing for extreme
peak demands of short duration, a lower LOS may apply to obtain a more economical
design.
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2.5.3 Dropped Curbs

At all pedestrian crossing points, dropped curbs shall be provided to allow a smooth
transition from raised pedestrian path level to road roadway level, as shown in
Figure 2.5. This enables safe and convenient movement of pedestrians, people
pushing prams or strollers, and persons in wheelchairs.
All dimensions in Figure 2.5 are in millimeters unless otherwise specified.
The dimensions indicated by “Wn” (where n is a number) are as follows:
• Curb transition: W1 = 1,800 mm for asphalt or precast concrete slabs; 3,000 mm

for block paving
• Dropped curb: W2 = 1,800 mm for all types of surfacing
• The dimensions W1 and W2 may be amended to suit site-specific circumstances.
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Figure 2.5 Curb and Pedestrian Path Details—Dropped Curb and Median Crossing
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All curbs included in the permanent works shall comply with standard construction
details specified in the Local Roads & Drainage Program Design Management Manual
(Ashghal, 2013). Alternative curbing solutions may be considered; but approval must
be obtained from the Overseeing Organization before inclusion in the permanent
works.
A dropped curb laid flush with the roadway shall be provided across the entire width
of the crossing point.
Generally, the ramp gradient across the pedestrian path to a dropped curb should be
between 1:12 and 1:20. For narrow pedestrian paths, the steeper gradient will allow
the level strip at the back of the pedestrian path to be maximized. For wheelchair
users and people with prams or strollers, an upstand of 0 is recommended rather
than 30, since the lip presents a challenge to these users. Wheelchair users and
people pushing prams or strollers or will find continuing on the pedestrian path more
comfortable if an upstand of 0 is used.
Drainage equipment such as gratings should not be placed in ramp areas where they
may cause a hindrance to wheelchairs.
At signalized urban priority intersections with no formal pedestrian facility, dropped

curbs should be provided on both sides of the minor road to provide a continuous
pedestrian route parallel to the major road.
A dropped curb should not be provided for a pedestrian when there is no provision on
the opposite of the street.
2.5.4 Tactile Paving

Table 2.11 provides details regarding tactile paving provision for different
applications. Figure 2.6 through Figure 2.9 show typical layouts of tactile paving.
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Table 2.11 Tactile Paving
Application Surface Type Color Layout
Controlled Blister type; parallel rows Red Where the dropped curb at the controlled crossing is in the direct line of travel, the
Pedestrian Crossing of flat-topped blisters tactile surface should be laid to a depth of 1,200 mm.
Points, Such as 5 mm high, 25 mm in At all other controlled crossings, a depth of 800 mm should be provided. The surface
Signalized Crossings diameter, pitch 64 mm to should be laid to the full width of the dropped curb.
67 mm The back edge of the section of tactile surface that extends across the dropped curb
should be at right angles to the direction of the crossing. Where the back edge is not
parallel to the curb (the crossing itself is not at right angles to the curb), the tactile
surface should be not less than 800 mm in depth at any point.
A stem of the surface 1,200 mm wide should extend back from the tactile surface
adjacent to the push-button control box or the zebra pole and should be in line with
the direction of travel across the road.
Uncontrolled Blister type; parallel rows Buff or any other color, except red, For crossings at or close to road intersections, the blister surface should extend across
Pedestrian of flat-topped blisters that contrasts with the surroundings the full width of the dropped curb, with a depth of 400 mm where the crossing is inset
Crossing, Such as at 5 mm high, 25 mm in and is not in the direct line of pedestrian travel or 1,200 mm where it is in the direct
Pedestrian Refuges diameter, pitch 64 mm to line. As with the surface at controlled crossings, the back edge should be at right
67 mm angles to the direction of the crossing.
When the dropped curb is inset into the side road, it should not be located on the
radius but set about 1,000 mm in from the end of the radius.
Where there is an uncontrolled crossing away from an intersection, the blister surface
should be laid to a depth of 800 mm.
Hazard Warnings at Corduroy; rounded bars Contrast with the surrounding area The surface should be laid so that the bars run transversely across the direction of
Top and Bottom of 6 mm high, 20 mm wide, but should not be red pedestrian travel and should extend across the full width plus 400 mm on each side of
Steps and spaced, center to steps at top and bottom.
center at 50 mm The recommended depths of the corduroy surface are:
• 800 mm in direct line of travel
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• 400 mm otherwise
Surfaces laid to warn of steps should start 400 mm away from the nosing of the first
step.
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Table 2.11 Tactile Paving
Application Surface Type Color Layout
Hazard Warning Corduroy; rounded bars Contrast with the surrounding area The surface should be laid so that the bars run transversely across the direction of
Where a Pedestrian 6 mm high, 20 mm wide, but should not be red pedestrian travel and should extend the full width of pedestrian entry to unprotected
Path Joins a Shared and spaced, center to railway station platforms.
Bicycle/Pedestrian center at 50 mm The recommended depth of the corduroy surface is 800 mm.
Route
Segregated Shared Ladder pattern; raised flat- No specific color required; however, The start of the pedestrian part of the shared surface is a ladder pattern with bars laid
Pedestrian/Bike topped bars each 5 mm colored surfaces and various at right angles to the direction of travel.
Path Surface and high, 30 mm wide, and materials, such as bitumen and The start of the cyclist part of the shared surface is a ladder pattern with bars laid
Center Delineator spaced 70 mm apart concrete, on the different sides of parallel to the direction of travel.
Strip the route can provide helpful cues to The tactile surfaces should be laid at the beginning and end of the shared segregated
partially sighted people. route, at regular intervals along the route, and at any intersections with other
pedestrian or cyclist routes.
The surfaces should be 2,400 mm long, across the full width of the pedestrian path
and bike path.

Notes:
m = meters
mm = millimeters
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Source: Department of Transport (1998).
Figure 2.6 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at Signal-Controlled Crossing
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Source: Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surfaces (DETR, 1998)
Figure 2.7 Layout of Blister-Type Tactile Paving at Flat-Top Hump
Source: Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surfaces (DETR, 1998)
Figure 2.8 Layout of Corduroy-Type Tactile Paving at Top and Bottom of Stairs
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Source: Based on Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surface Document (DETR, 1998)
Figure 2.9 Layout of Ladder-Type Tactile Paving at Intersection between

Segregated Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths
2.5.5 Pedestrian Refuge Islands

Pedestrian refuges, also known as traffic islands, are a relatively inexpensive method
of improving crossing facilities for pedestrians. They allow pedestrians to concentrate
on crossing one stream of traffic at a time, and they create a relatively safe waiting
area between traffic lanes in urban areas.
Refuges should be at least 2 m wide, preferably 2.5 m wide to accommodate

wheelchairs, prams, and strollers. The absolute minimum width for a pedestrian
refuge islands is 1.5 m wide, which offer little protection for pedestrians. The refuge
should also be sized for an acceptable pedestrian level of service, as described in
Clause 2.5.2 in this Part.
The width of the crossing should be maintained across the full roadway. This width
should include the refuge island that will have either openings or dropped curbs.
Pedestrians may attempt to cross near or in the “shadow” of the refuge. In these
cases, if the refuge cannot be located where there is a clear desire line, measures
such as pedestrian guardrail should be considered. The pedestrian guardrail provision
is discussed in Section 2.7 in this Part.
The roadway lane width at the crossing should be sufficient to prevent vehicles
passing too closely to the refuge or the pedestrian path, which can be intimidating for
pedestrians. Consider also the needs of cyclists who could be overtaken alongside a
refuge. A single roadway approach lane with a width of 4 m to 4.5 m adjacent to a
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refuge is recommended, although refuges have been used successfully with narrower
widths. If the refuge island is not on a straight stretch of roadway, the width on either
side of the refuge may need to be greater.
Vehicles parking adjacent to the refuge may reduce visibility or block the free flow of
vehicular traffic. If considered problematic, waiting and loading restrictions may need to
be imposed. For the same reason, care should be taken if the refuge is near a bus stop.
At all intersections where pedestrian refuges are provided, checks should be so that
the largest vehicles likely to use those intersections do not overrun the refuge.
Pedestrians should be discouraged from crossing divided roadways unless signal

control is provided. Special pedestrian refuge sections should be provided at selected
points, or ideally at intersection locations, and preferably incorporated in the median.
It is recommended that these refuge areas, or medians, be a minimum of 3.5 m wide
and the accesses to the refuge area should be staggered so that pedestrians are not
able to approach and cross both roadways in one line.
2.6 Speed Humps and Tables

2.6.1 General
Speed humps and tables reduce traffic speeds in areas where large numbers of
pedestrians are expected and in residential areas. They should generally be used in
the following cases:
• Posted speed limit is 50 kph or less.

• Road is lit such that the humps are clearly visible.
• Road is not a freeway, expressway, arterial, or major collector route.
Signs and road markings should be provided to warn drivers and cyclists so that they
can reduce their speed accordingly.
As shown in Figure 2.10, humps may be round-topped or flat-topped. Flat-topped

humps should be used on roads that carry a public bus service because this type of
speed hump has a less detrimental effect on the ride quality for bus passengers. Flat-
topped humps or tables can also be used for carrying formal crossing facilities, as stated
in Section 2.7 in this Part.
Round-topped humps are suitable for routes where there is no public bus route, and
their use is primarily to calm traffic to speeds suitable for a residential neighborhood.
Speed humps are not used on major roads, bus routes, or primary emergency
response routes.
A warning sign notifies motorists before humps. Humps generally have pavement
markings to enhance visibility and a taper edge near the curb to allow a gap for
drainage. Speed humps are used in locations where very low speeds are desired and
reasonable. A speed hump is generally placed mid-block between intersections.
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A spacing of 100 to 150 m apart is normally recommended for round‐top and flat‐top
road humps and raised intersections when used in series. For school zones and
residential areas with speed limited to 32 kph and lower, a spacing of 60 to 70 m may
be required.
The length and height of the speed humps determine the speed at which traffic will
travel over the devices. Shorter lengths and greater heights slow cars most drastically.
Reduced height humps of 40 mm height may be used on higher‐speed approaches,

such as the approach to a village. However, it is still preferable to use other additional
speed‐reducing features, such as speed limits and yellow bar markings ahead of the
speed hump.
Speed tables are flat‐topped speed humps with room for the entire wheelbase of a
passenger car to rest on top. The flat top design allows cars and other vehicles to
maintain slightly higher speeds than they would on speed humps, slowing vehicle to
speeds of about 36 to 40 kph. Speed tables are ideal solution for roads with typical
residential speed limits. Typical examples of speed hump and speed table cross
section details used in Qatar are shown in Figure 2.10.
Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, of this manual and the Qatar Traffic
Control Manual (QTCM) (MOT, 2015) provide additional details of road markings for
road humps and speed tables. Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Part 5, Qatar
Roadway Design Criteria, of this manual provide nonvertical alternatives to speed
humps and tables, such as narrow roads and chicanes.
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Figure 2.10 Details of Speed Humps and Tables with Standard Dimensions
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2.6.2 Rumble Strips

Transverse traffic rumble strips are used for slowing traffic and alerting drivers to
reduce their speed. Installing traffic rumble strips creates a visual, audible, and
physical alert to drivers in traffic areas where caution is critical, such as school and
recreational areas with pick‐up and drop‐off zones, hospitals, and near pedestrian
areas and crossing points. The speed range in the traffic colored areas ranges
between 10 to 20 kph in residential and pedestrian areas.
Transverse rumble trips should be formed of yellow thermoplastic material built up at

least 5 mm, but no more than 15 mm, above the roadway surface. A basic rumble
strip configuration is recommended to consist of five transverse yellow markings
300 mm wide spaced, such that prevailing traffic speeds all five markings will be
traversed during a period of roughly one‐second. Figure 2.11 shows the layout and
spacing of rumble strips.
Figure 2.11 Detailed Layout of Rumble Strips
The noise of vehicles passing over speed humps or rumble strips may cause
disturbances in areas where residences are close to the highway. Such disturbances
should be taken into consideration at the design stage.
Rumble strips shall extend over the entire width of one‐way roads or at least half the
width of two‐way roads, including paved shoulders, so all approaching traffic receives
adequate warning. Further guidance on rumble strips is provided in the QTCM (MOT,
2015).
2.6.3 Drainage
Drainage is an important feature of speed humps. Where the road is curbed, positive
drainage should be provided so that ponding does not occur. Alternatively, where
there is no local drainage system, or where soakaways cannot be provided, the hump
should stop short of the curb to allow drainage to operate as if the hump were not
present, as shown in Figure 2.10. For safety reasons, the hump should not be used as
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a crossing point. If the road has no curb, the hump shall be graded into the verge, as
2.6.4 Separation Strip

Where possible, a separation strip should be included to act as a buffer between
vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Providing a buffer can improve pedestrian safety,
particularly where there is a significant volume of vehicular traffic. A buffer can also
enhance the overall walking experience.
The width of the separation strip, which is designed to discourage pedestrians from
standing at the curbside, usually takes the form of either an area of low planting or
raised block work.
A minimum separation width of 1.2 m is desirable.
A separation width is not required in commercial areas or where on-street parking is

permitted because wide pedestrian paths are usually provided in those areas.
2.6.5 Pedestrian Guardrail

Where adequate horizontal separation is not feasible, pedestrian guardrails may be
used to channel pedestrians to an appropriate crossing point and away from less safe
areas; for example, short lengths of pedestrian guardrails may be erected adjacent to
exits from schools, parks, and pedestrian paths to prevent children from running out
into the road.
Pedestrian guardrails should be used only when necessary, and care should be taken
not to obstruct sight lines or add to street clutter.
Where used, pedestrian guardrails should be 1.05 m to 1.15 m high and set back at
least 450 mm from the curb. Where this cannot be achieved without the pedestrian
path being narrowed to less than 1.5 m, measures should be explored to widen the
pedestrian path either away from the roadway or by narrowing the roadway. If this
cannot be achieved, alternative routes should be considered for pedestrians away
from the narrow section.
Pedestrian guardrails used on the approach to a crossing point shall have staggered
infill bars aligned to allow visibility to and from the approach direction and a sight gap
at the top so that that pedestrians are not masked from drivers by the railing.
Figure 2.12 shows a typical pedestrian guardrail at a crossing.
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Source: Highway Design Standards (Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2010).
Figure 2.12 Typical Pedestrian Guardrail at Crossings
2.7 Pedestrian Crossing Facilities

2.7.1 Zebra Crossings
Zebra crossings do not use signal control and consist of broad bands of white lines
across the road, supplemented by pedestrian signs in the verge and, if applicable, in
the median or refuge. Drivers must stop ahead of a zebra crossing when a pedestrian
steps onto the broadband area. Zebra crossings are applicable only where the
crossing is not signalized. Figure 2.13 shows a typical layout. Details are provided in
the QTCM (MOT, 2015).
Zigzag lines in the direction of travel may be provided, if necessary, to make the
crossings more conspicuous to drivers and to provide a controlled zone around the
crossing point; see Figure 2.13. A controlled zone provides following benefits:
 No parking or waiting is permitted in the controlled zone. This makes the crossing
more obvious to drivers and improves visibility between drivers and pedestrians.
 Overtaking is prohibited within the controlled zone defined by the zigzag
markings.
 Controlled zones guide pedestrians to use the crossing rather than the zigzag area
to cross the roadway.
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Figure 2.13 Typical Zebra Crossing Layout
It is vital that road markings for crossings be kept clear. If the quality or visibility of the
markings reduces significantly, drivers may ignore the crossing, to the detriment of
pedestrian safety. Regular maintenance of road markings is essential.
The minimum width of a crossing should be 3.0 m. Width may be increased 0.5 m for
each 125 pedestrians above 600 pedestrians per hour averaged over the 4 busiest
hours, up to a maximum of width of 10 m.
Where the roadway is more than 10 m wide and a straight crossing would be more
than 10 m long, a central pedestrian refuge should be provided on the crossing.
Zebra crossings generally are more cost-effective to install than signal-controlled

crossings and have less ongoing operation costs. However, a signal-controlled
pedestrian crossing would be preferable where the following conditions apply:
• Vehicle speeds are high, because pedestrians find it difficult to judge the speeds
and stopping distances of approaching vehicles. Zebra crossings should never be
used where the posted speed exceeds 50 kph or where the posted speed is less
than 50 kph but the road layout is such that speeds in excess of 50 kph are likely
to occur.
• A significant number of pedestrians are elderly or have disabilities.
• High and continuous pedestrian flows in busy commercial areas or adjacent to a
bus or train station may cause excessive delays to traffic.
• Traffic is particularly heavy. Pedestrians may then be unwilling to step onto the
zebra crossing because of the lack of positive control for vehicles.
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• The crossing facilities on the particular route are already signal-controlled

pedestrian crossings. This is especially important where crossings are linked to
optimize the flow of traffic.
Installing a raised zebra crossing will reduce vehicle speeds approaching the crossing
and makes it safer for pedestrians to cross the road. Section 2.6 in this Part provides
details relating to the design of speed humps. Additional benefits may be realized in
providing speed hump or table because vehicle speeds will be slower on the approach
and pedestrians can cross the roadway at the same level as the pedestrian path.
2.7.2 Signal-Controlled Pedestrian Crossing

Signal-controlled pedestrian crossings are provided midblock rather than at
intersections. They control vehicles and pedestrians by means of conventional traffic
signals. Vehicles have priority until a pedestrian wishes to use the facility. The crossing
period, which is of fixed duration, is activated solely by pedestrian demand, when the
pedestrian presses a button.
During the crossing phase, a pulsed tone may be used to indicate priority to
pedestrians. This should not be used where crossings are adjacent—at staggered
crossings for example—because the signal for one crossing could be mistaken for the
other, to the detriment of pedestrian safety. In designing signal-controlled pedestrian
crossings, designers will be able to obtain the recommended frequencies and pulse
tone patterns from the signal manufacturers.
The minimum width of a crossing should be 3.0 m. An additional 0.5 m may be

provided for each 125 pedestrians above 600 pedestrians per hour averaged over the
4 busiest hours, up to a maximum of 10 m.
Where the crossing is more than 12 m wide, it is desirable to widen the road to
provide a staggered crossing. Where there is a staggered pedestrian facility, the island
should be at least 3 m wide. With a staggered pedestrian facility, the minimum
distance between crossings, which is the distance between the inside line of road
studs on each side of the island, should be 4 m.
Where the road width exceeds 15 m, a staggered layout controlled by separate sets of
traffic signals should be considered. Signal-controlled crossings require pedestrians to
cross the road in two stages, incorporating a stop on an island in the median. Each
side of the crossing should be treated as a separate signal crossing. Preferably, the
stagger in the median should be to the right, so that pedestrians are turned to face
oncoming traffic.
A signal-controlled pedestrian crossing that is sited less than 100 m from a signal-
controlled intersection or another signal-controlled pedestrian crossing should be
linked to that facility to provide efficient operation.
Signal-controlled crossings may also be provided to accommodate cyclists as part of

shared use controlled crossings.
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2.7.3 Siting of Crossings

In siting zebra crossings and signal-controlled pedestrian crossings, attention should
be given to the following points:
• Controlled crossings should not be located adjacent to priority intersections,

because of turning traffic.
• Signal-controlled pedestrian crossings should be placed sufficiently far from a
stop line to prevent drivers mistaking the signals at the pedestrian crossing for
intersection signals.
• A formal crossing should be located sufficiently far from a roundabout to
minimize blocking of the roundabout on an exit leg. The crossing can use the
splitter island to provide a stagger on wider roads. Refer to Part 7, Design for
Roundabouts, and Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections, of this manual for
further guidance.
The minimum stopping sight distance of the crossing for drivers should be as given in
Table 2.12. The entire crossing, including areas where pedestrians are waiting to
cross, should be visible to drivers.
Table 2.12 Visibility of Pedestrian Crossings to Drivers

Posted Speed 30 kph 50 kph 80 kph
Minimum Stopping Sight Distance 30 m 70 m 150 m
Note:
m = meters
It is important that pedestrians be able to see approaching traffic. Their views should
not be restricted by parked or stationary vehicles. Waiting and loading restrictions
may be required to keep areas within the intersection clear.
2.8 Pedestrian Facilities at Intersections

The provision and layout of pedestrian-controlled facilities at, or closely associated to,
traffic signal-controlled intersections is covered in Part 6, Design for Priority
Intersections, of this manual.
2.9 Grade-Separated Facilities

Grade separation of pedestrians and vehicles is achieved by the use of footbridges go
over and subways go under the roadway. Subways and footbridges provide full
segregation of pedestrian and vehicular movements, and they are potentially a safe
form of crossing facility. Subways and footbridges also result in minimum disruption
to traffic flow; however, the cost of such facilities can be high.
Grade separation involves pedestrians having to change levels by the use of steps and
ramps. This situation may not be convenient because the route up or down to change
levels is usually longer than a direct crossing. The situation can lead to pedestrians
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choosing to use a direct and potentially hazardous crossing as an alternative route.

Furthermore, the need to change levels and the longer pathway can make footbridges
and subways challenging for the elderly or persons with disabilities to use. Careful
consideration should be given to these conditions when opting for a grade-separated
facility, and the designer shall minimize the route length by grade separation. In
addition, grade-separated pedestrian facilities can be provided when motor vehicles
are required to change levels.
Table 2.13 lists minimum vertical clearances required for grade-separated facilities.
Table 2.14 lists the minimum widths of pedestrian-only subways. Design constraints
and potential solutions are listed in Table 2.15.
Table 2.13 Vertical Clearances for Footbridges and Subways

Minimum Clearance Required below Footbridges 6.5 m
Minimum Vertical Clearance Required in Subways 3.5 m
Note:
m = meters
Source: Local Roads & Drainage Program Design Management Manual (Ashghal, 2013)
Table 2.14 Minimum Width of Pedestrian-Only Subways

Subway Type Subway Length (m) Width (m)
Wide — 5.0
<20 3.0
Normal
≥20 3.3
Narrow — 2.3
Note:
m = meters
Source: Local Roads & Drainage Program Design Management Manual (Ashghal, 2013)
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Table 2.15 Considerations in the Design of Grade-Separated Facilities

Issue Detail Design Consideration
Access to Only means of access is by steps or Where space permits, provide both ramps and
Footbridge ramps. steps. Where space is limited, provide steps only.
or Subway Steps are suitable only for able- Steps and ramps should be designed in accordance
bodied pedestrians. with Section 2.4 in this Part.
To be compliant with design criteria, In certain circumstances, consideration should be
ramps will be long and have a large given to providing lifts or elevators.
footprint.
Pedestrian Footbridges and subways may not Consideration should be given to footbridge and
Desire Lines provide a direct route for users to subway locations to minimize these effects.
cross and may not be ideally located The use of pedestrian barriers should be considered
along the pedestrian desire line, to direct pedestrians toward the facility.
resulting in pedestrians seeking
alternative crossing locations.
Form of Footbridge aesthetics Form should be sympathetic to existing
Footbridges surroundings.
Form should be in keeping with style of adjacent
architecture.
Personal Perceived issues with subways These fears can be overcome by:
Security related to crime and lack of personal • Adequate lighting
security.
• Wider cross sections, which feel more spacious
to users
• Clear unobstructed visibility through the subway
• No hidden corners
Subway Difficulties associated with drainage Provide positive drainage to remove rainwater.
Drainage for a structure below ground level. Consider effects of high groundwater levels.
Source: Based on Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surface Document (DETR, 1998)
2.10 Surface Treatments

When considering surfacing materials to be used for pedestrian paths, the following
items should be considered:
• Whether the surface is to be used by pedestrians or cyclists, or both

• Quality and appearance of the finished surface
• Slip-resistance properties of the surface
• Overall surface stability and smoothness
Different types of surface treatments and their suitability to different applications are
shown in Table 2.16.
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Table 2.16 Surface Treatment Options
Suitable Suitable for

Suitable for for Wheelchair
Material Type Pedestrians? Cyclists? Users? Advantageous Features Negative Features
Pavers Yes Yes Yes Can be used to create aesthetically pleasing patterns Paver material shall have adequate slip-resistant
Easy to reinstate to original condition after features.
construction Debris may collect in the cracks, thus requiring ongoing
maintenance.
Paving blocks Yes No Yes Can be used to create aesthetically pleasing patterns Interlocking blocks create an uneven surface for cyclists.
Easy to reinstate to original condition after Loose blocks would be hazardous for cyclists at high
construction speeds.
Paving block material shall have adequate slip-resistant
features.
Debris may collect in the cracks, thus requiring ongoing
maintenance.
Concrete Yes Yes Yes Most practical for persons with disabilities Not aesthetically pleasing
Suitable for use in beach areas where pedestrians Repair requirements
are likely to be barefoot; the light color absorbs less Temperature fluctuations may cause cracks in concrete
heat and remains cooler to the touch surface
Asphalt Yes Yes Yes Most practical for persons with disabilities May have a greater ongoing maintenance liability than
Colored resins can be applied to enhance concrete
appearance In hot weather, asphaltic materials soften and create
unpleasant walking environments
Loose materials such as Yes No No Relatively inexpensive Unsuitable for wheelchair users
stone chippings, gravel, Aesthetically pleasing in tourist areas such as parks Can quickly become worn or rutted
and tree bark chippings
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2.11 Pedestrian Path Lighting

Pedestrian paths are illuminated primarily for the following reasons:
• To help pedestrians find their way and to enable them to perceive hazards such
as unusual or uneven surfaces or obstacles such as steps or street furniture
• To enhance the personal security of pedestrians by helping them to recognize
potential threats in time to take appropriate action
Vandal-resistant lighting should be provided at all pedestrian subways and considered

at all pedestrian footbridges.
Lighting should be provided at all at-grade crossing points, regardless of whether

there is potential for conflict between vehicles and pedestrians.
Detailed design of lighting associated with pedestrians is discussed in Part 18, Street
Lighting, of this manual.
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3 Bicycle Facilities
3.1 Types of Bicycle Facilities
3.1.1 On-Road Facilities
Table 3.1 summarizes the features of on-road bicycle facilities. The degree to which
bicycle facilities are integrated or separated depends on the following factors:
• Road classification and characteristics

• Traffic volumes
• Bicycle volumes; 12-hour, two-way
• Presence of parking
• Posted roadway speed
Table 3.1 On-Road Bicycle Facilities
Full Integration Motor vehicles and cyclists share the same traffic lane.
Partial The curbside lane, shared by both motor vehicles and cyclists, is widened to allow
Integration vehicles to overtake cyclists without changing lanes.
3.1.2 Off-Road Facilities

Off-road bicycle facilities provide safe access to local roads away from high-speed and
restricted roads, but they may also be warranted for such reasons as these:
• Enhancing recreational value, as for leisurely trips to parks and scenic areas
• Accommodating inexperienced cyclists, such as primary school children
• Providing facilities that can also be used by pedestrians
Table 3.2 summarizes the features of off-road bicycle facilities.
Table 3.2 Off-Road Bicycle Facilities
Bike Path A separate path away from the roadway is used exclusively by cyclists.
Shared Path A separate path away from the roadway is shared by cyclists and pedestrians.
Segregated A separate bike path is separated by a verge away from the roadway. Part of the path
Path is used by cyclists, the rest by pedestrians. Segregation may be achieved by a white
line or by a physical feature such as a verge, a fence, or a curbed level difference.
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3.2 Design Criteria: On-Road Bicycle Facilities

3.2.1 Level of On-Road Provision
All roads, except where cyclists are prohibited, should be designed, constructed, and
maintained under the assumption they will be used by cyclists. All such roads may be
considered as fully integrated facilities. Provision of a higher level of facility may be
determined as vehicle or bicycle volumes increase. This relationship is explored in
Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Relationship of Road Type, Traffic Volumes, and Bicycle Facilities
Required
Bicycle
Recommended Annual Average Volume
Level of Daily Traffic (12-hour
Facility Road Type (vehicles per day) Two-way) Comments
Full integration Local roads <3,000 Any

Service roads
Partial Local roads >3,000 <50 Care should be taken with

integration Service roads provision of partial
Minor collector separation on minor
roads collector roads that may be
heavily trafficked where full
separation may be
desirable.
Full separation Major collector >3,000 >200 Off-road facilities are

roads required. Consider potential
Boulevard arterials shared use with
Expressways pedestrians.
Freeways
3.2.2 Full Integration

Fully integrated facilities are ubiquitous—on local neighborhood streets, on city
streets, and on urban, suburban, and rural highways.
There are no specific designs or dimensions for shared lanes or roads, but design
features such as these can make them more compatible with cycling:
• Smooth road pavement

• Adequate sight distance
• Road geometry that encourages lower traffic speeds
• Drainage inlets and utility covers within the line of travel that are flush with the
roadway, well seated, and use of bicycle-compatible gratings and covers
3.2.3 Partial Integration

In partial integration of cyclists and motorists, a wide curbside lane is provided to give
sufficient width to allow vehicles to overtake cyclists without having to change lanes
effectively. Figure 3.1 illustrates vehicle positions for wide curbside lanes.
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Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013)
Figure 3.1 Vehicle Positions on Roadway Associated with Wide Curbside Lanes
In selecting the width for a wide curbside lane, consideration should be given to the
following:
• Lane widths of 4.0 m or less make it likely that vehicles will encroach at least
partly into the next lane to pass cyclists.
• Lane widths of 4.2 m or greater allow motorists to pass cyclists without
encroaching into the adjacent lane.
• Lane widths of 4.6 m allow greater maneuverability for cyclists and are more
suitable where the proportion of heavy trucks is higher.
3.2.4 Paved Shoulders

In certain circumstances, paved shoulders may be adopted in rural areas to provide
informal facilities for cyclists. A paved shoulder has the following features:
• A solid edge line between the shoulder and the traffic lane
• A smooth riding surface, free of debris and obstructions
Paved shoulders are often found on rural roads and seek to extend the service life of
the road by reducing edge deterioration.
Paved shoulders are not dedicated travel lanes and, therefore, may be used for parking.
Ongoing use of paved shoulders in urban areas for parking would render them
unsuitable for bicycle use; therefore, paved shoulders should not be used cyclists in
urban areas. Paved shoulders may be used for parking which includes emergency
parking, where it is considered safe on rural and urban roads. Generally paved
shoulder are used for vehicles for parking, emergency stopping and emergency
maneuvers.
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Table 3.4 lists suitable widths to allow bicycle travel on paved shoulders.
Table 3.4 Suggested Widths of Paved Shoulders
Situation Width
Uncurbed shoulder 1.2 meters
Curb, guardrail, or barrier present at edge of shoulder 1.5 meters
High bike usage expected; considerable use by heavy trucks, buses, or recreational > 1.5 meters
vehicles
Paved shoulders are preferable on both sides of two-way roads. In addition, a paved
shoulder is preferable to an unpaved shoulder no matter which side of the roadway is
being considered.
3.3 Design Criteria—Off-Road Bike Paths

3.3.1 Design Speed
It is not necessary to consider design speed in designing facilities for use only by
pedestrians. Design speed is a factor when designing facilities for use by cyclists
because speed affects other design parameters, such as visibility.
Design speeds for cyclists can vary according to the following users:
• Fast commuters
• Other utility cyclists
• Inexperienced utility cyclists
• Children
• Users of specialized equipment
Typical cycling speed is 15 to 20 kph. However, it is possible for cyclists to travel as

slow as 5 kph or as fast as 30 kph.
A design speed of 30 kph should be adopted for most off-road bike routes. However,
where a cyclist would expect to slow down, such as an approach to a crossing or a
subway, the design speed may be reduced to 10 kph over short distances.
Table 3.5 lists design speeds appropriate for different route types. The design speed
of routes shared with other users should be that of the fastest user.
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Table 3.5 Design Speeds for Off-Road Bicycle Routes
Design Speed (kph)
Acceptable Minimum Over Short Distances 10
General Off-Road Bicycle Route Provision 30
Note:
Installation of speed bumps or other similar surface obstructions intended to cause
cyclists to slow down in advance of intersections or other geometric constraints may
not be used without prior approval. Formal approval of speed bumps on bike paths
may be required by the Overseeing Organization.
3.3.2 Visibility
The following visibility requirements should be considered:
• Forward visibility for cyclists along a route, such that an appropriate stopping
sight distance and eye-to-object height are met
• Visibility at intersections or crossings, to enable NMUs to see approaching traffic,
and for other users on the main route to see NMUs about to cross
3.3.3 Sight Distances on Nonmotorized User Routes

Sight distance is the distance for a rider to perceive, react, and stop safely in adverse
conditions, such as on wet asphalt or where the road surfacing is loose. Sight distance
is measured in a straight line between any two points on the center of the route.
Cyclists generally have a greater ability to avoid momentary obstructions due to lower
speed and greater maneuverability than vehicular traffic. Sight distances for cyclists
are shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Sight Distances for Off-Road Bicycle Routes
Design Speed Minimum Sight Distance
30 kilometers per hour 30 meters
10 kilometers per hour 10 meters
3.3.4 Eye and Object Heights

Designers should check that an object at the minimum sight distance is visible from a
range of eye heights. For cyclists, an eye height range of 1.0 to 2.2 m should be used
to accommodate a range of cyclists, from children and recumbent users to adults. See
Figure 3.2. The object height should be taken as a range from ground level to 2.2 m,
because cyclists should be able to observe deformations, holes, and objects that could
interfere with safe progress.
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Source: “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes,” Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges (Department for Transport, 2005)
Figure 3.2 Forward Visibility for Cyclists
3.3.5 Street Furniture and Other Obstructions

Where practical, street furniture, trees, and shrubs should be located outside the
visibility envelope. In particular, trees can obscure pedestrians from approaching
cyclists. Isolated objects with widths of less than 300 mm are unlikely to have a
significant effect on visibility and may be ignored if removal is not practicable. For
unmovable obstructions wider than 300 mm, it may be necessary to provide markings
to guide cyclists accordingly.
3.3.6 Visibility to and from Nonmotorized User Crossing Points

Any crossing of a trafficked road should be located such that drivers of vehicles have
full visibility of NMUs wishing to use the crossing point. Minimum sight distance, as
described in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual should be available for
drivers on the highway approaching an NMU crossing point.
3.3.7 Visibility Splays at Intersections on Nonmotorized User Routes

A visibility splay should be provided for NMUs approaching crossings and intersections
where they shall stop or give way. Figure 3.3 shows “x” and “y” distances. The
“x” distance is normally measured from a yield line, back along the median of the
minor leg. The “y” distance is measured along the edge of the main road or NMU
route.
For pedestrians, the preferred “x” distance is 2.0 m, to allow for the needs of persons
with disabilities and people with prams or strollers.
The preferred “x” distance for cyclists is 4.0 m, which equates to approximately the
length of two bicycles. This provides a reasonable distance for cyclists to slow down
and observe the full “y” distance necessary. While every effort should be made to
achieve the preferable value of 4.0 m, in practice, the “x” distance that can be
achieved for urban local roads may be limited. In these cases, the “x” distance can be
reduced to a minimum of 2.5 m.
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Figure 3.3 Visibility Splay for NMU Routes
Table 3.7 is a summary of “x” distances.
Table 3.7 Minimum “x” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings
Urban Roads Urban Local and Service Roads
Pedestrian 2.0 m 1.5 m
Cyclist 4.0 m 2.5 m
Source: “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
A summary of “y” distances is provided in Table 3.8. These distances should be

measured from an eye height of 0.9 m to 2.0 m for pedestrians and 0 m to 2.2 m for
cyclists. The object height should be taken as 0.26 m to 2.0 m.
Table 3.8 Preferred Minimum “y” Distances for NMU Routes at Crossings
Major Route
Road Off-Road Bike Path
Minor Route Design Speed (kph) “y” Distance (m)a “y” Distance (m)a
Pedestrian/Cyclist 30 30
50 70a 30
80 150
Notes:
a “y” distance may be reduced where main road has been classified as an urban street. Refer to Part 3,

m = meters
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Where it is difficult to achieve the visibilities set out in this Section, measures to
reduce speeds on the major leg, commensurate with the maximum visibility that can
be practically provided, should be considered.
3.3.8 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment of the bike path is often determined by the alignment of the
adjacent road. However, changes in horizontal alignment should ideally be achieved
using simple circular curves, rather than straight sections with occasional sharp
curves. Providing appropriate radii in horizontal and vertical planes should allow
appropriate forward visibility for cyclists.
Table 3.9 lists the minimum radii for bike paths.
Table 3.9 Preferred Minimum Radii for Bike Paths
Design Speed (kph) Minimum Radii (m)
30 25
10 4
Note:
m = meters
Bike paths should provide a curvilinear alignment to achieve a visually pleasing path
for cyclists, where possible. Minimum curve radii shall not be used to provide this
curvilinear alignment.
3.3.9 Vertical Alignment

Only gentle crest curves are likely to occur along bike paths; therefore, achieving
adequate forward visibility in the vertical direction will rarely be difficult. However,
forward visibility along bike paths should be checked.
For comfort, the preferred minimum crest k-value of 5.0 should be used, and an
acceptable minimum crest k-value of 1.6 should be used along off-road bike paths.
For the definition of crest k-value, see Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual.
3.3.10 Gradient
Care should be taken in designing off-road bike paths so that gradients are kept to a
minimum. The type of surface is important on slopes because the ability of the bicycle
tires to grip the surface will depend upon both the frictional resistance of the surface
and its gradient.
In addition to the length of the gradient, travel speed is another important factor to
consider. Steep gradients can lead to high speeds for descending cyclists or low
speeds for climbing cyclists, both of which can create hazards for all route users.
Figure 3.4 shows the maximum lengths of gradients acceptable to cyclists.
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Source: Guide to Road Design, Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths (Austroads, 2009)
Figure 3.4 Maximum Lengths of Gradients for Ease of Cycling
Stopping distances also increase significantly on gradients greater than 5 percent.

Obstacles and sharp bends at the top or bottom of steep and/or long gradients should
be avoided. If a bend is required at the bottom of a steep slope, then consideration
should be given to providing additional path width and a clear escape route or
recovery area adjacent to the outside of the curve.
The preferred maximum gradient for off-road bike paths is 2 percent, with an
absolute maximum of 5 percent. Where new routes are constructed adjacent to the
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existing roadway, or when they interact with existing structures, underpasses for
example, the gradient will often be required to reflect conditions on the adjacent road
or structure. As such, where it is not practicable to provide gradients less than
5 percent, steeper gradients may be considered over short distances. In these
circumstances, adequate sight distances should be provided together with
appropriate delineation and signs should be provided advising cyclists to proceed with
care.
At the base and top of gradients exceeding 2 percent, a level plateau at least 5 m long
is desirable in advance of give way or stop lines.
3.3.11 Cross Section

The cross section of an off-road bicycle facility will depend upon a number of factors,
including:
• Facility type
• Visibility
• Boundary conditions
• The need for street furniture within the facility
Table 3.10 lists the minimum values for the paved width of an off-road bicycle facility.
Table 3.10 Minimum Paved Width of Off-Road Bicycle Facilities
Preferred Minimum Width Acceptable Minimum Width
Bike Path 3.0 m 2.0 m
Shared Path 3.0 m 2.0 ma
Segregated Path 5.0 m; 3.0-m bike path; 3.5 m; 2.0-m bike path;
2.0-m pedestrian route 1.5-m pedestrian route
Notes:
a Denotes satisfactory operation for cyclist and pedestrian flows up to a maximum of 200 cyclists and
pedestrians per hour

m = meters
At gates and where routes are signed for single file use at pinch points, the surfaced
width of a bike path may be reduced to 1.2 m. Single file sections should be no longer
than the sight distance for the route. Where there are different design speeds on
either side of a single file section, the lower value of sight distance should be used.
Transitions from one width to another should normally be tapered at a rate no

sharper than 1:7 for design speeds greater than or equal to 30 kph. For lower design
speeds, the taper may be reduced to 1:5.
Shared-use facilities should generally be restricted to locations where flows of either

cyclists or pedestrians are low, and therefore where the potential for conflict is low.
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The potential for conflict between users increases where flows of more than one
group are high. In this case, it is generally necessary to have some form of segregation
along the route. Route segregation should also be considered if persons with
disabilities, people with prams or strollers, or other vulnerable users are likely to
make frequent use of the facility.
The preferred separation between pedestrians and cyclists is 1.0 m, with an

acceptable separation of 0.5 m.
3.3.12 Boundary Treatments

Boundary treatment is a defining element of street scene because, after buildings and
trees, it is the main physical item at eye level to cyclist and pedestrians.
The functions of boundary treatments fall into the following categories:
• Privacy
• Protection
• Ownership identification
• Appearance
With respect to pedestrian/bike paths, the form of the boundary treatment, including
brick walls, timber fences, and railings, will be reflective of the local character of the
urban and rural areas.
The widths for pedestrian/bike paths should be modified in particular circumstances

as follows and as shown in Figure 3.5:
• For a route bounded on one side and the boundary height is up to 1.2 m, an extra
0.25 m should be provided to allow for a buffer width between the route and the
barrier.
• For a route bounded on one side and the boundary height is greater than 1.2 m,
an extra 0.5 m should be provided to allow for a buffer width between the route
and the boundary.
• For a route bounded on both sides, an extra 0.25 m or 0.5 m should be provided
on each side as appropriate.
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Figure 3.5 Boundary Treatments for Pedestrian/Bike Paths
3.3.13 Physical Separation

It is desirable to provide a physical separation between pedestrian/bike paths and
roadways; see Figure 3.6. The preferred separation width is 1.5 m, with an acceptable
separation of 0.5 m. Where possible, the higher value of 1.5 m should be used on
roads with posted speeds in excess of 50 kph. If a hard strip is provided, this can be
considered as part of the separation. Hard strips provide a safer roadway width to
maneuver around vehicles that are stopped due to an emergency. Hard strips also
keep roadside debris away from the running width of an outside lane and maintain
pavement integrity and stability.
Figure 3.6 Separation Width between Pedestrian/Bike Paths and the Roadway
If the separation described above cannot be provided, segregation may be achieved

by use of a post-and-single-rail fence, railings, curbs, or delineator strips. Guardrails
should be used only in short lengths because over any appreciable distance, the risk
of bicycle handlebars and pedals colliding with them is increased. Fences and
guardrails can also trap users on the “wrong” side, exposing them to vehicular traffic.
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Where a pedestrian/bike path is adjacent to hazards such as a ditch or other water

feature, or embankment slopes steeper than 1:3, a separation greater than that
recommended above should be considered to minimize the risks. Designers should
also consider providing physical barriers, such as dense shrubbery, guardrails, or
fences.
The installation of a fence at the side of a path used by cyclists is desirable where:
• There is a steep slope or large vertical drop located in proximity to the path
• The path is adjacent to an arterial road and it is necessary to restrict cyclist access
to the road
• A bridge or culvert exists on a path
• A hazard exists adjacent to a particular bicycle facility
• Cyclists are likely to be “blazing a separate trail” at an intersection between paths
or around a path terminal.
Figure 3.9 and Table 3.11 through Table 3.13 provide specific recommendations for
the provision of a fence on a path in proximity to a batter slope or vertical drop. In
addition to those referred to in the figures, other circumstances may exist where it
may be desirable to erect fences even if provision is not required by the figures; for
example, a curving path alignment located near batters or a drop-off and bridges.
A barrier fence may be appropriate where a path is adjacent to a watercourse, lake,

or other safety concern; for example, a full barrier fence would be appropriate where
a vertical fall to water occurs within 5 m of a path.
Figure 3.7 through Figure 3.9 and Table 3.11 through Table 3.13 illustrate the
circumstances in which a partial barrier fence, as shown in Figure 3.10, or a full barrier
fence, as shown in Figure 3.11, or equivalent form of protection should be used.
These barriers are intended to prevent access to a slope or to a drop away from a
path or other riding surface, where injury might occur if a cyclist were to leave the
path inadvertently.
Key:
X = Lateral clearance
Y = Vertical drop
Figure 3.7 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops
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Table 3.11 Requirements for a Fence at Vertical Drops

X (m) Y (m)
Fence Requirement (Figure 3.7) (Figure 3.7)
Fence not requireda <2 <0.25
Partial barrier fence (Figure 3.10) <5 0.25 to 2
Full barrier fence (Figure 3.11) <5 >2
Notes:
a Slope of the surface where fall is within 1 m of path.
m = meter(s)
Key:
X = Lateral clearance
Figure 3.8 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles
Table 3.12 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes without Obstacles
X (m) Z (m)
Fence not required <1 >8
1 to 5 >3
Partial barrier fence (Figure 3.10) <5 1 to 3
Full barrier fence (Figure 3.11) <5 <1
Note:
m = meters
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Key:
X* = Lateral clearance
Figure 3.9 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles
Table 3.13 Requirements for a Fence at Slopes with Obstacles
X (m) Z (m)
Fence not required <1 >8
1 to 5 >4
Partial barrier fence (Figure 3.10) <5 3 to 4
Full barrier fence (Figure 3.11) <5 <3
Notes:
Barrier fence required if obstacle within 1 m of path.
m = meter(s)
Figure 3.10 Example of a Partial Barrier Fence
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Figure 3.11 Example of a Full Barrier Fence
The recommended height for fences is 1.4 m; the minimum height is 1.2 m, as shown
in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11. The minimum height should be used only where the
severity of the hazard is considered low. A fence that is higher than 1.4 m may be
considered where the fence is protecting the path user from a severe hazard, such as
a high vertical drop from a structure to a body of water or rocks.
Similar or even more stringent measures may be required adjacent to roads. Where a
slope or fall is located in proximity to a road, designers should follow the
requirements presented in this Section, particularly where no curb exists at the edge
of a road. However, the actual measures required should consider all road users and
the particular circumstances of the bike path and its proximity to the roadway.
3.3.14 Crossfall
Crossfall is applied to bike paths principally for the purpose of drainage. The direction
of fall should generally be toward the adjacent road.
Acceptable gradients for crossfall are shown in Table 3.14. Crossfalls greater than
these values should be avoided other than for very short distances because they can
create maneuvering difficulties for cyclists.
Table 3.14 Acceptable Bike Path Crossfall Gradient
Recommended Crossfall for Bike Path 1:50 (2.0%)
Maximum Permitted Crossfall 1:20 (5.0%)
Crossfall either can be to one side or cambered to both sides. However, adverse
crossfall should be avoided on bends or curves.
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For subways of any length and obstacles longer than 20 m, a minimum vertical
clearance of 3.5 m should be provided. For shorter obstructions, including signs, this
may be reduced to 2.4 m. In exceptional circumstances, where 2.4 m vertical
clearance cannot be achieved, signs advising cyclists to dismount will be required.
3.3.16 Bike Path Shading and Water Stations

Bike paths should be shaded at appropriate locations by either adjacent vegetation or
tensile shade structures such as self-standing structures.
Water stations and rest areas should be provided along stretches of bike path. The
exact locations should be agreed upon with the appropriate authorities.
3.4 Off-Road Bike Path Intersections

3.4.1 Path-Path Intersections
Intersections between bike paths and shared paths for pedestrians and cyclists are
simple arrangements, as shown in Figure 3.12. Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts,
of this manual provides additional details regarding path-path intersections.
Figure 3.12 Intersections between Bike Paths and Shared-Use Paths
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The main principles for the design of path intersections are as follows:
• A staggered T arrangement rather than a cross intersection should be adopted to

prevent high crossing speeds.
• The intersection angle should not be less than 70 degrees to achieve acceptable
observation angles and angles of conflict.
• Pavement markings should include medians and yield lines.
• Pavement splays in the corners should have a minimum radius of 2.0 m.
• Priority should normally be given to the path that has the highest daily volume of
cyclists and pedestrians.
3.4.2 Path–Road Intersections

The principles that apply to design for pedestrian crossings, which are addressed in
Section 2.7 in this Part, also apply to the design of intersections of shared-use and
bike paths with roads.
Midblock intersections between shared-use paths or bike paths and roads should be
as close to perpendicular as practical, as shown in Figure 3.13. The aim is to minimize
the exposure of path users to traffic and to maximize sightlines.
A crossing skewed at 30 degrees is twice as long as a perpendicular crossing, doubling

the exposure of path users to approaching motor vehicles and increasing delays for
motorists who should wait for path users to cross. A minimum 60-degree crossing
angle may be acceptable to better suit user desire lines.
Source: Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities (AASHTO, 2011)
Figure 3.13 Crossing Angle
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3.4.3 Road Intersections

The design of integrated crossings and facilities for cyclists at road intersections is
described in the following parts of the Qatar Highway Design Manual, Volume 1:
• Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections

• Part 7, Design for Roundabouts
• Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections
• Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors
3.5 Bike Path Terminal Treatments

3.5.1 Path Terminal Treatments
A path terminal treatment may be required where a shared-use path or bike path
intersects with a road. Terminal treatments apply to off-road bike paths or to paths
that follow a major road and cross side streets.
Terminal treatments for off-road, shared-use, and bike paths are generally provided
for the following:
• Restrict illegal access by drivers of motor vehicles to road reserves and parkland
to prevent damage to paths and other assets and prevent rubbish from being
dumped illegally
• Advise cyclists of a road ahead and slow cyclists before they cross the road
Terminal treatments should be designed and installed in such a way that they serve
their intended purpose so that cyclists can:
• Easily negotiate path entrances

• Concentrate on other traffic, pedestrians, pavements, and ramps
• Not be distracted by overly restrictive barriers
3.5.2 Separate Entry and Exit Treatment

This treatment, as shown in Figure 3.14, is the bike path equivalent of providing a
median island at a road intersection with similar benefits with respect to warning
cyclists and channelizing traffic movements. This treatment provides sufficient
warning to cyclists that they are approaching a road and does not place an obstacle,
such as a bollard, in the path of cyclists.
To restrict unauthorized access, it is critical that the fence extend to the edge of the
path. If access is required for authorized vehicles, removable posts may be placed
within the fence line.
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Figure 3.14 Separate Entry and Exit Terminal
3.5.3 Bollards and U-Rails

A common method of restricting access to paths is to install a bollard in the center of
the path. This type of treatment can create a risk for cyclists; it should be used only
where provision of the preferred treatments is not practicable. See Section 3.5 in this
Part for details about the preferred treatment. Lockable, removable, or reclining
bollards may be used to enable access for authorized vehicles.
Bollards on paths must be used in conjunction with a feature on the sides of the path
to provide openings that are no more than 1.6 m wide. The bollards should also be
conspicuous to cyclists and include markings to warn cyclists. Figure 3.15 shows the
layout of a bollard-restricted terminal point, and Figure 3.16 shows a typical bollard
treatment.
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Figure 3.15 Bollard-Restricted Terminal Point
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Figure 3.16 Example Bollard Treatment
For paths that are 4 m wide or more, consideration could be given to the installation
of a U-rail rather than a bollard. Figure 3.17 shows a typical U-rail and bollard
treatment.
Figure 3.17 Example of U-Rail and Bollard Treatment
Figure 3.18 shows typical details of bollards and U-rails.
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Figure 3.18 Details of a Bollard and U-Rail
3.5.4 Staggered Fence Treatment

The staggered fence treatment to slow cyclists should be used only for good reason,
such as a history of ride-out incidents, near misses, or crashes. Ride-out incidents or
near misses are when no crash takes place between cyclists or cyclists and
pedestrians. As Figure 3.19 shows, this treatment involves the installation of two
sections of mesh fence. The treatment shall have adequate lighting and be
constructed of materials that are inherently conspicuous. For example, all posts and
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mesh colors should contrast with the surrounding environment, as viewed by the
approaching cyclists. Total reliance on fitted delineation devices poses a risk to safety
if the device is vandalized or poorly maintained. Mesh fencing provides high visibility
for pedestrians and cyclists, and it is an alternative to installing barriers.
Figure 3.19 Staggered Fence Treatment
The staggered fence treatment is particularly suitable for slowing down cyclists to
negotiate the treatment. The key requirement is to provide sufficient distance
between the two fences so that cyclists are not forced to stop or slow to the point
that they become unstable during the maneuver. A minimum distance of 3 m is
suggested.
3.5.5 Offset Path Treatment

The offset path treatment shown in Figure 3.20 is an alternative to the staggered
fence treatment. The path is offset to one side as it approaches the intersection,
causing cyclists to reduce speed to negotiate the route. The path is bounded by a
suitable fence treatment so that cyclists remain on the path.
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Figure 3.20 Offset Path Treatment
3.6 Bicycle Provision at Structures

3.6.1 General
The primary requirements for bike paths and shared-use paths over bridges and
through underpasses are to provide the following:
• Adequate path width and horizontal clearances to objects such as walls, safety
barriers, curbs, fences, poles, and street furniture
• Adequate vertical clearance, particularly in underpasses
• Good sight lines into and through structures
• A surface that is smooth and not slippery under any conditions
A particular issue can arise with expansion joints that can provide a rough ride and be
slippery when wet. Designers should seek better methods and materials to address
this issue.
Where a bicycle facility is provided on the approach to a road bridge, it is important

that a similar facility be continued across or under the structure. Such a bicycle facility
should be possible for new structures. For existing structures, a similar bicycle facility
will not always be possible, but consideration should be given to implementing
measures that will improve the situation for cyclists. For example, motor traffic lane
widths could be reduced to make space available for cyclists, and pedestrian paths
could be modified to become shared-use paths.
The minimum dimensions for newly constructed, grade-separated bicycle facilities are
the same as for grade-separated pedestrian facilities; see Section 2.9 in this Part.
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However, daily volumes of cyclists or pedestrians, or both, should be estimated to

determine the recommended width of the footbridge or subway to be provided.
3.6.2 Protective Railings

Requirements for the provision of protective railings at structures are described in
Clause 3.3.13 in this Part. Where railings are terminated, they should be flared away
from the line of the rail to produce an offset of about 0.5 m, over a length of 5 m
(Figure 3.21). The end of all rails at all terminals should be joined smoothly to form a
semicircular face; this face forms the terminal presented to oncoming cyclists.
Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013)
Figure 3.21 Bicycle Safety Railing
3.6.3 Cycle Wheeling Ramps

A bicycle wheeling ramp may be provided where there are steps to change levels,
where acceptable gradients cannot be achieved, or space is not available to
incorporate a ramp. Key dimensions for bicycle wheeling ramps are shown in
Figure 3.22.
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Figure 3.22 Bicycle Wheeling Ramp Key Dimensions
The following issues should be considered in the design of bicycle wheeling ramps:
• Wheeling ramps should be provided on both sides of stairways where significant

bicycle volumes exist.
• Gradient of ramps should not exceed about 25 degrees.
• Narrow channels, from 75 to 150 mm wide, or channels that are rounded at the
base should be used to improve the ease of wheeling for cyclists. A channel
designed to accommodate an average wide bike tire, such as a mountain bike
tire, would be ideal.
• The channel should be constructed approximately 0.4 m from a fence or wall to
avoid catching pedals or handlebars.
• Handrails should be specified as close as practical to the fence or wall, when
erected adjacent to a wheeling ramp.
• Wheeling ramps should be provided with a smooth transition on to and off the
ramp.
• It may be desirable to provide a curb on the ramp, as shown in Figure 3.22, to
limit the possibility of pedestrians inadvertently stepping onto the ramp section.
• It would be prudent to design the ramp to minimize the possibility that it may be
cycled on.
3.7 Bicycle Parking

Bicycle parking is an essential element in a multimodal transportation system.
Bicycle parking facilities may be classified by the degree of security required, as listed
in Table 3.15. The security class is directly linked to the type of user and length of time
for which the facility is required.
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Table 3.15 Classifications of Bicycle Parking Facilities
Security
Class Level Description Main User Type
1 High Fully enclosed individual lockers Bike-and-ride commuters at railway

stations
2 Medium Locked compounds fitted with Class 3 Regular employees who use the
facilities work location as their regular place
Communal access using duplicate keys of work, students, and bike-and-ride
or electronic swipe cards commuters
3 Low Facilities to which the bicycle frame Employees, shoppers, and visitors
and wheels can be locked where parking facilities are
supervised by security personnel
Source: Road Planning and Design Manual (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013).
3.7.1 High-Security Facilities

Bicycle lockers, which provide the highest level of security, are completely enclosed
individual containers into which helmets and other gear can be placed with the
bicycle locked in. Bicycle lockers are the most appropriate for all-day parking at such
places as bus and rail terminals.
3.7.2 Medium-Security Facilities

Biycle enclosures provide a medium level of security. Although bicycles can be locked
in, an enclosure is shared with the bicycles of several owners.
3.7.3 Low-Security Facilities

Biycle parking rails/racks are facilities to which both the bicycle frames and wheels
can be locked if desired. They offer a low level of security and are suited to both
short- and medium-term parking.
Guidance for the layout of bicycle parking rails and racks is provided in Table 3.16.
Table 3.16 Layout of Bicycle Rails and Racks
Distance to Other Rack units aligned side-by-side should be placed a minimum of 0.9 m apart
Rails and Racks Rack units aligned end-to-end should be placed a minimum of 2.4 m apart.
Distance from a Racks located parallel to a curb should be a minimum of 0.6 m from the back of curb.
Curb Racks located perpendicular to the curb should be a minimum of 0.9 m from the
back of curb.
Distance from a Racks located parallel to a wall should be a minimum of 0.9 m from the wall.
Wall Assuming access is needed from both sides, racks located perpendicular to a wall
should be a minimum of 1.2 m from the wall.
Note:
m = meter(s)
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In all cases, the parking area beneath the rack should be a concrete or asphalt surface
and large enough to support bicycles locked to the rail/rack. The design of rails/racks
should follow the following guidelines:
• Support the bicycle at two points above its center of gravity.

• Accommodate high-security, U-shaped bicycle locks.
• Accommodate locks to secure the bike frames and one or both wheels, preferably
without removing the front wheel of the bicycle.
• Avoid bending wheels or damaging other bicycle parts.
• Avoid having the user lift the bicycle off the ground.
Avoid bicycle stand types referred to as “disk-rack” or “comb” style. These types of
bicycle stands provide little security and are generally unsuitable for public use
because they either support the front wheel only or allow only one wheel to be
locked with a device.
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4 Public Transport Facilities

4.1 General
4.1.1 Public Transport Facilities
Qatar either already operates or plans to construct the following public transport
infrastructure to support its growing urban population:
• Bus
• Bus rapid transit
• Tram
• Light rail transit
• Metro
• Rail
• Shipping
Refer to the latest Transport Master Plan for Qatar—Public Transport System for
Qatar (MMUP, 2008) for details regarding existing and proposed public transport
systems, including bus routes, bus rapid transit, tram, light rail transit, and the
proposed Metro system currently under construction.
Mowasalat, under the brand name Karwa, operates and manages more than
3,000 new and well-maintained taxis, more than 35 bus routes, and more than
120 public buses, school buses, and private-hire coaches that serve most of Doha.
Designers and consultants should refer to the Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit
Planning (Mowasalat, 2014) for the design of bus stops and associated facilities.
The railway network is operated and managed by Qatar Railways Company (Qatar
Rail). Qatar Rail owns the railway network, which will be responsible for the design,
construction, commissioning, operation, and maintenance of the entire rail network
and systems. Qatar Rail will consist of Doha Metro, long-distance passenger and
freight rail, and Lusail light rail. For the railway design standards as well as the
planned highway network, pedestrian, cycling, and bus facilities interaction with the
proposed rail routes, see the latest Qatar Rail design standards. (Qatar Rail, 2014)
Qatar Ports Management Company (Mawani Qatar) manages civil harbors, docks, and
seaports and organizes the movement of ships and boats for Qatar.
The designer should consult with the relevant planning or design organizations to
avoid impacts to projects. Where integration or provision is expected, the designer
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should prepare briefing documentation for the consideration of the Transportation

and Infrastructure Planning Department.
4.1.2 Requirements
The designer should consider planned public transport infrastructure so that the
following requirements are achieved in developing the design of the road network:
• Maintain access for pedestrians and other vulnerable road users.

• Provide adequate visibility and stopping sight distance.
• Balance road space with requirements for public transport facilities.
• Consider road safety and traffic calming measures.
Care should be taken that the standard of the road network is contiguous and that
changes to levels of provision are carried out with due consideration of the end user.
4.2 Bus Facilities

4.2.1 Introduction
Bus facilities include such facilities as bus terminals, stations, buses, bus stops, bus
shelters, wide passenger standing areas, and e-card machines.
Bus usage depends on service buses operating on fixed routes, with fixed stopping
points, and with fixed and reliable timetables.
Bus timetables should be matched to demand; this means that for commuter routes,
where demands peak at fixed periods of the day, buses should set out on their routes
at times to meet these demands. For buses traveling from urban centers or
transportation interchange points, buses on several different routes will leave at
similar times, which implies a need to provide bus terminals with sufficient parking to
store a number of buses while loading and waiting for their departure times. Such
parking shall allow each vehicle to enter or leave independently of the positions of all
others using the facility.
Entry and exit routes to bus parking areas shall comply with standard access
requirements for heavily used private access points and accomplish the following:
• Provide safe operation for both buses and through traffic passing by the access
point.
• Provide efficient operation for buses entering and leaving the facility
4.2.2 Bus Operator

Mowasalat operates and manages buses and facilities for public buses in Qatar. The
designer should consult with Mowasalat to determine the requirements of public
transportation within the project area, specifically the provision of facilities for public
buses.
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Provision for existing and future bus routes, including formal bus stops and bus
shelters, may need to be incorporated into the Mowasalat requirements. Provision of
interfaces with bus rapid transit facilities may also be required. Details of planned bus
rapid transit routes should be confirmed with Mowasalat.
4.2.3 Bus Terminal Design

To design for access ways and internal circulation lanes to be of sufficient width and
height for buses to park in the bus terminal, designers should take into account the
size and maneuverability of buses.
To assist with the design of a bus terminal, the turning circles and swept paths for a
range of bus sizes should be established using an internationally recognized software
packages available for this purpose.
Several bus terminal designs have been developed. Figure 4.1 through Figure 4.3
show typical bus parking arrangements. The layouts in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 may
be suitable for ground-level incorporation in buildings or for open-air sites; that in
Figure 4.3 may be more suitable for construction in the open along the line of a new
or existing road.
Figure 4.1 Parallel Bus Parking Layout
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Figure 4.2 Angled Bus Parking Layout
Figure 4.3 Linear Bus Parking Layout
4.2.4 Park-and-Ride Facilities

Increases in traffic volumes, together with constraints on parking in the centers and
business areas of larger towns, lead to demand for park-and-ride bus facilities. These
facilities include combined bus stops or transfer stations and car parking areas at
locations around the periphery of a town so that travelers may leave their cars and
continue their journey by bus. These facilities have the advantage of reducing traffic
congestion and pollution levels in town and, subject to adequate scheduling and
routing of the bus services, reducing overall travel time.
The park-and-ride sites can be placed at locations selected without the pressure of
central urban land values and where access to and from the road network for both
cars and buses can be of a high standard. Most travelers will wish to complete their
journeys by way of a single bus trip; therefore, bus routes should be carefully
researched and monitored over time. Monitoring may result in the provision of one or
more routes from a single park-and-ride site to control the bus parking/waiting layout
required.
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Sometimes it is possible to combine a passenger car park-and-ride site with an out-of-

town truck park. Such parks relieve urban streets of truck traffic and allow truck
drivers to travel into and out of the town with few issues. The provision of such a
combined facility clearly requires careful design to separate the parking for the
disparate types of vehicles and possibly, to provide security for overnight truck stays.
4.2.5 Bus Stops

The most critical factors in the placement of bus stops are safety and avoidance of
conflicts that could impede bus, car, or pedestrian flows. Ideally, bus stops should be
located on the exit of intersections, and consideration should be given to providing
pedestrian road crossing facilities in conjunction with the stop. Safety considerations
favor the placing of a bus stop on the departure side at least 15 m from the
pedestrian crossing.
Guidance on the location and design of bus stops is provided in the Guidelines for the
Location and Design of Bus Stops (Transit Cooperative Research Program, 1996).
4.2.5.1 Inline Bus Stop/Curbside

Inline bus stops are parallel to the curb line. This type of stop generally requires the
through traffic lane to yield behind the bus until passengers enter or exit the bus. It
can cause commuting drivers to be impatient and try to maneuver around the
stationary bus. This style of bus stop is generally undesirable in high-volume
roadways, but it can be considered on lesser roads. The designer should consult with
Mowasalat during the selection and implementation of inline bus stops.
4.2.5.2 Bus Bulbs/Build Outs

Bus bulbs extend the pedestrian path into the parking lane, providing space in which
to locate a bus shelter and other pedestrian amenities and thus reducing the
pedestrian street crossing distance while allowing better bus alignment However,
bulbs and build outs result in fewer parking spaces for cars along the roadway. The
designer should determine the application in consultation with Mowasalat.
Similar to inline bus stops, through traffic should yield behind the bus until passengers
enter or exit, which can affect roadway performance and potentially cause safety
issues.
4.2.5.3 Off-line Bus Stop

Off-line bus stops provide sufficient curb indentation to allow through traffic to pass
the stationary bus. Generally, off-line bus stops should be considered at locations
where the following factors are present:
• Traffic in the curb lane exceeds 250 vehicles during the peak hour but does not
exceed 1,000 vehicles per hour per lane.
• Posted speed is greater than 50 kph or in busy urban areas where posted speed is
less than or equal to 50 kph.
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Buses should stop at bus stops along their routes to drop off and collect passengers.
On busy roads, it is desirable that buses pull out of the traffic stream to do this. This is
less important on minor collector and local roads, where traffic delays caused by a
stationary bus are less significant. However, traffic levels tend to rise over time, and
there may be a case for providing off-line bus stops or at least the land for their future
construction. For bus routes on arterials and boulevards without grade-separated
intersections, an off-line bus stop should be provided.
Bus stops and off-line bus stops shall not be allowed on expressways or other types of
road with grade-separated intersections. Buses using such roads should pull off at
intersections where an off-line bus stop can be provided on a lower-standard road.
Alternatively, a specially separated off-line bus stop should be constructed with entry
and exit ramps and a bus-only stopping area separated from the main roadway.
Entrance and exit ramp geometry should conform to the requirements of Part 6,
Design for Priority Intersections, of this manual. If such a facility is provided, great
care should be taken that pedestrians passing to or from the bus stop do not venture
onto or near the main roadway. If pedestrians require access to the other side of the
main roadway, then a bridge or an underpass shall be provided together with fencing
to keep pedestrians within authorized and safe areas.
All bus stop designs, including 12.0 m before and 8.0 m beyond the stop, should be
kept free of parked vehicles so as not to impair a driver’s view of pedestrians
approaching and leaving the stop. It is also important that bus stops not be located on
the inside of bends such that a stopped bus would obstruct the necessary sight
distance for the road. Bus stops on single roadway roads should be staggered as
shown in Figure 4.4 (see section F in the figure). The staggering allows drivers an
unobstructed view of pedestrians crossing the road when a bus is approaching.
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Figure 4.4 Off-line Bus Stops
A busy bus stop on a busy road may require a pedestrian crossing to accommodate
the resulting pedestrian flows crossing to and from the bus stop. Such a crossing
should be positioned upstream of the bus stop so that drivers will more easily see
pedestrians waiting to cross. Therefore, while a bus is stopped at the bus stop, a
driver can see if a pedestrian is using the crossing to cross the roadway and knows to
wait for the pedestrian, if appropriate. Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, of this
manual provides details regarding the visibility of crossings for approaching drivers of
all vehicles.
When a bus stop is required close to an intersection, it is best positioned downstream

of the intersection to prevent obstructing the vision of following drivers. If a stop is
required upstream of the intersection, it should be positioned sufficiently far from the
intersection to allow the bus to move off and enter the traffic stream without
affecting other traffic.
A series of off-line bus stop layouts is shown in Figure 4.4.
4.2.5.4 Bus Shelters and Associated Furniture

The decision to install a shelter is the result of system-wide policy by Mowasalat.
Prior to making provision for the future installation of a bus shelter and associated
furniture within the ROW, the designer should discuss the details with Mowasalat.
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The designer should submit the details of relevant associated furniture to accompany
each bus stop to Mowasalat for the final approval.
4.3 Planning Process for Bus Stops

For the initial review and suitability of a bus stop design project produced by a
designer on behalf of a developer, the Mowasalat representative will review and
determine the most appropriate highway layout of bus stop/shelter based on the
following:
• Road type
• Traffic volumes on the road
• Width of existing sidewalks
• Nature of adjoining properties and land use
• Road safety issues
• Scale of passenger usage that might be expected because of local trip generators
• Consideration of construction issues
4.4 Introduction to Design Process for Bus Stops

For a typical design process, the factors described in the following subsections are
included.
4.4.1 Initial Information for Agreeing Project Brief

In developing and agreeing on a project brief for a bus stop design in support of
submitting a planning application to Mowasalat for approval, the designer should
perform a brief review of the available information and data relevant to the project.
This review is to determine if there are gaps in the information that might necessitate
additional clarification or data collection.
4.4.2 Available Drawing Information

Survey base drawings should cover the main highway or roadway, pedestrian paths/
sidewalks up to the building line on each side of the road. The drawings should contain
details of curb lines, road markings, street furniture, highway features, lamp columns,
road signs, planting including type of plants and trees, crash barriers, pedestrian
facilities, and parking bays. Other details on the base drawings could include the
following:
• Visible utility and drainage features, inspection covers, connection boxes, etc.,
with the responsible authorities noted
• Details of overhangs from buildings, lighting, signage, or planting that might
interfere with the installation of bus shelters/stops
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4.4.3 Utility Information

To design bus stops effectively, it is recommended to have comprehensive
information about utilities near the proposed bus stop locations. This information
includes the following:
• Utilities received from the Overseeing Organization

• Power, telecom, and irrigation networks where applicable
4.4.4 Identify Preliminary Bus Stop Locations from Satellite imagery

In their early discussions with Mowasalat, MMUP, and Ashghal, designers may
consider it necessary to show the proposed locations of bus stops on satellite imagery
along the bus routes for which stops are to be designed. If Mowasalat, MMUP, and
Ashghal deem the preliminary locations appropriate, then the proposed bus stops
locations will be confirmed to designers before detailed design commences.
4.4.5 Bus Stop Shelter

Designers should refer to the Mowasalat requirements (Mowasalat, 2014) for types of
bus stop shelters to determine the associated footprints, foundation requirements,
supports, power supplies, and clearances.
4.4.6 Highway Designs of Bus Stops

Based on the bus stop design guide (Mowasalat, 2014), the designers should prepare
a set of standard highway bus stop layout designs for the chosen locations.
The design of bus stops along highway corridors must reflect the following factors:
• Highway type and number of lanes

• Pedestrian path or sidewalk size and location in relation to the roadway
• Local highway features
• Road safety considerations
• Existing parking arrangements on the highway
• Adjacent land uses
4.4.7 Design Location of Bus Stops and Bus Shelters

Designers will identify appropriate locations for bus stop using the survey drawings,
utility information, and information from the site visits. Locations will have been
assessed based on the following criteria:
• The distance between bus stops should be 300 m to 600 m, depending on the
type of bus passenger use, such as urban, central commercial, service
administration, or residential areas. This may be adjusted depending on the type
of highway being served.
• Stops for inbound and outbound journeys should link to the key attractions and
minimize walking distances for passengers. The site visit should inspect both sides
of the road. Any variation of inbound or outbound journeys should not affect the
passenger experience and should minimize walk times.
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• Stops should be located as close as possible to schools, universities, employment

sites, shopping malls, mosques, public buildings, and other key attractors. The
locations of the main entrances to key attractors will be identified, and bus stops
will be located accordingly. In addition to any engineering surveys needed to
identify suitable locations, designers will assess passenger access routes to and
from bus stops and identify pedestrian desire lines. Obstacles or level changes
should be avoided and access maintained for both able-bodied and disabled
passengers.
• Safety will be a key consideration when identifying bus stop locations. Buses must
be able to safely approach the stop and dock so that passengers on the bus and in
the waiting area have full access, and then safely rejoin the traffic flow.
• Existing and proposed roadside car parking should be reviewed at each bus stop
location. Where parking creates difficulties for buses approaching and leaving bus
stop locations and impacts highway safety, parking spaces should be removed.
• Bus stops should be located as close to the bus boarding point as possible
allowing for safe access for passengers when boarding and exiting the bus.
• The bus stops will be designed to cater to the bus types agreed upon with
Mowasalat. In identifying final locations, consideration will be given to the safe
docking of vehicles, ensuring buses are not obstructing visibility, overhanging
intersections, or existing pedestrian facilities.
• Where buses from other bus lines will use the proposed bus stops, possible use of
a joint station with cross platform interchange will be identified if the direction of
the lines and layout of the roads permit.
After determining the locations and the type of bus stop highway design to be used as
well as the bus shelter type, the designer will prepare design drawings at 1:500 to
1:1,000 scales for the bus stop and shelter. The drawings must include details
regarding the materials and finishes based on the designs approved by Mowasalat.
The proposed design should include a bus stop footprint, a site plan, and a cross
section.
4.3 Qatar Bus Stop Design Guide

The bus stop design guide (Mowasalat, 2014) consists of the following information:
• Design guide overview

• Curb design and curbstone details for all newly built bus stop platform
• Bus stop categorization, such as low, median, and high passenger demand per
day
• Bus stop design, including bus stop pole details, layout and clearance details, and
bus stop geometric design details
• Bus stop spacing for city areas, urban areas, and low-density residential areas
• Guides on bus frequencies at bus stops
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VOLUME 3 PART 19
• Design details of bus stops for a range of bus types

• Requirements for bus stop location proposals or existing submittals to Mowasalat
Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6 show typical examples of bus stop layouts for off-line bus
stops and existing wide sidewalks used by rigid and articulated buses. These bus stop
layouts and the measurements shown are for illustration purposes only. Refer to the
latest bus stop design guide by Mowasalat for the design of bus stops.
Note: Not to scale. For illustration purposes only.
Figure 4.5 Typical Bus Stop Layout Using Existing Wide Pedestrian Paths
Note: Not to scale. For illustration purposes only.
Figure 4.6 Typical Layout for an Off-Line Bus Stop on a High-Speed Road
4.4 Bus Shelter Design

Shelters may take a number of different forms depending on their precise purpose
and location. They are usually deployed where pedestrians are likely to be waiting for
more than a few minutes during the course of their journey at a bus stop. The shelters
shall have clear sides to allow pedestrians to view the approaching buses and provide
seating to enable waiting passengers to rest at the bus stop. Shelters at bus stops
shall be provided to provide protection from the sun and, to a lesser extent, wind.
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They also provide protection from rainfall and from spray generated by passing traffic
in wet-weather conditions.
The designer should consider providing bus shelters at all bus stations or terminals
and at all bus stops.
If new designs are used for shelters, they shall be discussed with and approved by
Mowasalat.
In designing shelters, the designer shall observe the following guidance:
• Where shelters are provided, the sidewalk should be widened to maintain

capacity and to avoid an obstruction to the flow of pedestrians.
• Shelters can have high visual impact and so they should be designed to fit in with
the architecture and landscape of the neighborhood.
• Shelters should be fitted with internal illumination.
• A display giving details of the frequency of service and a route map showing the
important destinations along the journey should be provided within the shelters.
The Public Transport System for Qatar and the Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit
Planning (Mowasalat, 2014) provide additional information on bus stop and bus
shelter designs.
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VOLUME 3 PART 19
References
AASHTO. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, 4th edition. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
Ashghal. Local Roads & Drainage Program Design Management Manual. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2013a.
Austroads. Guide to Road Design, Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths. Sydney, Australia. 2009.
Austroads. Cycling Aspects of Austroads Guides. Sydney, Australia. 2011.
Department for Transport. “Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions.” Design Manual
for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 2, Part 6. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section2/td4295.pdf. January 1995.
Department for Transport. “The Geometric Design of Pedestrian, Cycle and Equestrian Routes.”
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. Volume 6, Section 3, Part 5. TA 90/05. UK Highways
Agency: London, England. http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section3/ta9005.pdf.
2005.
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR). Guidance on the Use of
Tactile Paving Surfaces. Scottish Government (formerly Scottish Executive): Edinburgh, Scotland.
1998.
Department of Transport and Main Roads. Road Planning and Design Manual, 2nd edition.
Volumes 1 to 6. Queensland, Australia. http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/business‐industry/Technical‐
standards‐publications/Road‐planning‐and‐design‐manual‐2nd‐edition.aspx. 2013.
Dubai Municipality. Pedestrian and Cyclist Design Manual. Prepared by CHRI for Dubai
Municipality. Government of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. 2003.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). “Pedestrian Facility Guidelines.” Transport
Master Plan Qatar. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP). “Public Transport System for Qatar.”
Transport Master Plan for Qatar. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2008.
Ministry of Transport (MOT). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. State of Qatar: Doha, Qatar. 2015.
Ministry of Transport and Communication. Highway Design Standards. Prepared by Dar

Al‐Handasah (Shair and Partners) for Sultanate of Oman. 2010.
Qatar Rail. ”Qatar Rail Website.” http://www.qr.com.qa/English/pages/default.aspx. Qatar

Railways Company: Doha, Qatar. Accessed June 5, 2014.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 81
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Qatar Rail. ”Qatar Rail Website.” http://www.qr.com.qa/English/pages/default.aspx. Qatar

Railways Company: Doha, Qatar. Accessed June 5, 2014.
Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP). Guidelines for the Location and Design of Bus
Stops. TCRP Report 19. Transportation Research Board, National Academy Press: Washington, DC,
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington, DC,
PAGE 82 VOLUME 3
Volume 3
Part 20
Context Sensitive Design and
Solutions
VOLUME 3 PART 20
CONTEXT SENSITIVE DESIGN AND SOLUTIONS
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪CONTEXT SENSITIVE DESIGN AND SOLUTIONS‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
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VOLUME 3 PART 20
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... ix
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Qualities and Characteristics of Successful Projects ................................................... 1
1.2 Importance of Context Sensitive Design to Qatar ....................................................... 2
1.3 Coordination with Other Parts of this Manual ............................................................ 3
1.4 Coordination with Other Guidelines............................................................................ 4
1.5 Context Sensitive Design Priorities .............................................................................. 4
1.5.1 Cultural Inspiration....................................................................................... 4
1.6 Context Sensitive Design Process ................................................................................ 5
1.6.1 Considerations for Street Design ................................................................. 6
1.6.2 Phases of the Design Process ....................................................................... 6
1.6.3 Phase I – Scoping .......................................................................................... 7
1.6.4 Phase II – Conceptual Design ....................................................................... 7
1.6.5 Phase III – Preliminary Design .................................................................... 11
1.6.6 Phase IV – Finalize Design .......................................................................... 15
1.6.7 Departures or Exceptions ........................................................................... 17
1.6.8 Integration with the Approval Process ...................................................... 17
2 Critical Success Factors for Context Sensitive Design and Solutions ...............................19
2.1 Employ Effective Decision-making ............................................................................ 19
2.2 Reflect Community Values ........................................................................................ 20
2.3 Achieve Environmental Sensitivity ............................................................................ 20
2.4 Provide Safe and Feasible Solutions .......................................................................... 20
2.5 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach ............................................................ 21
2.6 The Project Team ....................................................................................................... 21
2.7 Project Management Plans ....................................................................................... 22
2.8 Standards versus Guidelines ...................................................................................... 22
2.9 Departures from Standards ....................................................................................... 22
3 Working with Stakeholders ...........................................................................................23

3.1 Who Are Stakeholders? ............................................................................................. 23
3.2 Understanding and Identifying Stakeholders ............................................................ 24
3.3 Principles of Stakeholder Engagement ...................................................................... 25
3.4 Understanding the Scope and Objectives of Stakeholder Engagement.................... 25
3.5 When to Engage Stakeholders................................................................................... 26
3.6 Stakeholder Engagement Plan................................................................................... 26
3.7 Stakeholder Engagement Techniques ....................................................................... 27
3.7.1 Workshops ................................................................................................. 27
3.7.2 Design Days or Charrettes .......................................................................... 28
3.7.3 Site Visits or Site Audits .............................................................................. 28
3.7.4 Case Study Visits......................................................................................... 28
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VOLUME 3 PART 20
3.7.5 One-on-One Meetings ................................................................................ 29

3.7.6 Stakeholder Questionnaires ....................................................................... 29
3.7.7 Websites ..................................................................................................... 29
3.7.8 Visual Presentation Techniques ................................................................. 29
3.8 Community Engagement ........................................................................................... 30
3.8.1 What is “Community”? ............................................................................... 30
3.8.2 Benefits of Community Engagement.......................................................... 31
3.8.3 Principles of Community Engagement ....................................................... 31
3.8.4 Understanding the Local Community ......................................................... 32
3.8.5 Defining the Purpose and Objectives of the Consultation ......................... 32
3.8.6 Identifying the Scope of the Consultation .................................................. 32
3.8.7 When to Engage ......................................................................................... 33
3.8.8 Community Engagement Plan .................................................................... 33
3.8.9 Reporting .................................................................................................... 33
3.8.10 Community Engagement Techniques......................................................... 33
3.9 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context ............................................................................. 35
3.9.1 Integrating Road and Land Use Plans ......................................................... 35
3.10 Develop the Design Vision and Objectives ................................................................ 36
3.11 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context.................................................... 37
3.11.1 Urban and Landscape Appraisal ................................................................. 37
3.11.2 The Value of a Good Road Landscape and Urban Streets .......................... 38
3.12 Urban Context Appraisal ............................................................................................ 38
3.12.1 Character and Local Distinctiveness ........................................................... 40
3.12.2 Land Use Context........................................................................................ 40
3.12.3 Urban Form, Street Structure, and Layout ................................................. 40
3.12.4 Public Space and Parks ............................................................................... 41
3.12.5 Movement .................................................................................................. 42
3.12.6 Landscape and Ecology............................................................................... 43
3.12.7 Legibility ..................................................................................................... 44
3.12.8 Buildings ..................................................................................................... 44
3.12.9 Community Facilities .................................................................................. 45
3.12.10 Community Safety ...................................................................................... 45
3.13 Landscape Character Appraisal.................................................................................. 45
3.13.1 Landscape Character Assessment Process ................................................. 46
3.13.2 Describing the Existing Landscape Character ............................................. 47
3.14 Local Landscape Character Appraisal ........................................................................ 49
3.14.1 Identify the Road Function and its Interaction with the Landscape .......... 49
3.14.2 Undertake the Impact Assessment ............................................................ 49
3.14.3 Develop Mitigation Measures .................................................................... 50
3.14.4 Visual Effects .............................................................................................. 50
3.15 Context Sensitive Solutions ....................................................................................... 51
3.15.1 Project Stages ............................................................................................. 51
3.15.2 Context Sensitive Solutions ........................................................................ 51
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VOLUME 3 PART 20
4 Urban Roads .................................................................................................................53

4.1 Approach ................................................................................................................... 53
4.2 Comprehensive Urban Road Design .......................................................................... 54
4.3 Objectives for Urban Roads ....................................................................................... 54
4.3.1 General ....................................................................................................... 54
4.3.2 Safety.......................................................................................................... 56
4.3.3 Land Use Context ....................................................................................... 58
4.3.4 Character .................................................................................................... 58
4.3.5 Link and Place ............................................................................................. 59
4.3.6 Efficient Movement.................................................................................... 61
4.3.7 Sustainability .............................................................................................. 63
4.3.8 Walking, Cycling, and Public Health ........................................................... 65
4.3.9 Activity........................................................................................................ 66
4.3.10 Legibility and Image ................................................................................... 67
4.3.11 Culture and Heritage .................................................................................. 68
4.4 Urban Road Design .................................................................................................... 68
4.4.1 Urban Context and Road Character ........................................................... 68
4.4.2 Road Function ............................................................................................ 70
4.4.3 Streetscape Zones ...................................................................................... 74
4.4.4 Special Urban Roads ................................................................................... 79
4.5 Pedestrians, Cyclists, and Transit Users .................................................................... 80
4.5.1 Designing for Pedestrians........................................................................... 81
4.5.2 Designing for Cyclists.................................................................................. 82
4.5.3 Designing for Public Transport Users ......................................................... 84
4.6 Urban Road Intersections and Features .................................................................... 86
4.6.1 Priority Intersections .................................................................................. 86
4.7 Roundabouts ............................................................................................................. 87
4.8 Signalized Intersections ............................................................................................. 88
4.9 Interchanges .............................................................................................................. 89
4.10 Curb Extensions ......................................................................................................... 91
4.11 Medians ..................................................................................................................... 93
4.12 Traffic Calming ........................................................................................................... 93
4.13 Streetscape Design .................................................................................................... 96
4.13.1 Relationship to Buildings ............................................................................ 96
4.13.2 Shade and Climate...................................................................................... 97
4.13.3 Planting in the Street.................................................................................. 98
4.14 Paving and Street Furniture ..................................................................................... 100
4.14.1 Paving Materials ....................................................................................... 100
4.14.2 Street Furniture ........................................................................................ 101
4.14.3 Feature and Landscape Lighting............................................................... 103
4.14.4 Public Art .................................................................................................. 105
4.14.5 Signage and Wayfinding ........................................................................... 106
5 Rural Roads ................................................................................................................ 109
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VOLUME 3 PART 20
5.1 Approach .................................................................................................................. 109

5.2 Objectives of Rural Roads ........................................................................................ 109
5.2.1 Safety ........................................................................................................ 110
5.2.2 Policies, Plans, and Strategies .................................................................. 110
5.2.3 Landscape Context ................................................................................... 110
5.2.4 Walking, Cycling, and Public Health ......................................................... 110
5.2.5 Legibility ................................................................................................... 110
5.2.6 Sustainability ............................................................................................ 110
5.2.7 Culture and Heritage ................................................................................ 110
5.3 Rural Road Design .................................................................................................... 110
5.3.1 Earthworks................................................................................................ 111
5.3.2 Structures ................................................................................................. 111
5.3.3 Priority Junctions, Roundabouts, and Interchanges................................. 111
5.3.4 Water Management ................................................................................. 111
5.3.5 Planting ..................................................................................................... 111
References ........................................................................................................................... 113
PAGE IV VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 20
Tables
Table 3.1 Landscape Types................................................................................................ 48

Table 4.1 Land Use Frontage and Functions of Roadway Classifications ......................... 72
Figures
Figure 1.1 Phases of the Design Process .............................................................................. 7

Figure 2.1 CSD/CSS Requires Interaction among Traffic, Design, and Environmental
Disciplines .......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.1 Stakeholder Workshop ...................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.2 Public Realm Design in San Diego, USA ............................................................. 28
Figure 3.3 Example of a Three-dimensional Computer Model .......................................... 30
Figure 3.4 Examples of Urban Context ............................................................................... 40
Figure 3.5 Example of Urban Development Blocks and Structure ..................................... 41
Figure 3.6 Example of Public Space .................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.7 Example of Green Space.................................................................................... 43
Figure 3.8 Examples of Signage .......................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.9 Prevailing Building Heights in the City Center ................................................... 44
Figure 3.10 Heritage Assets .................................................................................................. 45
Figure 4.1 Commercial Area ............................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.2 Public Square ..................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.3 Crossing Facility ................................................................................................. 57
Figure 4.4 Active Building Frontage ................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.5 Roadside Barriers for Safety .............................................................................. 57
Figure 4.6 Street and Urban Environments ........................................................................ 58
Figure 4.7 Examples of Urban Character............................................................................ 59
Figure 4.8 Movement Function is the Priority for This Urban Road .................................. 60
Figure 4.9 Character of the Traditional Street Network Creates a Strong
Sense of Place .................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.10 Public Transport Access ..................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.11 Ease of Vehicle Movement ................................................................................ 62
Figure 4.12 Pedestrian Movement through Identified Crossing Routes .............................. 62
Figure 4.13 Lawn Area to Help Reduce Ambient Temperatures .......................................... 63
Figure 4.14 Irrigation for Lawn ............................................................................................. 64
Figure 4.15 Trees to Provide Shade...................................................................................... 64
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Figure 4.16 Examples of Walking and Cycling Infrastructure ............................................... 65

Figure 4.17 Examples of Public Spaces ................................................................................. 66
Figure 4.18 Examples of Qatar Landmarks ........................................................................... 67
Figure 4.19 Examples of Heritage Features .......................................................................... 68
Figure 4.20 Commercial Area ............................................................................................... 69
Figure 4.21 Residential Area ................................................................................................. 70
Figure 4.22 Change in Character Moving Out From the Urban Center through
Commercial and Retail Land Use ....................................................................... 73
Figure 4.23 Different Road Types through Residential Land Use Areas with Different
Densities ............................................................................................................ 73
Figure 4.24 Different Road Types through Different Recreational, Industrial, and Urban
Edge Areas ......................................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.25 Streetscape Zones ............................................................................................. 75
Figure 4.26 Threshold Zone .................................................................................................. 76
Figure 4.27 Pedestrian Movement Zone .............................................................................. 77
Figure 4.28 Street Furniture Zone ........................................................................................ 78
Figure 4.29 Cyclist Zone ........................................................................................................ 78
Figure 4.30 Edge Zone .......................................................................................................... 79
Figure 4.31 Mushtarak – Shared Space ................................................................................ 80
Figure 4.32 Sikka ................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 4.33 Examples of Pedestrian Routes and Facilities ................................................... 81
Figure 4.34 Examples of Street Trees ................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.35 Provisions for Bikes............................................................................................ 83
Figure 4.36 Bus Waiting Facilities ......................................................................................... 85
Figure 4.37 Rendering of Public Transit Facility ................................................................... 85
Figure 4.38 Dedicated Bus Lanes .......................................................................................... 86
Figure 4.39 Simple Intersection ............................................................................................ 87
Figure 4.40 Roundabouts in Urban Areas............................................................................. 88
Figure 4.41 Urban Signalized intersection ............................................................................ 89
Figure 4.42 Interchange in the Urban Environment ............................................................. 91
Figure 4.43 Examples of Curb Extensions ............................................................................. 92
Figure 4.44 Curb Extensions Used to Facilitate Pedestrian Crossing at Intersection ........... 92
Figure 4.45 Examples of Medians ......................................................................................... 93
Figure 4.46 Roadways with Traffic Calming ......................................................................... 95
Figure 4.47 Streetscape Relationship to Buildings ............................................................... 96
Figure 4.48 Shade Added from Structures ........................................................................... 97
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Figure 4.49 Shade Provided by Trees ................................................................................... 98

Figure 4.50 Examples of Roadside Planting ......................................................................... 99
Figure 4.51 Planting in the Street ......................................................................................... 99
Figure 4.52 Changes in Materials Defining Gateways and Entrances ................................ 101
Figure 4.53 Approach to Use of Paving Materials .............................................................. 101
Figure 4.54 Examples of Street Furniture........................................................................... 102
Figure 4.55 Example of Street Lighting .............................................................................. 103
Figure 4.56 Example of Feature Lighting ............................................................................ 104
Figure 4.57 Examples of Distinctive Street Lighting ........................................................... 105
Figure 4.58 Examples of Public Art ..................................................................................... 106
Figure 4.59 Examples of Directional Signs.......................................................................... 107
Figure 4.60 Examples of Gateway Signs ............................................................................. 107
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CSD context sensitive design
CSS context sensitive solutions
EIA environmental impact assessment
QPRG Qatar Public Realm Guidelines
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1 Introduction
Context sensitive design (CSD) and context sensitive solutions (CSS) is a term that
describes a new approach to transportation project development. CSD/CSS emerged in
the United States in response to dissatisfaction with the process and outcomes of road
and highway projects developed by Departments of Transportation. Users and other
external stakeholders expressed a desire for those agencies to have a vision for
excellence in projects, and to aspire to create projects that did more than just fulfill a
transportation function.
Stakeholders also expressed the view that, because they had to live with and use the
project outcomes, they should have more direct and meaningful roles in shaping the
outcomes. Thus, CSD/CSS emerged as a collaborative, multi-disciplinary approach that
requires the transportation agency to engage stakeholders in meaningful ways
throughout project development. The object of the approach is the successful
completion of a transportation infrastructure project that is appropriate for its physical
setting and that preserves scenic, aesthetic, historical, and environmental resources
while maintaining safety and mobility.
1.1 Qualities and Characteristics of Successful Projects

Early developmental work in CSD/CSS outlined the qualities and characteristics of
projects considered successful by both owners and their customers. A vision for
excellence in transportation design includes these qualities:
• The project satisfies purpose and need as agreed to by the full range of
stakeholders. Agreement is forged in the earliest phase of the project and amended
as warranted as the project develops.
• The project is a safe facility for both users and the community.
• The project is in harmony with the community and preserves environmental, scenic,
aesthetic, historic, and natural resource values of the area.
• The project exceeds the expectations of both designers and stakeholders and
achieves a level of excellence in people’s minds.
• The project is designed and built with minimal disruption to the community.
• The project is seen as having added lasting value to the community.
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A process that would yield excellence has these characteristics:
• Communicate with stakeholders early in a manner that is open, honest, and

continuous.
• Tailor the highway development process to the circumstances. Employ a process
that examines multiple alternatives and that will result in consensus on approaches.
• Establish a multi-disciplinary team early with disciplines based on the needs of the
specific project and include the public.
• Seek to understand the landscape, the community, and valued resources before
beginning the engineering design.
• Involve a full range of stakeholders with transportation officials in the scoping
process.
• Clearly define the purposes of the project and forge consensus on the scope before
proceeding.
• Tailor the public involvement process to the project. Include informal meetings.
• Use a full range of tools for communication regarding project alternatives, such as
visualization.
• Secure commitment to the process from top agency officials and local leaders.
Every project has a context, and every project affects stakeholders in some way.
1.2 Importance of Context Sensitive Design to Qatar

Qatar is able to provide the resources to produce excellent projects. The challenges it
faces will be to take the proper time to plan and execute projects so that they have the
qualities and characteristics outlined above. There is an understanding that well-
designed roads and public realm design add value to the community and social well-
being, including commercial viability. Applying a CSD approach to projects in Qatar is
critical to creating an environment that supports livability objectives. Good design
should promote a sense of civic pride through an obvious investment in the design
process.
Context sensitive design is an important approach for Qatar to ensure that new and
major reconstruction or retrofit of existing road infrastructure consider the local
context and creates high quality places. The process set out in this Part is to be applied
to all road projects, but should be tailored to individual projects to provide a unique
and fully integrated CSD approach.
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1.3 Coordination with Other Parts of this Manual

In order to achieve a successful CSD approach, it is important that an integrated
approach be adopted across the whole design team. This Part of the manual covers a
broad range of issues and, therefore, should be read in conjunction with other parts
and other applicable standards and guidance. Furthermore, in order to understand the
needs and priorities of each design discipline and encourage teamwork, the entire
design team should read this part.
The following is excerpted from Thinking Beyond the Pavement: A National Workshop
on Integrating Highway Development with Communities and the Environment while
Maintaining Safety and Performance, (Maryland Department of Transportation et al.,
1998):
Qualities of Excellence in Transportation Design:
• The project satisfies the purpose and needs as agreed to by a full range of
stakeholders. The agreement is made in the earliest phase of the project and
amended as required as the project develops.
• The project is a safe facility for both the user and the community.
• The project is in harmony with the community, and preserves environmental, scenic,
cultural, historic, and natural resource values of the area, that is, exhibits context
sensitive design.
• The project exceeds the expectations of both designers and stakeholders, and
achieves a level of excellence in people’s minds.
• The project involves efficient and effective use of resources (time, budget,
community) of all involved parties.
• The project is designed and built with minimal disruption to the community.
• The project is seen as having added lasting value to the community.
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1.4 Coordination with Other Guidelines

It is also important to coordinate this part with guidelines published by other agencies
or departments, especially the Qatar Public Realm Guidelines (QPRG). As the
implementing agency for road infrastructure, ASHGHAL has published the QPRG to
address the need to improve the quality, safety, and function of public realm across the
country and to create a unique public realm identity for Qatar. The QPRG is not a design
manual or specification from which designs are lifted and applied. Rather, it is a
statement of intent on how the public realm can be improved in terms of the following:
• Street design process and the wider scope of design considerations

• How existing and new street designs should relate to their immediate and planned
urban context respectively
• How streetscape components are arranged within the rights-of-way to achieve
optimal function and specific design themes
• How the inherent landscape characters of Qatar are made apparent in the public
realm design
Therefore, it is imperative that the design team review the guidance in QPRG and other
applicable guides and consider them in developing a robust CSD approach.
1.5 Context Sensitive Design Priorities

Urban streets are public spaces where pedestrians, transit users, bicyclists, and vehicles
mix. A multi-modal integrated design process that considers all users is necessary for
designing street networks to function safely and efficiently. To achieve a context-driven
urban street design process, designers must consider local cultural, climatic, and
geographic conditions before initiating the process.
1.5.1 Cultural Inspiration

Qatar has a rich cultural context, with traditions stretching back thousands of years.
People from all over the world have made Qatar their home. This blend of old and new
residents is a major asset at the foundation of Qatar’s status in the world. Qatar
possesses a unique blend of local culture while sharing common characteristics with
other global locations. These characteristics require the consideration of the following
factors:
• Hospitality: Qataris honor visitors from around the globe, and its streets should be
welcoming and safe for everyone and for every mode of transport. It should be easy
for everyone to navigate the Qatar multi-modal transport networks.
• Family: Qataris place a high value on families. Streets in all neighborhoods must
accommodate safe walking and bicycling for people of all ages, especially children.
They should also provide pleasant environments for extended Qatari families to
socialize together in a traditional neighborhood environment.
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• Diverse Population: Qatar has a diverse population because it attracts people from
around the world. Street designs should consider this unique cultural composition
and accommodate drivers with different, or little, experience. A shift in policies and
infrastructure from private motor vehicles to alternative modes provides more
accessible means of transport.
• Climate and Geography: Although pleasant most of the year, summer in Qatar
tends to be very hot and sometimes humid. In much of the Qatar, blowing sand can
be a concern for safe driving and comfortable walking. In other locations, heat and
sand may be mitigated by landscaping; however, the use of natural water resources
for irrigation purposes is a significant environmental and sustainability issue.
• Design Considerations: The design of streets require balancing the needs of all users
including pedestrians, bicyclists, transit users, and motorists. To design an attractive
and successful street and a welcoming environment, it is imperative to establish
standard design criteria for all users early in the process:
− Pedestrians: Provision of sidewalks is a requirement in Qatar. Pedestrians
require shelter, shade, and protection from heat and sun exposure during the
hot summer months. They also need to be able to safely cross streets at
intersections. Cultural needs include access to mosques from the public realm
and privacy for women, which should be considered during the design.
− Bicyclists: Bicycles are an efficient and environmentally friendly mode of
transportation. Provision of safe bike paths should be considered in all new or
retrofit streets, to the extent practicable. Bike paths could be provided in the
pedestrian realm as a shared use path.
− Transit Riders: Transit is also an efficient mode of transportation, which
requires amenities for security and safety, such as shelters for waiting at transit
stations and stops and convenient street crossings. Some transit riders have
mobility, sight, or other challenges that limit their ability to walk, bicycle, or
drive and therefore rely on transit as their primary mode of transportation.
− Motorists: Details on design parameters for vehicles are found throughout of
this manual.
See Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, for design requirements.
1.6 Context Sensitive Design Process

The planning, design, and approval processes in the QHDM shall be used for the
development and design of all new and retrofit streets and street networks. In urban
areas, a network of narrow and interconnected streets with short block lengths provide
an inviting environment for walking, bicycling, and transit use, thereby reducing vehicle
trip generation. By distributing traffic across many streets, designers can avoid building
wide streets that will be difficult and potentially dangerous for pedestrians to cross.
Connectivity and safety of streets must be addressed during the design process. A well
planned network of streets can decrease the number of vehicle kilometers traveled by
increasing route choices and providing multiple alternatives. Such a network also
reduces vehicle idling at junctions.
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Land use dictates design for streets and street networks. The design must provide for
safe and efficient movement of pedestrians, cyclists, transit users, and motorists, which
should guide all aspects of street design, whether it is for new streets, retrofit streets
within fixed rights-of-way, or street network layouts.
1.6.1 Considerations for Street Design

The following issues shall be considered when designing streets or street networks:
• Safety and accessibility for all users

• Connectivity of networks for all modes of transport
• Legibility and efficiency
• Speed management
• Environmental conditions
• Protection of landmarks, views, vistas, and gateways
1.6.2 Phases of the Design Process

The design process applies to all street design scenarios and entails four phases (see
Figure 1.1):
1. Phase I – Scoping: The Overseeing Organization defines the purpose and need of
the project; identifies the project manager and team and stakeholders: establishes
scope, budget, and schedule; and conducts field investigations to define context
and identify environmentally sensitive areas, constructability issues, level of
outreach, and method of delivery.
2. Phase II – Conceptual Design: The project design team collects, reviews, and
analyses all relevant existing information, identifies strategies, and develops
workable conceptual designs in consultation with the Overseeing Organization.
The designers will review and screen the concepts and identify the preferred
alternative to submit with sufficient descriptions and documentation to the
Overseeing Organization for their review, comment, and approval.
3. Phase III – Preliminary Design: Advance the design of the preferred concept to
determine landscaping features; drainage system layouts; utility conflicts;
structure types, sizes, and locations; design exceptions; cost estimates; rights-of-
way; and permit requirements. The designers will submit plans and supporting
documents and comments to the Overseeing Organization for review and to other
approving agencies, as directed by the Overseeing Organization.
4. Phase IV – Final Design: Designers will review comments received from the
preliminary design review and incorporate them into the final design in
consultation with the Overseeing Organization to advance the preliminary design
to final design for producing construction plans and specifications.
Submissions for Phases II, III, and IV to the Overseeing Organization shall be formal and
approvals obtained to advertise for construction.
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Figure 1.1 Phases of the Design Process
1.6.3 Phase I – Scoping

This phase of the project is internal to the Overseeing Organization. In the scoping
phase of a project, the Overseeing Organization will define the project purpose and
need; goals and objectives; and the stakeholders. It will also assign a project manager
to assemble the project team based on the relevant disciplines involved in the project.
The project team defines project deliverables, estimated budget, and the schedule for
completion of the study and design of the project. The project team conducts a field
investigation to identify potential problems including impacts on sensitive areas,
constructability issues, the level of outreach, and the method of project delivery.
1.6.4 Phase II – Conceptual Design

This phase of the design comprises two steps: (1) gathering existing information and (2)
developing concepts that meet the goals of the project.
Step 1, Gathering Existing Information: At the beginning of the design process, the
Overseeing Organization or its consultants must contact, request, and compile available
information relating to the existing and planned conditions from relevant
organizations. Based on discussions with these organizations, the designer must
determine if there are other design requirements that must be met. As a minimum, the
designer needs to collect and present the following information during this phase.
Additional information that may be needed by any of the approving agencies should
also be collected and analyzed. Relevant information to the project should be
illustrated in a context plan. The remaining information should be presented in a report
to the Overseeing Organization.
• Land Use Influence: Land use influences all aspects of street design, including the
general layout of streets within communities, the activities taking place along the
street, and the volume of pedestrian activity, bicycle activity, transit usage, and
traffic to be accommodated. The Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning
(MMUP) provides the overall land use maps and site plans for any planned or
existing developments.
• Transport Requirements: For all street design projects, MMUP and ASHGHAL will
provide guidance on the expected volume of traffic. Designers should determine
priorities for bicycles, buses, and metro, noting special treatment needed for these
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modes. Lane capacity and initial traffic volumes should be addressed in accordance
with the latest requirements.
• Existing Environment: Gathering information on key environmental factors is
necessary for developing a sustainable design. Such information includes
topography, views of the natural context such as shoreline, urban, or dune and hill,
and natural or landscape features such as unusual soil type, adjacent oasis or wadi,
wind direction, sun patterns, historical landmarks, cultural places, and parks.
• Utility Requirements: It is important to coordinate with utilities in early stages of
the design of the project to identify utility requirements, come to an agreement,
incorporate them in the design, and obtain approval prior to construction. Right-of-
way restrictions may arise, which must be addressed during the design process
using flexible provisions, including the following:
− Reduce median widths to their minimum dimensions considering refuge area
for pedestrians at median.
− Reduce the width of public realm to the minimum dimensions.
− Reduce the furnishing zones to minimum dimensions for transit and para
transit sites.
− Reduce the availability of on-street parking where possible; two-sided on-
street parking should be reduced to one-side.
− Replace bike paths or bike lanes with shared-use paths.
− Reduce width of traveled lanes or transit lanes and platforms to the minimum
possible dimensions and still accommodate projected traffic and transit rider
volumes.
− Eliminate a travel lane if possible; mitigate the decrease in traffic capacity
through network improvements or a mode shift.
• Landscaping: Designers should make provisions for sustainable landscaping, shade,
allocation of water for irrigating landscaped areas, and the reduction of urban heat
effect. Because water is a scarce resource, the designer should concentrate
available landscape water in locations that most benefit pedestrians.
• Urban Design: Streets are an expression of a place’s identity. Designers should
consult with the Overseeing Organization and MMUP for guidance on potential or
proposed unique urban design objectives for the area.
• Context Plan: The information collected should be presented in a report and be
transferred onto the project plans to develop a context plan that shows the existing
and proposed conditions of the network or street within its surrounding context.
Note strengths and opportunities during this stage of the design process. The
context plan should be submitted to the Overseeing Organization for review,
comment, and agreement.
Step 2, Development of Conceptual Designs: After all the necessary information is

gathered, reviewed, analyzed, and presented to the Overseeing Organization in a
context plan with supporting documentation, conceptual designs that demonstrate the
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principles and goals of the project should be developed in accordance with the criteria
and requirements in QHDM. Conceptual designs will be reviewed, evaluated, and
screened to narrow down the number of concepts to two or three workable
alternatives that meet project goals and objectives. These alternatives will advance to
further engineering design and analysis. These alternatives will then be evaluated and
screened to identify the preferred alternative to be recommended to the Overseeing
Organization for approval; the approved alternative will advance to preliminary
engineering design.
The level of detail within which the conceptual design must be executed depends on
whether it is a street network layout process or a single street design process. The
street network process must adhere to these steps and proceed with the street design
process to provide sample cross sections of typical streets within the development. The
steps below focus on the design of individual streets or a network of a few streets.
• Determine and Assign Land Uses: In the design of new street networks, designers
should ensure that most residents and employees will be within a comfortable
walking distance of transit stops, local retail, schools, mosques, and other
community services. The street network must ensure a high level of street
connectivity by providing alternative routes to major destinations. For example,
regional centers should be planned around transit stops proposed for the site;
regional centers should typically be located at important junctions such as those
where arterials meet.
On the street level, as the land use density and mix alongside a street change, so do
the space requirements in the public realm. Streets with high ground floor retail
activity, for example, may require wider sidewalks and shared use paths to
accommodate higher pedestrian and cyclist volumes. In the traveled way, wider
medians provide refuge for a larger volume of pedestrians at crossings. Active land
uses that generate high levels of pedestrian activity should be determined; the
location of schools, restaurants, mosques, and other specialized uses should be
considered. This level of detail informs the next steps of the street design process.
• Identify Pedestrian Networks: The analysis of land uses and specialized activity
areas provide information on pedestrian destination and flows. Consider which
routes will require the greatest provision of shade at different times of the day.
Ensure that median transit stops have safe pedestrian crossings at both ends of the
platform and that pedestrian paths accommodate the projected volumes of
pedestrian flow. Using the pedestrian crossing guidelines in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike
and Public Transportation, lay out a preferred pedestrian network considering
pedestrian volume, junction and mid-block crossings, refuge accommodation, and
connections into adjacent blocks.
• Identify Transit Networks: It is important to determine the type, frequency,
alignment, and expected routes for planned transit. This information should have
been gathered in Step 1. In Phase II of the design process, the type of facility
required to accommodate the projected volumes of transit riders must be
determined. The location for supporting facilities should also be identified. Special
consideration must be given to junction design and stop location at this point.
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• Identify Bicycle Networks: The type of facility and expected volumes need to be
estimated from the information gathered in Step I. Consider land uses and
specialized activity areas, and provide bicycle parking where high volumes of bicycle
stops are expected. Ensure that bicycles facilities are safe. Do not propose bike lanes
on high-speed, high-priority traffic streets.
• Identify Vehicle Networks: Use the information gathered in Step I to determine the
number of lanes necessary to accommodate projected traffic volumes and allocate
on-street parking where there is demand. Intersection designs should be given
special consideration and expected turning movements should be identified to
enhance the capacity of street networks. Develop the preferred street concepts that
would provide a rich mix of interconnected streets, bicycle facilities, and transit in
conformance with appropriate street and intersection spacing provided in this
manual.
• Determine Cross Sections: Determine the functional classification and typical
section of the street and dimensions of the cross section elements, as provided in
Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, and Part 3, Roadway Design
Elements. Transit and bicycle facilities must be included when developing the typical
cross sections. It is recommended that alternative cross sections be developed for
each street type in response to differing adjacent land uses.
• Transfer into Plan: After the typical cross sections are developed, the street corridor
should be transferred into an initial concept plan. This detail should be added to all
existing or planned land uses and natural features in the surrounding context. All of
the applicable street facilities should be noted in the conceptual plan, including
travel lanes, medians, parking, bicycle facilities, and the public realm. Sight distance
requirements should be noted at this stage to ensure clear visibility. The conceptual
plans should detail the main study street and all side and intersecting streets,
including pedestrian and bike paths.
• Locate Street Features: Street features including traveled lanes, medians,
sidewalks, bike paths, landscaping, transit and para transit stops, stations and
entrances, intersections, traffic calming, and major utilities must be considered,
incorporated in the conceptual plan, and shown. Major features of a street cross
section are shown in Figure 1.2. Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and Part 19,
Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transport, of this manual; the QPRG provides detailed
guidance on roadway features and public transport requirements.
• User Interaction Areas: User interaction areas occur where multimodal networks
intersect and design elements could cause potential obstructions. These areas
should be shown on the plan where conflicts can be easily identified. User
interaction areas generally include the following:
− Main intersection (all users)
− Secondary access points (all users)
− Transit stop and bicycle parking areas (pedestrian and bicycle)
− Street crossings (pedestrian, transit, bicycle, and vehicle)
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Most user interaction and conflicts occur at urban intersections. It is important to

design intersections to accommodate the following:
− Flow and volume of movements for all user groups
− Needs and accessibility of all modes of transport
− Hierarchy of users from most vulnerable to least (pedestrians and cyclists
versus large vehicles)
− Minimize conflicts between modes sharing the same location at the same time
− Provide good visibility, particularly between pedestrians and motorists
− Avoid extreme angles and complex intersections
− Minimize pedestrian exposure to moving vehicles by reducing the crossing
distance and duration of the crossing
− Minimize right-of-way takes
See Part 6, Design for Priority Intersections, Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled
Intersections, and Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, of this
manual.
• Landscape Planning: Provided visibility is not compromised, landscape features
should typically occur where there will be the highest concentration of pedestrians,
such as at junctions, transit stops, and along sidewalks and pedestrian paths near
major destinations. Also refer to Part 22, Landscaping and Planting Design, of this
manual and the QPRG.
1.6.5 Phase III – Preliminary Design

After the preferred alternative is selected and approved, the project will advance to
preliminary design phase. The preliminary design is very important. Sufficient
engineering design details for the selected concept will be developed and evaluated to
verify that there are no unforeseen problems in the design. Design departures and
required permits will be identified, and the application process will begin. A detailed
cost estimate and construction schedule will be developed based on the preliminary
design plans. The project delivery method, for example, design, tender, and construct
or design and build, will also be decided during the preliminary design phase.
Engineering activities in this phase include the following:
• Design and further refinement of roadway geometry

• Design of drainage systems, erosion and sediment controls, and stormwater
management facilities
• Design of structures and bridges, traffic control features, and intelligent
transportation system
• Design of landscaping features and multi-use paths and trails
• Identification of utility conflicts and relocation options, utility designs, and utility
field inspections
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• Conduct constructability analysis and prepare maintenance of traffic and

construction staging plans
• Conduct and document mandatory reviews and quality controls
• Obtain approval for right-of-way expropriations
• Revise and update quantities, cost estimates, and schedules
• Apply for and obtain required permits from the Overseeing Organization
The preliminary engineering plans will be submitted to the Overseeing Organization

and all relevant and approving agencies for review, comment, and approval. Designers
should conduct a thorough review of the preliminary plans prior to submitting for
approval. The design may be finalized only after it demonstrates that it meets
requirements of the approving agencies. The review process may require designers to
gather extra information or adjust the preliminary design. Some of the aspects of the
design that should be reviewed prior to submittal to the reviewing agencies include the
following:
• Capacity Requirements: Evaluate facilities and ensure that the projected volumes
of the varying modes are being accommodated in the selected capacity measures.
Evaluation of pedestrian, transit, and bicycle facilities should be conducted to
determine that the street design addresses the needs of the projected demands, as
dictated by the land use and other previously collected information.
• Safety Requirements: Pedestrians and bicyclists are the most vulnerable street
users; however, it is essential that safety concerns are addressed for all modes of
transport. Conduct a safety audit in accordance with the requirements in Part 24,
Road Safety Audits.
• Design Requirements: To determine whether the preliminary design meets the
project goals and objectives, several questions need to be answered, some of which
may not apply to all road design conditions. A non-exhaustive list of questions
regarding various aspects of the design has been compiled below. Internal and
external reviewers may have additional questions that designers must answered. It
is recommended that these and other relevant questions be asked throughout all
design phases.
− Questions on Context Design and Connectivity

 Does the design include provisions for many types of uses? Is it easy to get
from one type of use to another?
 Does the design contain spaces that will attract people at times other than
rush hour?
 Does the design have continuity of street level activity? Are ground-floor
uses active and welcoming, and does the street have a welcoming
character?
 Are building front doors noted and well served by the pedestrian realm? In
other words does the pedestrian realm serve the buildings? And can the
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front doors of the buildings be seen and noticed? Is the scale of nearby
buildings comfortable for pedestrians, with choices of places to sit or use?
− Questions on Safety Considerations
 Are pedestrian crossings safe?
 Are intersection designs safe for all users?
 Does the design contain spaces that children can use independently?
− Design Considerations
 Does the design meet design requirements in this manual?
 Do buildings give “life” to the street?
 Does the area project a distinctive image from a distance?
 Is seating and other street furniture well located?
 Is lighting safe and adequate for the different users of the street?
 Does the design fit with the image goals of the municipality and the UPC?
 Does the design create a unique area?
− Pedestrian Provisions
 Are pedestrian crossings well designed?
 Are crossing distances minimized?
 Do signalized crossings have adequate time?
 Does the design ensure that pedestrians can easily walk to and through the
area?
 Are uses easily visible and inviting to pedestrians?
 Does the design ensure that vehicles do not detract from the pedestrian
experience?
 Are protected pedestrian crossings shown at the correct spacing, and do
the crossings relate to areas where pedestrians desire to cross?
 Is there leftover space in the pedestrian realm, or is there too large a
furnishing zone? If so, how can this space be minimized or programmed?
− Transit Provisions
 Are transit stops and stations easy to find and get to on foot?
 Are transit maps and schedules readily available and visible?
 Are there sufficient passenger waiting areas at bus stops and taxi lay-bys?
− Bicycle Provisions
 Are bicycle facilities prominent and well designed?
 Are bicycle routes well marked?
 Is there adequate bicycle storage?
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 Do bicycle facilities meet Department of Transportation guidelines, and are

they continuous across all intersections?
− Vehicular Provisions
 Is the design vehicle context sensitive (for example, corner radii not over
designed)?
 Have all turning movements been checked for vehicle designs?
− Climatic and Environmental Considerations
 Does landscaping complement the street, and is it sustainable from a water
use perspective?
 Is there too much landscape area shown given the irrigation budget?
 Is the landscaping appropriate for the local environment and soil
conditions?
 Will the pedestrian realm be shaded during most of the day?
 Is shade continuously provided by trees, buildings, canopies, etc.?
− Cultural Considerations
 Does the design foster people acknowledging one another, as appropriate
for Qatar’s culture and gender mix?
 Does the design encourage a mix of ages, gender, and ethnic groups that
generally reflects the community at large?
 Does the design provide private places for women?
 Does the design have spaces for groups to gather?
• Performance Measures: Performance measures generally test the accessibility,
connectivity, and cordon capacity of a street or street network. Some specific details
of some performance measures are listed below:
− Pedestrian
 Sidewalk crowding (at rail stations or other major destinations)
 Average crossing delay including average distance to crossing
 Frequency of protected crossings
 Percentage active building edge along sidewalk
 Percent sidewalk shaded
 Average block perimeter
− Transit Users
 Intersection delay
 Corridor travel time as percentage of speed limit
 Passenger crowding
 Reliability
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 Frequency
 Service hours
 Cool waiting areas at stops
− Bicyclists
 Presence of bicycle lane or bike path
 Bicycle level of service
− Motor Vehicles
 Roadway segment and intersection performance using urban corridor
analysis techniques
 Corridor travel time
 Standard deviation of average speed
• Submit Plans to Reviewing Agencies: After an internal review of the street design
process is complete and the design adjusted accordingly, plans and supporting
documentation must be submitted to the reviewing agencies. Major design
parameters are set at this stage that must be met during Phase IV, Final Design.
1.6.6 Phase IV – Finalize Design

After the approval agencies accept the conceptual design, it must be finalized and
prepared for a detailed planning review in accordance with the design parameters
established during Phase II –Conceptual Design. The detail provided in these plans must
ensure that the street design is sensitive to adjacent land uses on the street level and
that it complies with the requirements of this manual.
This step should result in a series of plans depicting the location of facilities, supported
by illustrations and documentation that describe the details of the design elements and
facilities. Adherence to the design parameters established by the Overseeing
Organization and other approving agencies should be demonstrated.
• Civil Engineering Drawings: These drawings should include details of all geometric
elements, including radii, the length of tangents, super-elevations, elevations,
grades, vertical curve data, sight-distance, and other pertinent information to
provide suitable longitudinal dimensions and cross slopes to ensure positive
drainage, prevent standing water, and eliminate obstacles for all users.
• Drainage and Stormwater Management Plans: The plans should show details of
drainage systems, including gullies (drop inlets), storm sewer pipes, culverts,
stormwater management facilities, erosion and sediment control measures, and
other elements of the design.
• Structure Plans: A separate set of plans should be prepared for structures such as
bridges, retaining walls, and special design structures; the specifications and
method of construction should be provided.
• Detailed Landscape and Streetscape Design Plans: The final design plans must
show detailed landscape and urban design features including materials, shade
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structures, plants, water usage, and other necessary elements. Detailed design
plans should also be provided for signage, lighting, pavement markings, intelligent
transportation system, and utility works.
• Flexibility in Design: Occasionally, when designing streets within existing conditions
(retrofit streets) or accommodating utilities for new or existing streets, the total
available right-of-way is either too little or too much compared to the preferred
street design dimensions.
• Limited Right-of-Way: When street design is restricted with a limited right-of-way
in cases where there are existing buildings or utilities that cannot be moved, the
following steps could mitigate the restrictions.
− Reduce median widths to the minimum dimensions, provided pedestrian
refuge and transit requirements are not compromised.
− Reduce the sidewalk width or bike path or both to their minimum dimensions.
− Use shared use paths instead of separate sidewalks and bike paths.
− Reduce the furnishing areas to minimum dimensions at transit and para transit
stations.
− Reduce the public realm to the minimum dimensions, except where the street
accommodates outdoor seating areas.
− Reduce the availability of on-street parking where possible. Two-sided, on-
street parking should be reduced to one side before it is removed completely.
− Eliminate service roads or frontage roads if access to buildings is
accommodated through other street frontages such as side access lanes. Make
sure that the projected parking demand for retail stores is accommodated.
− Reduce transit lanes and platforms to the minimum possible dimensions while
still accommodating projected volumes of transit riders.
− Reduce lane widths to minimum dimensions or eliminate a lane, if possible, by
mitigating the decrease in traffic capacity through network improvements or a
mode shift.
Under no circumstances should the flexible design process compromise the safety
of street users. A safety audit must be conducted to ensure that street designs
remain safe and accessible for all.
• Too Much Right-of-Way: Where utility requirements or existing conditions define a

wider right-of-way than it is required for the proposed road, the following steps
could be taken until the road fills the available right-of-way:
− Consult with the Overseeing Organization to determine if the extra land can be
converted to new building sites or public open space.
− Provide on-street parking where there is sufficient demand.
− Increase the width of the furnishing zone within the pedestrian realm and
provide attractive landscaping or streetscaping to enhance the aesthetic
quality of the street.
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− Increase the width of the sidewalks within the pedestrian realm, making sure
that shading requirements are met for the comfort of pedestrians.
− Increase the width of the landscaping strip within the public realm.
− Consult with the Overseeing Organization for increasing the width of transit
lanes and platforms if the street is part of a transit network.
− Increase the width of bike paths or add bike lanes where possible.
− Increase the availability of on-street parking by providing angled parking where
possible.
− Provide two-sided parallel parking on service roads.
− Increase median dimensions and enhance the quality of the street by providing
attractive landscaping or streetscaping measures.
Designers should coordinate with and obtain approval from the Overseeing
Organization and other approving agencies prior to incorporating these measures into
the cross sections and proceeding with the final design. In no case shall the approval
agency approve a design it believes will compromise user safety.
1.6.7 Departures or Exceptions

The typical cross sections in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, may not be appropriate
for all roadways, and designers may wish to vary from the minimum or maximum
dimensions. Designers are required, however, to apply for a departure from standard
dimensions in accordance with the requirements in Part 25, Departures from Standards
Process. Designers must describe the extraordinary circumstances that justifies the
departure from standard. If the exception is approved by the Overseeing Organization,
the designer can complete the design and prepare the final plans. Otherwise, the
designer must finalize the design in accordance with the standards and submit to the
Overseeing Organization for review and comments.
1.6.8 Integration with the Approval Process

The design of roads and streets throughout Qatar requires approval from several
agencies throughout the design process. Formal approval shall be obtained from
Overseeing Organization and other approving agencies at each phase in order to
advertise for construction.
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2 Critical Success Factors for

Context Sensitive Design and
Solutions
Four critical success factors have been identified as common to project development:
(1) employ effective decision-making; (2) reflect community values; (3) achieve
environmental sensitivity; and (4) provide safe and feasible solutions.
2.1 Employ Effective Decision-making

A context sensitive process, including reaching consensus on key issues, does not mean
ceding control of the project to stakeholders. However, it does mean developing and
communicating a clear decision process, and following that process through to
completion.
Project development involves many decisions, large and small. The final decision
regarding a choice among alternative solutions rests with the agency responsible for its
construction, operation, and maintenance. Successful projects, those that the
community as a whole endorses and in which it expresses pride, incorporate external
stakeholder input to the decision.
Effective decision-making involves the following:
• Determining at the onset who will make the ultimate decision. The individuals or
office/position will vary depending on the scope, size, and type of projects.
• Identifying factors that will enter into the decision, such as budget, schedule for
completion, and ability to acquire right-of-way.
• Outlining project goals and objectives so success can be clearly defined and
communicated.
• Determining the roles and responsibilities of external stakeholders: how they will
be informed, allowed to advise or add input, and the areas in which they may be
afforded decision-making power.
• Identifying the project data and analyses to be used to inform decisions.
A project management plan should outline key interim stakeholder meetings at which
actions will be taken and decisions made, so that all involved can be prepared to
participate in a timely and appropriate manner.
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2.2 Reflect Community Values

Stakeholder engagement is the means by which a project team learns about and
understands community values, so that the project can be developed in a way that
reflects them. The term community is broadly defined. It is based on the size and scope
of the project. For example, the community for a local road project may be adjacent
property owners, businesses potentially affected by the project’s construction, and
local political leaders. The community for an urban expressway project may in some
respects include most of the city of Doha, many businesses, and many agencies within
the government.
Stakeholder engagement is an integral part of project development. Public involvement

specialists and facilitators are needed for projects. Project schedules should reflect and
resources allocated to meet these professionals’ needs. The level of engagement is
tailored to the size and scope of the project.
2.3 Achieve Environmental Sensitivity

Every project, regardless of size, should consider potential environmental effects, both
direct and indirect. Part 21, Environmental, provides guidance on the environmental
process, stakeholders, policies, and procedures.
An important insight on CSD/CSS project development is the need for the

environmental review process to be proactive and fully integrated with design
development. As shown in Figure 2.1, designers and environmental specialists should
perform their work in tandem and collaboratively, rather than sequentially. Ideally,
data gathering and investigation occurs in advance of design development. Designers
are briefed on constraints, issues affecting the environment, and regulatory
requirements before they begin their work. Once alternative development begins, the
work is iterative, with environmental staff and other stakeholders reviewing and
commenting on the proposals. Designers who are truly context sensitive do not view
environmentally sensitive features as constraints, but rather as valuable resources that
they must preserve.
2.4 Provide Safe and Feasible Solutions

Regardless of the stated project need, projects should be developed for safe operation
by users. Road safety involves both good design and appropriate traffic control. Safety
itself is context sensitive, as discussed in Clause 4.3.2 in this Part.
A feasible solution is one that is affordable, constructible, and fits within the available
right-of-way. A challenge in many projects involving diverse stakeholder groups is
resolving potentially conflicting demands, desires, or requirements. Effective project
management begins with an appropriate budget, and clearly communicated
boundaries or conditions around which stakeholder input will be considered and
incorporated.
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Figure 2.1 CSD/CSS Requires Interaction among Traffic, Design, and

Environmental Disciplines
2.5 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach

A collaborative approach is a fundamental part of CSD to create consensus and promote
a shared ownership of the project outcomes among the whole project team and with
the project stakeholders.
Multi-disciplinary team working is a key part of the CSD approach. Project management
and team leadership is important in terms of coordinating team members and
providing an integrated team approach.
2.6 The Project Team

During the scoping stage, it is important to identify the required skills to meet the
specific needs of the project. A project team could comprise any or all of the following:
• Traffic engineers
• Highway design engineers
• Transportation planners
• Geotechnical engineers
• Utility engineers
• Drainage engineers
• Bridge and structural engineers
• Traffic safety experts
• Road safety auditors
• Public Involvement specialists
• Environmental planners
• Cultural resource experts
• Public relations and communications experts
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• Graphic artists
• Design automation specialists
• Document managers
• Project controls specialists
• Land use planners
• Urban designers
• Landscape architects
• Public artists
• Architects
2.7 Project Management Plans

The project management plan should include specific scope and schedule for all
disciplines. It should highlight appropriate interactions among disciplines, data needed
for each discipline, and key points of stakeholder interaction. For major projects with
significant stakeholder concerns, a public involvement plan is central to the overall
project management plan. The public involvement plan describes the types of
outreach, timing, roles, and responsibilities of staff, and expected outcomes.
2.8 Standards versus Guidelines

CSD requires designers to consider the context and the needs of stakeholders and,
therefore, to challenge rigid and inflexible application standards. Some roads need a
more flexible approach to successfully address the particular context and needs of the
stakeholders. In all cases, designers are required to demonstrate good professional
practice to interpret this guidance in the design and delivery of innovative and creative
design solutions.
2.9 Departures from Standards

As part of the design process, designers may identify solutions that would constitute a
departure from QHDM standards. Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, of this
manual sets out a five-step process for seeking approval of the Overseeing
Organization.
It is the responsibility of the design organization to identify Departures from the

Standard and report them to the Overseeing Organization. Early submission is advised,
because applications must be determined before incorporating the departure into the
works.
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3 Working with Stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement has an important role in the CSD approach. Ongoing,
effective, and genuine engagement and communication with stakeholders can be key
aspects of successful project delivery. An inclusive approach that involves stakeholders
from an early stage is more likely to produce alternatives that gain stakeholder support.
3.1 Who Are Stakeholders?

Stakeholders include organizations, representatives of organizations, or individuals
who are interested in or may be affected by the project. The project’s owning agency
will be the primary stakeholder, but for most projects, individual departments within
the agency should be regarded as separate stakeholders. For example, the following
departments within the Overseeing Organization have staff with important functional
roles who should be consulted as the project proceeds:
• Programming, Scheduling, and Letting of Contracts

• Long-Range Planning
• Traffic Operations
• Road Design
• Road Maintenance
• Construction
• Public Relations
Stakeholders external to the Overseeing Organization are important to include in

planning and outreach. These can include the following governmental agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and individuals:
• Government agencies or departments (for example, Ministry of the Environment

and Public Parks Department)
• Agencies with statutory review or approval authority
• Law enforcement
• Public transport operators
• Emergency medical providers
• Utility providers
• Business organizations, such as the Chambers of Commerce
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• Road user groups

• Local community organizations and groups
• Schools
• Local land developers
• Business owners along the corridor or reliant on the corridor for business and
service
• Landowners of property adjacent to the project
• Local residents
The needs for, roles of, and value associated with stakeholder engagement vary widely.
Many entities simply seek to be informed. Others play critical roles in the project
through approvals. In addition, others still (for example, utility providers) can positively
or negatively affect the schedule, cost, and outcome of the project, depending on how
well they are engaged.
3.2 Understanding and Identifying Stakeholders

Identifying stakeholders is a key early project task that is managed by the public
involvement specialist but that should also involve project team members. A
stakeholder list should include both internal stakeholders from within the wider project
team and external stakeholders. Some stakeholders may be identified for different
roles and responsibilities within the same organization or government department.
The following key questions need to be understood:
• What is the specific nature of their role, interest, or involvement?

• How influential are they? In what sense?
• How does this project relate to their wider remit?
• What power do they have to make the project go ahead, or to stop it?
• What is their current opinion of the project?
• Have they had any prior involvement? Have they been consulted before? Are they
susceptible to consultation fatigue? For example, an organization may lose interest,
perhaps because of repeated previous consultations and lack of previous action.
• What interest do they have in the outcome of the work?
• What motivates them?
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3.3 Principles of Stakeholder Engagement

The following are principles of stakeholder engagement:
• Tailor the process to project requirements and local context.

• Be honest and clear about the process and the limits; for example, what is fixed and
what can be influenced by stakeholders’ opinions?
• Plan well in advance. Give stakeholders sufficient time to respond recognizing that
some stakeholders can have lengthy processes.
• Be patient, listen, and respect different opinions.
• Recognize that different stakeholders express their views in different ways. The
engagement process should accommodate everyone.
• Recognize that different stakeholders have different prior information or technical
knowledge, and tailor the approach to the individuals involved.
• Use clear language and avoid jargon.
• Make decision-making transparent through a well-defined process.
3.4 Understanding the Scope and Objectives of Stakeholder

Engagement
Stakeholders need clear direction about how and when they can be involved, and what
are the boundaries or limits around their involvement. Successful engagement begins
with setting and managing stakeholder expectations.
For each stakeholder it is important to establish whether the object of the engagement
process is to facilitate direct participation, consultation, or mere information sharing.
Therefore, the approach should reflect one or more of the following levels of
engagement:
• Participation and Working in Partnership: The project team works with

stakeholders to develop ideas and solutions jointly, giving stakeholders a genuine
opportunity to help shape the project development process.
• Consultation: The project team puts forward options for discussion and listens to
stakeholder comments. Consultations should be possible on most projects. The
process of putting forward options allows constraints to be highlighted and
expectations to be managed. For consultation to be successful, the schedule must
allow time for debate and an opportunity for people’s comments to influence the
outcome. Moreover, the team should demonstrate in subsequent work or meetings
how the consultation affected the outcome.
• Information Sharing: The project team communicates important information to
help shareholders understand the project and the constraints. In addition, certain
stakeholders may hold data or information the team needs.
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3.5 When to Engage Stakeholders

Stakeholder engagement should begin at the earliest, appropriate opportunity.
Relationships built at an early stage and maintained throughout the project are the
most productive. A basic engagement process could involve three stages:
• Early stage
− Define and agree on the project problem (purpose and need for the project).
− Agree on project objectives that include transportation and goals related to
environment, community, and economy.
− Communicate the decision process and project technical steps that inform the
process.
− Identify local issues and context through gaining stakeholders’ local knowledge
and personal experience.
− Identify stakeholder priorities.
• Mid stage
− Generate ideas, understanding constraints and opportunities.
− Assess alternative proposals against agreed upon project objectives.
• Toward the end of the project
− Communicate the decision in a manner consistent with that promised at the
early stage.
− Describe implementation steps and schedule final design, bidding or letting
schedules, and contract periods for construction.
− Contribute to an implementation plan, including monitoring and identifying
lessons learned.
3.6 Stakeholder Engagement Plan

The stakeholder engagement process should be clearly defined in a stakeholder
engagement plan that includes the following:
• Purpose of Stakeholder Engagement: Clarifies the purpose of the stakeholder

engagement process and whether the emphasis is on participation, consultation, or
information sharing.
• Who Will Be Engaged: Identifies the stakeholders and their roles and relative
importance in relation to the project.
• When They Will Be Engaged: Outlines the engagement tasks and highlights the key
stages for stakeholder interaction.
• How They Will Be Engaged: Identifies the specific techniques that will be used, as
discussed below.
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• How Feedback Will Be Used to Shape the Project: Establishes what will be done
with the feedback received and how it will be documented.
• Documentation: Accurate and effective reporting of stakeholder engagement is an
important requirement. Stakeholder comments need to be carefully recorded. The
reporting should provide an audit trail that delineates which comments have
influenced the proposals and which have not.
3.7 Stakeholder Engagement Techniques

The following sections discuss stakeholder engagement techniques, including both
traditional approaches and innovative methods. In many cases, it is useful to undertake
several of these activities during the project life cycle, and so they are not mutually
exclusive.
3.7.1 Workshops
Workshops are a way to bring together technical experts and stakeholders to discuss
issues. Workshops consist of relevant presentations followed by facilitated discussions.
At the start of projects, workshops inform people about the project and involve them
in defining objectives or identifying issues. Workshops can be used to provide basic
important background on technical issues, so that stakeholders become prepared for
understanding alternatives and the reasons for a solution. When designs begin to
emerge, workshops can present and discuss options. Computer models, artist
impressions, photomontages, and other imagery are helpful at workshops. Figure 3.1
shows a stakeholder workshop.
Figure 3.1 Stakeholder Workshop
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3.7.2 Design Days or Charrettes

Design days or charrettes are similar to workshops, but with more focus on interaction
and an expectation that stakeholders will have a more direct opportunity to influence
the design process through hands-on activities.
Design days are collaborative, allowing stakeholders to get involved in design

processes. A design day typically would have an introductory presentation followed by
a series of interactive sessions where stakeholders work alongside the design team on
plans and drawings. In some cases, stakeholders work directly with a designer to
develop or amend drawings.
Design days can be used in different ways at different stages. At the start of a project,
it might be appropriate to have a “blank sheet” session to capture early ideas from
stakeholders. Later during the project life cycle, a design day may focus on commenting
on draft designs.
3.7.3 Site Visits or Site Audits

Involving stakeholders in a site visit or audit can be a valuable way of engaging them,
especially at the start of the project. Site visits undertaken with the design team allow
stakeholders to highlight problems and issues first hand and can be a useful way of
capturing local knowledge.
3.7.4 Case Study Visits

Visiting other cities, roads, or best practice locations already in place can stimulate the
debate about a proposed solution, particularly if it is new to the area. Visiting case
studies first hand can be invaluable, but when it is not possible, discussing case studies
with stakeholders and sharing photographs, drawings, and other materials can also
help stimulate debate and highlight possibilities. Figure 3.2 shows a public realm design
in San Diego, United States.
Figure 3.2 Public Realm Design in San Diego, USA
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3.7.5 One-on-One Meetings

Speaking directly to stakeholders is often the most productive way of understanding
their views. One-on-one meetings in the early project stages help build good
relationships. Many stakeholders appreciate speaking directly to the project team and
may prefer to make their views known in a one-on-one meeting rather than at a larger
workshop or design day.
3.7.6 Stakeholder Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be a useful way of capturing views, especially when the stakeholder
group is too large to meet individually or when it is important to understand views
before another event or meeting. Surveys are one way to reach potential project users
who, as a group, are typically difficult to reach. Questionnaires can be web or paper
based.
3.7.7 Websites
Websites can be a useful way of sharing information with stakeholders, particularly for
larger projects in which the affected stakeholder community is significant.
3.7.8 Visual Presentation Techniques

Most methods of engagement benefit from design proposals being communicated in
interesting, eye-catching, and stimulating ways. Stakeholders may not be familiar with
reading plans or maps so it is important to choose a method of presentation that is easy
to understand. The following are all very useful methods of presenting:
• Three-dimensional computer models, as shown in Figure 3.3, and animations help

bring designs to life and help stakeholders visualize the proposed project.
• Artists impressions and photomontages are relatively simple techniques that can be
invaluable in communicating designs to stakeholders
• Mood boards contain photographs of other projects that portray the style, look, and
design to be achieved; for example, in relation to street furniture and paving.
• Hand-drawn sketches can be useful in communicating concepts and ideas. Their
sketchy nature helps to convey the message that design is at an early stage and can
still be influenced by stakeholder comments, whereas computer-aided drawings
tend to look final.
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Source: Ashghal
Figure 3.3 Example of a Three-dimensional Computer Model
3.8 Community Engagement

The effective, timely involvement of local communities is fundamental to delivering
successful outcomes for projects that follow the CSD process. Road projects in
particular can benefit considerably from community engagement.
Often, community engagement will occur concurrently with stakeholder engagement,

and in some cases, the two may be similar or merge. Community engagement is
addressed separately to highlight the issues and techniques that are suited to dealing
with local residents. However, many of the principles and techniques mentioned in
Section 3.3 also are relevant.
3.8.1 What is “Community”?

Primarily, community engagement focuses on consulting with the public—the people
who will be affected by the proposals either as end users or people who live or work in
the study area. It also should include people who travel through the study area or visit
or spend leisure time there.
Generally, the amount of consultation should be proportional to the size of the project
and its effect on the area. Large road projects need to engage a wider audience, which
could mean giving everyone in the area an opportunity to comment on the project.
Smaller or more constrained projects take a different approach and may need to limit
engagement to people directly affected by a road project (for example, through land
take, visual or noise impacts, or impacts on access arrangements). Other projects may
choose to gauge opinions of the community by talking to community groups or other
intermediaries who represent the wider community.
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3.8.2 Benefits of Community Engagement

Benefits to an effective community engagement process may include:
• Local residents will be able to provide valuable local knowledge of the area, can
assist with developing the project vision and objectives, and can contribute to the
project proposals.
• The consultation will provide a flow of local knowledge and information that will
help focus on the issues that are of most concern to the local community.
• Community engagement will help generate greater acceptance of a project, which
could lead to fewer objections and issues during construction, therefore helping to
smooth the path to effective delivery.
Benefits to the community may include:
• Consultations give communities the opportunity to influence projects.

• Communities that are involved in the road design process are more likely to
understand the project, its rationale, and its design. Consequently, they are more
likely to support the project. The process can foster a sense of community
ownership and provide local people with a sense they can help shape their area.
• The individuals involved in the process may gain new skills and feel empowered
through their involvement.
• Consultations can help foster positive attitudes toward community involvement
and participation.
• The project is more likely to address the issues that concern the community;
therefore, the community is more likely to benefit from what they perceive as an
improvement to their local area.
3.8.3 Principles of Community Engagement

Community engagement should be undertaken in line with the following principles:
• Tailor the engagement process to project requirements and local context.

• Be honest and clear about the process and the boundaries (for example, what is
fixed and what can be influenced by community opinions).
• Be patient, listen, and respect different opinions.
• Recognize that different people express their views in different ways; the
engagement process should cater to everyone.
• Use clear language and avoid jargon.
• Use key members of the community to help develop the process.
• Use different techniques to encourage those who do not normally engage to have
their say.
• Make decision making transparent through a well-defined process.
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3.8.4 Understanding the Local Community

Similar to stakeholder engagement, it is important to tailor community engagement to
the specific project and local context. Understanding the local community is an
essential starting point in a community consultation exercise. The following should be
considered:
• How is your target community made up?

• What main demographic groups are in your area?
• Who are the key influencers in your target community?
• What community groups are active within the community?
• How is it best to communicate with the community?
• How does your target community use the Internet?
At the start of the project, create a list of community groups, which could include:
• Residents groups
• Local community groups
• Transport users groups for specific modes (for example, rail, bus, bike, and
pedestrian)
• Local businesses
3.8.5 Defining the Purpose and Objectives of the Consultation

To manage expectations, it is important to be clear about when, how, and to what
extent the community will be able to get involved in shaping the project. If practical
issues limit the opportunities or timing for community involvement, they need to be
explained at the outset.
As with stakeholder consultation, it is important to establish at an early stage whether

the overall objective of the process is focused on participation, consultation, or
information sharing. The focus will affect the way in which the community engagement
process is carried out, and it is critical that this is defined and agreed to at an early
stage.
3.8.6 Identifying the Scope of the Consultation

At the start of a project, it is important to identify the extent of the geographical area
that the consultation will target. Different projects require different approaches; it
might be appropriate to target:
• A select number of people (for example, people who adjacent to the section of road
that is being improved or people who are directly affected)
• Defined areas within a settlement (for example, a certain district or neighborhood
area)
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• A specific subset of the population (for example, people who use a certain mode of
travel)
• The population of a defined study area or settlement
3.8.7 When to Engage

As with stakeholder engagement, consultation with communities should begin at the
earliest possible opportunity. Relationships that are built at an early stage and
maintained throughout the project generally are the most productive.
Generally, the timeline for engaging the community is related to the engineering
design, with engagement before or after key design milestones. The process described
in this chapter for stakeholders also could be used as a general timeline to involve the
community.
3.8.8 Community Engagement Plan

The community engagement process should be clearly defined in the engagement plan.
For most projects, it is necessary to consult with stakeholders and the community, and
both generally can be dealt with in a single document; therefore, the guidelines
provided in Section 2.3 in this part are relevant.
3.8.9 Reporting
Accurate and effective reporting of community engagement is an important
requirement. The comments made by the community will need to be recorded;
reporting should provide an audit trail that explains which comments have influenced
the proposals and which have not. In cases where comments have not been addressed,
the reporting should provide a reasoned justification. This reporting should be available
to the community (for example, by making documentation public on a website).
3.8.10 Community Engagement Techniques

A wide range of techniques can be used to consult with communities, including:
• It is useful to use a selection of techniques because different people and groups

respond to different approaches.
• Community consultation can be less formal and often helps make it more accessible
to a wider audience.
• Different approaches are suitable depending on whether the overall objective is
participation, consultation, or information sharing.
• Where the overall objective is participation or consultation, different techniques
might be appropriate at different points in the project process; generally, projects
tend to be less participatory and more about information sharing toward the end.
The following sections describe techniques that combine traditional approaches with
innovative methods. In most cases, it is useful to undertake several of these activities
during the project lifecycle; therefore, they are not mutually exclusive.
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3.8.10.1 Public Exhibitions

Exhibitions, especially those held in easily accessible public venues with existing
pedestrian traffic (for example, in shopping malls), can be a useful way of reaching a
wide section of the community. Exhibitions are particularly useful for displaying and
seeking feedback on draft designs or proposals, and a questionnaire can be used to
record feedback.
3.8.10.2 Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be a useful way of capturing views. Questionnaires can be web- or
paper-based and can be used to ask questions about problems and issues or to seek
feedback on objectives and options.
3.8.10.3 Comment Cards

Comment cards allow people to record their views in a quicker, less formal manner.
Some people prefer to take the cards away and think about the comments before they
fill them in and bring them back on their next visit.
3.8.10.4 Workshops
Workshops can be a used to involve the community in debating issues. Small group
discussions in a workshop setting can be valuable (for example, in drafting objectives
and commenting on designs). However, community workshops require careful planning
to control numbers and need to be facilitated carefully.
3.8.10.5 Public Meetings

Public meetings can be a useful way of sharing information; however, they can be
difficult to control, and one or two outspoken individuals can influence the overall
mood of the audience. If a public meeting is required, the question and answer portion
of the meeting should be carefully managed.
3.8.10.6 Focus Groups

Focus groups are guided discussions within a small group. They are particularly useful
at the start of a project to help understand issues and priorities. Focus groups could
comprise individuals who volunteer; for a more representative group, individuals can
be recruited from the local community.
3.8.10.7 Websites and Online Consultations

Websites can be a useful way of sharing information with the community and can be
used to host consultations on formal documentation. Web-based consultation is useful
to get feedback on draft documents but generally would be used after employing some
of the other engagement techniques described above.
3.8.10.8 Graffiti Wall

The graffiti wall is a simple technique that collects views on one topic or issue. Graffiti
walls are informal, and they can help encourage people who may not want to make a
formal comment. They could be used for any audience but are especially well suited to
younger people who often find it fun and interesting.
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3.8.10.9 Voting Games

Voting games can be a useful technique to use during an exhibition or a workshop.
Participants use stickers to vote for their preferences (for example, which design option
they prefer).
3.8.10.10 Photo Surveys

Asking members of the community to record problems, issues, and concerns through
photographs can be a useful, simple technique. Photographs of aspirations, showing
what people might like their local area to be like in the future also can be useful.
3.8.10.11 Visual Presentation Techniques

Most methods of engagement benefit from design proposals being communicated in
interesting, eye-catching, and stimulating ways. It is important that all materials (for
example, maps and graphics) be clearly labeled and easy to read.
3.9 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context

The project team should understand relevant policies, strategies, and plans that may
apply to the road, the area the road passes through, and the context at a scale that is
appropriate for the road. The road design may affect these policies, strategies, and
plans, and understanding this may will help support the delivery of these. Equally, the
road design should respond and adapt to the requirements of these plans, as required.
At an early stage in the project, the designer should establish relevant policies,
strategies, and plans defining how they influence the road design (and vice versa) and
potential solutions that meet all requirements. For example, relevant plans include land
use plans, open space strategies, and pedestrian and bike strategies.
3.9.1 Integrating Road and Land Use Plans

The place and movement functions of a road influence the approach to road design in
urban areas. To achieve objectives for the place and movement functions, it is
important to understand the land use context and its effect on travel demand. As such,
land development proposals should be integrated into the transportation network.
Roads and the public realm are often the place for a wide range of activities and events.
The public realm is not just used for functional reasons such as walking and cycling; it
also hosts a range of leisure activities including socializing, relaxing, shopping, eating,
and taking part in events such as sports and ceremonies.
A sustainable and coordinated approach to transport and land use planning can reduce
traffic, travel distances, and promote sustainable modes of transportation. Sustainable
modes of transportation can be promoted by providing a mix of service and amenity
facilities, such as schools and open spaces, within walking or cycling distance of homes
or offices. The road design should allocate space to enable easy and effective walking
and cycling, promote the movement function to enhance visual amenities, and create
places that are comfortable and well used.
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Similarly, the road design should respond to the adjacent land uses and the character
of the place that is being created. For example, roads by open spaces could adopt a
design approach focused on planting and landscape, whereas a road by an urban square
could focus on creating space for pedestrian priority, paved areas, high-quality paving,
and street trees. In contrast, roads that have a greater movement function could look
at greater segregation of pedestrians and cyclists from motor vehicles.
3.10 Develop the Design Vision and Objectives

Developing a vision and objectives for the road project will identify how the road design
responds to its context, meets the needs of stakeholders, and adds lasting value to the
community, the environment, and the transportation system. The designer should set
out the vision and objectives and should be able to develop strategies that will enable
these to be delivered.
The vision and objectives evolve during the design development stages by responding
to constraints, opportunities, and stakeholder input. The designer should identify how
and why changes may need to be made and revise the vision and objectives accordingly.
Stakeholders should be able to assist in developing the vision and objectives, and they
should be invited to contribute to their development at appropriate times during the
project.
Typical project objectives could include:
• Policy
− Transport and planning strategy objectives
• Safety
− The road is safe to build and maintain
• Economic
− Develop cost-effective solutions
− Develop low maintenance roads
• Visual
− Quality of public realm
− Protect existing visual amenity and character
− Enhance visual quality of the road and surrounding landscape
− Screen undesirable views of road infrastructure from the road and surrounding
areas
− Provide a pleasant driving experience with visual interest and relief
− Create a consistent character through the integration of road elements
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• Movement
− Safe movement for all users
− Balancing priorities to suit road function and classification
• Ecological
− Protect existing habitats and ecosystems
− Minimize loss of existing valuable vegetation
− Enhance biodiversity and natural drainage
− Use the roadside landscape to connect habitats
− Minimize impacts on natural drainage
− Promote an understanding of and respect for native flora and fauna
• Cultural
− Protect the cultural and heritage value
− Protect and enhance the setting of cultural and heritage features
• Community
− Provide for community users wherever feasible
− Provide access across and along the road for pedestrians and cyclists
− Create attractive gateways and features at entrances to neighborhoods and
community facilities
3.11 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context

Context is defined as the character and setting of an area and can be described in terms
of the area’s physical, economic, and social characteristics. This guidance places
particular emphasis on understanding the context within which the project team is
working. Road proposals should be based on a thorough urban context appraisal or
landscape character appraisal. This section provides an introduction to urban and
landscape appraisals.
3.11.1 Urban and Landscape Appraisal

Understanding context is important to create a design that is appropriate for the setting
and can be integrated into the adjacent landscape or urban context. One of the keys to
a successful project is to achieve an understanding of the physical context through
either a thorough urban context analysis or landscape character appraisal. By
understanding the specific characteristics of an area, designers will be more able to
protect and enhance an area’s landscape, heritage, and environmental resources and
strengthen and enrich local identity, character, and distinctiveness by enhancing those
special qualities that make the area distinctive.
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A full analysis and appreciation of the wider context (for example, social, economic, and
environmental) should be carried out before design work commences. Site context
goes beyond the highway boundary and includes the adjacent landscape or urban area.
Designers should consider the following to create CSD solutions that complement and
enhance the existing context and sense of place:
• Community facilities and demographics

• Ecology and biodiversity
• Visual qualities such as key views and landmarks
• Local policy
• Movement
• Topography
• Landscape
• Heritage features
• Urban form and settlement pattern
• Key buildings
• Significant individual trees or tree groups
• Green spaces
• Gateways
• Land uses, users, and activities
3.11.2 The Value of a Good Road Landscape and Urban Streets

When the road landscape is designed well and in an integrated manner:
• It becomes an important element that contributes to the character of an area.

• It helps to create a unique sense of place.
• It helps to integrate the road into its landscape and urban context.
• There is unity, and the road corridor provides visual interest.
• It provides structure and 3D scale to the road corridor.
• It enhances existing ecological habitats and corridors.
• It provides shade for pedestrians and cyclists.
• It screens undesirable views of the road and helps filter dust.
• The public realm creates a sense of place as well as provide for movement.
3.12 Urban Context Appraisal

The quality of the public realm, which includes roads in urban areas, squares, and parks,
has a major impact on the way people perceive and use cities and towns. The quality of
the public realm often can influence how attractive, safe, and welcoming a place feels.
The design of roads and public spaces in urban areas has an important role in creating
a sense of place and building on the characteristics that make the area unique.
Highway proposals in urban areas should be based on a thorough urban context

appraisal. Good design comes from a thorough understanding of place and context,
which is defined as the character and setting of an area. A site’s context includes the
adjacent urban area.
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A thorough urban context appraisal will help the designer create a design that is
appropriate for the setting and that can be integrated into the adjacent settlement
pattern. Several factors contribute to a site’s context, including existing land uses,
buildings and spaces, access routes, landscape, ecology, culture, and heritage. Context
also includes the local community and how people use an area. Figure 3.4 shows an
example of urban context.
The following aspects should be considered in carrying out an urban design appraisal:
• Existing land uses

• Areas of activity
• Urban form, that is, the adjacent network of streets and spaces
• Urban structure, that is, the framework of routes and spaces
• Urban grain, that is, the pattern of blocks, plots, and buildings
• Poorly defined space
• Public space network
• Pedestrian and bike links
• Barriers creating pedestrian severance
• Locations dominated by traffic
• Landscape, that is the shape, form, ecology, and natural features
• Significant individual trees or tree groups
• Legibility
• Key views and landmarks
• Potential landmarks
• Gateways
• Areas with a poor visual setting
• Key buildings
• Building scale and massing
• Heritage
• Key street frontages and boundary definitions
• Areas that need improvement
• Details and local materials
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Figure 3.4 Examples of Urban Context
3.12.1 Character and Local Distinctiveness

In terms of urban roads, the sense of place can be defined by the form and function of
an area, as well as the design approach to paving, street furniture, planting, public art,
and signage. The use of materials and techniques should reflect and contribute to this
local distinctiveness. Roads should respect, strengthen, and enrich local identity,
character, and distinctiveness. The aim is to protect and enhance special qualities. The
appraisal should consider whether the character of existing streets or spaces
contributes to the identity of the whole area and whether the area requires
enhancement.
3.12.2 Land Use Context

Land uses influence the character of an area in terms of built form and the functional
characteristics of the road and its surroundings. The land use context can influence the
design of the road in terms of the types of activities that happen or are likely to happen
along a road and the need to accommodate the anticipated levels of movement. The
context analysis should identify existing and proposed land uses and areas of activity.
3.12.3 Urban Form, Street Structure, and Layout

The context analysis should consider the network of streets and spaces. This should
include an analysis of the existing urban structure, which is the framework of routes
and spaces and the pattern of roads, development blocks, and buildings within a given
area (Figure 3.5). The analysis should understand whether there is a clear distinction
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between public and private spaces and delineate poorly defined spaces that need
improvement. The proposed road hierarchy (refer to Part 4, Intersections and
Roundabouts) and layout should respond to the prevailing urban form of the area and
be integrated into the urban fabric where possible.
Figure 3.5 Example of Urban Development Blocks and Structure
3.12.4 Public Space and Parks

A strong network of public open space is important in terms of human use and
protecting ecological systems and processes. The proposed road and street layouts
should respond to the open space and park network, support multifunctional spaces,
and incorporate ecological assets, activity areas, and recreational facilities. The layouts
should be linked with routes for walking and cycling. The analysis should identify the
key public open spaces and whether these spaces need to be connected to each other.
The analysis also should identify whether public spaces provide for local needs and
whether there are opportunities for enhancements. Figure 3.6 shows public space.
Figure 3.6 Example of Public Space
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3.12.5 Movement
The context analysis should support development of the movement strategy by
integrating road proposals with the adjacent urban areas. The context analysis should
be closely linked to transport and travel assessments, and identify the key existing and
proposed routes through the area and whether these routes could be better
connected.
The analysis should link closely to transport appraisal work and identify pedestrian and
bike routes that need to be improved and whether these routes could be made safer
and more attractive. The analysis should identify landscape and streetscape
enhancements that encourage cycling and to make cycling safer for cyclists and
pedestrians, identify potential pedestrian and cyclist desire lines, and barriers that
create pedestrian severance. In terms of crossings, the analysis should identify where
people want to cross, whether crossings are in the right place, and whether additional
crossings are required.
The analysis also should identify locations dominated by traffic that would benefit from
a stronger “place” function by being redesigned or traffic calmed, or places where
parking needs to be improved, controlled, or reduced. The analysis should identify
street enhancements that would improve public transport in parallel with transport
appraisals of public transit facilities and whether stops are conveniently sited, safe, and
well lit.
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3.12.6 Landscape and Ecology

The urban context appraisal should include the landscape character assessment where
there is an overlap between the following:
• Local landscape character

• Ecology and natural features
• Significant individual trees or tree groups and other plantings
The appraisal should link closely to ecological appraisal work and identify which existing
natural features are important to conserve and enhance, including natural corridors,
green spaces (Figure 3.7), trees, and habitats.
Figure 3.7 Example of Green Space
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3.12.7 Legibility
Legibility refers to the degree to which people can understand and identify with the
built environment. Landmarks, such as distinctive buildings or features of a building,
help provide reference points and enhance legibility. The context analysis should
identify key views, landmarks, potential landmarks, and consider whether the area
could be made easier for people to find their way around. Signage can be an important
element in creating a legible environment, and the analysis should consider whether
existing signs contribute to this and whether they give the right impression of the area.
Gateways create attractive and inviting entrances to the area, and the analysis should
identify existing and potential gateways, consider how new highways should create or
relate to these features, and whether these places could be made more welcoming.
Figure 3.8 shows examples of signage.
Figure 3.8 Examples of Signage
3.12.8 Buildings
The physical massing of a building, that is, its footprint, length, width, and height, has
an effect on the character of the area, including how roads and public space are
perceived and used. It is important how buildings relate to the street in terms of
frontages and boundary definition. The context analysis should identify key buildings
considered important in the street scene in terms of legibility, heritage, or design. The
analysis also should identify the prevailing building heights in the area, the sense of
enclosure, and the relationship of buildings to the road. Figure 3.9 shows prevailing
building heights in the city center.
Figure 3.9 Prevailing Building Heights in the City Center
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3.12.8.1 Heritage
Local heritage features can be a key factor contributing to local distinctiveness that
should be identified through the context analysis and supporting studies. The analysis
should consider whether there is a historical settlement and street pattern that should
be respected in new proposals and whether historical features should be retained.
Figure 3.10 shows an example of a heritage asset.
Figure 3.10 Heritage Assets
3.12.9 Community Facilities

The context analysis should identify where existing and proposed local facilities are
located and how they are accessed. Examples of community facilities include public
parks, schools, mosques, and shops.
3.12.10 Community Safety

Community safety can be a key factor in how areas are used. The context analysis
should identify places the local community identifies as feeling unsafe and seek ways
to address this through new highway projects. Examples include fronting buildings onto
the street to promote natural surveillance and improving lighting.
3.13 Landscape Character Appraisal

The landscape character appraisal is developed to identify significant features of a
landscape and an understanding of their importance. It is a tool for identifying what
gives a locality its sense of place and makes it distinctive. It helps landscape designers
for road projects to protect and enhance features of value by incorporating measures
to mitigate adverse landscape effects, creating new sustainable and attractive
landscapes.
Landscape character assessments and visual impact assessments are similar. Landscape
character assessment involves collecting information about the characteristic features
of the landscape including its landform, vegetation, and land use. It describes the
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landscape in a systematic way. The assessment identifies broadly homogenous

character types that show typical features and patterns. This allows a better
understanding of the landscape and what is distinct, so proposed changes can respond
to character and context, add to it, or change it.
The assessment of potential effects takes into account what influence the proposal has
on the surrounding landscape and to what extent it will affect the landscape's
distinctive quality and substantial local diversity and character.
Visual impact assessments relate to the potential change in view and visual amenity
experienced by people from particular locations. These places include private
residencies, community facilities, and public parks as well as views from the road.
There are important overlaps between landscape character assessment and ecology
and cultural heritage. Habitats can be part of a distinctive landscape; for example,
low-lying sabkah contains plant species that are salt tolerant. The low-lying landform
and the plant types contribute to creating a distinctive landscape character. In
undertaking a landscape assessment, the designer should refer to the environmental
policies, studies, and assessments to determine mitigation measures that can be
incorporated into the landscape design process.
3.13.1 Landscape Character Assessment Process

The landscape character assessment should follow the following series of steps:
• Step 1: Describe the existing landscape character

• Step 2: Identify the road function and its interaction with the landscape
• Step 3: Undertake the impact assessment
• Step 4: Develop mitigation measures
• Step 5: Develop the landscape design vision and goals
The assessment and mitigation measures may need to be repeated as part of an

iterative design and assessment process as the road and landscape designs move
through the development phases.
A landscape character assessment may be required as part of an environmental impact

assessment (EIA). Part 21, Environmental, of this manual introduces the key stages in
the EIA process and encourages close communication between the design and
assessment teams. It is not a guide on how to undertake an EIA; the Ministry of
Environment has published detailed guidance for EIAs. However, this manual requires
designers to demonstrate the designs have considered and accommodated
recommendations from the EIA process, in particular by incorporating mitigation
measures into the design. In this regard, the landscape character assessment and urban
character appraisal are important requirements for the designers to understand
context and identify potential environmental impacts and opportunities.
The scope of the assessment and the level of detail required in the assessment will vary
depending on the extent, scale, and complexity of the road project; the landscape it
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passes through; the potential effects of the road proposal on the landscape; and the
needs of stakeholders.
The landscape character assessment could be a technical note for smaller-scale projects
to a comprehensive and detailed report and drawings for a major project. The report
should describe the landscape character, potential impacts, required mitigation
measures, and design integration strategy. The report should outline landscape design
requirements so these can be carried forward into the concept, preliminary, and
detailed design phases. The scope of the assessment should be agreed upon and
undertaken at an early stage in the project so the assessment and potential mitigation
measures can be incorporated into from the beginning of the design process.
3.13.2 Describing the Existing Landscape Character

Landscape character assessment involves collecting information about the characteristic
features of the landscape. The assessment is presented by categorizing the landscape into
broadly homogenous character types that show typical features and patterns and
landscape character areas that show the extent and area covered by each type. This
provides a baseline against which changes resulting from the proposal can be measured.
The existing landscape character should be established through a desktop study and
visits to the site. Typical information required to define the character types and their
areas could include:
• Geology and soils

• Landform and topography
• Watercourse and drainage systems
• Vegetation types and land cover
• Land use
• Settlement patterns
• Cultural and historical features
• Protected and designated sites and special areas
Aesthetic and perceptual qualities could include:
• Balance and proportion

• Scale
• Enclosure and openness
• Texture
• Color
• Diversity
• Unity
• Form
• Pattern
• Noise and tranquility
The information should be presented as a series of map overlays, which will assist with
identifying areas of common character. In some instances, a pattern of landscape
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character will be obvious, but in others, no immediate pattern will emerge and a more
detailed assessment may be required.
The site visit can identify landscape features that are not apparent from the desktop
study and enables the designer to record aesthetic and perceptual qualities of the area.
Photographs of the site that are annotated, if required, should support the written
description to show and explain important landscape features. The written description
should provide an overall impression of the character, the elements that make up the
landscape, and the way they interact.
Each landscape character type should be written by an appropriately trained landscape

architect in a way that describes the overall character in objective and subjective terms,
with factual statements about elements in the landscape, and more evocative
statements about its character. The description needs to avoid value judgments and
personal values. The landscape character assessment is to be illustrated on a landscape
character plan that maps the extent of the various landscape character type and their
respective areas, landform, screening features, key views, and other relevant important
landscape features.
An assessment of the wider landscape context is required for larger projects and will
assist in the more detailed assessment required for all projects. The wider landscape
appraisal should consider large-scale geographical elements as noted above, such as
geology, soils, landform, climate, flora, fauna, and other relevant environmental factors
to determine the landscape character types. The level of detail within the assessment
should be appropriate to the scale of the project. Typical landscape types are described
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Landscape Types

Landscape Type Description
Coastal Edge Low-lying coastal dunes between built up areas (mangroves) and ports
Sabkah Flat low-lying areas of saline windblown sand or silt deposited in areas of shallow
sea
Rawdat/Ecological Pockets of sweet soils allow development of lush vegetation in contrast to the
Character surrounding desert
Sand Dunes Windblown sands over the limestone peninsula form classic crescent dune shapes
Desert A flat and expansive landscape of limestone with pockets of native vegetation
Urban Fringe The transition between open landscapes and denser development varied in
character consisting of scattered and low-density development, both industrial
and residential
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3.14 Local Landscape Character Appraisal

The designer should undertake a detailed local landscape appraisal of the site. This
should be undertaken for all projects and consider the following elements:
• Soils
• Localized landform and slopes
• Views and viewshed
• Groundwater and hydrology
• Habitats and ecology
• Existing vegetation location and species
• Pedestrian and bike circulation
• Sun paths and shade provision
• Noise and dust
3.14.1 Identify the Road Function and its Interaction with the Landscape
This step identifies the critical elements of the road proposals and how they will affect
the landscape. This helps determine the scope of the landscape character assessment
following an understanding of the scale and complexity of the road and sensitivity and
value of the landscape.
It also should identify potential mitigation measures that could involve changes to the
road alignment and avoid impacts. Typical interactions and potential effects on the
landscape could include:
• Change to landscape character

• Loss of landscape element
• Loss of existing vegetation
• Loss or changes to habitat
• Change in views toward and from the road
• Changes to the setting to historical or cultural features
3.14.2 Undertake the Impact Assessment

Undertaking the landscape character assessment and identifying the road function and
its interaction with the landscape help define the scope and level of detail required for
the impact assessment. The impact assessment takes into account the influence the
road will have on the surrounding landscape and to what extent it will affect the
landscape's distinctive quality and substantial local diversity and character.
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The impact assessment should contain:
• A description of the broad landscape character (if required)

• A description of local landscape character, including the definition of landscape
character units
• Definitions of the sensitivity of the landscape character to the road proposals
• A description of the predicted changes to the landscape character
• A visual envelope plan and description of the important views to and from the road
3.14.3 Develop Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures help avoid or minimize potential adverse landscape effects. It
should be possible to identify measures from the feasibility and concept stages of a
project. The measures should be identified in reports and, where appropriate,
identified and illustrated on plans and other drawings. Mitigation measures serve as a
basis for a detailed landscape design. The measures should form part of the design
process that creates positive outcomes, achieves the design objectives, and creates
attractive urban streets and road landscapes. Part 21, Environmental, of this manual
identifies several environmental aspects where landscape design is an important
consideration in developing mitigation measures.
3.14.4 Visual Effects

Visual effects relate to the change in view from particular viewpoints, such as:
• Private residential properties

• Commercial and industrial properties
• Public and community facilities
• Public parks and open spaces
• Roads
• Footways and bike paths
As part of the assessment, designers should understand the potential change in view
by those who have a view or a potential view of the road. This assessment is normally
part of the EIA and associated potential mitigation measures. The designer incorporates
those measures into the landscape design. Design solutions may include walls, visual
barriers, and landscaping to screen poor aesthetic treatments.
The designer also should consider the view of the motorist from the road. They should
undertake an assessment of the potential drive from experience and describe vistas
and views from the road. The designer should identify views to interesting and
important features that should be maintained or emphasized through framing of the
view and where views to unsightly features should be screened. Creating diversity and
interest for the motorist through a well-designed road landscape can have important
safety benefits to help maintain driver alertness.
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3.15 Context Sensitive Solutions

The CSD process provides an approach to promote solutions that are sensitive to their
urban or rural context. Solutions should be derived from the key elements of CSD in
terms of a collaborative and multidisciplinary teamwork, effective stakeholder, and
community engagement, and a comprehensive analysis of the local context.
3.15.1 Project Stages

CSD promotes stakeholder engagement throughout the design process, and work
stages need to include stakeholders input and context appraisal. Safety, community
integration, character, ecology, cultural heritage, maintenance, and cost effectiveness
are values that need to be considered throughout the design process that include the
following main stages:
• Project scope
• Project brief
• Describing the vision and setting objectives
• Understanding the urban and landscape context
• Concept design
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design
• Tender documents
• Construction
• Maintenance and management
3.15.2 Context Sensitive Solutions

The next chapters present guidance on CSS for urban and rural roads. Chapter 4
provides guidance regarding design objectives, design issues and priorities, and user
requirements for urban roads. Chapter 4 also provides guidance on specific road
elements such as interchanges, intersections, and roundabouts. More detailed
streetscape guidance is provided for street furniture, materials, and planting.
Guidance in Chapter 5 provides design objectives for rural roads, including specific
guidance on design and road elements such as intersections, roundabouts, earthworks,
structures, planting, and water management.
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4 Urban Roads
This chapter sets out guidance for urban road design approach that reflects the road
classification set out in Part 2, Planning, of this manual. Urban roads are those that lie
adjacent to areas that contain or are zoned to contain built land use development. This
chapter is to be read with Part, Roadway Design Elements, Part 4, Intersections and
Roundabouts, Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, Part 6, Design for
Priority Intersections, Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, and Part 8, Design for Signal
Controlled Intersections, Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors, Part
19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, and Part 22, Landscaping and
Planting Design, of this manual, which set out the wider transport and engineering
aspects of road planning and design. Additionally, the QPRG, published by ASHGHAL,
should also be consulted. This chapter focuses on CSD issues and how these principles
are applied to roads in urban areas.
4.1 Approach
The design approach to urban roads responds to the key elements of CSD defined in
Chapter 1, which comprise:
• A collaborative approach to teamwork

• Multidisciplinary teamwork
• Effective stakeholder engagement
• Working with the local community
• A comprehensive analysis of the local context
The guidance in this chapter specifically focuses on those aspects relevant to roads in
urban areas and, in particular, their urban context.
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4.2 Comprehensive Urban Road Design

The designer should adopt a comprehensive approach to road design that considers
the design of the public realm with traffic management and engineering requirements.
This comprehensive approach seeks to integrate the range of different users, reconcile
their requirements, and promote sustainable modes of travel such as cycling, walking,
and public transport.
Roads provide for a range of functions including the following:
• Place
• Movement
• Access
• Parking
• Drainage, utilities, and lighting
This part should be read in conjunction with Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, in
this manual, which addresses urban road design issues, particularly lower speeds in
residential, commercial, and recreational areas. The guidance and standards set out in
Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, have a clear influence on designing the public
realm and landscape.
4.3 Objectives for Urban Roads

4.3.1 General
The designer should prepare and agree with the client and stakeholders design
objectives in urban areas. These objectives should relate to the overall project vision,
objectives, and be read in parallel with other project transport objectives. Figure 4.1
and Figure 4.2 show the design for a commercial area and a public square, respectively.
Objectives that relate to the visual appearance of the road could include the following:
• Safety: A safe environment for all modes of travel

• Land use context: Proposals that relate to existing and proposed land uses
• Character: A place with its own identity
• Efficient movement: A place that is easy to get to and to move through
• Walking, cycling, and public health: Promotion of healthy living through walking
and cycling
• Activity: Quality public spaces for a range of users
• Legibility and image: A place that has a clear image and is easy to understand
• Sustainability: A place that can be sustained over time
• Culture and heritage: A place that preserves and expresses local customs and
traditions
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Figure 4.1 Commercial Area
Figure 4.2 Public Square
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4.3.2 Safety
Safety should be at the forefront at the beginning of the design process to deliver and
create a safe and secure environment by creating safer movement for pedestrians and
vehicles at all times of the day. Road and public realm design should minimize conflicts
between pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicles. Road safety is addressed in greater detail
in Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this manual.
Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this manual provides general
requirements for visibility. Reduced requirements at lower classification road are
provided in Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this manual.
Managing speed is an essential requirement to create a safe road environment, and the
road characteristics help determine the safety of the posted speed. The road
characteristics include the context of the urban area the road passes through, the land
use, built form, parking, service roads, landscape, and public realm.
Roads should be designed to be self-explaining so their appearance provides users with

consistent and appropriate information about their function and that their driving
behavior responds accordingly (see Figure 4.3, Figure 4.4, and Figure 4.5). Busy, active,
and interesting streets can be more pleasant for pedestrians. Increased activity also can
create a sense of safety and security within the public realm and deter certain aspects
of criminal behavior by encouraging natural surveillance, particularly where buildings
overlook public spaces. In particular, streets should be designed to promote a sense of
security after dark through appropriate lighting and as part of a comprehensive street
design.
Places with well-defined routes, spaces, entrances, and boundaries that provide for
convenient movement also can promote a sense of ownership and respect.
Maintenance also is important to create a cared-for image, and places should be
designed with management and maintenance in mind.
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Figure 4.3 Crossing Facility
Figure 4.4 Active Building Frontage
Figure 4.5 Roadside Barriers for Safety
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4.3.3 Land Use Context

The road design process should relate closely to the existing land use context and, if
appropriate, to other land use proposals.
The design of the road and adjacent public realm should respond to the type of uses
and activities anticipated to take place. The highway design should be integrated to the
existing or proposed urban form, street structure, and layout. Where applicable, the
proposed road pattern should consist of a connected network of streets to create well-
defined, high-quality street environments. Figure 4.6 shows examples of street and
urban environments.
Figure 4.6 Street and Urban Environments
4.3.4 Character
The designer should develop an understanding and appreciation of the area’s
characteristics, including urban form and the way a place is used, and use this to form
the basis for a unique design response.
Good design can contribute to a sense of place by reinforcing the local pattern of
development and grain of the urban landscape. Sensitive urban design is required to
reinforce local identity so new highways can be integrated into the adjacent urban
fabric to create a sense of place.
Designers should develop an understanding of the urban context through the urban
context appraisal described in Chapter 1 in this Part. Designs should protect and
enhance the special qualities that make the area distinctive. Figure 4.7 includes
photographs that highlight a typical range of characteristics that exist and features that
contribute to local identity, including landmark buildings, heritage features, and land
uses.
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Figure 4.7 Examples of Urban Character
4.3.5 Link and Place

Roads can be divided into two functions: link and place. Links are roads that primarily
have a movement function where people pass through. Typical activities include
moving cars, vans, and other vehicles; public transport; bikes; and pedestrians.
Places are roads where people stay. Typical activities include people standing and
seating, shopping, and trading, parking, loading, and servicing. Places often are defined
by their cultural importance, importance of adjacent buildings, or the street space.
These two functions overlap, and the balance between them varies according to a
range of criteria. Links and places have different levels of significance, and road levels
can be defined through their road classification or function, such as expressways where
the priority is for the rapid movement of vehicles.
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A matrix is used to identify the balance of link and place for a road. A road may have a
changing balance depending on the time of day or year, how it is used, and variations
along its length. Figure 4.8 shows that movement function is the priority for an urban
road. Figure 4.9 shows that character of the traditional street network creates a strong
sense of place.
Figure 4.8 Movement Function is the Priority for This Urban Road
Figure 4.9 Character of the Traditional Street Network Creates a Strong Sense of
Place
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4.3.6 Efficient Movement

Efficient movement for all modes of transport should be promoted with an emphasis
on sustainable movement and creating a network of connected streets and spaces,
prioritizing pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport. The design should allow safe,
direct routes for pedestrians, cyclists, vehicles, and the mobility impaired and greater
route choice. The movement framework includes a range of road functions. For major
roads, the emphasis is on vehicle movement; for other roads, greater emphasis is on
place.
The public realm should be accessible for all, regardless of age or physical ability. It is
essential that existing pedestrian routes are protected and enhanced by road
proposals. Road proposals should provide direct links that are attractive, well lit, and
have good levels of visibility and natural surveillance.
Safe and direct access to public transport routes also should be a key design principle.
Providing easy walking access to public transport and to and from homes, employment
areas, leisure, and community facilities reduces vehicular traffic and pollution. Bus
stops should be located in well-lit, public places and allow ease of access to key
destinations (see Figure 4.10, Figure 4.11, and Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.10 Public Transport Access
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Figure 4.11 Ease of Vehicle Movement
Figure 4.12 Pedestrian Movement through Identified Crossing Routes
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4.3.7 Sustainability
The designer should design roads to be adaptable and flexible so they can respond to
future requirements and meet sustainability objectives. By considering whole life costs,
maintenance, and management requirements at the design stage, the quality of the
public realm can be sustained over time with sufficient resources set aside. In addition,
road designs should promote walking, cycling, and public transport to reduce carbon
emissions.
The design also can reduce water use for irrigation, and providing shade can decrease
ambient temperatures and promote pedestrian comfort (Figure 4.13, Figure 4.14, and
Figure 4.15).
Figure 4.13 Lawn Area to Help Reduce Ambient Temperatures
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Figure 4.14 Irrigation for Lawn
Figure 4.15 Trees to Provide Shade
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4.3.8 Walking, Cycling, and Public Health

Public health can be improved by promoting higher rates of walking and cycling, and
the quality of the public realm and pedestrian routes can influence people’s choice of
transport mode. People are more likely to walk or bike if the street is comfortable, safe,
and visually interesting. Figure 4.16 shows examples of walking and cycling
infrastructure.
Figure 4.16 Examples of Walking and Cycling Infrastructure
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4.3.9 Activity
CSD should create public space that provides for a diverse range of activities
appropriate to the urban context. Variety is fundamental to creating a place with its
own character, visual interest, and activity, catering to a range of lifestyles and
responding to local community needs.
The public realm should be designed to be purposeful, meaningful, well integrated, and
with a distinctive identity. Public open spaces should be designed with high-quality and
multifunctional spaces that are attractive, feel safe, and provide usable public space for
a range of uses, such as walkable communities, social interaction, cafe seating and
dining, children’s play space, and public plazas.
The layout of public spaces (Figure 4.17) should be integrated into the street network
with respect to the area’s character, particularly the use of materials, street furniture,
and plantings, which can help create a sense of community ownership.
Figure 4.17 Examples of Public Spaces
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4.3.10 Legibility and Image

Designers should seek to improve the image of the area by creating a distinctive
identity, brand, and style for the streetscape and a high-quality public realm.
Landmark buildings, other built and landscape features, a clear hierarchy of routes and
intersections, and high-quality, consistent signage should be considered to increase the
legibility of the road environment. Building and layout design, planting and views can
be employed to form visual focal points and landmarks along the road. Creating
landmarks and important public spaces also can assist with orientation for local people
and visitors.
Landmark buildings (Figure 4.18) can be used to terminate vistas along key streets and
define pedestrian routes. Routes should be direct with consideration for creating
gateways and landmarks to improve the sense of arrival and place. Gateways also are
an opportunity for including public art.
Figure 4.18 Examples of Qatar Landmarks
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4.3.11 Culture and Heritage

Preserving and integrating local heritage helps preserve features valued by the local
community and adds to a sense of place and local identity. Road designs should help
preserve and express local customs and traditions, emphasize privacy and security, and
promote community neighborhoods. Figure 4.19 shows examples of heritage features.
Figure 4.19 Examples of Heritage Features
4.4 Urban Road Design

This section provides guidance for the key design issues relating to urban roads and the
competing priorities of the place and movement functions of roads, the need to balance
land use and travel demand, and the need to reconcile the design priorities of different
users, stakeholders, and local residents.
4.4.1 Urban Context and Road Character

The designer should consider the place and movement functions of a road, as well as
the land use context, which is the key generator of travel demand.
Street design needs to respond to changes in land use so there is a seamless transition
between areas. Toward an urban center, development density tends to be higher, and
more intensive land uses will lead to higher levels of movement and a need for greater
road capacity. The higher density also places a need for increased public realm space
for pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport provisions.
The type of land use also is an influencing factor for designs. Planning can help reduce
vehicle trips by providing a mix of land uses within walking or cycling distance, or along
public transport routes, and ensuring good access to services and amenities.
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The level of access and parking required from a road is heavily dependent on the land
uses adjacent to the road. This parameter refers to the land use categories that are
appropriately adjacent to each road class. The following land use categories are used,
often overlapping each other:
• Industrial
• Commercial
• Residential
• Recreational
• Mixed use
The industrial area category includes activities associated with manufacturing, storage
warehouses, logistics, and military facilities. The features and issues of this area
typically include:
• Larger footprint buildings

• A need to accommodate large delivery vehicles
The commercial area (Figure 4.20) category includes offices, shopping malls, retail
outlets, strip malls, restaurants, banks, hotels, and business districts such as West Bay.
The features and issues associated with the commercial area typically include:
• High-density land uses toward the urban center with larger-scale development and
building heights
• Higher traffic volumes toward the urban center
• Higher levels of pedestrian movement, particularly in office, shopping, and retail
areas
• Need to accommodate a range of users, including delivery vehicles
• Higher function for shopping, tourism, hotel, and restaurant areas
Figure 4.20 Commercial Area
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The residential area (Figure 4.21) category includes villas, townhouses, and apartments.
Buildings that are comprised of apartments but have significant retail facilities on the
ground floor should be considered in the commercial category above. The features and
issues associated with the residential area include:
• The need to balance movement and access with place function

• A higher place function on local access roads and the need to create safe residential
environment
Figure 4.21 Residential Area
The recreational area category includes sports facilities, leisure centers, gymnasiums,
stadiums, open spaces, and public parks. The place function of parks and open space
areas is influenced by the landscape character as well as the built character, thus
environmental quality of these areas is a key issue.
The mixed-use area category can include a diverse mix of land uses and at variable
densities of use, form, and character. They may be distinct areas or be on the boundary
between areas that have a singular land use.
4.4.2 Road Function

A context sensitive approach to the street environment requires the designer to focus
on the road network role and function to determine a hierarchy in which to deliver an
appropriate design approach.
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Classifying roads into various categories is an important consideration in planning and

engineering. Roads in Qatar can be classified in a number of ways, including:
• Functional: classifying roads according to the type of service they provide

• Geometric: classifying roads according to their physical attributes
• Administrative: classifying roads according to the government agency that has
responsibility and control over them
• Performance: classifying roads according to the level of service they offer
Of these, functional classification is the predominant method of categorizing roads in

planning and engineering. It is based on actual or intended use of a road within the
network as a whole and the degree of access or mobility that is to be provided to
adjacent properties.
The first step for the designer to consider is the function the road will serve within the
surrounding context. Urban and rural areas have different characteristics in terms of
their road network density, extent of their built-up areas, and nature of their travel
patterns. Table 5.1 shows the land use frontage and functions of roadway
classifications. Figure 4.22 shows the change in character moving out from the urban
center through commercial and retail land use, Figure 4.23 shows different road types
through residential land use areas with different densities, and Figure 4.24 shows
different road types through different recreational, industrial, and urban edge areas.
Refer to Part 2, Planning, for road classifications.
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Table 4.1 Land Use Frontage and Functions of Roadway Classifications

Land Use Frontage Function
Not Residential Mainly free-flow traffic connecting major land
Not Recreational uses across wide urban areas. Medium to high
Expressway
traffic volumes. Primary function is mobility.
No access.
Commercial Industrial Connect urban districts. Medium to high
Major Preferred traffic volumes. Primary function is mobility.
Access is secondary function.
Commercial Industrial Connect urban districts. Medium to high
Arterial Minor Preferred traffic volumes. Minor arterials place emphasis
on access.
Retail Special arterial. Medium to high traffic
Boulevard Commercial volumes. Primary function is access. Mobility
Recreational is secondary function.
Not Residential Distribute traffic between Expressway
Not Recreational interchanges. Medium to low traffic. Primary
Collector Distributor
function is mobility. Access is secondary
function. Parking prohibited.
Industrial Collect traffic from service roads and local
Commercial roads and distribute to arterials.
Major
Residential Medium traffic flows, Mobility and access
Recreational given equal importance.
Collector
Industrial Collect traffic from service roads and local
Commercial roads and distribute to arterials.
Minor
Residential Low traffic flows. Mobility and access given
Recreational equal importance.
Industrial Provide access to adjacent land. Primary
Commercial function is access. Minor mobility function.
Residential Through traffic is discouraged with traffic-
Local Road
Recreational calming. Parking permitted with conditions.
For recreational, minimal mobility and access
functions.
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Figure 4.22 Change in Character Moving Out From the Urban Center through
Commercial and Retail Land Use
Figure 4.23 Different Road Types through Residential Land Use Areas with
Different Densities
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Figure 4.24 Different Road Types through Different Recreational, Industrial, and
Urban Edge Areas
4.4.3 Streetscape Zones

To deliver comprehensive street design, the designer should consider the pedestrian
realm in terms of different zones reflecting different functions. Design proposals must
consider the specific requirements of each zone and the particular requirements of
pedestrian, cyclists, and transit users. Figure 4.25 shows the streetscape zones. The
pedestrian realm zones include:
• Threshold
• Pedestrians
• Street furniture
• Cyclists
• Edge
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Figure 4.25 Streetscape Zones
4.4.3.1 Threshold Zone

The threshold zone forms the transition between a building or plot boundary, or
combination of both, and the pedestrian zone.
In retail, commercial areas, particularly in urban centers, this zone serves to provide
space for building access elements such as steps, ramps, door openings, signs, displays,
and canopies related to the building. This zone provides gathering space outside
buildings; it should be kept reasonably free of street clutter so people can stand or walk
in the shadow of buildings. Materials within this zone should relate to the pedestrian
movement zone and materials within the plot boundary to provide a seamless
appearance to the public realm.
In residential areas, this zone has an important role in terms of providing privacy and
acting as a boundary.
In land use areas away from the urban center, the threshold area may have a stronger
planted character.
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Figure 4.26 Threshold Zone
4.4.3.2 Pedestrian Movement Zone

The pedestrian movement zone forms the primary movement area for pedestrians. The
pedestrian movement zone provides direct routes linking destinations; it should be free
of street furniture and other street clutter to facilitate easy and direct pedestrian
movement.
The design and width of this zone needs to be based on the expected usage and
respond to adjacent land uses, as higher-density commercial or retail areas may result
in higher volumes of pedestrians. The materials used in this zone also will reflect the
adjacent land uses and character of the wider area.
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Figure 4.27 Pedestrian Movement Zone
4.4.3.3 Street Furniture Zone

The street furniture zone forms the location of street furniture, equipment, kiosks,
cafes, signage, trees, and landscape.
In urban centers, this zone can be the most cluttered of the pedestrian zones, with
elements affecting the visual appearance of the street in terms of individual
appearance and the cumulative impact of a larger number of elements. It is important
that street furniture elements be consolidated and organized to minimize this visual
impact and avoid unnecessary street clutter. This zone also can provide screening and
buffering for specific elements. The design of this zone should consider movement
between the other pedestrian realm zones and include breaks between street furniture
groups to allow access and provide a visual break in the street scene.
Tree planting within this zone affects visual appearance of the street and can provide
shade and screening. For the wider street scene, it is important that street tree planting
and planting areas not impede forward visibility for cyclists, affect passive surveillance
from surrounding properties, or create hiding places close to sidewalks.
In residential areas, the amount of street furniture provided is potentially more limited
and likely to include lighting, bollards, signage, and occasional seating.
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Figure 4.28 Street Furniture Zone
4.4.3.4 Cyclists Zone

The cyclist’s zone may be required where there is a need to provide cyclists with a
dedicated, off-road bike lane. Integrating segregated bike lanes within the pedestrian
realm zone requires consideration to avoid conflicts with pedestrian movement. There
also is a need to consider links back onto the roadway and with other bike routes for
safe bike movement.
Figure 4.29 Cyclist Zone
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4.4.3.5 Edge Zone

The edge zone is adjacent to the roadway or parking areas and provides space to open
car doors, pedestrian waiting areas for buses, and waiting areas for taxis.
In urban centers, this zone can be visually cluttered with signage, lighting, and other
street elements affecting the visual appearance of the street individually and
cumulatively. For narrower streets, such as residential streets, it may be possible to
locate these elements in the street furniture zone. In areas that include public transit
stops and taxi lay-bys, it is possible to combine the street furniture zone and edge zone.
Figure 4.30 Edge Zone
4.4.4 Special Urban Roads

Mushtarak, a narrow shared-space road, is a shared space in residential areas where
different transport modes have equal priority. This special street provides social space
that responds to the residential environment. The aim is to accommodate social
activities by providing seating, children’s play space, and other features that promote
social interaction.
The approach to shared space is focused on integration rather than separating different
functions and users within the public realm. This design approach reduces the
dominance of motor vehicles by reducing vehicle speeds, minimizing the physical
demarcations between vehicles and pedestrians, and encouraging drivers to behave
differently. This enables all users to share the space equally and for pedestrians to use
parts of it that normally would be dedicated for vehicle use only.
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Some shared spaces omit curbs and have a contiguous level; these are shared surfaces.
A shared surface is one where the physical barrier of a curb has been removed to allow
the pedestrian to move freely across the street and to indicate to motorists that they
should expect this behavior. Equally, motorists can use the whole street. It is important
to create spaces where pedestrians can feel comfortable that vehicles will not be
present in these areas.
Figure 4.31 Mushtarak – Shared Space
A Sikka is a narrow alleyway that provides access mainly for pedestrians, although some
alleyways can be used by cyclists and offer useful pedestrian and bike links within
neighborhoods. A Sikka should be designed with quality materials, street furniture,
lighting, and avoiding street clutter that could obstruct pedestrian movement.
Figure 4.32 Sikka
4.5 Pedestrians, Cyclists, and Transit Users

Designers need to consider pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport users to provide
adequate facilities that are safe, attractive, and respond to the project objectives, their
context, and be appropriate to the functional classification of the road.
This section needs to be read in conjunction with the guidance and standards set out in
Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, of this manual. Part 19 provides
information and guidance relating to providing pedestrian facilities including types of
pedestrian facilities, recommended geometric design criteria, and consideration of
features to improve pedestrian safety. It provides information and guidance relating to
providing cyclist facilities, including selecting suitable bike facilities, recommended
geometric design criteria, integrating bike facilities with the highway network, and
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designing other bike-related features. In addition, it discusses the provision of public

transport facilities, particularly the design of bus facilities, bus stops, and bus terminals.
4.5.1 Designing for Pedestrians

It is essential to consider pedestrian needs in designing projects and give them equal or
greater consideration than other road users. The design of pedestrian facilities must
consider the needs of all potential users, including those visually and physically
impaired. In addition, when providing for pedestrian movement and direct pedestrian
routes, the pedestrian environment should provide sufficient space and facilities to
provide comfort and safety for pedestrians.
The level of provision of pedestrian facilities is related to the function of the roadside
development and the road classification. Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this
manual provides information on the design standards related to pedestrian facilities
and provides further information on the following pedestrian facilities:
• Sidewalks
• Off-road sidewalks
• Shared-use paths
• Segregated paths
• Integrated facilities
• Verges and shoulders
• Crossings
Pedestrian routes (Figure 4.33) should be designed to a high standard and be clearly
defined through high-quality paving materials, pedestrian signage, and street furniture.
The use of materials is important in terms of defining activities, pedestrian routes, and
the different pedestrian zones.
Figure 4.33 Examples of Pedestrian Routes and Facilities
Seating and shade shelters should be provided at key nodal points and at appropriate
distances to provide opportunities for pedestrians to rest. Providing sufficient seating
space and associated shade shelters also will maximize opportunities for social
interaction.
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The design should consider usage throughout the day and after dark, and consider
community safety issues and seek to minimize personal risk and isolation.
The lighting design should recognize the importance of the public realm after dark
when temperatures are cooler and people are more likely to be outside. Lighting also
should be provided to address community safety issues, through lighting associated
with the road and the public realm, and with feature and landscape lighting.
In addition, street trees (Figure 4.34) should be planted to provide shade and shelter
along clearly defined pedestrian routes.
Figure 4.34 Examples of Street Trees
4.5.2 Designing for Cyclists

Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, of this manual provides
information on the overall design standards related to bike facilities, and provides
guidance on a wide range of issues such as design speed, visibility, and intersections.
Part 19 sets out the following types of facilities:
• Bike path: A separate path away from the roadway is provided exclusively for
cyclists.
• Shared path: A separate path away from the roadway is provided and shared by
cyclists and pedestrians.
• Segregated path: A separate path away from the roadway is provided where part
of the path is for use by cyclists, and the remainder is dedicated for pedestrian use.
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The designer should consider the following in the design of bike facilities:
• Convenience
• Accessibility
• Safety
• Comfort
• Attractiveness
Providing bike parking is as an essential element in a multimodal transportation system.

There are various forms of bicycle parking facilities, which are classified by the degree
of security. Bike parking can be located in the street furniture zone and grouped with
other street furniture items to reduce visual clutter. In terms of the street scene, it is
important that street tree planting, planting areas, and other street furniture elements
not impede forward visibility for cyclists. Figure 4.35 shows and example of a
segregated bicycle facility.
Source: Ashghal
Figure 4.35 Provisions for Bikes
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4.5.3 Designing for Public Transport Users

Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, of this manual provides
information on the overall design standards related to public transport facilities. Qatar
either already operates or plans to construct the following public transport
infrastructure to support its growing urban population:
• Bus
• Bus rapid transit
• Tram
• Light rail train
• Metro
• Rail
Part 19, Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation, of this manual also highlights the
following considerations for public transport infrastructure:
• Access for pedestrians and other vulnerable road users

• Adequate visibility and stopping sight distance
• The balance of road space with requirements for public transport facilities
• Road safety and traffic calming measures
The designer should identify a comprehensive street design solution so public transit
facilities are fully integrated into the wider street scene.
In designing public transit facilities, the designer should consider the needs of all
potential users, including the visually and physically impaired. Sufficient high-quality
space for gathering and waiting is important, and facilities should provide for the
comfort and safety of all users.
Built facilities can play an important role in terms of local distinctiveness and can be
designed as local landmarks. The materials used are important in terms of defining
space for different activities, such as waiting areas as shown in Figure 4.36, and
Figure 4.37. Appropriate use of materials also serves to integrate built facilities within
the streetscape by providing a complementary palette of materials. Figure 4.38 shows
an example of dedicated bus lanes integrated alongside a major urban arterial.
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Figure 4.36 Bus Waiting Facilities
Figure 4.37 Rendering of Public Transit Facility
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Figure 4.38 Dedicated Bus Lanes
4.6 Urban Road Intersections and Features

The landscape design approach for intersections should respond to the scale of the road
and complexity of the intersection. The design also should reflect the urban context in
terms of land uses, relationship to buildings, and other contextual factors.
In terms of planting, visibility requirements often restrict the amount, type, and
location of planting. It is important that pedestrian space be uncluttered. Crossing
facilities for pedestrians and cyclists should be direct and in the appropriate location,
as well.
4.6.1 Priority Intersections

Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this manual sets out standards
and guidance methodology for the design of this common type of junction between
minor roads giving way to traffic on the major road. Part 5 is important for the design
of roads in urban areas and identifies a range of good practices. The requirements of
Part 5 and this Part must be implemented in parallel.
This section outlines the geometric design process and elements to be considered in
designing priority intersections. Many of the elements are dealt with separately; the
designer should work systematically through the design procedure before assembling
the component parts, which is an iterative process, and the urban context needs to be
considered in the design process.
Part 5, Qatar Roadway Design Criteria and Process, of this manual describes the
commonly used layouts, design considerations, and standards to be used, particularly
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visibility requirements that will influence design of the public realm. Priority
intersections do permit reduced corner radii on local and service roads where
pedestrians have greater priority. Figure 4.39 shows a simple intersection.
Figure 4.39 Simple Intersection
The needs of pedestrians and non-motorized users have to be considered as part of the
overall design of an intersection. Intersections are potential areas of conflict between
non-motorized users and motorized vehicles, and appropriate provision must be
considered. Pedestrians and cyclists are particularly vulnerable and, therefore, require
particular consideration. The appropriate level of provision for pedestrians and cyclists
will depend on the nature of the intersection and the relative levels of use. For example,
an urban intersection in a commercial area with high pedestrian use will require greater
provision than a rural intersection where pedestrian numbers are negligible.
4.7 Roundabouts
Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, of this manual provides a wide range of guidance,
standards, and a process for designing roundabouts to achieve an optimal balance
between safety, operational performance, and catering for vehicles. It identifies the
distinct but interrelated elements that comprise roundabouts. In urban situations, land
constraints can have a significant influence on the design process and how the
roundabout can be successfully integrated into the design of the public realm. Part 7
also describes some commonly used categories of roundabouts: mini, single-lane, two-
lane, grade separated, and signal controlled.
Mini roundabouts and single-lane roundabouts are appropriate on lower-classification,

urban routes, for example, minor collectors and local and service roads, which provide
a safer alternative to a crossroad intersection. In addition, the nonflared entries and
exits give the designer more flexibility in siting pedestrian crossings.
In urban areas, the designer should consider allocating road space to provide priority
to public transport services. Cyclists may be encouraged to dismount and use off-street
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facilities at roundabouts, particularly at large roundabouts with significant operating

speeds that form a hazard for cyclists.
The landscape design approach for roundabouts should respond to the size of the
roundabout, its location, and its urban context. The scale of the roundabout is a key
factor that will affect the design approach. Figure 4.40 shows examples of landscaping
at roundabouts and how this aspect of design has an important role in defining the
character of the area.
Figure 4.40 Roundabouts in Urban Areas
Smaller roundabouts still have potential to contribute to the streetscape as part of the
wider landscape. Roundabouts benefit from planting even in urban environments.
Planting should be coordinated between the roundabout and the surrounding
landscape to provide a holistic approach.
Roundabouts can form important gateways to urban areas by incorporating planting,

public art, signage, and hard landscape elements. Roundabouts can be designed in
accordance with particular themes to reinforce local identity and assist with
orientation. Signage can be incorporated into the roundabout to assist with orientation
and wayfinding. Tree planting can play an important role in contributing to the overall
planting theme to create a distinctive character. Similarly, there may be potential for
public art pieces and other structures to act as local landmarks. Water features also
have been incorporated into roundabouts, but should be kept simple or avoided
because of maintenance issues.
The photographs show example roundabouts that include public art and landmark
structures, which contribute to the sense of place. They also show examples of
roundabouts that are integrated into the overall design approach and contribute to
traffic calming objectives.
4.8 Signalized Intersections

Part 8, Design for Signal Controlled Intersections, of this manual sets out standards,
provides guidance, and identifies good practices for designing layouts for signal-
controlled intersections on roads with a design speed of 80 kilometers or less. These
roads are more likely to be arterials, collectors, and local roads in urban areas. It is
essential that the requirements of Part 8 be implemented in parallel.
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There are particular requirements in the design of signalized junctions for design
speeds, stop sight distances, and inter-visibility zones. Minor obstructions to visibility
caused by slim objects such as lighting columns, sign supports, signal posts, controller
cabinets, and guardrails placed within the intersection inter-visibility zone may be
unavoidable in the optimum design. When placing signs, street furniture, and plantings,
consideration should be given that their obstructive effect is minimized.
Existing buildings in the urban environment, however, may present a major

obstruction, and the intersection design will need to respond accordingly.
The crossing distances for vehicles and pedestrians should be kept as short as practical
to reduce exposure to conflicting movements and reduce intergreen lengths and hence
the amount of lost time during signal group changes. Pedestrian crossings should be
located beyond the limits of the intersection radius (inset crossings) to minimize the
road crossing distance. Tactile paving and tactile devices, audible signals, dropped
curbs, and guardrail are mobility aids designed to assist disabled pedestrians at the
crossing. Pedestrians should be encouraged to use defined points to cross the road.
Preferably, crossings should be located to minimize crossing distances and avoid
excessive detours. Figure 4.41 shows and example of a signalized intersection in a built
up area.
Figure 4.41 Urban Signalized intersection
4.9 Interchanges
Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this manual sets out standards and provides
guidance for designing interchanges. Part 4 notes that the designer, in deciding on the
form of interchange, should consider the location of the interchange within the
network. The interchange can have a significant effect on the surrounding urban
environment because the size is determined by route classifications, weaving volumes,
ability to sign, and lengths of the auxiliary lanes.
Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this manual provides a wide range of design
criteria (for example, number of lanes, capacity, ramps, signing and markings, weaving,
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and geometric design). It also describes some commonly used interchange layouts and
lists some of the selection criteria and controlling factors. This information should be
used to determine the most suitable facility for the site and associated design
parameters. The urban context and surrounding environment are among those
considerations.
The advantages and disadvantages of commonly used interchange types also focus on
the potential land take required and the potential impact of a given layout on the urban
environment. For example, a compressed diamond interchange may be more suitable
for an urban area as land availability or other constraints preclude the use of a
conventional diamond interchange.
Accommodating pedestrians and cyclists should be considered early in developing

interchange configurations, particularly in urban situations. Adjacent high-density land
use can generate heavy pedestrian and bike movements, resulting in conflicts with
vehicles. The movement of pedestrians through interchanges can be enhanced by
providing facilities to separate pedestrians from vehicular traffic. When sidewalks are
provided, they should be placed as far from the roadway as practical and be wide
enough to handle the anticipated pedestrian volumes. To maximize pedestrian usage,
the sidewalk should provide the most direct route through the interchange with
minimal change in vertical alignment, and the use of informational signing may be
appropriate to direct pedestrians to appropriate alternate routes. Crossings of ramps
should be close to the at-grade intersection at the ramp terminal.
Because of their size and scale, interchanges provide an opportunity for planting, as
well. The landscape design approach for interchanges should respond to the scale of
the interchange and the need to integrate the road into the surrounding landscape.
There may also be potential for sustainable urban drainage that needs to be integrated
with the road and landscape design.
The landscape design should consider the potential of the interchange as a gateway or
landmark feature. By creating a distinctive landscape design for the interchange, there
is an opportunity to create a specific identity for the space that can help vehicle drivers
with orientation and legibility.
The landscape design also can be designed to deter pedestrians away from the
roadway, creating safe, segregated routes for pedestrians and cyclists. Figure 4.42
shows an example of an interchange in the urban context.
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Source: Ashghal
Figure 4.42 Interchange in the Urban Environment
4.10 Curb Extensions

Curb extensions can be used to integrate on-street vehicle parking into the street scene
and reduce the visual impact of vehicles as shown in Figure 4.43. When used in this
way, curb extension provide added safety benefits by formalizing on-street parking
such that parked vehicles are located outside of intersection sight triangles.
Figure 4.44 shows how curb extensions can also be used to facilitate pedestrian
movement at intersections and mid-block crossings by reducing the crossing distance
for pedestrians and providing visibility between drivers and pedestrians. In addition,
the local narrowing of the street can have an added traffic calming effect. Further
information on traffic calming is provided in Part 23, Design and Operations of Road
Safety.
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Figure 4.43 Examples of Curb Extensions
Figure 4.44 Curb Extensions Used to Facilitate Pedestrian Crossing at Intersection
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4.11 Medians
Medians (Figure 4.45) in the center of the road can be used to control traffic and
provide a central refuge for crossing pedestrians. Medians also can be used as a location
for street lighting and signage. The overall design standards are described in Part 3,
If designed appropriately, medians can contribute to traffic calming and be designed as

part of a comprehensive approach to street design, by using a consistent approach to
materials within the road corridor. Medians also can contribute to the streetscape by
breaking up the roadway in visual terms by using trees, planting, and other features.
Providing a sufficiently wide median presents an opportunity for planting; narrow

widths, however, are not suitable for tree planting. Planting in medians also can have a
positive impact in the streetscape and provide a visual contrast to hard landscape
materials adding color, texture, and form. Low planting can allow good forward visibility
while providing a visual contrast to the wider urban environment.
Figure 4.45 Examples of Medians
4.12 Traffic Calming

Traffic calming comprises engineering and other measures to control traffic speeds and
provide a safe environment for street users. Further details on the overall design
standards relating to traffic calming are provided in Part 23, Design and Operations of
Road Safety, of this manual, which also sets out a range of design criteria associated
with various traffic calming features, including objectives, benefits, and disadvantages.
Part 23 outlines the different ways in which the design team can find solutions to traffic
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speed problems within residential or other low-speed environments, such as around

schools, places of worship, or community parks.
Context-enhancing roadway features and surface treatments can be an important

feature of traffic calming and comprehensive street design. A holistic approach to
traffic calming involves physical traffic calming measures, enhanced crossing facilities,
and context-enhancing roadway features and surface treatments. Paving materials and
gateway features can create a sense of entering a new place, be associated with
pedestrian and bike crossing facilities, and seek to create a traffic-calmed environment.
Figure 4.46 shows roadways with traffic calming.
A general toolbox of traffic management measures includes:
• Gateway treatments
• Tighter road geometry, such as compact roundabouts
• Narrowing such as pinch points and simple road narrowing, if appropriate and safe
• Visual narrowing using changes in materials such as curb channels
• Vertical deflection measures where suitable, such as speed tables, rumble strips,
and extended speed or junction tables
• Roadway surfacing
• Reduced surface differentiations
• Enhanced crossing facilities and improved bike and pedestrian provisions
• Splatter islands and central medians
• Carefully considered approaches to road edge design, particularly in commercial
and business areas
• Control and priority changes at junctions
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Figure 4.46 Roadways with Traffic Calming
Tree planting is an integral part of the public realm quality, and their careful location
can slow traffic speeds by limiting forward views and reducing the perceived width of
the roadway. Gateway elements, if designed appropriately, can add to visual identity
and image and can be designed creatively to include public art, where appropriate.
Traffic calming measures should be integrated into the streetscape by using

complimentary materials and ensuring the design and location of measures relates to
the overall design of the road.
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4.13 Streetscape Design

This section provides guidance on important considerations and objectives for good
quality urban design as part of the road design, focusing on street design and the visual
appearance of the urban road. For a comprehensive approach to designing roads in
urban areas, this section includes key elements that influence the streetscape,
including the relationship of the road to adjacent buildings, shade and climate, planting
materials, street furniture, public art, lighting, and signage.
4.13.1 Relationship to Buildings

Designers will be expected to consider the relationship of buildings to the road and the
public realm and, in particular, to the scale and mass of adjacent buildings. The setback
of buildings to the road also should consider the proposed use of the adjacent public
realm and the types of activities required. Public and private spaces should be clearly
defined to create a sense of ownership.
The proportions of street width to building height are an essential component in

defining local distinctiveness, and these proportions should be taken into account
within road design proposals. The height of adjacent buildings strongly affects the sense
of scale of the road.
Active frontages to buildings create interest and activity and provide overlooking.
Buildings that do not front the street or are enclosed by boundary walls, do not
contribute strongly to the street scene. Figure 4.47 show examples of various
streetscapes.
Figure 4.47 Streetscape Relationship to Buildings
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4.13.2 Shade and Climate

Providing shade is an important consideration in improving the comfort for pedestrians
and cyclists. Shade generally is provided by shade structures (Figure 4.48) and shade
trees (Figure 4.49), but can be provided by using adjacent buildings.
Structures should be used for immediate shading, recognizing that trees require time
to establish and grow before effective shade cover can be provided. Shade structures
should be attractive features in the street scene as well as meeting their functional
requirements.
Figure 4.48 Shade Added from Structures
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Figure 4.49 Shade Provided by Trees
4.13.3 Planting in the Street

Planting is a contrast to a built form and can be used to define public and private spaces.
Trees and planting have a role in defining routes and spaces, providing landmarks and
focal points, and defining views and vistas.
Tree planting, in particular, is an integral part of the streetscape quality. Trees often are
the most memorable aspect of roadside planting design. They should have an
appropriate scale for a road corridor and are the best means to soften the hard built
elements of the road and create character. They should be the primary element of a
landscape design where space allows, and be located carefully and deliberately to
establish a balance between enclosures and allow for framing views from the road.
Tree species also should be carefully selected so the landscape design objectives are
achieved. They should relate to context, possible design themes, and be arranged in
rows for formal landscapes and groups for informal landscapes. Using a single species
can have a powerful effect, and using a range of species can create diversity and
contrast.
Planting can play an important role in the street scene, providing color, text, and
contrast to the adjacent built form. Further details are provided in Part 22, Landscape
and Planting Design, of this manual. Planting also should be set back from the curb line
to provide space for improved safety of landscape maintenance staff.
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Part 11, Utilities, of this manual places a requirement for the utility designer and the
landscape designer to develop a design solution that addresses potential conflicts
between the requirements for tree planting and underground utilities. Greater
flexibility over corridor widths for the various utilities is required to resolve conflicts
with tree planting as well as other utilities. Figure 4.50 shows examples of roadside
planting; Figure 4.51bshows examples of formal and informal planting design themes.
Figure 4.50 Examples of Roadside Planting
Figure 4.51 Planting in the Street
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4.14 Paving and Street Furniture

4.14.1 Paving Materials
The choice of paving materials is an integral part in defining the quality of the
streetscape and public realm, and areas for specific activities. One of the primary aims
of the design is to provide a palette of materials that can be used throughout the area
to bring visual coordination, continuity, diversity, and interest.
Materials use will vary according to the type of space and proposed use. For safety and
attractiveness, it is important to have a consistent treatment of street surfaces related
to different functions. Particular materials should indicate, for example, vehicular or
parking areas within the street. Strong visual unity of street space is important, so
surfacing materials should be selected from a range of similar colors, and textures, but
subtle changes should make functions clear. Paving patterns should be a subordinate
element of the street scene.
A common color theme can help unify a space and bring together a range of otherwise
disparate elements. This is applicable to highways elements and the public realm. A
color theme also can assist with unifying items of street furniture to relate to a
particular setting or context.
Vernacular architecture often reflects the same range of colors as its mineral setting.
Changes in locality, therefore, can be reflected in changes in the color of built
development. The wide availability of building materials for buildings and floorscape
can erode local distinctiveness; therefore, the intention should be to replace subjective
color choices with more objective ones that help instill a sense of place. The proposed
color themes should build on those that currently exist in the area. The existing colors
often reflect the traditional natural materials in an area. The proposed materials palette
should seek to reflect and complement these traditional color palettes. Figure 4.52
shows changes in materials defining gateways and entrances; Figure 4.53 shows a
comprehensive approach to use paving materials.
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Figure 4.52 Changes in Materials Defining Gateways and Entrances
The photographs show how materials can be used to define sidewalks and parking bays.
Materials can be used as part of a comprehensive approach to the street environment and also serve to
calm traffic.
Figure 4.53 Approach to Use of Paving Materials
4.14.2 Street Furniture

Street furniture (Figure 4.54) contributes to the character of places and is an important
element in creating quality streetscapes. The aim should be to develop a consistent
style of street furniture that is distinctive and unique to the road and context. The
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design of seating, bollards, bike racks, and other items of street furniture generally
should be of a simple robust design coordinated between different character areas. In
particular, street furniture should be placed within the street furniture zone to avoid
street clutter.
In terms of style, street furniture should not obstruct movement and create clutter,
should respond to the wider design approach, and be integrated with the adjacent built
form and paving materials. In some areas, a contemporary approach may be required,
while in other areas, a style with a more traditional appearance may be appropriate.
Figure 4.54 Examples of Street Furniture
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4.14.3 Feature and Landscape Lighting

Quality street lighting (Figure 4.55) is an important element of urban areas and is vital
for community safety and aesthetics. Improved lighting addresses community safety
issues and helps attract visitors during the evening.
The lighting of roads can be a complex issue, and the landscape designer and lighting
engineer need to work together to develop successful solutions specific to the site and
design objectives. Lighting can help reduce the risk of nighttime crashes and enhance
the appearance of an area after dark.
Lighting is particularly important for the public realm, as many public activities happen
after dark when the temperature is lower and the streets are cooler. At night, much of
the visual interest that defines spaces is lost. Through selective lighting of key features
in the street, this visual interest can be retained. The approach to lighting should
capitalize on key views, vistas, and panoramas to enhance distant, intermediate, and
close-up vistas. Using a variety of lighting sources and techniques will maintain visual
diversity and create an interesting nighttime view.
Part 18, Street Lighting, of this manual sets out guidance on the process for designing
lighting, identifying stakeholders and the hierarchy of standards that must be adhered
to. A fundamental requirement is that lighting design solutions should be constructible
and maintainable.
Figure 4.55 Example of Street Lighting
Part 18, Street Lighting, of this manual also discusses a number of sustainability
objectives for the following:
• Social and economic
• Safety
• Operational energy consumption
• Resource efficiency through sustainable procurement
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• Visual impact and landscape design

• Light pollution and disturbance
• Cultural heritage
• Sustainable transport
It is essential that feature and landscape lighting (Figure 4.56) be incorporated into
lighting performance calculations and supporting electrical calculations. Design
software must be able to address landscape lighting within its features for it to be
approved.
Figure 4.56 Example of Feature Lighting
The lighting design should not interfere with the requirements for safety, for example at
conflict areas where an increase of lighting level is required for the safety of motorists
and pedestrians. The location of columns, ducts, access covers, and feeder pillars should
be considered an integral part of the design of the public realm and landscape to
minimize visual clutter. Figure 4.57 shows examples of distinctive street lighting.
The following should be considered in the design of street lighting:
• The position, number, shape, height, and color of the columns, brackets, and fittings
can be used to create a distinctive and attractive feature.
• Designs should be simple, elegant, and functional, with the column designed to be
unobtrusive.
• Well-illuminated landmarks can help motorists know where they are and add
interest to a journey.
• Light spill should be controlled.
• A coordinated approach to street lighting and street furniture can create an
attractive public realm and meet functional requirements.
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• Careful consideration should be given to the location and number of lighting

columns within the streetscape to avoid street clutter.
• The potential impact of street lighting through light pollution and spillage also is a
factor to be considered, particularly where lighting columns are near or fixed to
residential properties.
Figure 4.57 Examples of Distinctive Street Lighting
4.14.4 Public Art

Public art (Figure 4.58) can contribute to local distinctiveness and should be an integral
part of the road design. Public art can perform an important role in the public realm by
creating identity, focus, link with the history of an area, and add to the cultural
experience. Public art installations should be sited in highly visible locations such as
main access roads, open spaces, and squares.
In addition to individual set pieces, there are opportunities for public art to be included
into signage, street furniture, paving, building facades, lighting, and sculpture. The
involvement of local artists and artisans in designing street furniture can add creativity
and local distinctiveness.
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Figure 4.58 Examples of Public Art
Opportunities for featuring the art using lighting include:
• Key landmark buildings can be lit to reveal particular aspects of their design or
construction
• Historic structures and tree groups or significant individual trees can be lit,
potentially from luminaires recessed into the pavement construction or grassed
areas
4.14.5 Signage and Wayfinding

The approach to signage and wayfinding and design standards is set out in The New
Qatari Street: Interim National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014). Signage should
enhance the legibility of the area, elevate the status of key destination points and
places of interest, and provide visual coherence. A coherent system should link local
facilities and wider destinations. Signage also can be used to provide a distinctive
identity and brand for the area.
Gateway sites are important locations for signage. Visitors could be welcomed into the
area by a distinctive marker sign located at key entry points, car parks, major pedestrian
links, and major roads. Signs should be located in visible places in public open spaces
and main routes without obstructing pedestrian flow. Figure 4.59 shows examples of
directional signs.
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Figure 4.59 Examples of Directional Signs
In terms of style, to create a more locally distinctive product, a creative approach to

signage is required, and the inputs of local artists and crafts people should be
welcomed. In particular, involving artists in gateway signage, interpretation boards, and
community boards is a valuable resource that can help create a sense of community
ownership and inclusion. Figure 4.60 shows examples of gateway signs.
Figure 4.60 Examples of Gateway Signs
Traffic signs are necessary for driver and pedestrian safety and convenience. From the
streetscape point of view, the number of signs should be minimized, where possible, to
reduce their cumulative visual impact and should be as small as possible and grouped
together to avoid clutter.
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5 Rural Roads
This chapter describes the design approach and guidance for rural roads. Rural roads
lie outside existing urban areas or areas zoned for built land uses. This chapter also
provides guidance on issues relating to CSD and how these principles are applied to
rural roads. This chapter should be read with Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, and
Part 4, Intersections and Roundabouts, of this manual, which describe the road design
standards for geometrical alignments and elements.
5.1 Approach
The design approach to rural roads should respond to the key elements of CSD as set
out in Chapter 1, which comprise:
• A collaborative approach to teamwork

• Multidisciplinary teamwork
• Effective stakeholder engagement
• Working with the local community
• A comprehensive appraisal of the local landscape and its character
5.2 Objectives of Rural Roads

The designer should prepare design objectives for rural roads that relate to the overall
project vision, which should be read in parallel with other project transport objectives.
Objectives for rural roads should relate to the visual appearance of the road and its
integration into the landscape and could include the following:-
• Safety: A safe environment for all modes of travel

• Policies, plans, and strategies: Support wider objectives through an integrated
approach
• Landscape context: Relate to the landscape character
• Walking, cycling, and public health: Promote healthy living through walking and
cycling
• Legibility: A road which is easy to understand
• Sustainability: A road that can be sustained over time
• Culture and heritage: A place that preserves and expresses local customs and
traditions
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5.2.1 Safety
Safety should be at the forefront of designers’ thinking from the beginning of the design
process. A key objective is to create safer movement for vehicles, pedestrians, and
cyclists at all times of the day.
5.2.2 Policies, Plans, and Strategies

The objectives for the road should support achieving and delivering wider policies,
plans, and strategies that are relevant to the road and its context.
5.2.3 Landscape Context

Landscape objectives should be derived from a sound understanding of the landscape
character that the road passes through. The appraisal process discussed in Chapter 1
should be used to develop objectives that seek to protect, restore, or enhance the rural
landscape character and the features that make it distinctive.
5.2.4 Walking, Cycling, and Public Health

Rural roads can provide opportunities for walking and cycling, particularly where the
roads are close to rural settlements or on the edge of urban areas. Promoting higher
rates of walking and cycling to help improve public health can be achieved by
developing appropriate objectives to create high-quality, comfortable, safe, and
visually interesting routes.
5.2.5 Legibility
Designers should seek to improve the legibility of the road through landmarks and
landscape features that help with driver orientation and improve driver awareness.
Features, planting, and views can be employed to form visual reference points and
landmarks along the road.
5.2.6 Sustainability
The design of rural roads can contribute toward wider sustainability objectives,
including designing adaptable roads, considering whole life costs, identifying
maintenance and management requirements at the design stage, using local materials,
using appropriate plant species, and conserving soils.
5.2.7 Culture and Heritage

Retaining and integrating local heritage can preserve features valued by the community
and can add to the local sense of place and identity. Road design also should aim to
preserve and express local customs and traditions, emphasize privacy, and promote
integrated neighborhoods.
5.3 Rural Road Design

Rural roads present particular challenges for the designer in responding to the local
landscape context. Flat open landscapes means rural roads have a potentially high
impact on the landscape since the road and its associated features, particularly vertical
features, are highly visible.
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The road design in a rural landscape means existing features could have greater
importance; therefore, the design should seek to protect and enhance these features.
The guidance in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual is particularly relevant
to rural roads.
5.3.1 Earthworks
There is greater potential on rural roads to integrate the road and structures into the
adjacent landform. Potentially fewer roadside constraints means there is space for
grading out slopes, mounding, slope variety, and other earthworks that can integrate
the road effectively into its context.
5.3.2 Structures
Bridges, tunnels, and other structures can be significant features of a road landscape,
and their size and scale can have a significant effect on the landscape context. They can
make a positive contribution, creating landmarks that support legibility and require
integration into the landscape with form, layout, materials, pattern, planting, barriers,
and lighting creating a cohesive design.
5.3.3 Priority Junctions, Roundabouts, and Interchanges

Priority Junctions, roundabouts, and interchanges are large-scale features of a rural
road with the potential to have a significant effect on the landscape. Lighting, signage,
and signals are vertical elements that may be visible from long distances. Simplifying
the road details by minimizing roadside elements will reduce the visual clutter, and
carefully considered planting will help integrate these features into the landscape.
5.3.4 Water Management

Rural roads have the potential to be able to integrate sustainable drainage features
effectively into the surrounding landscape so they are functional and attractive. There
is potentially more space to design naturally shaped detention systems with shallower
slopes and space for appropriate planting.
5.3.5 Planting
Rural roads are unlikely to be supplied by water for irrigating extensive landscape
planting, and it is important to establish early on in the design process the potential
irrigation water availability. It may be appropriate for plantings to be located at
junctions, roundabouts, and interchanges as part of an integrated design emphasizing
the feature as a landmark; however, consideration should be given for the need to
transport water to tanks for irrigating plantings at junctions, especially considering the
long-term sustainability of such an approach.
Native plants may be more appropriate to use since they have lower maintenance and
irrigation water demands. By understanding the existing plant species in the landscape
and replicating these, it is more likely to result in successfully established planting that
is appropriate to the landscape context.
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References
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street: Interim National Public Realm Guidelines. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2004.
Maryland Department of Transportation, Maryland State Highway Administration, Federal Highway

Administration (FHWA), and American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Thinking Beyond the Pavement: A National Workshop on Integrating Highway Development with
Communities and the Environment while Maintaining Safety and Performance. Conference
summary. http://www.sha.maryland.gov/oce/tbtp.pdf. University of Maryland Conference Center,
College Park, Maryland, United States. May 1998.
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Volume 3
Part 21
Environmental
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Disclaimer
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Contents Page
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Purpose and Timing ..................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Concepts and Definitions ............................................................................. 3
1.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today ....................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Sustainability in the Qatar Highways Design Manual .................................. 4
1.3.4 International Best Practice in Qatar—Key Considerations .......................... 4
1.3.5 Sustainability in Design—Key Generic Themes Applicable .......................... 6
1.4 Structure of Environmental Guidelines in QHDM ....................................................... 7
2 Environmental Legislation – Policy, Permitting, and Process ...........................................9

2.1 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Significance .................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 National Legislation .................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 International Conventions.......................................................................... 11
2.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Qatar’s Environmental Permitting Procedure............................................ 14
2.4.2 Demonstrate Integration of Environmental Mitigation Measures ............ 18
2.4.3 Design and Discipline Integration .............................................................. 18
2.4.4 Procurement of Construction Contractors................................................. 18
3 Environmental Management ........................................................................................19

3.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 19
3.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 19
3.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 20
3.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 21
3.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 23
3.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 24
4 Archaeology and Cultural Heritage ................................................................................25

4.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 25
4.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 25
4.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 26
4.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 26
4.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 26
4.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 27
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4.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 28
5 Ecology and Biodiversity ............................................................................................... 29

5.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 29
5.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 30
5.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 30
5.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 30
5.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 31
5.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 32
5.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 34
6 Water Quality and Conservation ................................................................................... 37

6.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 37
6.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 37
6.2.1 Water Quality ............................................................................................. 37
6.2.2 Water Conservation ................................................................................... 38
6.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 39
6.4 Guidance – Water Quality.......................................................................................... 41
6.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 41
6.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 41
6.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 42
6.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 43
6.5 Guidance – Water Conservation ................................................................................ 44
6.5.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 44
6.5.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 44
6.5.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 45
6.5.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 45
7 Air Quality .................................................................................................................... 47

7.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 47
7.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 47
7.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 48
7.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 49
7.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 49
7.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 49
7.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 50
8 Acoustics, Noise, and Vibration .................................................................................... 51

8.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 51
8.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 51
8.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 51
8.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 52
8.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 52
8.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 52
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8.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 54

8.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 54
9 Erosion Control and Contaminated Land .......................................................................55

9.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 55
9.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 55
9.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 55
9.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 56
9.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 56
9.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 56
9.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 58
9.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 60
10 Materials and Waste Management ...............................................................................61

10.1 Objective .................................................................................................................... 61
10.2 Significance ................................................................................................................ 61
10.2.1 Material Resources..................................................................................... 62
10.2.2 Waste ......................................................................................................... 63
10.3 Legislation .................................................................................................................. 63
10.4 Guidance .................................................................................................................... 64
10.4.1 Principles .................................................................................................... 64
10.4.2 Required ..................................................................................................... 65
10.4.3 Recommended ........................................................................................... 67
10.4.4 Further Reading .......................................................................................... 68
References .............................................................................................................................75
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Tables
Table 2.1 Stakeholders to be Consulted............................................................................ 17

Table 3.1 Explanation of Some Key Environmental Management Planning Terms .......... 20
Table 10.1 Designing Out Waste Technical Solutions and Their Applicability to
Road and Highways Projects Including Bridges, Structures, and Tunnels ......... 70
Figures
Figure 2.1 Environmental Permitting Procedure ................................................................ 14

Figure 3.1 Key Interfaces between the Engineering and Environmental Design
Elements of a Project Required to Facilitate Delivery of a Sustainable
Highway ............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 10.1 Waste Hierarchy as Applied to Material Resources and Waste ........................ 65
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µg/m3 micrograms per cubic meter
BRE Buildings Research Establishment
CAPEX capital expenditure
CEEQUAL Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessments System
CEMP Construction Environmental Management Plan
dB decibel
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMP Environmental Management Plan
EMS Environmental Management System
ENVID ENVironmental risk IDentification
GPS global positioning system
GSAS Global Sustainability Assessment System
GSDP General Secretariat for Development Planning
Hz Hertz
ISO International Standards Organization
Kahramaa Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation
LEED™ Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Leq equivalent sound level
m3 cubic meter(s)
MAIA Ministry of Awaqaf and Islamic Affairs
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MIC Mesaieed Industrial City
mm3/yr cubic millimeters per year
MoE Ministry of EnvironmentO&M operations and maintenance
OPEX operational expenditure
PM2.5 particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter
PM10 particulate matter less than 10 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter
QMA Qatar Museums Authority
QNV 2030 Qatar National Vision 2030
QSAS Qatar Sustainability Assessment System
RLIC Ras Laffan Industrial City
SoW scope of works
TSE treated sewage effluent
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
U.S. United States
WHO World Health Organization
WRAP The Waste and Resources Action Programme
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1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The importance of environmental considerations in highway design is now
internationally accepted. The government of Qatar has recognized this in the revision
of the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM) by integrating environment and
sustainability into all aspects of the design of highways.
1.2 Purpose and Timing

The purpose of this part is to provide design teams with an introduction to
environmental design and guiding principles so that appropriate consideration is
incorporated into environmental aspects of the highway design. This part is focused
predominantly on the design team, but it is also of importance to the Project
Proponent, providing information on environmental processes and standards of
relevance to be incorporated in the tender documents for the procurement of the
design consultant. It also better aligns the QHDM with the expectations of the Qatar
Ministry of Environment (MoE) and with similar international design manuals.
This manual applies post–master planning when the overall concept of the routing
corridor for the road or highway has been completed. It assumes the routing selection
complies with national or international master planning standards. It also assumes
that the construction impacts will be developed and managed by the contractor’s
Construction Environmental Management Plan (CEMP) and comply with MoE and
international standards. Detailed guidance on master planning and CEMP preparation
are assumed to be provided in separate government guidance documents (either in
preparation or in the future) outside the scope of the QHDM.
To optimize implementation of the environmental and sustainability elements of the

highways design by the contractor during construction, it is recognized that the
procurement team needs to include in the tender documentation issued clear
instruction on the required environmental or sustainability performance standards to
be achieved. Chapter 3 in this Part contains guidance on how certification of the
project with established performance assessment systems can greatly support the
project in achieving the desired environmental or sustainability standards.
Although Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) works most likely will be conducted
in parallel with the design works, this part of this manual is not a guide on how to
undertake an EIA for a road or highway project. The MoE has published detailed
guidance on requirements for undertaking EIAs for such projects (MoE, 2012).
Recognizing the importance of fostering close communication among the designers
and the environmental technical teams, this manual provides an introduction to the
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key stages in the EIA process, the types of information it may generate, and typical
mitigation measures for environmental impacts that may be encountered.
This part is designed to complement the respective environmental elements of the

Qatar government’s emerging or future suite of design standards, such as those for
national master planning, ports, railways, bridges, and tunnels. Aligned with key
environmental legislation, the level of detail within this manual is sufficient for the
following purposes:
• Identify key principles from international best practice, tailored for

implementation in Qatar.
• Provide actions that the designer shall adopt to comply with minimum national or
international requirements and to optimize the environmental sustainability of the
road or highway design.
• Recommend actions that could be adopted to optimize the environmental
sustainability of the road or highway design.
• Provide direction to the most appropriate source of detailed information,
processes, and guidelines; for example, the MoE requirements for environmental
survey.
• Provide further sources of information in case the Designer wishes to investigate a
particular concept or topic in greater detail.
To optimize the manual’s longevity, that is, to prevent it from becoming outdated
with the next revision in MoE legislation or guidelines, details of specific metrics
associated with requirements at the time of publishing have been avoided where
possible, but links have been provided to relevant sources. The content itself is
designed to equip designers with little or no previous environmental knowledge with
an understanding of the following:
• Key environmental design issues to be considered

• Their significance to designing roads or highways
• The legal basis associated with these issues, including permitting requirements in
Qatar and internationally
• Guiding principles on how the design can best accommodate each environmental
topic
The headings within this part have been selected to align with the topics that are
typically the focus of the MoE’s requirements for EIAs and CEMPs. The content has
been drafted following a review of both the previous version of the QHDM and a
selection of international highway design manuals (Sultanate of Oman, 2010; Florida
Department of Transportation, 2013; Department of Transport and Main Roads,
2013a; and Department of Transport, 2013a). In addition, the content has been
drafted with known relevant practices from established environmental or
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sustainability assessment systems such as the GreenRoads® Manual (2011) and the
Assessment Manual for Projects: International Edition (CEEQUAL, 2013).
1.3 Sustainability
1.3.1 Concepts and Definitions
The Brundtland Commission’s (1987) definition of “sustainable development” is
internationally recognized:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.
Since then, many alternative variations have been made on the same theme. In
principle, sustainability is about efficiently managing current economic, social, and
environmental resources, leading to quality and availability of the resources in the
future. Within the context of this QHDM, an applicable definition could be:
A sustainable road/highway is one that has been designed to facilitate

Qatar’s economic development for the foreseeable future without
compromising the nation’s cultural heritage, social quality of life, or natural
resources.
“Hima”: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar

The concept of environmental protection emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s,
bringing attention to such issues as industrial pollution, wildlife conservation, and
damage to the ozone layer. The concept of sustainability is by no means new to the
Arabian Gulf. As researched by Salah and Hashemi (2011), “‘Hima,’ which literally
means ‘Protected Area’ in Arabic; can be defined as a Community-Based Natural
Resources Management System that promotes sustainable livelihood, resources
conservation, and environmental protection for the human wellbeing. The Hima
system was practiced for over 15,000 years in the Arabian Peninsula; was modified by
the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him) by introducing social justice into the
governance structure.”
The Hima principles are at risk of being overlooked in the light of the various modern
theories and models for sustainable development. The latter are relevant, but as
Qatar’s national design guidance manual, the QHDM must recognize the ancient Hima
principles, thus ensuring they are preserved for future generations.
1.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today

The Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV 2030) (General Secretariat for Development
Planning [GSDP], 2008) was the outcome of a consultation exercise across Qatari
society and is based on the guiding principles of Qatar’s Permanent Constitution, thus
reflecting the aspirations of the Qatari people. Published in 2008, it defines Qatar’s
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long-term sustainable development goals as being based on four pillars of

development: human, social, economic, and environmental:
The State shall preserve the environment and its natural balance in order to
achieve comprehensive and sustainable development for all generations.
The QNV 2030’s development goals are enshrined in Qatar’s National Development
Strategy 2011–2016 (GSDP, 2011), which sets out to achieve “a sustainable
framework that assures future generations’ prosperity but with a quality of life
unconstrained by shortages or inherited ecological damage.” Programs, projects, and
policies have been identified in the National Development Strategy to help achieve
the outcomes of the QNV 2030 (GSDP, 2008). This includes a commitment to
improved environmental management that encompasses the following:
• Cleaner water and sustainable use

• Cleaner air and effective climate change responses
• Reduced waste, more recycling, and more efficient use
• Nature and natural heritage conserved, protected, and sustainably managed
• More sustainable urbanization and a healthier living environment
• An increasingly environmentally aware population
• Improved governance and regional and international cooperation
Associated with the QNV 2030, a valuable reference document for any highway
designer is Advancing Sustainable Development (GSDP, 2009), which provides a
comprehensive description of the key topics of sustainable development, water,
marine environment, and climate change.
The MoE (2013) has made a commitment toward sustainable growth and protecting
the environment. It is important for road and highway designers to consider how to
improve the sustainability aspects of their projects in the design, construction, and
operational stages.
1.3.3 Sustainability in the Qatar Highways Design Manual

The QHDM does not include a separate section on sustainability. As stated in Part 1,
Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, sustainability is at the core of all elements of
the design guidance contained in all parts of the QHDM, which is aimed at optimizing
economic, environmental, and social performance of the operational highways. The
actions and guidelines recommended in this part shall be considered as contributing
to the overall sustainability of highway design. Because public health and safety are
social topics of overriding importance, they are addressed in Part 24, Road Safety
Audits of this manual.
1.3.4 International Best Practice in Qatar—Key Considerations

International best practice is a term used to describe methodologies that are
recognized internationally as providing the best means of addressing a particular
situation. This revision of this manual aims to reflect such practices. Many of the best
practices were developed in non-desert environments, so caution has been applied so
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that only the following relevant practices, adapted as appropriate, have been included
herein for implementation in Qatar:
• Water Use: Water scarcity is an acute issue in Qatar (GSDP, 2011). Minimizing
volumetric demands for water generally is accepted as a good design practice.
With water being a scarcer resource in Qatar than in most other countries,
minimizing water use in Qatar is of critical importance.
• Air Quality: As stated in the Qatar government publication, Leaving a Legacy for
Future Generations, Progress Challenges and Responses for Sustainable
Development (GDSP, 2012a), “Qatar’s rapid industrialization, urbanization and
infrastructure development have led to rising pollution levels, especially from
particulate matter (for example, PM10, PM 2.5) for which daily exceedances above
ambient air quality standards are relatively high Qatar.” The 2014 update of the
World Health Organization (WHO) Ambient (outdoor) Air Pollution Database ranks
Doha as having the 12th highest levels of PM2.5. 1
• “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle”: This is a focus of best international practice for waste
management and sustainable use of materials. Qatar’s government is committed
to developing recycling. The variety and capacity of facilities are continually
developing, and a market for reused and recycled materials is emerging.
• Marine Environment: Qatar’s coastal environment is unique. Its biological
environments are sensitive to disturbance—many species are living close to their
natural tolerance thresholds of salinity and temperature—and tidal flushing rates,
and their ability to dilute and disperse discharged waste rapidly is low. The MoE
strictly controls permitting of discharges to the marine environment. Designers
shall consider alternative methods for disposal, onsite reuse, or treatment.
• Sustainable Transport: International best practice for sustainable transport is
typically based on the assumption that the ambient climate is much less extreme
than that of Qatar. It also assumes that a reasonably well-developed public
transport system is available, such that people have a feasible alternative to
traveling by car. Qatar is investing heavily in developing its public transport
infrastructure, and has significant construction works under way. With rapidly
rising populations and associated traffic volumes, including sustainable transport
facilities in highway design is of ever-increasing importance.
• Public Consultation: Engaging a wide range of both statutory (government) or
non-statutory stakeholders is a common feature of international best practice.
Qatar is examining how to best improve the range of stakeholders engaged in
proposed development projects.
1
World Health Organization used 2012 Air Quality Data from Qatar. More information available at:
http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/
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1.3.5 Sustainability in Design—Key Generic Themes Applicable

Key generic themes the designer shall consider as being applicable to all technical
parts of this manual are as follows:
• Committing to Sustainability: Achieving a sustainable design can be achieved only

with commitment to achieving good performance against key environmental and
sustainable objectives from the Project Proponent. That commitment is cascaded
down to subcontractors by a combination of good guidance and contractual
obligations made clear from the initial tender prequalification packages. Key
aspects can include implementation of an Environmental Management System
(EMS) that is internationally accredited (International Standards Organization
[ISO] 14001) and registration of the project with well-established sustainability
performance assessment systems (Global Sustainability Assessment System
[GSAS]/Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessments System [CEEQUAL]).
Adopting such an assessment/rating system at the outset of a project optimizes
the ability to secure the available credits available.
• Climate Change: It is widely accepted by the scientific community that global
warming is a reality, caused mainly by humans’ generation of greenhouse gases
coupled with destruction of the planet’s natural attenuation systems (like
rainforests). The resulting climate change has significant consequences, especially
for a low-lying, desert peninsula such as Qatar. The designer needs to consider
potential influences on highway design, such as temperature increases
(maintenance of paving surface material), declining precipitation (landscaping
irrigation), sea-level rise (encroaching salt in groundwater and flooding of low-
lying areas), and so on.
• Designing Out Impacts: Early consideration of potential environmental impacts
and how designs can be modified to avoid or minimize impacts has multiple
benefits to timely and cost-effective project delivery. With specific regard to
climate change, the designer shall pay particular attention to minimizing the
carbon, water, and ecological footprints of the highways project throughout its life
cycle.
• Restoration or Enhancement: The designer shall restore, and where possible
enhance, the predevelopment quality of the natural environment. Where impacts
on the natural environment are unavoidable within a particular site, consideration
for creating or improving environments offsite as a counterbalance shall be
considered; for instance, habitat creation.
• Integrating Disciplines: Establishing close and regular coordination between
environmental and engineering disciplines enables a valuable exchange of ideas
that can lead to innovative solutions that are robust and sustainable from both
perspectives.
• Strategic Landscaping: A key concept throughout many of the sections in this part
is the importance of implementing strategic landscaping, whereby the landscape
becomes the primary interface of such fundamentally important elements as
water conservation, enhancing biodiversity and ecology, preventing soil erosion,
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and optimizing air quality and drainage. Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of
this manual addresses this subject in detail.
• Considering Local Knowledge: Community consultation is recommended during
the planning stages of a project. Representatives of the community, especially in
more rural areas, may have detailed knowledge of the physical or natural
environments and other aspects that may directly influence construction of a
project, operation, or both. Community consultation in the planning stages of a
project may result in additional knowledge about the local geology, areas
prevalent to flash flooding, local ecology, etc. This is no substitute for undertaking
detailed surveys, but it may provide valuable information that the designer shall
consider.
• Accommodating Emerging Technologies: This manual has been drafted to
optimize its future implementation. The designer has an obligation to consider
emerging technologies (solar cell, electric vehicles, light-emitting diode lighting,
etc.) and to integrate them where feasible, in order to support Qatar’s drive to
optimize sustainability of road and highway designs.
1.4 Structure of Environmental Guidelines in QHDM

The QHDM adopts the following approach to addressing environmental topics in this part:
• Objectives: Describes the key objectives to be achieved by the design for the topic
in question. Objectives are set to support the implementation of international best
practice in a manner appropriate to Qatar.
• Legislation: Provides a brief overview of the environmental legislation and
international conventions of particular relevance to the topic in question and
provides the key sources of information for future reference by the design team.
• Significance: Outlines the importance of the topic in question and the importance
of the objectives to be achieved in the design of Qatar’s roads or highways.
• Guidance: Provides the Designer with a quick reference of the key design
principles to be achieved, supported by details of what is required and what is
recommended to optimize the sustainability of this element of the design.
• Principles: Lists overriding design principles to be achieved to have a significant
positive environmental impact with minimal (if any) capital expenditure (CAPEX)/
operational expenditure (OPEX) or project impacts. The principles adopt a generic
than prescriptive approach to enable designers to include more detailed evolving
and emerging guidance from the Qatari government and international best
practice.
• Required: Lists actions or objectives that designers shall strive for at a minimum to
achieve the objectives. By default, this requires compliance with Qatari legislation
(including international legislation ratified by Qatar), guidelines, and standards, or
where there is no applicable Qatari standard, compliance with international best
practice. If there is a significant disparity between Qatari and international
standard, application of the most appropriate standard to achieve sustainable
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development in Qatar shall be discussed and agreed upon with the relevant Qatari
authorities. It is the responsibility of the design team to be aware of the most
recent revisions to Qatari and international legislation, standards, and guidelines.
The designer shall also consider actions specifically stated as contractual
obligations as being “required.” This manual has included “required” guidance
that may or may not be accommodated by legislation or contractual obligations,
but without which it would be difficult if not impossible to achieve the stated
design principles.
• Recommended: Lists technical guidance or actions the designer can include to
enable an even more robust approach to achieving the environmental
management of the topic in question.
• Further Reading: Priority considerations and actions are detailed in the guidance
text of this manual. To make this document is as useful as possible to the design
team, this part provides in-text citations of key sources and a references section
that includes hyperlinks to the documents online. There are also references to
other relevant sources of information. The Further Reading sections at the end of
most chapters highlight additional literature the design team may wish to
investigate.
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2 Environmental Legislation –
Policy, Permitting, and Process
2.1 Objectives
To provide the designer with a basic understanding of the following:
• Legislation: The overall framework of Qatar’s environmental legislation,

particularly the elements governing environmental permitting, specifically the EIA
process and environmental management.
• Design Approval Process: How environmental permitting requirements can affect
the MoE’s review and approval of the designs.
• Design Discipline Integration: The importance of close interfacing among the
engineering and environmental design teams from the earliest stages of design
development to optimize compliance with environmental legislative requirements
and to secure permit approval for the design.
2.2 Significance
The design must comply with national legislation and international conventions, and as
part of this, the requirements for environmental permitting. An Environmental Permit is
required for certain types of development, which may lead to the need to undertake an
EIA. Awareness of the EIA process in Qatar will enable the highway design teams to
understand the importance of early consideration of environmental aspects. This
typically leads to closer liaison with the environmental team and improved
understanding of the significance of environmental sensitivities, which in turn can
provide early indication of likely government permit conditions. Based on this insight,
there may be opportunities for designers to make modifications early in the design
process that not only mitigate the potential environmental impact, thereby facilitating
permitting requirements, but also may reduce capital expenditure and operational
expenditure overall.
2.3 Legislation
Environmental legislation is explained in the guidance in this section. This includes
international treaties and conventions that the State of Qatar has signed and with
which designers will need to demonstrate compliance.
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2.3.1 National Legislation

Environmental permitting in Qatar is regulated by the MoE, with the applicable
procedures laid out in the Law on the Protection of the Environment issued by Law
No. 30 of 2002 (as amended to separate out Strategic Environmental Assessment
requirements). A key reference document for highway Designers is the MoE’s
Technical Guidance on the Requirements for Environmental Impact Study (EIA) and its
Terms of References & Scope of Works (ToR & SoW) for the Roads & Infrastructures
Projects (MoE, 2012), which provides information on EIA requirements, procedures,
and assessment topics applicable to highways.
Highway projects may need to adhere to regulations, standards, and criteria set by the
major industrial cities, such as Ras Laffan Industrial City (RLIC) and Mesaieed Industrial
City (MIC) (respective authorities amalgamated in 2013). Where works occur in
industrial cities, this can include compliance with air quality, noise, waste management,
and water quality criteria, and exercising duty of care in relation to natural resources.
Industrial cities are defined as regions or sites of environmental importance, or both,
under Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002. Therefore, compliance with both MoE and
industrial city regulatory requirements may need to be secured before construction,
including involvement in the EIA stakeholder consultation process.
Key environmental legislation for the State of Qatar includes the following:
• Law No. 30 of 2002 provides details of the applicable procedures for the
protection of Qatar’s environment.
• Executive By-Law No. 4 of 2005 (Chapter 2) defines the requirements for permits
and EIAs and is also the regulation that gives effect to Law No. 30 of 2002. Specific
standards are also included in the by-law; of particular relevance to highways
design are ambient air and noise quality. Note: groundwater and soil quality. 2
• Executive By-Law No. 4 of 2005 Annex No. 1 provides a list of project types that
are considered to potentially “impose damage on the environment” and, as such,
are likely to require an EIA. This includes road projects, aside from urban planning.
• Executive By-Law No. 4 of 2005 Annex No. 3 provides the standards for
environmental protection.
• Law No. 24 of 2006 on Regulating Fertilizers and Soil Conditions in Gulf
Cooperation Council Countries.
• Law No. 19 of 2004 on the Protection of Wildlife and its Natural Habitats enforces
the protection of wildlife habitats and endangered species.
• Law No. 32 of 1995 on the Protection of Vegetation and its Components provides
for the prevention of loss of vegetation and soil from the land.
2
At the time of writing, there are no national standards for groundwater and soil quality, though drafting
such standards is understood to be in progress. Meanwhile, as an interim alternative, the MoE frequently
accepts application of the Dutch standards, for example, from the Dutch Ministerie van Volschuisvestig
(2000).
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• Law No. 1 of 1993 on the Protection from Agricultural Land Grading and Beach
Sand Removal and Dredging provides for the protection of soil cover.
• Law No. 2 of 1980 on Antiquities provides for the protection of sites and artifacts
of cultural and archaeological value.
• Law No. 8 of 1974 on Public Hygiene provides for the prohibition of improper
disposal of wastes on public and private roads, highways, and lands.
• Decree No. 10 of 1968 on Pesticides provides for the importation and sale of
pesticides.
2.3.2 International Conventions

The State of Qatar is a signatory to international treaties of varying relevance to
highways design. Many are listed in the opening text of Law No. 30 of 2002. Some of
the key agreements are as follows:
• Decree No. 43 of 2003: Convention for the Conservation of Wildlife and their
Natural Habitats in the Countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, which deals with
conservation of biodiversity and the natural environment within the member
States through a number of agreed measures (Cooperation Council for the Arab
States of the Gulf, 2001); in force in Qatar since 2003 3
• Gulf Cooperation Council (2002): General Guidance for the Reuse of Treated
Sewage Effluent in the GCC Countries, Secretariat General, 18-19 March 2002.
• Kyoto (1997): The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by
setting internationally binding emission reduction targets; in force in Qatar since
2005 (amended by the Doha Amendment in December 2012) 4
• Montreal (1996): The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer and Amendments provide for the control of substances that deplete the
ozone layer 5
• Rio de Janeiro (1992): Convention on Biological Diversity (United Nations, 1992),
regarding the intrinsic value of biological diversity and the subsequent Nagoya
Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological
Diversity (United Nations, 2010); in force in Qatar since 1996 under Decree No. 90
of 1996 6
3
For more information on the Gulf Co-operation Council, visit http://sites.gcc-sg.org/DLibrary/index-
eng.php?action=ShowOne&BID=335.
4
For more information the Convention on Climate, visit http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
and http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/doha_amendment/items/7362.php.
5
For more information on the Montreal Protocol, visit
http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php.
6
For more information Convention on Biological Diversity, visit http://www.cbd.int/ and
http://www.cbd.int/abs/text.
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• Ramsar, Iran, 1971: The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance

especially as Waterfowl Habitat, called the Ramsar Convention, 7 is an
intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources
• Decree No. 43 of 2003: Convention for the Conservation of Wildlife and Natural
Habitats in Gulf Cooperation Council, with the objective to conserve the
ecosystems and wildlife, particularly species threatened with extinction and
specifically when the distribution or migration of such species crosses the border
of neighboring countries; developed by the Cooperation Council for the Arab
States of the Gulf 8
• Paris (1994): United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) 9
(United Nations, 2012) is the sole legally binding international agreement linking
environment and development to sustainable land management; in force in Qatar
since 1999
• Cairo (1991): The Arab Declaration on Environment and Development and Future
Perspectives, which speaks of the rights of individuals and nongovernmental
organizations to acquire information about environmental issues relevant to them,
was adopted by the Arab Ministerial Conference on Environment and
Development in Cairo in September 1991
• Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (1990): Treaty for the cooperation in the field of
archaeological exploration, repair, and keeping finds safe
• Protocol from the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution From
Land-Based Sources (Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 1990) 10
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste
and their Disposal 11 (1989) (Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 2011)
• Vienna (1985): The Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 12 served as a
framework for efforts to protect the globe’s ozone layer by promoting cooperation
by means of systematic observations, research, and information exchange on the
effects of human activities on the ozone layer and to adopt legislative or
7
For more information on the wetland convention, visit http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-
documents-texts-convention-on/main/ramsar/1-31-38%5E20671_4000_0.
8
For more information on the Convention for the Conservation of Wildlife and Natural Habitats, visit
http://sites.gcc-sg.org/DLibrary/index-eng.php?action=ShowOne&BID=335.
9
For more information on the convention to combat desertification, visit http://www.unccd.int/en/about-
the-convention/Pages/About-the-Convention.aspx.
10
For more information on the Protocol for Protection of the Marine Environment, visit
http://www2.unitar.org/cwm/publications/cbl/synergy/pdf/cat3/UNEP_regional_seas/convention_kuwait/
Protocols/protocol_prot_marine_env_against.pdf
11
For more information and waste disposal convention, visit http://www.basel.int
12
For more information on the ozone convention, visit
http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/vienna_convention.php
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administrative measures against activities likely to have adverse effects on the

ozone layer
• United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (United Nations, 1982), 13 which
recognizes the desirability of establishing a legal order for the seas and oceans
that will facilitate international communication and will promote the peaceful uses
of the seas and oceans, equitable and efficient use of their resources, conservation
of their living resources, and study, protection, and preservation of the marine
environment
• Kuwait (1978): Regional Convention for Cooperation on the protection of the
Marine environment from Pollution by oil and other harmful substances in cases
of emergency; 14 in force in Qatar since 1978 under Decree No. 55 15
• Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME):
intended to coordinate Member States to protect water quality and the marine
environment, and to prevent pollution (ROPME, 1978) 16
• Paris (1974): Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
National Heritage (World Heritage Convention), 17 which encourages the
international community as a whole to participate in the protection of the cultural
and natural heritage of outstanding universal value; in force in Qatar since 1984
• Washington D.C. (1973): Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 18 is an international agreement between
governments with the aim to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants does not threaten their survival; in force in Qatar since 2001
under Decrees No. 29 of 1999 and No. 19 of 2001
• London (1954): International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea
by Oil (OILPOL) 19 to prevent pollution of the sea by oil discharged from ships
2.4 Guidance
Designers shall familiarize themselves with key items of environmental legislation
governing permitting of developments and management of environmental impacts. This
section aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the environmental permitting
process for highways design. Requirements under international and especially national
13
For more information on the Law of Sea, visit
http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf
14
For more information on this regional marine protection convention, visit
http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/nonunep/ropme/instruments/default.asp
15
For more information, visit
http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ReferencesAndArchives/SourcesAndCitationsOfIMOConventions/D
ocuments/MARINE%20POLLUTION%20-%20CONVENTIONS.htm
16
For more information on ROPME, visit http://ropme.org/Home.clx
17
For more information on the World Heritage Convention, visit http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext
18
For more information on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, visit
http://www.cites.org/
19
For more information on the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea, visit
http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/oilpol1954.html
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legislation can change, so it is the design team’s responsibility to check with the
authorities for changes in legislative requirements that could affect the design.
2.4.1 Qatar’s Environmental Permitting Procedure

The Government of Qatar frequently requires that EIA work be undertaken aligned
with best international practice. The design and methods to undertake the EIA work
are agreed to with the MoE before proceeding. It is expected that the EIA will be
undertaken by a qualified EIA consultant. Figure 2.1 illustrates the procedure for
obtaining an Environmental Permit.
Figure 2.1 Environmental Permitting Procedure
The following is a brief overview of the main elements of the EIA process in Qatar:
• Application for Environmental Permit: The first stage of the environmental

permitting process in Qatar involves the submission of an Application Form for
Environmental Permit (screening stage). For some projects, this will be all that is
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required, and MoE will grant approval. However, if an EIA is required, then the
Project Proponent will usually be required to complete an EIA Scope of Work
report and an EIA Report. Even if the MoE does not request an environmental
assessment, an environmental permit will still be required for any intrusive ground
investigation, such as boreholes or trial pits.
• EIA Scoping Report: The possible effects of a proposed development are
considered in relation to various environmental aspects in this stage of the EIA
process. The importance of the Scoping Report cannot be overemphasized. In
effect, it represents a technical agreement with the MoE on the description of the
scope of the development and on the scope of EIA works to be undertaken.
Assuming that the scope of the development does not change significantly, once
the EIA SoW report is agreed to with the MoE, it is understood that:
− The MoE will not require additional EIA works.
− The Project Proponent will not undertake less EIA work.
At this stage, a scoping exercise investigates the nature but not the magnitude of
potential impacts, and this provides sufficient detail to inform the planned content of
an EIA study. Issues considered within a scoping process typically relate to:
• Air quality
• Noise
• Surface water (stormwater)
• Marine coastal waters
• Archaeology and cultural heritage
• Flora and fauna
• Ground conditions (soils and groundwater)
• Visual amenities
• Waste
• Socioeconomic and human health
Typical activities to undertake a scoping process include:
• Data Collection and Review: Available baseline information within and

surrounding the application site is collated to define the baseline conditions for
the EIA assessment and to identify potentially sensitive receptors and
environmental resources.
• Site Walkover Survey: A walkover survey of the project area by environmental
specialists is carried out as part of the scoping study to visually identify sensitive
issues onsite and potential issues that could arise as a result of the proposed
development.
• Scoping Assessment: The scoping assessment highlights gaps in the baseline
information reviewed and identifies additional baseline assessments and surveys
required to complete the EIA study. Based on the evidence collated and reviewed, it
concludes whether an environmental topic is of sufficient importance to be included
in or excluded from further, more detailed environmental study. The resulting EIA
SoW Report is submitted to the MoE for review and approval. Considering the
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information presented and its own knowledge, the MoE then agrees to the scope of
the EIA works to be carried out to prepare the detailed EIA Report; that is,
specification of the topics to be examined, baseline field surveys and sampling,
range of laboratory analysis, and stakeholder consultation.
• Early Identification of Mitigation and Enhancement Measures: The EIA is an
iterative process. Preliminary mitigation measures and enhancement
opportunities evident from the initial site walkover and scoping assessment can be
presented to the design team, to inform the design as early as possible.
Once submitted to the MoE, the MoE has roughly 1 month to respond to the
report, but in practice, this period may be longer. Detailed field surveys (such as
air quality, noise, and geo-environmental) can be carried out once the MoE
approves the EIA SoW Report.
• EIA Report: Once the EIA SoW Report has been approved, the EIA activity can
progress. The final stage of the EIA is the submission of the EIA Report to
demonstrate how the EIA has been carried out and the results of the process. The
object of the EIA Report is to provide a systematic analysis of potential
environmental effects that may occur as a consequence of the proposed
development and to identify mitigation measures tailored to those likely to be
adverse and significant. In accordance with international best practice and the
recommended EIA contents contained in Articles 15 and 16 of Qatar Law No. 30 of
2002, the MoE requires the EIA Report to address the topics agreed with the MoE,
which will generally include the following key areas:
− Project description
− Consideration of alternatives
− Existing baseline conditions (field surveys may be required)
− Predicted effects
− Evaluation of significance
− Mitigation measures
− Residual effects
− Cumulative effects
− CEMP framework (see CEMP bullet in this list)
− Non-technical summary (in Arabic and English)
• Project Consultation: Consultation is carried out with stakeholders (usually
relevant government departments or agencies), other key projects in the area, and
in some cases members of the public. This is reported in the EIA report.
Table 2.1 lists some of the relevant stakeholders with whom consultation is
recommended. The Qatar National Construction Standards (QCS 2010) (MoE,
2011) also requires coordination, cooperation, and liaison with utility owners such
as Qatar General Electricity & Water Corporation (Kahramaa), Qatar Petroleum,
and Ooredoo, and authorities such as the Ports and Customs Authority and
Ministry of Interior.
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Table 2.1 Stakeholders to be Consulted

Stakeholders Example Topics of interest
Ministry of Environment (including Protection of wildlife (flora and fauna); Scope of EIA:
General Directorate of Nature surveys to be conducted; standards, guidelines, and
Reserves) legislation applicable; sensitivity of agriculture, water
resources, wildlife, etc.
Ministry of Municipality and Urban Use of waste spoils, landscaping, rights-of-way, etc.
Planning (MMUP)
State of Qatar Public Works Authority Interfacing with drainage infrastructure, discharge
(Ashghal) connection to public sewer system, temporary dewatering
permits, long-term maintenance and operation of highway,
landscaping, etc.
Ministry of Interior Sites associated with Qatar’s national security, defense, etc.
Private Engineering Office Protected areas
Petrol Station Executive Committee Sites associated with petrol stations
Qatar Museums Authority Protection of sites of archaeological and cultural interest
Ministry of Awaqaf and Islamic Affairs Protection of Islamic burial sites
Qatar Petroleum/Industrial City All activity within boundaries of MIC/RLIC authority
Standards—Ras Laffan and Mesaieed
Qatar Fuel (WOQOD) Sites associated with WOQOD petrol stations
Qatar General Electricity & Water Sites associated with water/power utilities
Corporation (Kahramaa)
Ooredoo Sites associated with telecoms
• CEMP: The CEMP translates the mitigation measures identified in the EIA into
actions to be carried out as contractual obligations or environmental permit
conditions, or both, during the detailed design and construction of the project
(usually by the contractor). The MoE typically requires a framework CEMP to be
included in the main EIA Report. This framework CEMP sets out the structure and
key content to be included in the finalized CEMP, based on Qatari legislation,
commitments to international best practice, and crucially, the mitigation measures
described in the EIA report required to address the environmental impacts
identified. The CEMP is completed as part of the detailed design stage. The Project
Proponent must submit a detailed CEMP document (including the detailed
contractor method statements) to the MoE for review and approval before the
final environmental permit to proceed with construction will be secured.
Construction work, therefore, cannot start until the CEMP is approved.
• Environmental Permit: Once the EIA Report has been completed, it is submitted
to the MoE for approval, together with all associated technical reports and data.
Approval of the EIA typically is subject to a series of conditions to be complied
with by the project, which may apply before, during, or after construction. The
receipt of MoE approval can take some time after EIA Report submission;
additionally, further meetings and discussions with the MoE may be required to
understand exactly how to comply with the conditions imposed. A final
environmental permit, that is, permission to start construction, is issued following
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approval of the CEMP. The MoE may delegate responsibility for CEMP approval to
the project proponent (for example, Ashghal).
2.4.2 Demonstrate Integration of Environmental Mitigation Measures

The MoE is responsible for reviewing a high volume of EIA reports and associated
designs. While not a legislative requirement, in the context of best practice and to
optimize the ease with which the MoE can complete the review and approval process,
this manual requires highway designers to demonstrate that the designs have
considered and accommodated recommendations from the EIA process. The aim of
this manual is to aid highway designers in achieving this by cross-referencing between
environmental and non-environmental parts.
2.4.3 Design and Discipline Integration

Designers often must draft and submit a compliant highways design in a short period
of time. Redesign is costly in terms of both finance and program delivery. The EIA
process typically is initiated at the outset of the program and therefore provides a
valuable means of “early warning” of issues that may require design changes. This
manual requires that the highway design team demonstrate effective interfacing
between engineering and environmental design teams from the outset of a project to
enable the mutual awareness of constraints and facilitate an ability to take mitigating
action early. This could be done, for example, by means of joint risk registers or
workshops. This is addressed in more detail in Chapter 3 in this Part.
2.4.4 Procurement of Construction Contractors

As noted in Section 1.2 in this Part, the procurement team must include clear
instruction in the tender documentation issued regarding the environmental or
sustainability performance to be delivered during construction and later operation of
the highway; see Clause 3.4.3 in this Part.
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3 Environmental Management
3.1 Objective
This section gives road and highway design teams an outline of the wider environmental
management framework to be applied to support a sustainable highway design.
3.2 Significance
The highway designer has the opportunity to design out environmental impacts in the
earliest project stages. Designing out impacts can represent significant benefits to
cost savings during the design, construction, and especially long-term operations and
maintenance (O&M) of the highway. Failure to do so can result in additional expense
associated with rework, program delays, and avoidable O&M costs. The efficiency
with which the designer achieves this depends on how well environmental
management practices are structured and implemented by the companies involved
and by the project itself. This part describes the key elements and practices of
environmental management.
This manual is designed specifically to support the design stage of road or highways
development in Qatar following master planning; that is, following selection of a
highway corridor concept. Understanding the wider context of the environmental
management of a roadway project shall improve the efficiency with which design
teams can liaise with teams involved with the earlier stages of design, or with those
responsible for the future construction or operation of the infrastructure. This
integrated approach shall optimize the knowledge transfer among teams throughout
the various stages of the project.
3.3 Legislation
Chapter 2 in this Part discusses Qatar’s environmental legislation.
3.4 Guidance
International best practice of environmental management of highway design projects
comprises several tiers, from the Project Proponent’s corporate environmental policy
to the onsite technical environmental manual. The terminology can be confusing, so
Table 3.1 provides a brief summary.
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Table 3.1 Explanation of Some Key Environmental Management Planning Terms

Term Explanation Linkages
Environmental Typically, a high-level, short policy statement setting out the Project Influences EMS
Policy Proponent’s overriding environmental objective.
Environmental The level below Environmental Policy, the EMS is aligned with that Implements the
Management policy and provides the framework within which relevant Environmental
System (EMS) environmental plans and practices are implemented, audited, and Policy
continually improved. A robust EMS shall have internationally
Directs the EMPs
recognized certification (for example, ISO 14001). In addition to the
corporate EMS, a project-specific EMS can be implemented.
Environmental EMPs detail how the requirements set out in the EMS are to be Draws on EIA
Management achieved relevant to the stage of the project. They detail not only Report
Plan (EMP) the mitigating actions to be taken, but also the inspection and
reporting protocol to be implemented. They are titled according to
the relevant project stage.
ENVIDa: is an ENVironmental risk IDentification, review, and tracking
system, which can be implemented from the earliest stages of
design right through to operation or decommissioning.
CEMP: Construction EMP. Detailed actions and guidelines to avoid
or reduce environmental impacts, including MoE conditions and
mitigation measures identified in the EIA Report.
Operations Environmental Management Plan: Similar to CEMP, but
applies to the long-term operations of the structure or project.
EMP Subplans The CEMP or Operations Environmental Management Plan typically Elements of the
comprises a series of topic-specific submanagement plans (MPs); for respective EMP
example, Site Waste MP, Pollution Prevention and Control MP,
Water Use EMP, Soil MP, Biodiversity MP, Air Quality, Noise and
Vibration MP, Community Liaison MP, etc.
Note:
a Some international best practice uses a Design Environmental Management Plan that records the mitigation
and commitments reported in the EIA Report and subsequent conditions imposed by the MoE on approval of
the EIA Report. The Designer uses the Design Environmental Management Plan to demonstrate compliance
with the EIA Report and EIA Permit. The Environmental Risk Identification (ENVID) process and associated
environmental risk/compliance register can be used to fulfill this functionality.
3.4.1 Principles
The following main principles shall direct environmental management in design:
• Design Out Environmental Impacts: The design team shall aim to finalize a design
that, throughout all stages of construction and operation, presents the minimal
negative impacts and optimum benefits to the biological, physical, and human
environments. This can be achieved by engaging early with key stakeholders,
liaising with the environmental technical teams, and adapting the design
accordingly, as early as possible whenever it is feasible to do so. Where changes
might incur costs, they are still likely to be less than having to rework the design
later or to pay for future compensation, maintenance, or monitoring projects over
the long term. The ENVironmental risk IDentification (ENVID) system shall be
implemented to achieve this principle. See Clause 3.4.2 in this Part.
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• Implement Holistic Approach to Design throughout Project Life Cycle: A key

indicator of a sustainable development is its ability to demonstrate that the design
has considered how impacts can be minimized throughout the project process
from early design, through to construction, highways operation, and (if ever
required) demolition. Registration of the project with a sustainability performance
assessment tool (for example, GSAS Infrastructures or equivalent) will provide a
vehicle for achieving this. See Clause 3.4.3 in this Part.
• Interface between Technical Disciplines: As noted, it is beneficial for design teams
to work closely with the environmental experts. Although this action may seem
obvious, it is rarely implemented efficiently. Figure 3.1 illustrates how this process
can work.
• Stakeholder Consultation: The designers shall identify and liaise with key
stakeholders as early as practically possible to optimize the time available for
guidance obtained to be reviewed and, where possible, incorporated into the
design. This can avoid serious impacts on time and budget due to requirements
for redesign at a later stage in the program.
Figure 3.1 Key Interfaces between the Engineering and Environmental Design
Elements of a Project Required to Facilitate Delivery of a Sustainable
Highway
3.4.2 Required
The design team shall establish the following environmental management
mechanisms:
• Interdiscipline Interfacing: Effective interfacing between engineering and

environmental design teams shall occur from the outset of the project. Section 1,
Part 6 of the QCS 2010 (MoE, 2011) specify project meetings shall be held during
pre-construction, construction, and post-construction, and shall include
environmental considerations as a topic of discussion.
• Integrated Risk Register: The structure of the risk register established from the
outset of the design works will include environmental risks. Similar to the other
risk disciplines, each risk identified will have a description of the risk source,
aspect, impact, and consequence (for costs, program, reputation, etc.).
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• Integrated Risk Workshop: ENVID workshops have been used as best practice by
the oil and gas industry for many years. From the outset of the project, various
disciplines jointly examine environmental risks and mitigation measures;
attendees are drawn from all technical design disciplines, including health and
safety, for example. This enables the following:
− A forum in which a wide variety of non-environmental disciplines are directly
informed of environmental risks
− Environmental design leads are directly informed of associated
considerations by the non-environmental disciplines
− Mitigation measures that can be jointly identified, discussed, and agreed
upon that are optimal for the highways design and adequately address the
environmental risks
The ENVID risk register typically becomes a document-based tool of fundamental
importance, because it represents a detailed record of the issues identified
during the course of the design planning and how they have been addressed. The
risk register can be used to form the basis of the EMPs to be established on the
project. Guidance for adopting a Risk and Opportunity Management Plan is
available in Parsons Brinckerhoff International Inc. (2013). Opportunities in the
risk register can refer to any positive impacts on the achievement of one or more
objectives, or those objectives that may provide cost or time savings to a project.
The QCS 2010 (MoE, 2011) also provides guidance on producing safety, health,
and environment risk assessments and a template summary environmental
survey and risk assessment form.
All performance-rating systems are based on the collation and review of
“evidence” of actions completed to demonstrate compliance with requirements
of the “credits” available. Before a preferred project is endorsed in Qatar, this
manual sets a requirement that the design team implement a robust method to
systematically track and save evidence of all relevant documents demonstrating:
− Effective interfacing of engineering and environmental design teams.
− How an environmental issue was considered and impacts avoided by
identifying and implementing design revisions or mitigation measures,
including as a minimum any consent conditions specified by the MoE.
Such documents would include reports, minutes of meetings, drawings, design
change records, and others. Particular attention shall be given to document
control and filing systems to enable ready retrieval.
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3.4.3 Recommended
The design team should consider the following recommendations for environmental
management:
• Performance Rating Systems: Consider registering the project as early as possible

for certification with an approved performance assessment rating system project
to optimize the ability to secure the available credits available. Rating systems
have emerged over the last 10 to 15 years that can guide developments to achieve
higher standards of environmental and sustainability performance over and above
that nation’s minimum required standards. These systems guide the designer
through a suite of topics. For each topic, there is a list of key design criteria that, if
achieved, will contribute to the overall environmental or sustainable quality of the
project. Scores are allocated for criteria achieved, weighted according to the
importance of the particular criteria. Some particularly significant criteria are
mandatory; others are optional. The more criteria the design achieves, the higher
the quality, and therefore, the score achieved. In addition to the practical benefits
gained, such as design team integration, cost and time efficiency, carbon footprint
reduction, minimal use of resources, etc., the design is officially certified as having
achieved a particular level of award; for example, GSAS/Qatar Sustainability
Assessment System (QSAS) 4-Stars.
The United Kingdom (UK) government agency, the Buildings Research

Establishment (BRE), pioneered this concept with the BRE Environmental
Assessment Method, which was first launched in 1990. The United States (U.S.)
Green Building Council launched a slightly different system in 1998 called
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™), and the Abu Dhabi
Urban Planning Council launched Estidama in 2007. Qatar’s Gulf Organization for
Research and Development launched the QSAS in 2009 (now called GSAS). For
more information, visit the BREEAM website regarding BRE Environmental
Assessment Method (BRE, 2014), the U.S. Green Building Council website
regarding LEED (U.S. Green Building Council [USGBC], 2014), and information on
GSAS (Gulf Organisation for Research & Development, 2014).
With the recent exception of GSAS, the systems mentioned so far only deal with
buildings or groups of buildings, not major infrastructure projects. Alternative projects
tailored specifically to the needs of major infrastructure projects are predominantly
these:
• CEEQUAL (International): a well-established international rating system

developed in the UK over the last 10 years in close collaboration with the civil
engineering industry, for use on civil engineering projects both on and offshore.
CEEQUAL International is designed to accommodate the unique requirements or
constraints of any country in which it is implemented. (CEEQUAL, 2013).
• GreenRoads: a rating project developed in the United States by Washington
University and CH2M HILL to improve the environmental and sustainability
performance of road and highway projects (Greenroads, 2013).
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• Envision: a sustainable infrastructure rating system jointly developed by the

Zofnass Program for Sustainable Infrastructure at the Harvard University Graduate
School of Design and the Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure in the United
States (Zofnass, 2014).
• Infrastructure Voluntary Evaluation Sustainability Tool (INVEST): a collection of
voluntary best practices developed by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) in the United States that focuses on the overall process of integrating
sustainability into the whole project life cycle of highway development, rather
than focusing only on the highway’s design elements (FHWA, 2012).
3.4.4 Further Reading

The designer can access more detailed information on the performance systems using
the links provided in this chapter. Of particular value may be the Sustainability–
National Road Authorities (SUNRA) Project Report (Halcrow, 2012), which reviews the
various sustainability performance assessment systems available and other
documents accessible on the project website (SUNRA downloads).
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4 Archaeology and Cultural

Heritage
4.1 Objective
This section outlines the importance of considering Archaeology and Cultural Heritage
assets during the design stages and potential impacts on the highway development
life cycle and explains the current process of assessment in Qatar.
4.2 Significance
The social pillar of the QNV 2030 (GSDP, 2008) seeks to build effective public
institutions and active civil society organizations that help to “preserve Qatar’s
national heritage.” Protection, conservation, and management improvement of
heritage resources is a key objective.
The Qatar Museums Authority’s (QMA’s) vision is “to develop, promote and sustain
the cultural sector” of Qatar (QMA, 2014). Therefore, it is important for road or
highway designers to assess likely significant impacts on historic sites, monuments,
and artifacts and to mitigate them during the design, construction, and operational
stages.
4.3 Legislation
Law No. 2 of 1980 on Antiquities is in place to protect sites of valuable heritage.
Article 1 defines an antiquity as being at least 40 years old, movable or immovable, and
of artistic or historical value. Immovable antiquities are sites of ancient buildings and
their annexes, such as mounds, caves, forts, and religious places above or below
ground, or submerged by inland or territorial waters. Movable antiquities are not
attached to the ground and can be moved without damage. It is forbidden to damage or
transform an antiquity under Article 7. It is also forbidden to use a site to deposit debris
or rubble, install irrigation systems, plant or cut down trees, or alter any features
without prior permission (Article 12). Archaeological excavations are prohibited unless a
license is obtained from the Antiquities Department of the QMA, which is enforced
under Law No. 30 of 2002.
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The following are relevant international treaties or conventions regarding archaeology

and cultural heritage:
• Gulf Council, 1990: Treaty for the cooperation in the field of archaeological
exploration, repair, and safekeeping finds
• Paris, 1974 (decreed 1984): Convention for the protection of the World Cultural
and National Heritage (World Heritage Convention)
In Qatar, the Department of Antiquities of the QMA, not the developer, undertakes
the assessment of potential impacts on the archaeological or cultural heritage of a
development on the region. The reports generated are integrated with the EIA report
for submission to the MoE. Assessment and management of Islamic burial sites are
the responsibility of the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs (MAIA). When a
project team wishes to engage an archaeology subcontractor, the subcontractor shall
first be approved by the QMA.
4.4 Guidance
Cultural heritage can refer to buried or extant archaeological remains, historic
buildings, and landscapes, which can give a sense of place. Archaeological remains
may encompass “the buried traces of human activities or visible monuments, or
moveable artifacts” (Department of Transport, 2007a).
4.4.1 Principles
The design team shall consider the following design principles in relation to
archaeology and cultural heritage:
• Design to optimize the protection, preservation, and enhancement of sites of

archaeological or cultural value.
• Consult relevant authorities: Design to incorporate findings (and
recommendations) of the technical reports from the authorities’ assessment of
sites of archaeological or cultural sensitivity associated with the planned
development. These findings shall be set out in the EIA and CEMP.
• Enable the investigation and mitigation of the cultural heritage resource.
4.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate archaeological and cultural heritage impacts, the
designers shall demonstrate that the following have been considered and, where
possible, implemented (Department of Transport, 1992):
• Information from the EIA: The Designer shall be aware that an EIA, if undertaken,
will have been required to include Archaeological and Cultural Heritage
considerations. This typically means the QMA/MAIA will have undertaken an
assessment of the site and provided a concluding position, with supporting
documentation, on whether it is of known or potential value.
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• Consult: Regardless of whether an EIA has been undertaken, the designer shall, as
early as possible in the design process, consult with the QMA and MAIA to
establish an initial appraisal of the potential sensitivities along the proposed route.
This consultation shall precede the completion of the authorities’ assessment
report and continue as appropriate during the design development, such as to
clarify likely actions to be required during construction regarding the following, for
example:
− QMA or MAIA unhindered access for site inspection or monitoring before,
during, and after site work.
− Contingency plans for relocation of historic structures, should they be found,
to an appropriate location, if other mitigation is not possible. If significant
archaeological remains are found during construction during archaeological
monitoring, the principal contractor, the project planner, or both, shall be
obliged to afford the monitoring archaeologists adequate time to hand-
excavate and record the archaeology to the required QMA standards for
recording archaeological remains.
• ENVID: Consider archaeological and cultural heritage sensitivities in the project’s
Environmental Risk Register and ENVID Workshop Program (see Chapter 3 in this
Part). Incorporate, as early as possible, and certainly before the design is finalized,
all mitigation measures required by the QMA or MAIA:
− Routing: Avoid routing near known sites of archaeological or cultural
significance.
− Footprint: Keep land-take to a minimum through use of retaining structures.
− Alignment: Where possible, design the vertical and horizontal alignments of a
road to avoid or minimize damage, severance, and visual and noise intrusion
to cultural heritage assets.
− Screening: Incorporate landscape and structural design, such as screening or
environmental barriers, to minimize visual and noise impacts.
− Construction Management Design: Include in the procurement process a
provision for tendering construction contractors to design and implement
appropriate mitigation measures to avoid or minimize impact on assets of
cultural or archaeological importance.
4.4.3 Recommended
Further best practice measures for mitigation to consider include the following
(Department of Transport, 2001b and 2007a):
• Scale of Mitigation: Develop mitigation measures that are effective, pragmatic,

and affordable. The scale and type of mitigation employed should be determined
by the value of the resource and on the scale of the impact to the relevant
receptor.
• Landscape: Separate to the archaeology or cultural heritage assessments
undertaken by the QMA, in landscape areas of particular importance to Qatar
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(including its cultural heritage), a Landscape Character Appraisal should be

undertaken to identify significant features within the landscape and to inform the
design of a highway so that features of value are protected, enhanced, or both,
with appropriate mitigation measures in place.
A Landscape Character Appraisal evaluates topography, vegetation patterns,
settlements, watercourses, land use, cultural aspects, protected sites and other
features. A visual impact assessment investigates the potential change in view and
visual amenity experienced by people from private residencies, community
facilities, and public parks, as well as views from the road itself. Further
information on the landscape design process and Landscape Character Appraisal is
provided in Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this manual.
The use of diversions, batter slopes (that is, walls that slope backwards and
upwards), road grading, and earthworks planted with native vegetation and
seeding treatments adapted to arid environments is recommended.
• Public Education: If a site of importance to Qatar’s archaeology or cultural
heritage is identified, the project should attempt to support the relevant
authorities in efforts to prepare informative and educational material for public
dissemination (press releases, factsheets, public information boards, websites,
social media, etc.).

In addition to further information available in this manual, the approaches adopted to
assessing archaeology, built heritage, and historic landscapes are set out separately
within the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (Department of Transport, 2007a)
(screening, scoping, and simple and detailed assessment of cultural heritage impacts
including baseline studies and field surveys). Further supplementary information is
available in the Queensland, Australia Road Landscape Manual (Department of
Transport and Main Roads, 2013b), which defines cultural value in the context of the
landscape assessment process, and on relevant considerations for performance
assessment from CEEQUAL International.
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5 Ecology and Biodiversity

5.1 Objective
This section provides design guidelines on measures to mitigate significant potential
ecological and biodiversity impacts associated with road or highway developments
and, where feasible, to enhance the ecological value of the selected corridor.
5.2 Significance
Ecology and biodiversity considerations include the potential impacts of the project
on flora and fauna (both terrestrial and marine), protected species, and important
habitats such as protected areas. To provide guidance, the State of Qatar has a
Protected Area Action Plan 2008–2013 (Supreme Council for Environment and Natural
Reserves [SCENR], 2007). Qatar’s National Development Strategy 2011–2016 aims to
work toward conserving and protecting nature (GSDP, 2011).
The MoE has minimum requirements for the assessment of terrestrial and marine
ecology impacts, such as a minimum survey area beyond the project boundary, for
the assessment of terrestrial ecology impacts (MoE, 2012). The Private Engineering
Office, a separate government agency under the aegis of His Highness the Emir, shall
be consulted regarding any potential impacts on protected areas.
Qatar’s climate is extreme, with aridity and high temperatures onshore and salinity
and high temperatures offshore. Flora and fauna species have evolved to adapt to the
harsh environment but are likely to be sensitive to disturbance. Because of climate
change, they may be close to the limits of their tolerance thresholds for salinity,
temperature, and water requirements. Unlike temperate or tropical ecosystems,
natural recovery rates for desert habitats following disturbance typically are slow
because low primary production, lack of water and shade, and loss of soils (National
Park Service, 1995). This slow recovery rate is exacerbated by environmental
mismanagement, leading to removal or loss of soils and their seed banks, obstruction
of water resources, pollution, and other problems (Society for Ecological Restoration,
2014; Lovich and Bainbridge, 1999).
Therefore, road designers must make sure that likely significant impacts on ecology
and biodiversity are assessed and mitigated during the design stages, to be further
implemented throughout the project’s life cycle. Designers are well positioned not
only to avoid or minimize damage to ecology and biodiversity, but also to integrate
mechanisms for positive enhancement, such as materials used, landscaping, planting
strategies, and so on.
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5.3 Legislation
Law No.19 of 2004, on the Protection of Wildlife and its Natural Habitats, enforces the
protection of wildlife habitats and endangered species. It is forbidden to damage
shells and coral reefs, destroy plants inside nature reserves, introduce alien species to
protected areas, cause water and air pollution inside reserves, and construct buildings
and facilities inside protected areas. Law No.32 of 1995, on the Protection of
Vegetation and its Components, prohibits damage to such state-owned vegetation as
natural or cultivated land plants as trees, shrubs, grasses, and herbs not intended for
agriculture.
The MoE requires environmental licenses to be obtained for certain projects or

activities, as listed in Annex No. 1 of Law No. 30 of 2002 and its Executive By-Laws of
2005. This includes projects located adjacent to valleys, coastal lands, islands, coral
areas, and other ecological sensitive areas such as Protected Areas as listed in Qatar’s
Protected Area Action Plan 2008–2013 (Supreme Council for Environment and Natural
Reserves, 2007).
The following are relevant international treaties or conventions regarding ecology and
biodiversity:
• United Nations, Rio de Janeiro, 1992: Convention on Biological Diversity (United

Nations, 1992) regarding the intrinsic value of biological diversity, and the
subsequent Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (United Nations, 2010)
• The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar, Iran, 1971):
known as the Ramsar Convention, this is an intergovernmental treaty that
provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources
• Decree No. 43 of 2003: Convention for the Conservation of Wildlife and their
Natural Habitats in the Countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, which deals with
conservation of biodiversity and the natural environment within the member
States through a number of agreed measures (Cooperation Council for the Arab
States of the Gulf, 2001)
5.4 Guidance
5.4.1 Principles
Designers shall seek to minimize ecological and biodiversity impacts within the
surrounding road or highway corridor and optimize opportunities for enhancement
through landscaping or planting strategies, for example.
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5.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate ecology and biodiversity impacts, designers shall
demonstrate that the following have been considered and, where possible,
implemented:
• Incorporate Information from EIA: The Designer shall consider that the EIA works
may have included an assessment of ecology impacts, including baseline studies,
walkover and habitat surveys, mitigation, enhancement, and post-construction
monitoring. This should have been undertaken to align with Section 3 of the MoE
requirements (MoE, 2012), with particular attention on areas where there is a
potential for highway development to have significant impacts on sensitive sites or
ecological receptors.
• Ecological Value: Designers must be aware that a site that may appear to have low
diversity during the day (and may therefore appear to be of low ecological value)
could support a significant diversity of fauna at night, some of which may be
protected species. During the dry summer months, sites may appear to be much
less biodiverse that during the wetter, cooler winter months. The designer shall be
aware that there is a risk the EIA may not have adequately addressed the
variations between day and night, and winter and summer.
• Route Road or Highway: Develop route to have the least damaging route
alignment combined with sensitive project design, with the main principle being
avoidance of impacts. Design roads to avoid loss, severance, or both, of sensitive
habitats. Routes planned through or impacting Protecting Areas shall first secure
approval from the Private Engineering Office.
• Develop Mitigation Measures: These shall be effective, pragmatic, and affordable.
This effort shall be an interdisciplinary, collaborative, and iterative process.
Mitigation measures shall be proportionate to the importance of the receptors
that would be affected and to the scale of potential impacts on those receptors.
• Minimize Land Take and Disturbance: Locate the site compound away from
sensitive wildlife sites or receptors. Where valuable habitat—valuable as part of an
ecosystem or supporting sensitive species—cannot be avoided, minimize the area
affected and minimize the potential for habitat severance and fragmentation.
• Protect Biodiversity: Include in the design the conservation and reuse of the seed-
bank contained in the upper layer of topsoils, and guarding against the
introduction of invasive flora or fauna species through inappropriate planting or
imported soils. See Part 14, Earthworks, and Part 22, Landscape and Planting
Design, of this manual. The designer will include provision for the reinstatement of
suitable habitat lost or disturbed by the works before demobilization from the
construction site. Where not possible on-site, off-site alternative sites will be
identified and habitat enhancement and creation progressed; that is, “off-setting.”
This shall be designed, supervised, and monitored post-completion by a qualified
and competent ecologist. It is likely that works would require active control of
faster-growing, opportunistic, non-target species to facilitate the establishment
and succession of slower-growing species.
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• Ecological Monitoring: Especially for sites with habitat loss or for projects that
could affect the coastal environment, ecological monitoring is likely to be
necessary to evaluate whether the designed measure has fulfilled its purpose; to
detect failures in the installation, construction, or maintenance of structures; and
to refine mitigation measures. The successful monitoring project will be simple,
inexpensive, coordinated, and standardized.
• Minimize Light Pollution (Greenroads, 2011): The design team will include
adequate lighting to safely illuminate roads or highways, while minimizing
excessive illumination of the sky and surrounding habitat. Typical impacts inability
to see the night sky and permanent disturbance of natural daily (diurnal) rhythms
of local fauna and seasonal life cycles of flora, because lighting turns night
conditions into twilight. A particularly sensitive impact in Qatar would be that of
street lighting near nesting beaches, whereby the hatchling turtles may not be
able to readily navigate to the sea (Salmon, 2003). To reduce light pollution, the
designer shall:
− Calculate the minimum illumination required to provide a safe environment
on the roadway.
− Consider using light-emitting diode lighting systems, which deliver 85 percent
of light emitted to the roadway, compared to 50 percent by conventional
lighting.
− Design the angle of light emission to minimize illumination of receptors
outside the immediate road corridor.
• Construction Management Design: The procurement process shall include
appropriate mitigation measures to avoid or minimize impacts on, and where
possible, to enhance ecology and biodiversity.
5.4.3 Recommended
Further best practice measures for mitigation that should be considered include:
• Impacts of Design on Habitat and Habitat on Design: Consider how habitats

within the road or highway corridors may affect and be affected by the design. An
example might be how sabkha or salt-encrusted flat surfaces have the potential to
affect the stability and settlement of embankments, depending on the thickness,
and how the chemical composition can react with alkalis in cement to cause
cracking (Sultanate of Oman, 2010). Sabkha and wadis (dry riverbeds and valleys)
tend to have high groundwater levels, so designers must take into account road or
highway corridors with potential for flooding.
• Consideration of Ecological Impacts: Further to guidance available in the EIA, the
designer should consider the following aspects:
− Loss of habitat through land-take.
− Severance of habitats or wildlife corridors, causing complete or partial barriers
to movement of some species. Animals may be killed crossing a road that
previously formed their territory or foraging routes. This can also represent
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significant safety risks for motorists. Mitigation should include the selection of
the least damaging route alignment combined with sensitive design.
− Although roads may be the source of much habitat fragmentation, the verges
do provide a habitat in their own right. Road verges, because their linear
nature, can link a range of different habitats, providing corridors for the
movement of mammals.
− Road structures such as bridges may affect feeding and roosting sites for
certain mammals and birds because of reduced visibility, whereas sensitive
siting of such infrastructure can provide potential wildlife crossing points.
 Road lighting affect invertebrates and disorient birds.
 Air pollutants from road traffic may affect local habitats and wildlife.
 Disturbance during construction, such as temporary lighting, dust, and
noise may affect local habitats and wildlife.
• Ecological Mitigation Measures: Where negative ecological and biodiversity
impacts cannot be avoided, the type, design, and scale of mitigation should be
considered site-by-site and be adapted to be appropriate to the ecosystems,
native species, and habitats currently present.
• Create Habitat Links: Wherever possible, habitat links such as tunnels, culverts,
ledges, and bridges should be created in association with fencing to maintain links
across roads and to assist wildlife movements. The road width, predicted traffic
volume and location, structure, and design of such links should be considered,
because the potential for species to use them will vary according to the target
species.
• Design Landscaping: Landscaping has an important role in promoting biodiversity,
so the selection of appropriate native and locally occurring plant species can help
to attract local wildlife, avoid the introduction of invasive species, and minimize
the need for irrigation. It is recommended that highway projects use perennial
plant species that are suitable to the region, drought tolerant, and with a lower
water demand (Parsons Brinckerhoff International Inc., 2013). See also Part 22,
Landscape and Planting Design, of this manual.
The following best practice advice and design considerations should be implemented
(Department of Transport, 1993a and 2001a):
• Time construction activities to avoid or minimize affecting protected species and

habitats.
• Consider opportunities for habitat creation or enhancement where possible,
especially where habitat destruction is unavoidable. On-site habitat creation and
enhancement should consider whether such habitat dimensions and structures
are suitable to compensate for the ecosystem, habitat, or species for which it is
designed. If not, then offsite habitat creation or enhancement may be necessary.
Habitat buffer zones can be used to prevent degradation of core habitat.
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• Translocation or relocation of animals, plants, or habitats should be considered

only where avoidance of impacts and other mitigation measures are insufficient to
minimize impacts. Before commencing with a translocation or relocation, the
purpose and feasibility of the action must be evaluated and a suitable receptor
site identified. Seasons of particular sensitivity to the species should be avoided if
possible. Only competent specialist contractors with a demonstrable record of
successful translocation and relocation should be considered to undertake such
work. Monitoring following such moves is highly recommended.
• Ecological monitoring can be conducted by routinely reviewing and maintaining
mitigation, compensation, and enhancement measures for long-term
functionality.

There has been some research undertaken internationally on natural regeneration
rates of desert ecosystems post-disturbance that provides an insight to the designer
regarding the need to minimize impacts where possible (Austroads, 2009a). As noted,
good background information and guidance is available on minimizing light pollution
(Greenroads, 2011). Designers may be interested in the system of labeling efficient
lighting systems introduced by the International Dark-Sky Association (2014).
More details are available on topics such as assisting wildlife movements, design
considerations on wildlife corridors, tunnels, fences, funnels, bridges, reflectors,
overpasses, underpasses, and culverts in Fauna Sensitive Road Design (Department of
Transport and Main Roads, 2000 and 2010). Supplementary information is available
on fauna crossings and fencing and ecological impact assessment (Department of
Transport, 1993a and 2001a). Further supplementary guidance is available on baseline
studies, defining the value of flora and fauna, and impact assessment (Department of
Transport and Main Roads, 2013b). This would involve undertaking a desk-based
assessment using aerial photographs and maps, along with field surveys, to identify
protected or endangered species.
More information on landscape planting design is provided in Part 22, Landscape and
Planting Design, of this manual. This includes general landscape design guidelines and
the use of native and nonnative plants that do not pose a threat to Qatar’s ecology.
An Illustrated Checklist of the Flora of Qatar (Norton et al., 2009) can be used to
identify vascular plant species that are both native and nonnative to the State of
Qatar. For example, Mesquite Prosopis juliflora from Central America is a nonnative
invasive species in Qatar that presents a threat to Qatar’s ecology. Some salt-tolerant
trees and shrubs, including nonnative species, are being used increasingly in the Gulf
for urban landscaping and ornamental use. These species can be widely planted to
provide shelter from the wind and sun, visual screening of industrial buildings, and
general aesthetic value in greening projects.
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The following would need to be considered when selecting plant species for use in
road or highway landscaping, in addition to their volumetric water demands
(Sultanate of Oman, 2010):
• Functional needs of the roadside

• Angle of slope
• Maintenance requirements
• Post-construction conditions
• Horticultural requirements
• Plant stock availability, cost, and chances of growth success
• Speed of passing traffic
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6 Water Quality and

Conservation
6.1 Objective
The designer shall provide guidelines on measures to mitigate against potential
impacts on water quality and conservation associated with road or highway
developments.
6.2 Significance
Because Qatar experiences one of the lowest levels of annual rainfall and has one of
the highest per capita water consumption rates in the world (Government of Qatar,
2013), water quality and conservation are principal environmental concerns. Qatar’s
National Development Strategy 2011–2016 aims to work toward cleaner water and its
sustainable use through the National Water Act (to be put forward in 2016) (GSDP,
2011).
The annual rainfall in Qatar averages 82 mm, falling typically between November and
April and particularly during February and March (GSDP, 2009). Rainfall is typically
either short-duration light showers or more prolonged heavy downpours, albeit
infrequent. The latter regularly gives rise to flash floods with associated obstruction or
blockage of roadways. There are no naturally occurring lakes or rivers in Qatar, so
surface water features are either locations where the groundwater table comes to the
surface, or artificial ponds arising from discharge of surplus treated sewage effluent or
other wastewater. The Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013)
indicates that the number of artificial ponds created may increase in the coming
years.
The Government of Qatar has stated it will enact a comprehensive National Water
Act, establishing an integrated system of quality requirements, discharge controls,
and incentives for conservation in place of today’s fragmented system of laws and
regulations. The goal is a set of policies and regulations for the Government to align
consumption and supply over time while protecting water quality (GSDP, 2012a and
2012b).
6.2.1 Water Quality

In Qatar, water quality typically pertains to groundwater, marine or coastal waters,
treated sewage effluent (TSE), and potable water quality from desalination plants. For
the highway Designer, the main focus of water quality management most likely will be
associated with pollution prevention and control during construction activities (refer
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to the MoE requirements and standards) and during operation (i.e., management of
surface drainage, such as first-flush or flash floods and outfalls). This is of particular
importance near sensitive coastal habitats or onshore surface water resources.
Most if not all international guidance on environmental aspects of surface water

drainage systems have been prepared for environments that receive much higher
rainfall than Qatar, and are probably less susceptible to the accumulation of sands
and sediments from drainage infrastructure between rain events.
6.2.2 Water Conservation

Water is obtained from desalination, groundwater sources, and recycled water. The
Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013) was prepared to achieve
the objectives of the QNV 2030 (GSDP, 2008) and Qatar National Development
Strategy 2011–2016 (GSDP, 2011). The object of the plan is to achieve the sustainable
management of facilities treating foul water, groundwater and surface water, and
recycled water (made up of TSE and treated groundwater and surface water),
together with the creation of wetlands and other innovative concepts.
There is an urgent need to improve the sustainable use of water resources in Qatar.
Qatar’s National Development Strategy 2011–2016 (GSDP, 2011) and also Section 6
states that almost 30 percent (110 million cubic meters [m3]) of the total volume of
desalinated water produced leaks into Doha’s water table from freshwater and
sewage pipelines. Rising groundwater levels cause ongoing serious issues for
construction (dewatering sites, foundation stability, etc.). Wide-scale surface
irrigation of highway landscaping, mostly by TSE, inevitably contributes further to the
problem. Indeed, TSE production outweighs demand, which has led to the creation of
the artificial lake next to the treatment works at Abu Nakhala south of Doha. Excess
TSE is also distributed to other local sewage treatment effluent lagoons and is injected
into deep groundwater wells in Doha.
Details on current trends in TSE production, its reuse, and excess distribution is
provided in the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013),
including the following information regarding future demands for TSE recycled water
for roads and highways.
Through consultations with Ashghal, Ashghal’s program managers for the Local Roads
and Drainage Program and Expressway Program, existing TSE users, and future
potential users of recycled water, feasible markets have been identified for the supply
of recycled water. Various demand cases and projections have been completed based
on the demand data collected and a water balance assessment carried out using a
water balance model. These demand cases consider scenarios of current usage, as it is
today, and a change to greater efficiency. Depending on the demand case, the future
potential demand for recycled water varies between 151 and 451 cubic millimeters
per year (mm3/yr) by 2030 (MWH Global, 2013).
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The ongoing development of Qatar’s industrial infrastructure and the National Food
Securities Programme are set to require a significant increase in demand for TSE, with
less available for landscape irrigation (Qatar National Food Security Programme
[QNFSP], 2014).
The Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan (MWH Global, 2013) highlights the issue
of flooding during short, high-intensity storms in Qatar, which can be an issue in low-
lying areas and potentially disrupt transportation infrastructure. The groundwater and
surface water strategy in the Qatar Integrated Drainage Master Plan supports the
approach of Sustainable Drainage Systems, including infiltration techniques and
minimizing the use of positive systems. Wetlands have been proposed as a method in
the strategy to manage groundwater and surface water. Collected groundwater and
surface water from low-level rain events are to be pumped to four wetland locations,
where they will be treated to remove organics, oil, grease, particulates, and so on.
The wetland outflow will then be pumped to water desalinization and sewage
treatment plants, where the salt content will be removed by reverse osmosis before
being mixed with TSE and then reused for irrigation. The wetlands bring the value of
increased biodiversity and public and tourist amenity, with aquatic planting and
proposed parkland around each wetland. Proposed wetland locations have been
identified as Doha North, Doha West, Doha South, and Doha Industrial (MWH Global,
2013). There are international examples where this approach has proven successful,
such as the London Wetland Centre (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust [WWT], 2014).
6.3 Legislation
Articles 40 and 41 of Law No. 30 of 2002, and Chapter 3, Section 1 of its Executive By-
Laws of 2005, aim to protect groundwater and surface water sources (suitable for
consumption) from pollution.
Standards and criteria relating to drinking water, treated wastewater, seawater, and
drainage water quality are found under Articles 73 to 78 and Annex 3 (Second, Third,
and Fourth) of the Executive By-Laws of 2005 of Law No. 30 of 2002. The MoE is
responsible for enforcing these standards and criteria and undertake monitoring to
keep them within limits. However, the MoE also requests the Project Proponent to
carry out self-monitoring and auditing reports and to inform the MoE regard
noncompliance and corrective action taken.
Standards and criteria relating to standards of treated wastewater used for irrigation
can be found in Annex No. 3 of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the Executive By-Laws of
2005. The MoE will be responsible for enforcing these standards and criteria and will
undertake monitoring to keep them within limits.
The MoE requires that environmental licenses be obtained for certain projects or
activities, as listed in Annex No. 1 of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the Executive By-Laws of
2005. This includes projects that involve desalination, filling and purification of
drinking waters, and distribution networks. Under the Executive By-Laws, the
transport and shipping of hazardous waste in territorial waters or the free economic
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zone that extends to a distance of 200 nautical miles beginning from the baselines
where the width of the territorial waters is measured, is prohibited unless a permit or
license has been obtained from the relevant authority.
Highway projects may need to adhere to regulations, standards, and criteria set by
the major industrial cities such as RLIC, MIC, and Dukhan. Where works occur in
industrial cities, this can include the requirement to comply with water quality and
discharge criteria. Industrial cities are regions or sites of environmental importance,
or both, under Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the Executive By-Laws of 2005.
Therefore, compliance with the MoE requirements and industrial city regulatory
requirements may need to be secured before construction.
The Designer shall be familiar with key guidelines for water quality in Qatar including;
Construction Dewatering Guidelines, Management of Construction Dewatering, PWA,

Quality & Safety Department, Doha, Qatar, March 2014 (available for download from
the Ashghal Website). Also of importance is General Guidance for the Reuse of
Treated Sewage Effluent in the GCC Countries (Gulf Cooperation Council, Secretariat
General, 18-19 March 2002).
The following are relevant international treaties or conventions regarding water

quality and conservation:
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Waste and their Disposal (1989) (Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 2011)
• Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) is
intended to coordinate member states to protect water quality and the marine
environment, and to prevent pollution (ROPME, 1978)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (United Nations, 1982)
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL)
(1985)
• Protocol from the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution from
Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 1990)
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6.4 Guidance – Water Quality

6.4.1 Principles
The design team shall consider the following design principles in relation to water
quality:
• Improve water quality of stormwater runoff leaving the roadway right-of-way

(Greenroads, 2011)
• Design roads to direct surface runoff to a suitable drainage system and avoid
contamination of the wider environment. During operation, pollutants derived
from road drainage may be associated with “routine” runoff, whereby pollutants
accumulated on the road surface are washed off by storms, or may be associated
with spills, such as following an accident or major leak.
The lack of surface water courses in Qatar is such that the key water receptors are
groundwater and coastal waters, including salt water lagoons and similar features. In
the future, however, additional surface water resources may be created near roads,
such as wetlands, ponds, and reed filtration beds.
6.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate water quality impacts, designers shall demonstrate that
the following have been considered and, where possible, implemented:
• Incorporate Information from EIA: The designer shall consider that the EIA will
have included an assessment on impacts on surface waters, groundwater, and
their hydrology, including consideration of exacerbating flood risk. This should
have been aligned with the minimum requirements of Section 2 of the MoE EIA
guidance (2012), on environmental soil and groundwater for baseline studies,
assessment methodology, monitoring, and modeling. Other projects, that is,
existing, under construction, permitted, proposed, or planned, within the
surrounding area of the project should also have been considered in the
assessment.
• Surface Water Drainage: A system designed to prevent contamination of sensitive
receptors by contaminated waters draining from the road or highway system. To
achieve this aim, the following design objectives are required.
Part 10, Drainage, of this manual provides details of engineering design
recommendations for the management of surface water runoff. Of particular
importance is how the designed system accommodates first flush—the initial
runoff when rains begin and typically containing much of the contamination
accumulated on the pavement surface from such sources as exhaust emissions,
oil and chemical spillages, windblown material, etc. If uncontained, the first flush
runoff can affect other nearby water resources. To minimize the risk of pollution
from road runoff, it is necessary to manage the sources of pollution or the
pathways by which pollution may reach an environmental receptor, or both
(Department of Transport, 2009; Government Department of Transport and Main
Roads, 2010 and 2013b; and Austroads, 2009a).
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• Routing: Select route options that avoid sensitive water features wherever
possible.
• Pollution Control: Include design measures to contain and remove sediments on
the road surface that may be washed into the drainage system and water
receptors by storms. Road drainage pollution can be controlled using conventional
systems that may be active, requiring operator intervention to adjust valves, etc.
or passive, such as ditches, basins, silt traps, filter drains, soakaways, and oil/water
separators, and unconventional systems, such as vegetated channels or balancing
ponds.
− Where risk assessment demonstrates it necessary, prepare measures to
contain and remove spillage that may occur on the roadway and that may
reach water receptors through the drainage network. Consider measures to
mitigate the potential for polluting water bodies during construction (such as
uncontrolled releases of saline or contaminated groundwater).
− Avoid or minimize discharges to the ground where shallow or rising
groundwater conditions are prevalent.
− Adopt drainage design and systems that are based on appropriate sustainable
drainage systems.
− Adopt appropriate inspection, maintenance, and repair regimes so drainage
continues to achieve design objectives during operation.
appropriate mitigation measures to avoid or minimize pollution incidences and
their impacts on water quality.
6.4.3 Recommended
Further best practice measures for mitigation that should be considered include:
• Standards: Where applicable, it is recommended that Ashghal’s Effluent Discharge

Standards for treated sewage wastewater for unrestricted irrigation (MWH Global,
2013) and the World Health Organization (WHO) wastewater reuse guidelines
(2006) be referenced, and that drinking water quality levels comply with both the
MoE and WHO drinking water quality guidelines (MoE, 2012; WHO, 2011).
• Design Road Geometry: Design curbs and gullies to reduce runoff and contain
spillages (from road pollution such as vehicle fuels, lubricants, or hydraulic fluids),
or to change catchment boundaries or cross falls.
• Drainage: Part 10, Drainage, of this manual identifies methods that may be
adopted to achieve the design objectives. It should be consulted to adopt
appropriate measures such as:
− Containment measures (to retain spillage) that may be active (requiring
valves, pen stocks (MoE, 2010), hand stocks, stop logs, etc.) or passive
(detention basins and sediment traps)
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− Treatment elements that may include filter drains, retention basins, oil/water
separators, and ditches
• Soakaways: Consider providing negative soakaway systems that drain surface
water into the ground or soakaways, as an alternative to positive systems that
drain to sewer systems. Negative systems do, however, require a detailed analysis
of the geology of the area to evaluate the permeability of the ground and its
suitability for the installation of infiltration systems (Parsons Brinckerhoff
International Inc., 2013).
• Sustainable Drainage Systems: These integrate a series of (conventional or
unconventional) components into a “water management train” to incrementally
reduce flow rates and pollution loading as water passes through the system. This
can involve managing surface water and groundwater in a sustainable way, such
as permeable surfacing and green roofs. For more information, visit the susdrain
website http://www.susdrain.org/about.html (Construction Industry Research and
Information Association [CIRIA], 2012).
• Vegetated Drainage Systems: Vegetated systems not only reduce the risk of
pollution, they can also enhance the landscape and promote biodiversity.
Appropriate plant species should be selected, and it should be noted that the
primary function of drainage is to reduce and treat highway runoff:
− Filter strips: vegetated areas that not only can aid the removal of pollutants,
but also reduce soil erosion, promote biodiversity, and help reduce the visual
impact. They are fairly inexpensive to construct.
− Buffer zones: zones left undisturbed to allow filtering and trapping of
sediment, which may require fencing to prevent access and damage to
vegetation.
− The arid climate of Qatar is such that the use of vegetated systems such as
swales or vegetated ponds is unseemly and should only be considered if they
can be integrated into landscaped areas that require irrigation to maintain
plant growth. Any such systems would have to be considered in the context of
available water supply. See Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this
manual.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the National Research Council
have issued a range of publications providing information and guidance on
stormwater management from highways and the control of contaminated runoff
(USEPA, 2011 and 2012; National Research Council, 2009.
Further information from a regional perspective is provided in “Sustainable

Management of Scarce Resource” (Arab Forum for Environment and Development,
2010) available from http://www.afedonline.org/Report2010/main.asp and “Water
Reuse in the Arab Word” (World Bank, 2011) available from
http://water.worldbank.org/sites/water.worldbank.org/files/publication/Water-
Reuse-Arab-World-From-Principle%20-Practice.pdf
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6.5 Guidance – Water Conservation

6.5.1 Principles
Design teams shall design out the need for water. A consideration of water
conservation (simply a reduction in the use of or impact on water resources) needs to
be intrinsic within the adopted methods of construction and operation of the roads
network. Water-efficient design can minimize the amount of water needed during
construction and afterward, to maintain any landscaped features. Preservation or
enhancement of water quality is an essential element of water conservation.
6.5.2 Required
To effectively achieve water conservation measures, the Designer shall make
provision for the following (Sultanate of Oman, 2010):
• Incorporate Information from EIA: The designer shall consider that the EIA is likely
to have included an assessment on the impacts on available water resources, such
as groundwater, of relevance to the following points.
• Draft a Water Conservation Plan: The Water Conservation Plan identifies
innovative and cost-effective means of water conservation during the construction
and operation of the road or highway. Implementing and achieving good
performance of the plan is an example of the requirements to be included in the
tender documentation, so that the plan becomes a contractual requirement on all
Contractors and the operating entity. The Water Conservation Plan shall also set
measurable targets for water conservation to be implemented as contractual key
performance indicators.
• Water Footprinting: Similar to the concept of calculating the carbon footprint,
consider the volume of water used (CEEQUAL, 2013a and 2013b):
− Directly by site activities such as sanitation, vehicle wash-down, etc.
− Indirectly, as embodied in the production of materials through the key stages
of the supply chain; for example, to minimize impacts of source materials on
water resources, particularly nationally and regionally.
• Adopt Water Efficient Methods: These include low water use welfare facilities and
developing alternatives to water-based dust suppression for site works).
• Reuse Water: Reuse water, such as grey water and reclaimed or recycled water
systems, to support such onsite needs as irrigation.
• Minimize Leakage: Include considerations in design of water supply or pumped
systems, such as water supplies for concrete batching, so they operate with low
levels of leakage.
• Landscaping: Design landscaping to minimize planted areas and to use only
drought-tolerant plants, ideally perennials. Where it is known, the groundwater
table will be high for the foreseeable future, planting shall incorporate species
capable of exploiting saline waters, further minimizing the need for surface
irrigation. See Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this manual. Palm trees
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require 120 liters per day per palm, whereas small shrubs require 8 liters per day
per plant, and grass requires 12 to 18 liters per day per square meter (MoE, 2010).
• Efficient Irrigation: Where irrigation is required, efficient systems such as a drip or
trickle irrigation shall be adopted and appropriate irrigation scheduling (suited to
plant demand) adopted. Irrigation ideally shall be undertaken at night to minimize
evaporation. Adopt responsive maintenance and watering schedules.
• Use of TSE: Ashghal requires the designer to consult with the relevant authority or
municipality to evaluate the supply of irrigation water available. If the supply of
TSE is inadequate or unavailable, the designer will consult with the relevant
authority or municipality to assess the need for holding tanks and design such
tanks and pumping facilities, in addition to other necessary systems, to supply the
irrigation water required to support the landscaping plan (Parsons Brinckerhoff
International Inc., 2013).
appropriate mitigation measures to optimize efficient use of water resources.
6.5.3 Recommended
Consider the following recommendations to facilitate full adoption of conservation
measures:
• Training: Appropriate training of design staff and workforce (construction and

operation).
• Set Targets: Monitoring, measurement, and accountability of water use against
predetermined targets.
• Audit: Development of a water audit process so that a project water balance may
be established.
• Government Consultation: Although not a requirement, coordination with
government bodies such as Ashghal and Qatar General Electricity and Water
Corporation (Kahramaa) is strongly advised.
• Nongovernment Consultation: Especially in rural regions, consultation with
residents of the region for some time may reveal information about local geography,
water resources, and biodiversity that could influence the efficiency of the design.

More information on water management and conservation and sustainable design
considerations such as detention and infiltration systems is provided in Part 22,
Landscape, and Planting Design, and Part 10, Drainage, of this manual.
Further guidance on the relatively new concept of water footprinting is available from
the Water Footprint Network, which has published The Water Footprint Assessment
Manual: Setting the Global Standard (Hoekstra et al., 2011).
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The ISO is progressing with the release of the standard ISO 14046 specifically on water
footprinting (Humbert, 2013). This new standard will specify principles, requirements,
and guidelines related to water footprint assessment of products, processes, and
organizations, based on lifecycle assessment. It will also provide principles,
requirements, and guidelines for conducting and reporting water footprint
assessment as a standalone assessment or as part of a more comprehensive
environmental assessment.
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7 Air Quality
7.1 Objective
The designer shall provide guidelines on measures to mitigate potential air quality
impacts associated with road or highway developments.
7.2 Significance
Air pollution is the “contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any
chemical, physical, or biological agent that alters the natural characteristics of the
atmosphere” (WHO, 2014). Qatar’s arid desert climate means there are naturally
occurring high levels of airborne sand and dust, especially during windy conditions.
The resulting poor air quality is exacerbated by airborne dust and other pollutants
from the high number of construction sites and vehicle emissions, of which a high
proportion are sports utility vehicles, four-wheel drives, trucks, coaches/buses, heavy
plant, etc., that contributes significantly to air quality degradation, especially in urban
environments. The WHO ranks Doha 12th of 1,600 cities in 91 countries for the
highest levels of PM2.5.
A key environmental focus of Qatar’s government is to improve the country’s air

quality, recognizing that it is a significant factor contributing to instances of
respiratory conditions and diseases.
During construction, air emissions and dust can be generated by soil stripping,
excavation, vehicle movements and exhausts, cutting and handling materials, and the
construction materials themselves, such as fumes and vapors from hot asphalt, which
can cause a nuisance and affect the health of local people, wildlife, and plant life
(CEEQUAL, 2013).
The MoE has minimum requirements for assessing atmospheric and ambient air
quality impacts (MoE, 2012). For ambient air quality impacts, this includes baseline
studies, monitoring, and modeling of projected impacts. Qatar’s National
Development Strategy 2011–2016 (GSDP, 2011) aims to work toward cleaner air by
developing a national policy to manage air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and
the wider impacts of climate change. It is important that road designers assess any
likely significant air quality impacts and mitigate them during the design, construction,
and operation. Qatar Petroleum operates permanent Air Quality Monitoring Stations
(AQMS) at Mesaieed and Ras Laffan, whereas the MoE has stations in Doha at Qatar
University, Aspire Park, and Al Corniche (Old Movenpick Hotel). The MoE also deploys
mobile (van-based) AQMS to supplement data from the permanent stations.
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7.3 Legislation
Under a series of executive by-laws issued by Laws No. 11 of 2000 and Law No.30 of
2002, the responsible party shall comply with the maximum allowable limits for
emissions from mobile sources (such as petrol and diesel vehicles), stationary sources
(generators), and ambient air quality standard limits, which should not be exceeded
over a certain averaging period in micrograms per meter cubed (µg/m3). Annex
No. 3/1, of Executive By-Law No. 4 of 2005 of Law No. 30 of 2002 details maximum
limit values for sulfur dioxide, particulate matter having an aerodynamic equivalent
diameter of 10 micrometers or less (PM10), nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants,
carbon monoxide, and lead.
Article 61 of Law No. 30 of 2002 requires that distance and wind direction from
populated areas be considered when determining the project location. The MoE will
approve the suitability of the location according to allowable limits for air pollutants in
the area. Article 68 also requires that any wastes or soil produced as a result of
excavation, digging, building, or demolishing should be stored, covered, or transported
appropriately to minimize its spread and prevent air pollution.
industrial cities, this can include the requirement to comply with ambient quality
criteria and to provide monitoring. Industrial cities are defined as regions or sites of
environmental importance, or both, under Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the
Executive By-Laws of 2005. Therefore, compliance with the MoE requirements and
industrial city regulatory requirements will be required before construction.
The relevant international treaty or convention related to air quality is the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985). 20
20
For more information on the ozone convention, visit
http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/vienna_convention.php
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7.4 Guidance
7.4.1 Principles
Regarding air quality, the design team shall design to provide for minimal emissions to
air throughout the project life cycle.
In Qatar, some key actions required in theory to improve air quality associated
directly with operation of transportation infrastructure in Qatar are beyond the
capabilities of the road designer, such as these:
• Changing the driving culture to reduce the proportion of high-emissions vehicles

on the roads, currently driven by low fuel costs and a desire to optimize personal
safety given the low standards of driving behavior.
• Introduction of toll-charging and congestion-pricing (Greenroads, 2011) as
practiced in other countries to dissuade drivers from using the roads at peak
times.
• Providing and encouraging the use of mass transit systems to minimize vehicle
emissions.
7.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate air quality impacts, designers shall demonstrate that the
following have been considered and then implemented, where possible:
• Incorporate Information from EIA: The designer shall consider that the EIA will
most likely have included an assessment on impacts on air quality. This should
have been aligned with the minimum requirements of Section 3 of the MoE EIA
guidance (2012) for ambient air quality impact baseline studies, assessment
methodology, monitoring, and modeling. The existing, under construction,
permitted, proposed, and planned projects within the scope and surrounding area
of the project should have been considered in the air quality assessment.
Monitored and predicted air pollutant concentrations shall be compared with
Qatar Air Quality Limit Values and WHO air quality guidelines (WHO, 2005). These
provide limit values for the concentration of air pollutants such as particulate
matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide to protect human health.
Guidance is available on scoping and on simple and detailed assessment of air
quality impacts including monitoring, modeling, and mitigation and enhancement
(Department of Transport, 2007b and 2013b).
A detailed assessment is recommended for locations where the potential exists
for significant impacts on sensitive receptors, where there are features likely to
affect the dispersion of pollution (for example, tunnels), or concentrations close
to air quality criteria are likely to be aggravated during peak hour congestion.
Sensitive receptors can include housing areas, schools, hospitals, and ecologically
sensitive or protected areas. Once the impacts are identified and assessed, the
subsequent recommended mitigation measures shall then be incorporated into
the CEMP.
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• Design Mitigation Measures:

− Phase the development so that at any one time, construction is largely
confined to small parts of the site, away from occupied premises.
− Minimize cut and fill requirements and ground disturbance areas.
− Use consolidated surfaces close to residential areas.
• Sustainable Transportation: To optimize the functionality of sustainable
transportation systems, the design team will provide for the following:
− Integration with Public Transportation Networks: Qatar is investing heavily in
the construction of world-class public transportation systems. The designer
shall optimize the interface with the overground and underground rail systems
as they come online. Bus stop facilities shall be provided to accommodate the
expansion of the public bus transportation networks.
− Pedestrian and Bike Access: Encourage walking and cycling (when
temperatures permit) by providing sidewalk and bike path facilities within the
roadway right-of-way, shaded wherever possible.
− Emerging Technologies: The designer shall consider the feasibility of including
facilities to support the use of electric vehicles, which may become more
prominent in the future.
appropriate mitigation measures to minimize impacts on air quality, such as
vehicle and plant management (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2014), and also soil management (Greenroads, 2011), dust control, etc.
• Congestion Pricing: Consider application of a variable cost to the users of the

roadway facility to dissuade drivers from using the roads at peak times, thus
lowering travel demand, reducing the number of vehicles on a roadway, and
reducing emissions because there will be fewer idling vehicles.
7.4.3 Recommended
The following design considerations are recommended to avoid or minimize the
adverse air quality impact of traffic associated with road and highway developments
(Department of Transport, 2007b and 2013b):
• Route Alignment: Increase the distance between a road and a sensitive receptor,
and locate a road downwind rather than upwind of a sensitive receptor.
• Landscaping: Use native vegetation, bunds, screens, or environmental barriers to
divert pollution away from sensitive receptors. More information on landscape
planting design is provided in Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this
manual, which includes general guidelines on planting for sand control and
providing shelterbelts to reduce crosswinds and windblown sand.
• Traffic Management: Use speed management and dedicated lanes on highways to
alter traffic behavior and help control vehicle emissions.
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8 Acoustics, Noise, and Vibration

8.1 Objective
The designer shall provide guidelines on measures to mitigate against potential noise
and vibration impacts associated with road and highway developments.
8.2 Significance
Section 4 of the MoE EIA guidance (2012) has minimum requirements for the
assessing noise and vibration impacts, such as baseline studies, monitoring, and
modeling of projected impacts. It is important for road designers to assess likely
significant noise or vibration impacts and to mitigate them during design,
construction, and operation.
8.3 Legislation
Under a series of executive by-laws issued by Decree Laws No. 11 of 2000 and No. 30
of 2002, the responsible party shall comply with the maximum limits of exposure to
noise standards and requirements under Article 69. Annex No. 3/5, of Executive By-
Law No. 4 of Law No. 30 of 2002 includes the maximum noise level limits for
residential areas and establishments or institutions, commercial areas, and industrial
areas. These were developed to protect the public from excessive noise levels. The
criteria are not specific to road traffic noise.
Law No. 30 of 2002 and the MoE also require the need for noise levels to be
measured in order to obtain an environmental permit and should be calculated as an
average of 10-minute readings (equivalent sound level [Leq] 10 minutes). Leq can be
defined as the level of a steady sound that has the same energy as the observed
fluctuating sound. In other words, Leq is an average of the time-varying sound energy
for a specified period.
Article 61 of Law No. 30 of 2002 requires that the distance from populated areas is
considered when determining the project location. The MoE will approve the
suitability of the location according to allowable limits for noise in the area.
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industrial cities, the legislation can include the requirement to comply with noise
criteria values. Industrial cities are defined as regions, sites, or both, of environmental
importance under Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002, and the Executive By-Laws No. 4
of 2005. Compliance with the MoE and industrial city regulatory requirements may
need to be secured before construction.
8.4 Guidance
Road traffic noise and vibration can be generated depending on overall traffic volumes,
traffic speed, traffic composition (percentage of heavy vehicles), road gradient, driving
conditions (free flowing), and individual car noise. Road traffic noise and vibration can
arise from vehicle engines, exhausts, tire and road contact, aerodynamic effects, air
intake, and cooling fans. Vibration is a low frequency disturbance that can cause
nuisance to local residents and physical damage to buildings. Vibration can be airborne,
produced by vehicle engines and exhausts with frequencies in the 50-to-100-hertz (Hz)
range, or groundborne, produced by the interaction of rolling vehicles and the road
surface with frequencies in the 8-to-20-Hz range. Vibration impacts can occur during the
construction and operation of a new highway, or even during maintenance of an
existing road.
Noise and vibration can affect human health by increasing stress, disrupting sleep and
work, and in extreme cases, lead to hearing loss. Based on the location, noise and
vibration can affect a community’s social, economic, and development status. Wildlife
such as birds and mammals can also be affected near highways (Greenroads, 2011).
8.4.1 Principles
Designers need to consider the noise, vibration, and visual implications along with
designing roads and highways for traffic needs. The design team shall seek to
minimize noise and vibration disturbance to sensitive receptors such as local residents
and wildlife during construction and operation of the project.
8.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate noise and vibration impacts, designers shall demonstrate
that the following have been considered and, where possible, implemented:
• Incorporate Information from EIA: The designer shall consider that the EIA study
will most likely have addressed noise and vibration impacts, which should have
been aligned with the minimum requirements of Section 4 of the MoE EIA
guidance (MoE, 2012) has minimum requirements for noise and vibration impact
baseline studies and assessment methodology including calculations, computer
modeling, and monitoring.
• Routing: The road alignment shall maximize the distance between a road and a
sensitive receptor—the receiving environment such as a residential area—or place
the road in a cutting.
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• Road Surface Material: The designer shall consider the noise signature of road
surface types, such as dense or open graded asphalt, stone mastic asphalt, and
Portland cement concrete, which can influence road traffic noise levels. A study
comparing changes in road surface types showed that a change from open graded
asphalt to Portland cement concrete produced an average increase of 7 decibels
(dB) A-rated in traffic noise level (Austroads, 2009a). Designers would need to
consider the materials used in road surfacing if road traffic noise levels are to be
minimized.
The effect of rolling wheels over irregularities in the road, particularly by heavy
vehicles can cause groundborne vibration, which may lead to minor building
damage such as cracking. This is more relevant on older, heavily trafficked roads
that may have uneven road surfaces or are constructed from concrete slabs that
can rock under the weight of passing heavy vehicles. Buildings on soft soils
adjacent to heavily trafficked roads may experience ground-borne vibration, and
low frequency noise from vehicle engines, and exhausts can generate airborne
vibration causing disturbance to local occupiers (Department of Transport.
2011a).
• Environmental Barriers: The Designer shall consider how environmental barriers
can be integrated to highway design, particularly in locations where there are
sensitive receptors, such as residential areas, sites of cultural or tourism
importance, hospitals, schools, and so on. Examples of barriers include fences,
walls, or earth mounds. They can have the function of providing a visual screen
and a noise, dust, and safety barrier to protect sensitive receptors within the route
corridor. Integrated landscape and barrier design can have the benefit of reducing
the noise, dust, and visual impacts of a road or highway project (Department of
Transport and Main Roads. 2013b).
Environmental barriers have the potential to cut noise by 10 dB or more for well-
screened locations fairly near the source. For longer distances and barriers that
have little deflection, noise can be reduced by only 1 or 2 dB. Shrubs and trees
installed as noise barriers can help buffer road traffic noise, but they are effective
only if the vegetation was at least 10 m deep, dense, and consistent in coverage
(Department of Transport, 2011a).
Noise barrier designs need to be free of cracks and gaps, and of a sufficient height
and length to achieve the noise level limits set by Qatari environmental
legislation, as noted. They can be designed to suit the streetscape and local
environment, be integrated with landscaping to soften the appearance, and be
designed to be durable to withstand deterioration, especially in arid
environments. Where possible, noise barriers and landscaping shall be used to
minimize the visual impact. Materials such as brick, concrete, stone, steel, and
plywood can be used, in addition to fiber-cement, glass, acrylic, and
polycarbonate sheets. Timber may not be as appropriate, because it is less
durable and can pose a fire risk (unless treated). Adequate footings and access
points are recommended to facilitate future maintenance of the barrier
(Austroads, 2009a).
The acoustic properties of noise fencing can influence the effectiveness of noise
attenuation. Absorptive noise fences contain materials that absorb sound waves.
Reflective noise fences force sound waves to reflect back off their surfaces.
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Dispersive noise fences contain materials, patterns, or both, that alter the sound
waves that come into contact with the noise fence. The type of ground cover over
which the road traffic noise travels can also affect noise attenuation. For example,
grass-covered areas are more absorptive than hard, paved surfaces or bodies of
water, tend to have reflective properties (Government Department of Transport
and Main Roads, 2008a and 2008b).
appropriate mitigation measures to avoid or minimize impacts from noise and
vibration emissions (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 1998;
BS 5228-1:2009+A1:2014; Department of Transport, 1994, 1995, and 2011a; and
Sultanate of Oman, 2010). There are close linkages between mitigation of air
quality impacts and noise and vibration emissions.
8.4.3 Recommended
The following design considerations to control road traffic noise are recommended
(Department of Transport, 1994, 1995, and 2011a; and Sultanate of Oman, 2010):
• International Noise Emissions Standards: Wherever possible, it is recommended

that the projected noise levels comply with the WHO guideline noise values (WHO,
1999), where they are more stringent than Qatari standards.
• Speed and Volume Restrictions: Control of speed, volume, and composition of
vehicles can have an influence on road traffic noise levels. At speeds greater than
40 kilometers per hour (kph), noise levels increase as vehicle speeds rise.
Reductions in speed generally reduce noise levels, depending on the volume and
composition of traffic.
• Community Consultation: It is recommended that early stakeholder and local
community consultations be undertaken to identify potential sensitive receptors
and plan subsequent mitigation needed. Background noise surveys are also
recommended (CEEQUAL, 2013). The QCS 2010 specifies that if there may be
disturbance to nearby properties and residents, measures should be taken to
reduce noise and be explained to those likely to be affected during the planning
stage (MoE, 2011).

Further supplementary guidance on the design of noise and safety barriers is available
(Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2005 and 2013b). This includes a
suggestion to offset barriers at regular intervals when placed on straight, lengthy
sections to prevent a repetitive appearance. Standard “ready-assembled” barriers and
purpose-designed barriers are discussed, with suggested setback distances and
landscaping. The role of landscaping in barrier design and helping to minimize noise is
discussed in Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, of this manual.
Further supplementary guidance on acoustical assessment including measurements,

calculations, prediction, and management of road traffic noise is available
(Department of Transport and Main Roads. 2008a and 2008b).
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9 Erosion Control and

Contaminated Land
9.1 Objective
The designer shall provide design guidelines on measures to mitigate potential soil
erosion, wind-blown sand, and contaminated land impacts associated with road and
highway developments.
9.2 Significance
If adequately considered during the design phase, costs associated with maintaining
roads and highways free of wind-blown sand or soil can be minimized, if not avoided.
Advance awareness of the presence of hotspots of contamination can enable routing
to avoid these areas, hence also avoiding future issues associated with management
of contaminated soils.
Sections 1 and 2 of the MoE EIA guidance (MoE, 2012) has minimum requirements for
the assessment of soil and groundwater contamination impacts including soil
sampling, testing, and analysis. It is important for road designers assess likely
significant impacts and mitigate them during the design stages.
9.3 Legislation
activities, as listed in Annex No. 1 of Law No. 30 of 2002, and the Executive By-Laws of
2005. This includes projects that may have an influence on the soil and underground
water, such as irrigation and drainage, and projects that involve reusing, treating, or
disposing of hazardous and nonhazardous waste, as detailed in the appendixes.
Article 68 requires that soil produced as a result of excavation, digging, building, or
demolishing shall be stored, covered, or transported appropriately to minimize
spreading.
the major industrial cities, such as RLIC, MIC, and Dukhan. Where works occur in
industrial cities, this can include the requirement to comply with hazardous waste
management guidelines and procedures. Industrial cities are defined as regions, sites,
or both, of environmental importance under Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002 and
the Executive By-Laws of 2005. Therefore, compliance with the MoE requirements
and industrial city regulatory requirements may need to be secured before
construction.
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Relevant international treaties and conventions to erosion control and contaminated

land include:
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), adopted in Paris,

1994 (United Nations, 2012)
• Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution from
9.4 Guidance
Soil erosion and windblown sand can occur as a result of exposure to wind, water, and
human activities, such as overgrazing (reducing vegetation cover) and construction
activities. Qatar’s arid environment, particularly within exposed rural areas, can give
rise to soil erosion and dust generation with the potential to affect human health.
Land contaminated with substances that could be hazardous in nature or quantity,

perhaps originating from previous uses, may need to be treated to protect human
health and the environment and to enable redevelopment. It is recommended that
the nature, distribution, and hazards posed by contamination be assessed individually
(CEEQUAL, 2013).
9.4.1 Principles
Designers shall strive to minimize soil erosion, windblown sand, and contamination
during construction and operation, and to assess and mitigate significant impacts
during the design, construction, and operation.
9.4.2 Required
When designing to mitigate erosion and contaminated land impacts, designers will
demonstrate that the following have been considered and implemented, where
possible:
• Incorporate Information from EIA: It is assumed that geoenvironmental/

geotechnical surveys will have been undertaken during or before the EIA. These
should be in accordance with the guidelines provided by the MoE (2011 and 2012)
for survey sampling, testing, and monitoring requirements for conducting ground
investigations (Sultanate of Oman, 2010). The Designer shall consider that, at the
time of writing there are no national standards for Groundwater and Soil Quality,
though drafting such standards is under way. As an interim alternative, the MoE
frequently accepts application of the Dutch standards (Ministerie van
Volkshuisvestig, 2000). The following is provided to guide the Designer in checking
sufficient information is available. It is important to understand the underlying
geology, hydrology, and hydrogeology of proposed route corridors so that road
designers are informed of the geological constraints (such as sabkha, wadis, or sand
dunes) as early in the design process as possible. It is recommended that air
photographs and documentary materials and maps be obtained and information
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gathered from local communities prior to site reconnaissance and ground

investigations.
• Designing in a Sabkha: A sabkha is a flat, low-lying, salt-crusted coastal plain with
a shallow groundwater table, about 1 or 2 m below ground level. If a road or
highway project runs through a sabkha, the following issues will need to be
considered during design and construction (MoE, 2011):
− Stability and settlement of embankments: Depends on the strength and
thickness of the underlying sabkha. There may be issues if it is composed of
soft fine-grained material of considerable thickness. It is recommended that
ground investigations be undertaken to establish strength and thickness.
Berms—a ledge or shelf at the top or bottom of a slope—and slope flattening
may help to stabilize embankments.
− High groundwater tables: To minimize the rise of groundwater into the
subgrade, road pavements can be constructed on an embankment. The use of
a granular sub-base or a granular capillary-break layer is advised. Haul roads
shall be constructed using rock fill and geotextiles as necessary for a safe
stable surface (MoE, 2011)
− Sulfate and chloride reaction to concrete: The presence of sulfates and
chlorides in the groundwater, soils, and rocks can react with cement and
concrete, leading to weakened or cracked concrete. It is recommended that
laboratory tests are undertaken to check for presence of deleterious
materials, consider the type of concrete selected that may include sulfate-
resisting cement, and perhaps use waterproofing or cathodic protection. The
QCS 2010 details protective treatments for concrete surfaces, such as
waterproof membranes, epoxy coatings, penetrative primers, and specialist
applications, where there is a harsh environment. Water and admixtures
added to concrete mixtures can alter the properties of concrete to adapt to
local ground conditions (MoE, 2011)
• Consider Groundwater Issues: High groundwater tables not only occur naturally in
sabkha and wadi deposits, they can also be encountered in urban areas that are
largely irrigated or where water networks and sewerage systems have leaked. In
the case of wadi deposits, groundwater tables can fluctuate hugely, so it is
recommended to install piezometers in the borings to monitor the fluctuations.
Ground investigations may establish the need for dewatering or piled foundations.
Where pipelines are required to pass underneath a wadi, to transport surface
water for example, the QCS 2010 specifies that the pipeline is encased in concrete
at least 150 mm thick. Unless otherwise designated, the depth of cover shall not
be less than 600 mm from the bed of the water coarse to the top of the concrete
(MoE, 2011). Stone pitching or riprap shall be used to protect the banks against
erosion (Department of Transport, 1993b).
• Consider Contaminated Land: Guidance is available on simple and detailed
assessment of soil or contaminated land constraints (Environment Agency, 2004).
From route feasibility to the selection of the preferred route option, it is
recommended that the assessment of soil erosion or contaminated land
constraints increase in detail as the project progresses, and be used to inform the
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design. A framework for assessing risks to sensitive receptors from ground

contamination is available (Department of Transport. 1993b). Best practice design
considerations to minimize land contamination include (MoE, 2011)
− Route alignment: Design to avoid contaminated areas. If avoidance is not
possible, consider remediation of excavated soil for reuse (for example, for
landscaping) perhaps in situ rather than sending it to a landfill.
• Minimizing Exposure of Surrounding Soils: Minimize exposure to potential
contamination from road surfaces. Drainage design for road surface water runoff
shall consider opportunities for directing the flow to some form of treatment
mechanism (for example, catch pit) to retain surface water before it is discharged
by soakaway (Austroads, 2013a, 2013b, and 2013c) or evaporation (Sultanate of
Oman, 2010).
• Routing through Sand Dunes: It is recommended that sand dune areas be avoided
in the case of locating highways, interchanges, and intersections, because they are
susceptible to windblown sand and sand deposition. If sand dunes areas are
unavoidable, the following design considerations shall be incorporated into the
design, as appropriate (Department of Transport and Main Roads. 2013b):
− Align to the windward side of large dunes or isolated dune fields.
− Align parallel to the prevailing wind direction to minimize sand accumulation.
− Maintain grade and slope lines above the elevation of upwind topography,
where possible.
− Avoid, wherever possible, through cuts and cuts to the upwind dune slopes.
− Align to minimize the need for drainage provision, especially box culverts.
− Apply an aerodynamic profile to maintain wind speed and reduce the
potential for sand deposition. Using smooth highways (as opposed to natural
soil) provides less friction, and using wire fencing instead of chain link fencing
can help to reduce sand deposition.
− For bridges, consider that the prevailing wind can pass without turbulence to
minimize sand deposition in the interchange area. An alternative may be to
install windbreakers to encourage sand to be deposited before entering an
interchange area. Windbreakers could be a row of trees or sand fences.
9.4.3 Recommended
• Soil Erosion and Windblown Sand: The following are general best practice design
considerations to reduce soil erosion and wind-blown sand (Sultanate of Oman,
2010; and MoE, 2011):
− Road grading and earthworks—Minimize the use of steep and long slopes on
erodible soils. Consider using geotextile fabric systems for temporary or long-
term stabilization of earthworks during construction (MoE, 2011).
− Batter slopes—Design side slopes that connect the road surface to the
surrounding land so they not too steep and have sufficient drainage.
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− Stabilizing disturbed areas—Plant native vegetation to stabilize disturbed soils

after construction. Keep vegetation low, and provide enough cover to help
bind the soil.
− Hydromulching—Apply seed, fertilizer, and paper or fiber mulch onto the soil by
pump. Soil stabilizing agents can be added to the mixture to form a thin
stabilizing membrane. The stabilizing agents act by modifying the physical or
chemical nature of the soil. The method is particularly effective for cuts in sandy
soil.
− Temporary or permanent barriers, fencing, or basins to trap sediment as close
to the source as possible. This could be incorporated as an environmental
barrier to manage other impacts such as visual and noise. Tree and shrub
planting along roadsides can act as windbreaks during sandstorms. The
QCS 2010 specifies that contractors provide calculations showing that the
windbreak and its components can satisfactorily sustain a 3-second gust of
180 kph (50 meters/second) (MoE, 2011).
− Limit the area of exposed unprotected soil and protect the soil with erosion-
resistant material.
− Consider staggering, terracing, or offsetting retaining walls to help stabilize
slopes and minimize erosion. Landscape planting can also be placed between
terraces.
− Use gravel mulches in areas that experience water runoff.
− Use rock rubble or geotextile reinforcement, or both, where there is a
potential for water to accumulate.
− Preserve the topsoil when it is removed, and reapply it to increase the
potential for revegetation and to help retain soil moisture.
− Avoid stockpiling higher than 2 m.
− Where appropriate, use permeable pavements such as flagstone or permeable
asphalt to aid infiltration in urban areas and reduce surface runoff.
• Contaminated Land: Consideration of the remedial risk following risk reduction and
the sustainability of the remedial solution is recommended (Greenroads, 2011).
• Waste Management Planning: The Designer should provide for the development
of a Construction and Demolition Waste Management Plan, which should take
account of the type and amount of hazardous waste, costs of disposal and hauling,
and waste destinations.
• Temporary Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plan (Sultanate of Oman, 2010):
As part of the Pollution Prevention Plan, requires dust management to be
considered during construction and controls for excess sediment and pollution in
stormwater. Short, high-intensity storms in Qatar can lead to surface runoff and
flooding, especially in low-lying areas. Therefore, stormwater, erosion, and
sediment control during construction and operation of highway projects is
recommended to be considered at the design stage. This may involve stabilizing
earthworks, for example, by mixing soils of alternate gradations (mechanical
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stabilization), adding binding materials (additive stabilization), or planting native

vegetation to provide a supportive root system. Cut (excavation) and fill
(embankment) can also be managed and balanced to minimize the need to
transport materials, and permeable pavement technologies can be used to control
the flow of stormwater runoff.

Further detailed guidance on geotechnical investigations is available as baseline
studies, site investigations, sampling, testing, and laboratory analysis (Florida
Department of Transportation, 2014; Austroads, 2008, and GSDP, 2011) and can also
be found in Part 15, Ground Investigation and Aspects, of the Geotechnical Design
Guide.
More information on landscape design is provided in Part 22, Landscape and Planting
Design, of this manual. This includes general guidelines on minimizing soil erosion,
such as using shallow slopes on earthworks and shallow or flat bases for infiltration
systems.
This section on erosion control and contaminated land touches on aspects of highway
drainage, and further information on drainage can be found in Part 10, Drainage, of
this manual. Of relevance also is Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this manual.
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10 Materials and Waste

Management
10.1 Objective
The designer shall provide guidelines on measures to mitigate potential impacts from
the use of material resources and the generation and management of waste during
road and highway developments.
10.2 Significance
The use of material resources and the management of waste pose a significant
challenge for Qatar, with its growing population, expanding economy, and an
integrated waste management system in its infancy. According to the National
Development Strategy 2011–2016 (GSDP, 2011), Qatar generates more than
7,000 metric tons of solid waste every day, with commercial and industrial activities
(including construction) accounting for about 70 percent of the total waste generated.
Most of the waste is disposed of by landfilling, with only 8 percent of waste being
recycled. However, Qatar is committed to developing a comprehensive solid waste
management plan to encourage recycling, to provide incentives for waste reduction, to
promote source separation, and to develop a robust recycling sector, with the goal of
reaching a national recycling rate of 38 percent by 2016. In pursuit of that goal, the
Government of Qatar has established a Domestic Solid Waste Management Center in
Mesaieed, which came online in 2011 and is operating at full capacity. The facility is
expected to reduce the share of domestic and commercial waste disposed of in landfills
by 3 to 5 percent. The Domestic Solid Waste Management Center will support efforts to
convert waste to energy and raise the level of waste recycling from 8 percent to 20 to
25 percent.
Road or highway projects typically require the use of large quantities of material
resources and have the potential to generate large quantities of waste. Where
possible, waste shall be reused or recycled, rather than disposed of in a landfill, to
minimize the impact on and use of natural resources. Not recycling or reusing waste
materials results in using available landfill capacity more quickly and ultimately
accelerates the requirement for expansion of the landfill site or the opening of a new
site, with all the attendant environmental impacts. Furthermore, the use of virgin
materials rather than reused or recycled wastes results in additional environmental
impacts, because of the extraction of raw material and use of energy for processing
and transport.
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The greatest opportunities for improving materials resource efficiency, that is,
optimizing materials use or reducing waste, or both, in road and highway projects is
early in the project life cycle, during predesign (or outline design) stages such as
prefeasibility, option identification, and option selection, when key choices regarding
function, design, use of materials, and techniques used are made.
There is moderate opportunity to influence sustainability throughout the detailed

design process, and a small opportunity to influence sustainability during
construction, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning. The mechanisms for
considering materials resource efficiency at the early stages are crucial to realizing
positive resource efficiency outcomes, such as reductions in cost, materials, waste,
and carbon, throughout the project life cycle. Road designers are in a strong position
to affect the relative materials resource efficiency of road and highway projects
during planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance by providing a
choice of material or an approach to construction or maintenance that will lead to
positive resource efficiency outcomes.
It is important for designers to assess, mitigate, and report likely significant impacts
related to the use of material resources and the management of waste during the
predesign and design stages, because this will influence the approach to be adopted
during construction, operation, improvement, and maintenance.
Interim Advice Note 153/11 suggests that “significant environmental impacts are
likely to arise from those materials that are used in the largest quantities or are high
in embodied carbon, and wastes that arise in the largest quantities, which have
hazardous properties or comprise a large proportion of the value of the project”
(Department for Transport, 2011b).
10.2.1 Material Resources

Interim Advice Note 153/11 (Department for Transport, 2011b) states that material
resources encompass:
...the materials and construction products required for the construction,

improvement and maintenance of the road network. Material resources
include raw materials such as aggregates and minerals from primary,
secondary or recycled sources, and manufactured construction products.
Manufactured construction products can include the materials required for
the construction of the road surface, pre-cast elements for the construction
of structures such as bridges, gantries and signage, barriers, lighting and
fencing.
Many material resources will originate off site, purchased as construction

products. However, some materials will arise on site. These might include
excavated soils and sub-strata which can be used for engineering or
landscaping purposes and road planings, which can be reused and recycled
for use in projects.
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The potential environmental impacts and effects arising from the use of material
resources are associated with use of nonrenewable material resources, such as
quarried sand or gravel, and the embodied carbon emissions resulting from the
extraction, manufacture, and transport of materials to a site (Department for
Transport, 2011b).
Addressing material resource efficiency as early as possible in the design of road and
highway projects leads to more opportunities to optimize use of the materials, to
reduce costs, and to minimize embodied carbon emissions. It also increases the
opportunity to include recycled content within projects and to maximize sourcing of
local materials and site-reclaimed material.
10.2.2 Waste
Construction and maintenance of road and highway projects result in production of
surplus materials and waste, including exceeding the cut-and-fill balance, demolition
of structures, removal of the existing road surface, damage to purchased construction
materials and products, off-cuts, and packaging. Some surplus materials may become
“waste” and therefore subject to regulatory controls governing the handling, storage,
transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste, according to Law No. 30 of 2002.
For surplus materials and waste, potential environmental impacts are associated with
their production, storage, transport, processing, and disposal, leading to potential
permanent and temporary impacts on the capacity of the available waste
management infrastructure (Department for Transport, 2011b). The production,
storage, and reuse of waste onsite during the construction phase, such as crushing
and reusing material from the demolition of an existing structure, can also lead to
local environmental impacts, such as increased noise, dust, and traffic movements.
By introducing the principles of the waste hierarchy discussed in Clause 10.4.1 in this
Part at the design stage, opportunities to design out waste can be considered at a
formative stage in the project life cycle and significant savings from resource
efficiency and waste minimization can be identified. These benefits may arise as result
of optioneering material choices, construction techniques, specifications, and from
other areas.
10.3 Legislation
activities, as listed in Annex No. 1 of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the Executive By-Laws of
2005. This includes projects that involve reusing, treating, and disposing of hazardous
and nonhazardous wastes. The handling, management, treatment, recycling, disposal,
or transport—shipping of hazardous waste in territorial waters or the free economic
zone—is prohibited, unless a permit or license has been obtained from the relevant
authority. The procedures to obtain a license are provided in Annex No. 2, and the
principles of hazardous waste are explained in Annex No. 8 in the Executive By-Laws
of Environment Protection Law.
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Highway projects may need to adhere to regulations, standards, and criteria

applicable to the major industrial cities, such as RLIC, MIC, and Dukhan. Industrial
cities are defined as regions or sites of environmental importance, or both, under
Article 6 (4) of Law No. 30 of 2002 and the Executive By-Laws of 2005. Compliance
with both the MoE and industrial city regulatory requirements will need to be secured
prior to construction.
Relevant international treaties and conventions regarding materials and waste

include:
• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Waste and Their Disposal (1989) (Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 2011)
• Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) is
intended to coordinate member states toward protecting water quality and the
marine environment, and to prevent pollution (ROPME, 1978)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (United Nations, 1982)
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL)
(1985)
• Protocol from the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution from
10.4 Guidance
10.4.1 Principles
Design for Material Resource Efficiency: Adopt a design approach that focuses on the
specification of materials that are locally sourced; are low in embodied carbon,
embodied water, and environmental impacts over their life cycle; are durable; include
recycled materials; and are responsibly sourced. By monitoring the quantity of
material specified at the design stage and comparing it to the material used during
construction, performance indicators can be provided that enable the effectiveness of
material reduction measures to be assessed.
Design Out Waste: Waste shall be minimized in the design of road and highway
projects, material reused where practicable, and landfill avoided where possible by
following the waste hierarchy. For most road and highways projects, action is best
focused at the top of the waste hierarchy, preventing waste and reusing materials,
and extending the life of the waste materials through recycling and composting.
Figure 10.1 shows the waste hierarchy as applied to material resources and waste.
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Figure 10.1 Waste Hierarchy as Applied to Material Resources and Waste
The waste hierarchy can be applied to pavements (MoE, 2011). Designing a pavement
to last with minimal maintenance helps to reduce long-term material resource use and
waste. Reusing pavement by resurfacing or overlaying it benefits from the residual
strength of the existing pavement and provides cost savings compared to removal.
Surface asphalt can be recycled to provide cost savings. Sending any pavement
materials to a landfill is the least preferred option. It may be possible to reuse excess
excavated road materials as general fill on another construction project, thus diverting
waste from landfill and reducing the need to use virgin aggregates. This example
demonstrates the close links between waste and materials. The QCS 2010 discusses the
potential to use recycled aggregates and recycled concrete aggregates in concrete
(MoE, 2011).
10.4.2 Required
The designer shall consider the following to effectively achieve material resource
efficiency measures:
• Incorporate information from EIA: The designer shall consider that the EIA will
most likely have included an assessment of the potential waste streams to be
generated during the construction and operation of the new highway and how
these streams may be managed. Such advance knowledge provides the
opportunity for the designer to consider use of materials that will generate the
least waste streams and provide the least risk of requiring landfill disposal. This is
a further example of how environmental impacts can be designed out of a
highway project.
• Reduce materials consumption: Design to optimize the use of materials.
• Design site layout efficiently: Use existing topography and features, including
balancing cut and fill quantities, and reduce the amount of excavation by using
ground-improvement techniques.
• Optimize use of existing infrastructure: Implement a design that maximizes use of
existing infrastructure, such as highway furniture, pavements, structures, and
drainage, with suitable residual performance life.
• Specify products with lower embodied carbon: This would include be materials
that have lower energy demands or direct emissions in their sourcing,
manufacture, installation, or disposal. Undertake carbon optioneering, using
published carbon emissions factors and carbon calculators to specify materials and
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designs with lower embodied carbon emissions. The University of Bath’s Inventory
of Carbon and Energy (ICE) database V1.6a (University of Bath, 2011) provides
embodied emission factor data for construction materials. The ICE database
includes typical materials employed in the UK market and emissions factors are
published as tons of carbon dioxide (not carbon dioxide equivalency [CO2e]).
Several agencies have developed carbon calculators to determine carbon dioxide
emissions: Carbon Calculator (Environment Agency, 2007); carbon calculation
spreadsheets for major projects (UK Highways Agency, 2014); asPECT: asphalt
Pavement Embodied Carbon Tool (TRL Limited, 2014); and CO2 Emissions
Estimator Tool (Waste and Resources Action Programme [WRAP], 2010).
Specify the use of renewable or reusable materials and those with high recycled
content to further minimize carbon footprint, encourage a circular economy and
to maintain, upgrade, or replace components without creating excessive waste
footprint.
• Specify locally sourced materials: To reduce transport emissions and support the
local economy, procurement will prioritize use of locally available suitable
materials. Consider the balance between material embodied emissions and their
respective transport emissions to site. In accordance with the QCS 2010,
contractors must prepare and submit to the engineer a list of the materials to be
used in the construction of the works within 30 days of the start of the contract.
Materials shall also be obtained from the Gulf Cooperation Council, unless
otherwise approved by the engineer (MoE, 2011).
• Specify products with lower embodied water: These are products that use less
water in their manufacture or installation. Consider the requirements for water
use during construction and how designs can be optimized so that the need for
water use is avoided or minimized; see Chapter 6 in this Part for further guidance.
• Specify resources with no scarcity and source security issues: Reduce the use of
materials that are scarce or cause undue impact on the source region. Where
possible, source materials from suppliers that have at least ISO 14001 certification
(BS EN ISO 14001:2004). Further information includes the British Standard,
Responsible Sourcing of Construction Products certification for the chain of custody
and the key manufacturing process of that material (BES 6001).
• Design for off-site construction or modern methods of construction: This would
include pre-fabrication of units or products off-site and the use of modular
solutions. The benefits of offsite factory production in the construction industry are
well documented and include the potential to considerably reduce waste onsite. Its
application also has the potential to significantly change operations onsite, reducing
the amount of site activities and changing the construction process into one of a
rapid assembly of parts that can provide many environmental and commercial
benefits (WRAP, 2014a).
• Optimize the design of materials to meet intended life spans: Examples of this
would be specifying long-life performance materials to improve durability,
minimize maintenance, and reduce whole life cost and carbon footprint.
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• Minimize waste through design: Disposal of waste to landfills will be avoided by

following the waste hierarchy (see Figure 10.1). The QCS 2010 includes a useful
checklist of ways to design out waste to be considered by the Designer (MoE,
2011). The QCS 2010 highlights that waste minimization can bring company and
national benefits. There is more likelihood of a project being completed on time
and to budget if waste is minimized. There is also a need to handle and store
recovered materials in a way to avoid damages, so the material can be reinstalled
or reused (MoE, 2011). The management of material resources also contributes to
the way waste is managed (Department for Transport, 2011b).
• Consider the end-of-life use: This would typical be regarding the fate of the
infrastructure asset to determine its flexibility and recyclability for maintenance
and demolition. Exclude from the design anything that would make the road or
highway asset difficult to deconstruct or recycle, i.e., substitute hazardous with
nonhazardous materials.
• Prepare an outline site waste management plan: Drafting the outline of a site
waste management plan at the design stage, that is, before work starts on-site, is
an integral part of the designing out waste process. Well before construction
begins, the designer will consider how the nature of the project and its design,
construction method, or materials will directly or indirectly influence the waste
streams generated and the opportunities for their avoidance and minimization.
This step helps minimize the quantity of waste produced onsite. Recording design
decisions made to design out waste in the site waste management plan will help
communicate these decisions to the contractor and facilitate onsite implementation
and be directly supportive of any sustainability performance scheme that may be
undertaken (WRAP, 2014b).
Where waste generation is unavoidable, the draft outline plan should indicate the
minimum required areas and facilities to enable at-source separation and safe
storage.
The plan shall also be used to facilitate agreement about project-specific targets for
materials and waste with the contractor, which form part of the project
performance measurement (WRAP, 2014b).
• Implement construction management design: The procurement process will
include provision for tendering construction contractors to facilitate use of
recycled or reused materials wherever feasible to do so, and to design and
implement appropriate mitigation measures to avoid or minimize waste. Set
appropriate targets for waste and include these in contracts, and develop the
program to include opportunities for reuse or recycling of materials onsite.
10.4.3 Recommended
• Guidance from WRAP: Consider the design solutions and engineering techniques,
identified in Table 10.1, adapted from the WRAP report, Designing Out Waste: A
Design Team Guide for Civil Engineering (WRAP, 2014a), when designing road and
highway projects. WRAP has produced an online Designing Out Waste Tool for
Civil Engineers (WRAP, 2014a), which states, “All opportunities for designing out
waste fit within five principles: design for reuse and recovery; design for offsite
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construction; design for materials optimization; design for waste efficient

procurement; and design for deconstruction and flexibility.”
Table 10.1 highlights how these principles can be applied to specific elements and
components of road and highway projects, including, bridges, structures, and
tunnels, by means of specific design solutions and engineering techniques. These
technical solutions can provide a number of potential benefits in terms of reducing
waste, reducing cost, effect on program, reducing overall material use, increasing
recycled content, reducing carbon impact, reducing resource depletion, and other
environmental benefits, including, for example, decreases in congestion, noise,
vibration, and fumes by reduction in truck movements (WRAP, 2014a).
Designing Out Waste further states, “These technical solutions represent the
leading thinking in the profession; however, they are intended to be used as a
design guide, not a manual of civil engineering. The final decision on which design
options are selected for a specific project will depend on a number of factors,
including cost, program, buildability, engineering aspects, disruption to users,
health and safety aspects, and local availability of materials and resources, as well
as embodied carbon and waste“ (WRAP, 2014a).
• Consider use of new technology: The QCS 2010 encourages suppliers to propose
new technology and innovations that it believes can benefit Qatar and the
environment (MOE, 2011). Any proposed new technology and innovations require
approval from the National Committee for Consultation and Building Materials
Specifications of the MoE and any other concerned parties. New technologies and
innovations of particular interest include rubber recycling, stone mastic asphalt,
glass-reinforced plastic pipes, fiber-reinforced concrete, and recycling of materials
from demolished buildings and roads.

Technical summary sheets for each technical solution identified in Table 10.1 are
available on the WRAP website (WRAP, 2014a) and 2014b.
Several resources, including published carbon emissions factors and carbon

calculators are available that allow designers to undertake carbon emissions
footprinting, profiling, and optioneering, and to specify materials and designs with
lower embodied carbon emissions. See note on carbon databases in Clause 10.4.2 in
this Part.
To maximize resource efficiency, embodied water should be considered alongside the

consideration of embodied carbon in materials and products. Currently, there is no
generally accepted methodology for water footprinting. The Water Footprint Network
methodology provides an approach that can aid our understanding of water impacts
on construction projects. Unlike carbon, there is limited embodied water factor data
(“cradle-to-gate”) for typical construction materials (Water Footprint Network, 2014).
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Guidance on the application and specification of materials such as recycled asphalt

and concrete in pavement construction is also available (Austroads, 2009b). The
AggRegain website contains extensive guidance on recycled aggregates, geosystems,
and hydraulically bound materials (WRAP, 2010c).
More information on sustainable landscape design, including guidelines for

minimizing waste, is provided in Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design.
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Table 10.1 Designing Out Waste Technical Solutions and Their Applicability to Road and Highways Projects Including Bridges, Structures, and
Tunnels
Highways Bridges and Structures Tunnels
New Maintenance/ New Maintenance/ New Maintenance/
Technical Solution Build Refurbishment Build Refurbishment Build Refurbishment
Demolition and Site Clearance
Process demolition material for use onsite      
Send demolition material offsite for processing into recycled aggregate      
Send vegetation offsite for compost manufacture      
Fencing and Safety Barriers
Steel with high recycled content      
Recycled aggregate in concrete barriers ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒  
Pulverized fuel ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as cement replacement materials      
Drainage
Pipes with high recycled content      
Process street works arising for pipe bedding and trench backfill      
Manufacture hydraulically bound materials from excavation arising      
Foamed concrete with high recycled content for trench backfill      
Trenchless technology to pipe installation      
Tire-derived rubber materials in combined surface and ground water filter drains  ‒    
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SuDS) and related techniques      
Precast manholes, gullies, service ducts, and cable troughing      
Earthworks, Including Landscaping
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Balance cut/fill quantities      

Lime or cement to dry out wet fill      
Geosystems to enable steeper side slopes      
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Tunnels
Treat unsuitable materials for landscaping and soils manufacture      
Manufacture topsoil using compost      
Remediation of contaminated soils      
Stabilize or isolate contaminated soils      
Geosystems to enable soft foundation soils to remain in-situ      
Ground improvement techniques to enable soft foundation soils to remain in situ      
Tire bales or other lightweight fill to enable soft foundation soils to remain in situ      
Recycled aggregates or hydraulically bound material for working platforms   ‒   
Incorporate working platform into permanent works
‒  ‒   
Lime or cement to stabilize soils in situ for use as capping      
Recycled aggregates for capping, structural backfill, and slope repairs      
Geosynthetic and lime and cement with original soil for slope repairs      
Tire bales for slope repairs      
Vegetation to improve slope stability      
Subbase and Hydraulically Bound Material
Treat existing soil to make a subbase of hydraulically bound material      
Recycled and secondary aggregates to make a subbase of hydraulically bound material      
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Recycled/secondary aggregates as unbound subbase      
ENVIRONMENTAL
Geogrids and geotextiles to reduce thickness of subbase      
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Tunnels
Bituminous Pavements and Sidewalks
In situ hot recycling of asphalt      
In situ cold recycling of asphalt      
Onsite hot recycling of asphalt      
Ex situ cold recycling of asphalt      
Reclaimed asphalt in base and binder course      
Reclaimed asphalt in surface course      
Secondary aggregates in base, binder, and surface course      
Secondary aggregates in surface course      
Secondary aggregates in cold asphalt mixtures      
Reclaimed asphalt from other site in cold mixture      
Warm and semi-warm asphalt to reduce energy      
Collect and reuse chippings in surface dressing      
Retexturing asphalt pavement surfacing      
Reclaimed asphalt in unbound subbase or capping offsite      
Geogrids and geotextiles to reduce thickness of base      
Concrete Pavements
Crack and seat with overlay for repairs      
Saw cut and seal with overlay for repairs      
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Recycled aggregate in pavement concrete      

Secondary aggregates in pavement concrete
‒ ‒    
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Tunnels
Pulverized fuel ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as cement replacement materials      
Cold recycling of concrete and cement bound pavement layers (in situ and ex situ)      
Piling, Retaining Walls, and Tunnels
Precast concrete rather than cast in situ      
Precast tunnel lining segments onsite      
Recycled and secondary aggregates in concrete
‒  ‒ ‒ ‒ 
Reuse of piled foundations      
Plastic sheet piling      
Steel with high recycled content      
Pulverized fuel ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as cement replacement materials      
Recycled aggregates or hydraulically bound material for working platforms      
Incorporate working platform into permanent works
‒  ‒   
Gabions or other geosystems for soil retention and erosion protection  ‒  ‒  
Concrete Structures
Precast concrete rather than cast in situ      
Assemble structures onsite and move into place      
Recycled/secondary aggregates in concrete
‒- ‒ ‒ ‒  
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Gabions or other geosystems for soil retention and erosion protection  -  ‒  
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Tunnels
Steel Structures
Assemble structures onsite and move into place      
Steel with high recycled content      
Lightweight bridge decks  ‒  ‒ ‒ ‒
Ancillary Structures
Precast concrete rather than cast in situ      
Reclaimed bricks or bricks with high recycled content      
Project Types Potential Applicability
Highways Earthworks, drainage, pavements, and structures for all classes of road, from  The solution can be applied in this type of project; it is permitted in
motorways to minor roads, sidewalks, bike paths, and surface works associated
standards and specifications, and there is experience in its use.
with tunnels.
Bridges and structures Only covers the structural aspects, all other aspects are dealt with under highways.
‒ The solution may be applicable, but may not be widely used or there may
be restrictions on its use in specifications.
Tunnels Underground works only for tunnels large enough to require a tunnel boring  The solution is not applicable in this type of project.
machine or similar. All other aspects are dealt with under highways.
Source: Designing Out Waste: A Design Team Guide for Civil Engineering, Part 2—Technical Solutions (WRAP, 2014a)
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Volume 3
Part 22
Landscape and Planting Design
VOLUME 3 PART 22
LANDSCAPE AND PLANTING DESIGN
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪LANDSCAPE AND PLANTING DESIGN‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫ُ‬
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‫ُ‬
VOLUME 3 PART 22
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................iii

1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 What Is Landscaping? .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Landscaping in the Highway Environment .................................................................. 2
1.3 Existing Landscape Assessment ................................................................................... 2
1.4 Roadside Landscape Design......................................................................................... 2
1.5 General Criteria for Selection of Trees and Plants ...................................................... 3
1.5.1 Tree Boxes and Planting Requirements ....................................................... 4
1.5.2 Tree Sizes ...................................................................................................... 5
1.5.3 Tree Lawn ..................................................................................................... 6
1.5.4 Medians ........................................................................................................ 7
1.5.5 Planting Street Trees .................................................................................... 7
1.6 Guidelines on Tree Location ........................................................................................ 7
1.6.1 Turf Grasses .................................................................................................. 8
1.6.2 Ground Covers.............................................................................................. 8
1.6.3 Ground Cover Plants .................................................................................... 9
1.6.4 Borders ......................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Plant Species and Water Requirements ...................................................................... 9
1.8 Irrigation Systems ........................................................................................................ 9
1.9 Bed Preparation for Landscaping ................................................................................ 9
2 Safety and Landscape Design ........................................................................................11
2.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Landscape and Road Safety Considerations .............................................................. 11
2.3 Sight Distance ............................................................................................................ 12
3 General Landscape Design Guidelines ...........................................................................15
3.1 Landscape Design Objectives .................................................................................... 15
3.2 Management and Maintenance ................................................................................ 16
3.3 Making Space for Landscape ..................................................................................... 16
3.4 Highway Conditions ................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Plants ......................................................................................................................... 20
3.6 Planting Design Themes ............................................................................................ 24
3.7 Planting Functions ..................................................................................................... 28
3.8 Landscaping Plans ...................................................................................................... 30
3.9 Maintenance of Landscaped Areas ........................................................................... 30
4 Irrigation.......................................................................................................................33
4.1 Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 33
4.2 Water Availability ...................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Management and Maintenance ................................................................................ 33
References .............................................................................................................................35
Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................35
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Figures
Figure 1.1 Tree Selection and Spacing .................................................................................. 3

Figure 1.2 Example Tree Planting in a Residential Area ....................................................... 4
Figure 1.3 Example Tree Planting in an Urban Area ............................................................. 4
Figure 1.4 Example Landscaping along a Minor Arterial ...................................................... 6
Figure 1.5 Example of Aesthetic Tree Placement ................................................................. 8
Figure 2.1 Intersection Sight Triangle for Major and Minor Arterials ................................ 13
Figure 2.2 Priority Intersection Sight Triangle for Local Roads .......................................... 14
Figure 3.1 Simple Planting for High-Speed Roads .............................................................. 18
Figure 3.2 Complex Median Planting.................................................................................. 18
Figure 3.3 Planting that Can Be Appreciated by Pedestrians ............................................. 19
Figure 3.4 Complex Planting Area ...................................................................................... 19
Figure 3.5 Trees Are the Most Effective Landscape Element in a Road Corridor .............. 20
Figure 3.6 Tree Variety in Relation to Road Layout ............................................................ 21
Figure 3.7 Single-species Tree Planting .............................................................................. 21
Figure 3.8 Planting in Rows and Groups ............................................................................. 22
Figure 3.9 Exotic Plants....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.10 Exotic Plants....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.11 Coordinated Planting on Either Side of the Road Unifies the Visual Appearance
of the Road Corridor .......................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.12 Planting for Scale and Contrast ......................................................................... 25
Figure 3.13 Trees as Landmarks and Defining Views and Vistas .......................................... 26
Figure 3.14 Contrasting Form and Texture in Planting Design Provides Visual Interest ...... 26
Figure 3.15 Simple Planting for Extensive Areas .................................................................. 27
Figure 3.16 Effective Screening with Low Branches ............................................................. 29
Figure 3.17 Effective Screening along a Residential Area .................................................... 29
Appendixes
Appendix A Plant List from Natural Resource Protection Group .......................................... 37

Appendix B Plant List, Spacing, and Size ............................................................................... 59
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VOLUME 3 PART 22
Ashghal Qatar Public Works Authority
cm centimeter(s)
m meter(s)
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1 Introduction
This part of the manual explains the value of good landscape design and provides
guidance on the design of planting and the soft landscape. The goal is to help designers
deliver projects with landscape design that is:
• Integrated into the project

• Safe for all road users
• Appropriately designed for the context and character of the surrounding area
• Functional and provides economic value
• Ecologically sound
• Responsive to community needs
• Designed for easy and safe construction and maintenance
The character of a city and its neighborhoods is largely shaped by the appearance of its
street landscapes. A landscaped street encompasses both the physical environment
and uses within street right-of-way. Landscape standards, guidelines, and policies are
needed to guide construction, improvements, and changes to public spaces, especially
within the road rights-of-way, in order to help shape the character of new areas and to
protect and improve the quality of existing streets. Physical features to consider
include, trees, tree boxes, tree lawns, tree spacing, shrubberies, bushes, plants, grass,
and streetscapes. Streetscape elements include sidewalk paving materials, fences,
retaining walls, and other infrastructure such as streetlights or curbs and gutters.
1.1 What Is Landscaping?

Landscaping is the science and art of modifying the visible features of an area (including
terrain shape, topography, and contours) and of placing plants, building structures, and
other manmade structures, blending them together with the goal of conserving,
enhancing, and effectively displaying the natural and cultural environments and the
beauty of the landscape through which the highway passes.
Transportation facilities produce significant public benefit but can also impose
potential adverse impacts on the environment, including adjacent properties and land
uses. Landscape design can help to increase the benefits and reduce or eliminate the
adverse impacts of facilities by conserving and preserving land and water resources;
enhancing facilities’ compatibility with land uses; enhancing facilities’ visual quality;
and mitigating adverse environmental impacts.
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The benefits of proper landscape design include controlling erosion, reducing runoff,
reducing evaporation, preventing soil degradation, creating green buffer, providing
privacy, reducing noise, screening the road from receptors, and creating a beautiful
environment.
1.2 Landscaping in the Highway Environment

Construction of new roadways or improvement of existing roadways will change the
character of the natural and constructed landscape of the area through which the
roadways pass. Much of that character is valued by the public, especially those who live
or work near roadways. A key aesthetic design goal is to preserve the landscape within
the corridor. Grading and slope treatment should be implemented to integrate roads
with the landscape and to blend the newly constructed or rehabilitated landscape with
the existing landscape.
The landscaping of right-of-way consists of the placement and maintenance of trees,

plants, flowers, constructed structures, and associated accessories, such as fencing,
walkways, or pavers, within the open space and tree box areas. A landscape designer
on a road project considers tree and plant species, soil type, water requirements,
spacing of trees, conflicts with other facilities and utilities, seeding, sodding, tree
trimmings, stump removals, design or retrofit of irrigation systems and, above all, sight
distance requirements along the road and at intersections.
1.3 Existing Landscape Assessment

Extensive field reconnaissance, survey, inventory, research, and information collection
activities of existing conditions and features within the road corridor need to be
conducted and evaluated during planning phase of the roads.
Information for landscaping opportunities or constraints, or both, must be collected

and analyzed. That information will be plotted on a project map for the design team to
incorporate into the design during the concept development stages. The design team
should use the map for preservation and accommodation of access for proposed or
future land developments and to determine objectives for various road alignment
options. The map should be used as a working tool throughout the road design phases
and evaluation as a means to communicate aesthetic issues to the project team and
stakeholders. Major landscape features to be evaluated include visual sensitivity,
topography, elevation, land use, vegetation, and landmarks.
1.4 Roadside Landscape Design

The road corridor should be treated to conserve, enhance, and prominently display the
natural beauty of the landscape through which the road passes. Nonhard surface areas
within the right-of-way should be revegetated, planted, or covered in accordance with
the design criteria specified in this manual, the Interim National Public Realm Design
Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014), and the Public Parks Department guidelines and policies.
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Clear Zones along expressways and arterials must remain clear of landscape features
and objects that could become potential hazards to motorists. Large trees should be
planted near the top of cut slopes and the toe of fill slopes to achieve effective blending.
See Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual for suggested Clear Zone
distances. Planting fewer species of plants should be sufficient along high-speed roads.
More diverse species with appropriate groundcover shrubberies are preferred in urban
areas.
1.5 General Criteria for Selection of Trees and Plants

Trees should fit the microclimate, soils, sun, moisture, budget, and maintenance
environment in which they are planted. Trees selected for urban streets should be able
to endure pollution, compacted soils, minimal water, and low maintenance.
Trees near sidewalks (especially along high volume and high-speed roads) should be
thornless and fruitless to minimize maintenance and to reduce pedestrian hazards.
They should be strong-wooded, resistant to disease and insects, single-trunked, with
upright growth and fairly long life expectancy. Branches should resist breaking. Along
commercial streets, trees need to be selected and spaced such that, at maturity, they
do not obstruct retail signs. Figure 1.1 shows a good example of tree planting in an
urban area.
Figure 1.1 Tree Selection and Spacing
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1.5.1 Tree Boxes and Planting Requirements

Trees should be planted in ground with the tree box cutout areas not less than
1.5 meters (m) by 1.5 m and the surface covered by limestone setts over porous sub base,
or paver or wrought-iron grate loops and borders (1.5 m diameter or 1.5 m by 1.5 m in
size) on around the tree sides with a minimum opening of 0.6 m in diameter. Landscape
fabric or stone mulch should not be used in tree boxes. Wood mulch (barks or shredded)
could be used. Refer to Qatar National Construction Standards (Ministry of Environment
[MoE], 2010) and Natural Resource Protection Group. Design of landscaping trees,
bushes, and other features along roads should avoid utility conflicts and must maintain
the minimum sight distance for safe view of oncoming traffic and pedestrians along the
road and at intersections, as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.2 Example Tree Planting in a Residential Area
Figure 1.3 Example Tree Planting in an Urban Area
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The landscape designer should employ the following principles:
• To ensure normal tree growth, the minimum dimensions for a tree box cutout
should be 1.5 m by 1.5 m.
• Trees should not to be planted in tree boxes or continuous grass strips less than
1.5 m wide.
• No landscape fabric or stone mulch should be used in the tree boxes, but wood
mulch may be used.
• Trees near utilities should have root barriers in accordance to Qatar Constructions
Specifications.
• Trees should not be planted within 12 m from the curb face at intersections and
street corners within the site distance triangle.
• Trees should not be planted less than 12 m from a controlled intersection or other
traffic control device, except No Parking signs.
• Trees shall be located to give drivers visibility of regulatory signs, complying with
the following:
− Trees should be planted at least 3 m from driveways and alleys.
− Trees should be planted at least 6 m from a light pole.
− Trees should be planted at least 3 m from a fire hydrant.
− Trees should be located in tree lawn space.
− Trees shall not be planted directly in front of a sidewalk or the entrance of a
building.
− Tree should not be planted where existing trees will interfere with the growth
of the tree.
1.5.2 Tree Sizes

Tree sizes, types, and water requirements should be in accordance with the Ministry of
Municipality and Urban Planning (MMUP) Public Parks Department-approved criteria,
and the Natural Resource Protection Group. See Appendixes A and B for lists of plants.
Some of the requirements for tree sizes are as follows:
• Trees trunks should be 5 to 7 centimeters (cm) in diameter caliper at planting

measured 1 m above ground or in accordance to the criteria published by Public
Parks Department.
• Tree branches should not interfere with driver’s visibility, pedestrians, cyclists, and
vehicles.
• The branching height of a tree on the traffic side of the street shall not be less than
6.5 m above the street.
• The branching height of trees on the pedestrian side of the street shall not be less
than 2.0 m above the sidewalk.
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• Trees should be drought resistant and preferably fruitless along roads with high
traffic volume.
• Trees should not interfere with overhead power lines at maturity.
• The height of nonplant materials and bushes should be less than 1 m.
• Small to medium trees must be used where overhead power lines would not allow
a large street tree to reach maturity without interfering with the power lines.
• Drought-resistant plantings, preferably low flowering shrubs, should be used in
medians or sections of medians over 1.5 m wide.
1.5.3 Tree Lawn

In road design, “tree lawn” refers to a strip of land along urban streets dedicated for
planting trees and landscaping between the curb and the sidewalk provided space is
available. Tree lawn location and extent should be coordinated with other roadway
features, furniture, and underground utilities. Criteria for tree lawns are shown in
Figure 1.4 and are as follows:
• Width of tree lawns need to be at least 2 m on arterial roads.

• Width of tree lawns must not be less than 1.5 m on any road, including local and
connector roads.
• Tree lawns should not be elevated.
• Zero-angled pop-up sprinklers systems can be used in tree lawns 2.5 m or wider.
Figure 1.4 Example Landscaping along a Minor Arterial
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1.5.4 Medians
Nonhard surface areas within the right-of-way, including medians, should be planted
or covered, if planting and maintenance works in such areas can be carried out safely.
Construction and maintenance of landscape areas should not compromise the safety
of workers, motorists, or others. Incorporating various landscaping treatments into the
final design enhances and accentuates the natural beauty of nonhard surfaces within
the right-of-way. Criteria for medians include the following:
• Medians in urban streets should be elevated. Medians less than 1.5 m wide must
be hardscaped with concrete, brick, or stone. Refer to the Interim National Public
Realm Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014).
• Medians between 1.5 m and 3 m can be hardscaped or landscaped at the discretion
of the Overseeing Organization.
• Medians wider than 3 m should be landscaped unless otherwise directed by the
Overseeing Organization. See also the Interim National Public Realm Design
Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014).
1.5.5 Planting Street Trees

Landscape designers should consider the following guidelines for determining how and
when trees should be used within the landscaping areas:
• Street trees should serve the intended purpose of the street, and also provide
shade for pedestrians, screen the road from residential areas, and create a pleasant
view.
• The Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014) shall establish
the types of species for plants and trees.
• Trees should fit the available space when they are mature.
• Where tree lawns or covers do not exist, limestone setts over porous subbase or
pavers or grates, should be used.
• Where pedestrian traffic is high, tree grates are preferable.
1.6 Guidelines on Tree Location

The following criteria are to be used to determine locations for tree plantings:
• Adjust the location, spacing, and type of trees near signs, lights, overhead or
underground utilities, utility poles, driveways, and fire hydrants to avoid or
minimize conflict and excessive pruning and maintenance.
• To the extent practicable, plant trees with regular spacing in straight rows or
parallel to the edge of the road to create a continuous street edge.
• Plant different varieties of trees for visual appeal if possible.
No tree should be removed without prior approval of the Public Works Authority
(Ashghal). See example of aesthetic tree placement in Figure 1.5
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Figure 1.5 Example of Aesthetic Tree Placement
1.6.1 Turf Grasses

The preferred method of establishing green surfaces in Qatar is sodding and sprigging.
Seeding allows greater turf selection, but it requires 6 months and regular maintenance
to establish and is costly. Criteria for planting turf grasses include the following:
• Use sod and sprigs as recommended by MMUP’s Public Parks Department for the
climate and soil conditions.
• Use seeds that grow well in sun and shade, suited various climate and soil
conditions, and tolerant of disease and drought.
• Use improved blends of at least three disease- and drought-tolerant turf types on
prepared soil.
• Protect newly sodded and seeded areas, keep them moist until germination, and
maintain in accordance to plant specifications.
1.6.2 Ground Covers

Planting ground cover, turf, and shrubs along the edge of the street improves road
aesthetics and provides a pleasing colorful buffer between pedestrians and vehicles.
Designers are advised to select plants and turf appropriate for the environment and
requiring minimal water and maintenance. Trees and shrubs will require less water and
thrive better if placed in planting beds rather than turf beds.
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1.6.3 Ground Cover Plants

The landscape designer should use plants that have a shallow root system, do not grow
taller than 45 cm, and do not extend outside their borders. The designer should avoid
specifying plants with invasive roots.
1.6.4 Borders
Border landscape is generally placed on the sidewalk side of the tree lawns and spaces.
Plants or other material used as borders should not be less than 10 cm or greater than
30 cm high from the curb. Borders should not interfere with vehicles parking on the
street and with people exiting their vehicles. Gates or other trip hazards shall not be
used as borders.
Border landscape enhances the appearance of the landscaped areas, defines various
parts of the landscape, prevents people from walking on the landscaped, and reduces
maintenance of the landscape area.
1.7 Plant Species and Water Requirements

The Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014) contain a
comprehensive list of plants and trees that suit variable climate and provide improved
shade. The list should be consulted in designing landscapes for road projects in Qatar
(See Appendix A).
1.8 Irrigation Systems

Landscaped areas will require irrigation systems; therefore, the landscaping plans
should include a well-designed irrigation plan. The plan should include at least a site
plan; irrigation system capacity requirements; irrigation system components, including
pipes, dripper line, bubblers, and sprinklers; heads, controls, valves, filters, pumps,
cables, sensors; and other system specifications and maintenance requirements in
accordance with the Qatar National Construction Standards (MoE, 2011). Ashghal
should review the irrigation plans for compliance with design requirements and for
securing permits from other regulatory organizations. Refer to the Interim National
Public Realm Design Guidelines for further guidance (Ashghal, 2014).
1.9 Bed Preparation for Landscaping

Soil is one of the most important factors in establishing landscaping and should be
evaluated before preparing the bed. The evaluation at a minimum could include soil
composition and classification, groundwater levels, presence of contaminants and
hazardous material in the soil, site drainage, need for soil improvements and so on.
Landscape designers must consult the Qatar National Construction Standards (MoE,
2011) for preparing landscaping sites and developing landscaping plans.
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2 Safety and Landscape Design

2.1 General
Landscape design should not compromise the safety of motorists, pedestrians, cyclists,
and maintenance workers. It should improve road safety and, where possible,
encourage safe driver behavior. Landscaping should also be safe to maintain. The
landscape designer should consider the following:
• Types of maintenance operations that may be required

• How the operation may be carried out safely
• What equipment may be required
• How access to the planting can be achieved without causing traffic disruption
2.2 Landscape and Road Safety Considerations

The safety requirements for landscape planting are unique in that they change over
time as the plants grow. Therefore, the landscape designer should consider the mature
size of plants. The landscape designer should work with the engineers on the following
safety requirements:
• Planting should not interfere with sight visibility across the entire sight-line area.
• Clear Zones within the median, shoulder, and interchanges must be left clear of
frangible planting. If this is not possible, then barriers should be used.
• The landscape should not obscure road signage.
• The landscape must not create hidden public spaces with poor surveillance.
• The landscape must not be hazardous to build and maintain.
• Landscaping site should not become a health and safety issue. For example,
standing irrigation water may become a breeding ground for mosquitos, and
fertilizer-contaminated water may become a hazard to the ecosystem.
If executed properly, landscape design also can contribute to providing safer road and
driving conditions. Following are some examples:
• Planting can reduce headlight glare.

• Planting can separate pedestrians and cyclists from vehicles.
• Planting can screen road from sensitive receptors.
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• Planting can provide visual clues to motorists by helping to indicate the road
alignment and appropriate speed.
• A visually interesting road landscape can help improve driver alertness.
2.3 Sight Distance

Landscaping features must not compromise the safety of road users, including
motorists, pedestrian, cyclists, and construction and maintenance workers.
Landscaping design must meet sight distance requirements along the entire road
project, especially at intersections.
Street intersections shall be designed with sufficient sight distance along streets. The
required sight distance shall be determined by the Qatar Highway Design Manual
(QHDM) in accordance with the design speed and grades of the street and the
acceleration rate of an average vehicle. See Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this
manual.
• The sight distance for arterial and collector intersections must allow a vehicle to
enter the street and accelerate to the average running speed without interfering
with the traffic flow on the arterial and collector streets.
• The sight distance triangle for intersections shall be at least 10 m by 10 m for minor
arterials and 15 m by 15 m for major arterials, as shown in Figure 2.1.
• Sight distance triangle for priority intersections must be at least 10 m by 5 m, where
the longer side is along the through street and the shorter side along the
intersecting street, as shown in Figure 2.2.
• No landscaping or hardscaping over 60 cm that will block the line of sight shall be
permitted inside the sight triangle.
• Care shall be taken to ensure that no substantial fixed obstructions obstruct the
sightlines including road furniture such as traffic signs. However, isolated slim
objects such as lamp columns, sign supports, or slim footbridge supports 55 cm or
less can be ignored (Department for Transport, 2001).
• Trees with trunk diameter less than 55 cm at maturity and having no branches
below the height of 6.5 m above the road and 2.0 m above the sidewalk could be
planted within the sight triangle, provided that the combined width of all trees and
other road furniture within the line of sight does not obstruct a width exceeding
the 55-cm threshold.
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Note: Dimensions are as calculated in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual or as shown here,
whichever is greater.
Figure 2.1 Intersection Sight Triangle for Major and Minor Arterials
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Note: Dimensions are as calculated in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements, of this manual or as shown here,
whichever is greater.
Figure 2.2 Priority Intersection Sight Triangle for Local Roads
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3 General Landscape Design

Guidelines
3.1 Landscape Design Objectives
The vision for the landscape design should be a statement that relates closely to the
overall project vision for the road and that is agreed on by the entire project team.
Objectives should describe the approach and outcomes for the road landscape that will
be used to achieve the project vision. The objectives should be aspirational with a
means for delivering them.
The designer should prepare landscape objectives that provide direction and guidance,
inform strategies, and help deliver a sustainable solution. The designer will need to
obtain approval for the planting design from the MMUP Parks Department. The
following landscape objectives should be considered:
• Visual:
− Protect existing visual amenity and character.
− Enhance visual quality of the road and surrounding landscape.

− Screen undesirable view of road infrastructure from sensitive receptors such as
residential areas, hospitals, and schools.
− Provide a pleasant driving experience with visual interest.
− Create a consistent character through the integration of road elements.
• Ecological:
− Protect existing habitats and ecosystems.
− Minimize loss of existing valuable vegetation.

− Enhance biodiversity and natural drainage.
− Use the roadside landscape to connect habitats.
− Minimize impacts on natural drainage.
− Promote an understanding of and respect for the value of native flora and fauna.
• Cultural:
− Protect the cultural and heritage value of landscapes.
− Protect and enhance the setting of cultural and heritage features.
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• Community:
− Provide for community users where feasible.
− Provide access across and along the road for pedestrians and cyclists.
− Create increased neighborhood connectivity and an improvement in the
overall quality of life.
− Create attractive gateways and landscape features at entrances to
neighborhoods and community facilities.
• Safety:
− Meet safety standards, including Clear Zone and visibility requirements.
− Allow the landscape to be safe to build and maintain.
• Economic:
− Develop cost-effective landscape solutions.
− Develop low-maintenance roadside landscapes.

− Establish full life-cycle costs of the project.
3.2 Management and Maintenance

Appropriate maintenance and provisions for long-term management are key to a well-
kept public space. Management of planting should be considered early in the landscape
design concept and planting design stages, so that the design objectives can be
achieved through safe and appropriate maintenance operations.
The designer should consider how plantings and their likely maintenance requirements
will change over time. The design should be sustainable through the specification of
long-lasting, durable, and robust materials, including mulches, and the designer should
consider lifetime costs in addition to one-time construction costs. The aim is to promote
a high quality of maintenance and management that is consistent across the various
ownership and management systems.
3.3 Making Space for Landscape

Primary considerations in landscape design should be adequate space for the planting
concept, the location of underground utilities, and plant lifetime and ultimate size,
which are discussed in this section:
• Allow Adequate Space for the Planting Concept: A successful landscape requires
allocating adequate space for the road, Clear Zone, and public realm and requires
consideration of the plantings at their mature size. The vision for the road and its
landscape objectives should determine how much space is required. Narrow strips
of land and steep slopes will generally result in a poor landscape. The minimum
easements for planting, or where planting is located within the public realm, will
need to be project-specific. In narrow corridors and rights-of-ways, strategies will
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need to be developed that identify root protection measures or the need for
diverting utilities to make space for planting.
• Coordinate with Underground Utilities: Space for planting must take into account
underground utilities and the potential constraints they impose on landscaping,
particularly tree planting. The landscaping and utility plans should be coordinated so
as not to contradict or adversely affect each other. Coordination among underground
utilities and plantings at the surface requires cooperation between the utilities and
the road designers. Access and easement requirements of utility companies can
severely restrict the potential for planting and, therefore, the quality and character
of the road landscape. If required, the designer should consider the use of root
barriers within the tree pits to avoid disrupting underground utilities.
• Consider Plant Growth and Lifetime: The landscape planting design should
consider the mature size of plants and their root system over the life of the plants,
as well as the maintenance regime. Short-lived plants, shrubs, and ground covers
should be used only in areas where they can be maintained effectively and their
replacement is planned for as part of the management and maintenance.
3.4 Highway Conditions

The following conditions factor into landscape planting along highways and higher
speed roads:
• Highway Environment: Roads creates harsh growing conditions for plants. Plant
species that can thrive in the highway environment should be used to minimize
failures and create successful and sustainable landscapes. Compacted ground,
limited space for soil and root zones, proximity to paved areas that reflect heat,
and runoff from stormwater, for example, should be considered in the design of
planting and selection of plant species.
• Soil Conditions: Soil conditions are an important element to establish successful

planting. If the soil is damaged through compaction or pollution, for example, then
it may be difficult to establish planting.
• Road Medians: Medians present a means to break up visually the expanse of hard
surfacing and integrate the road corridor into the surrounding landscape. The
planting design should consider the particular growing conditions with limited soil
volumes, foundations to lighting and barriers, access for maintenance, visibility
requirements, and other constraints.
• Slopes and Gradients: Shallow slopes and gradients are more suitable for planting
and for the long-term sustainable maintenance of the planting. Planting on steep
slopes is less likely to be successful in its establishment and maintenance.
• Visibility and Safety in Urban Areas: Trees planted in grass or low ground cover
planting are generally preferable in urban areas.
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• Speed of the Viewer: The design of the planting should accommodate the speed
of the viewer. Large-scale, simple patterns using bold shapes and color (Figure 3.1)
can be appreciated by motorists traveling at a speed that does not support
attention to small-scale and complex patterns. See Appendixes A and B for detailed
lists of plant options.
Figure 3.1 Simple Planting for High-Speed Roads
Planting design needs to accommodate the scale of the road. As shown in Figure 3.2,
complex planting is unlikely to be appreciated by motorists traveling at high speeds.
It is also inaccessible to pedestrians and requires higher levels of maintenance, putting
operatives at risk.
Figure 3.2 Complex Median Planting
In contrast, pedestrians and cyclists, who move slower than motor vehicles, can see
and enjoy individual plants, leaves, and flowers. The planting design should be at an
appropriate scale to allow for this, as shown in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4.
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Figure 3.3 Planting that Can Be Appreciated by Pedestrians
Figure 3.4 Complex Planting Area
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3.5 Plants
Trees are the most effective landscape element visible in a road corridor. The species
of trees and other plantings should be selected based on the design objectives. The
Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014) contain a list of
recommended and approved plant species that the designer should consult in selecting
plant species; see Appendixes A and B. The following considerations factor into
planting:
• Trees in Road Corridors: Trees are the most notable aspect of roadside planting
design. Trees have an appropriate scale for a road corridor, so they are clearly
noticed. As shown in Figure 3.5, trees create character and are the best means of
softening the hard-built elements of the road. A tree-lined avenue can create a
distinctive character for the road and its context, for example. As the primary
element of a landscape design, trees should be placed carefully and deliberately,
establishing a balance between enclosing the road and allowing or framing views
from the road. The spacing of tree planting will need to be determined to meet the
individual requirements of each project.
Figure 3.5 Trees Are the Most Effective Landscape Element in a Road Corridor
• Tree Species: Tree species should be selected carefully so that the landscape design
objectives are achieved, as shown in Figure 3.6. They should relate to context,
possible design themes, and be arranged in rows for formal landscapes and in
groups for informal landscapes. Figure 3.7 shows that the use of a single species
can have a powerful effect, whereas Figure 3.8 shows that the use of a range of
species can create diversity and contrast.
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Figure 3.6 Tree Variety in Relation to Road Layout
Figure 3.7 Single-species Tree Planting
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Figure 3.8 Planting in Rows and Groups
• Use of Native Plants: Native plants can be used to protect and enhance local
biodiversity, reduce water consumption, and create distinctive landscapes. They
may also have cultural significance. Native plants require little or no maintenance
and are self-sustaining under appropriate growing conditions. They can be used on
their own or within mixes of nonnative and more decorative plants, and they can
create equally distinctive and attractive landscapes in the way they are used and
arranged.
• Exotic Plants: Imported plants and exotic trees and shrubs should be considered,
particularly where they are able to thrive in the climate of Qatar. They can be
attractive and unusual features within the road landscape, as shown in Figure 3.9
and Figure 3.10. However, care must be taken to avoid introducing and planting
invasive and weed species.
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Figure 3.9 Exotic Plants
Figure 3.10 Exotic Plants
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3.6 Planting Design Themes

Landscape and planting design themes can be useful in defining landscape concepts and
treatments and in describing the broad character of the planting design approach. The
landscape theme should be informed by the landscape character assessment, urban
context appraisal, policies and plans, vision for the project, and landscape objectives.
The landscape theme may respond directly to the character of the landscape the road
passes through, either incorporating existing landscape features and elements within
the proposed landscape design, or creating a new character for the road landscape.
Planting themes may not be appropriate for some landscape or urban character areas
or support the landscape objectives. Care should be taken to avoid a disjointed and
poorly designed landscape. Planting design themes may include the following concepts:
• Indigenous: Maximizes integration with existing native vegetation to enhance the

area’s ecology and biodiversity value. This theme can involve informal and random
layout of plants with open areas of no planting, using native shrubs and grasses
with a low water demand, and the potential to allow natural regeneration.
• Native Informal: Replicates the landscape character or uses native plants arranged
informally or in a seminatural way. This theme incorporates color, texture, unity,
and variety to create visual interest as well as ecological enhancement value.
Layout could be seminatural with continuous planting of layers of grasses, shrubs,
and trees with periodic focal points. Plants should be allowed to grow in their
natural form with little or no maintenance.
• Native: Uses native plant species with the addition of some exotic species arranged
and laid out in layers. This theme involves continuous planting including grass, ground
covers, shrubs, and trees. The native theme requires a degree of maintenance and is
more suited for urban areas.
• Formal Planting: Uses nonnative plants arranged in formal, geometric, and complex
patterns with layers of lawns, grasses, seasonal flowers, ground cover hedges,
shrubs, trees, and palms. This allows the designer greater variety of color, textures,
form, and pattern. The planting design could be simple and minimalistic to create
bold effects and to contrast the more elaborate patterns. This will often require
more irrigation; therefore, the increased water demand compared to selecting
native plants needs to be considered. Exotic plants that may be invasive or become
weeds should not be used.
• Feature: Arranges plantings to form distinctive features, on their own, or in
combination with other elements such as gateways, public art, and structures, as
shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.
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Tree planting contributes to the sense of scale of the road corridor and provides contrast to the hard
landscape of this urban environment.
Figure 3.11 Coordinated Planting on Either Side of the Road Unifies the Visual
Appearance of the Road Corridor
Figure 3.12 Planting for Scale and Contrast
Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14 show that street trees can be a visual feature of the road,
acting as landmarks and defining views and vistas.
The scale of planting areas should respond to the scale of the street. Simple planting
designs are generally more appropriate than small-scale plant combinations, which can
be overly complex, as shown in Figure 3.15.
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Figure 3.13 Trees as Landmarks and Defining Views and Vistas
Figure 3.14 Contrasting Form and Texture in Planting Design Provides Visual
Interest
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Figure 3.15 Simple Planting for Extensive Areas
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3.7 Planting Functions

The basic functions of landscape planting are as follows:
• Shelterbelts: Shelterbelts may be required to reduce the effects of crosswinds and

to reduce windblown sand. Dense windbreaks can cause turbulence, whereas
windbreaks with some permeability slow down wind speeds more effectively. The
designer should consider the specific site conditions, including prevailing wind
speed and direction, topography and landform, and the open space available within
the right-of-way. Visual interest is created using a mix of plant species, tall trees,
small trees, and shrubs. Temporary measures, such as windbreak fencing, can be
provided until the planting matures.
• Shade: Shade is an important consideration in improving comfort for pedestrians
and cyclists. Shade generally is provided by shade trees and shade structures, but
it also can be provided by using shade from adjacent buildings. Shade should be
provided where it is needed most. If shade is needed immediately, then structures
should be used, recognizing that trees require time to establish and grow before
effective shade cover can be provided. Shade structures should be attractive
features in the street scene that also meet their functional requirements.
• Fences and Walls: When planting is used in combination with walls or fencing, the
planting design should reflect the character of the landscape on either side of the wall.
• Planting for Sand Control: Windblown sand on the road surface can create unsafe
conditions for motorists. Open and nonvegetated areas can be the most susceptible
to windblown sand. Low-level planting can assist in sand control, as can shelter belts
of tree and shrub planting. Only plants that are able to withstand the effects of
windblown sand should be used. Fencing, gravel mulch, and sand stabilization
techniques also can be used individually or in combination with the planting.
Designers need to understand that different areas of Qatar are affected differently
by different types of windblown sand, and therefore different solutions should be
considered and evaluated.
• Visual Screening: If visual screening is required, and identified as a mitigation
measure through the context sensitive design solution processes and the landscape
assessment process, then the landscape designers should design an appropriate
visual screen. The selection of landscaping features, including trees, plants, covers,
and lawns, should respond to the landscape and urban context, the amount of
space available, and the level of screening required. For example, a single row of
trees can be an effective visual screen in certain locations. Tree species with
branches along the entire trunk can screen the view at the lower level, as shown in
Figure 3.16. Tree planting in residential areas provides screening of the road as well
as creating an attractive feature, as shown in Figure 3.17. If necessary, the
landscape designer should recommend acquiring additional land for screen
planting to achieve the screening objective. When selecting plant material for
screening, the designer should consider the following:
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− Space for planting and other constraints, such as visibility splays and setbacks
− Proximity of the planting close enough to the road so that it is effective
− Height of the screening required and the ultimate height of the plants
− Growth rate of the plants and using fast-growing species, if required
− Mixing species for visual interest, or using single species for a bold, simple effect
− Potential to remove quick-growing trees in the short term, allowing slower
growing plants time to mature
− Creating a hierarchy of plants with tall, medium, and low plant species to create
a screen at all levels
− Needing vegetation to be a minimum of 5 m tall to screen trucks
− Using plants with thick and dense foliage to block a view
Figure 3.16 Effective Screening with Low Branches
Figure 3.17 Effective Screening along a Residential Area
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3.8 Landscaping Plans

The landscape designer should collaborate with the highway design team from the
beginning of the project. The MMUP Parks Department should review the landscape
design regarding the safety and plant requirements. Landscaping commitments made
during the planning process should be incorporated into the plans. The preliminary
landscape plans should include the following activities:
• Preparing a base map and site plan

• Identifying alternate designs based on predesign meetings, and appropriate
standards
• Coordinating of special permits for mitigation, as required
• Coordinating of availability of plant materials
• Coordinating with program managers and neighborhood groups
The final landscaping design will be documented in the project file and completed
based on the following:
• Preliminary design review minutes, revisions, and written safety and design
decisions
• Special permit requirement
• Special provisions or departures, or both
• Coordination with the MMUP Parks Department staff
• Final design review changes and review minutes for final signoff
• Fulfilment of landscape requirements mandated by the Overseeing Organization
• Environmental mitigations, if any
• Use of landscaping to improve water quality and manage stormwater
• Approval of any removal, addition, or modification of the existing landscaping or
type of trees by the Overseeing Organization
3.9 Maintenance of Landscaped Areas

Maintenance of areas landscaped with turf, plants, shrubberies, flowers, and trees
starts immediately after planting and continues over the life of the plants. Maintenance
of landscaped areas during the period immediately after planting until plants are
established is critical to the success of a good landscape plan. Most important work
during this period includes watering, dressing wounds, straightening, resetting settled
areas, weeding, and pruning.
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Once plants are established, regular maintenance is required to ensure that the
landscape will function during its life cycle. Regular maintenance includes watering,
thinning, mowing, fertilizing, weeding, trimming, pruning, replanting, and disease and
insect control. A maintenance plan should be developed as part of construction plans
in accordance with the site requirements and plant specifications.
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4 Irrigation
4.1 Strategy
An irrigation strategy should be an integral part of the landscape design from the
beginning of the design process because water is scarce in Qatar. The strategy should
clearly set out the principles and relationship among the planting design, use of plants,
species types, and need for irrigation water.
4.2 Water Availability

The strategy should establish the availability of irrigation water at the onset of the
project, covering requirements at both the time of the completion of the project and
over the long term. The designer should consult stakeholders as required and obtain
the relevant information to inform the irrigation design; for example, Ashghal’s master
plan or more local road management organizations. Water availability should then be
balanced with the potential demands of the project. If required, the planting could be
implemented in phases as irrigation water becomes available. In addition, the planting
design may need to respond to a reduced availability with water available only for a
short period during planting establishment. Irrigation systems should be designed to
provide the appropriate amount of water to each tree and plant, with minimal waste.
For example, in some areas bubblers are appropriate, but in others and for certain
plants, easily adjustable automatic drip irrigation systems are appropriate. Refer to the
Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014) and Qatar National
Construction Standards (MoE, 2011).
4.3 Management and Maintenance

It is important that those responsible for the management and maintenance of the
irrigation system be considered stakeholders in the process and that they are consulted
early in the design process to consider their needs in the design.
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References
AASHTO. A Guide for Transportation Landscape and Environmental Design. American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC, United States. 1991.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street: Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. State of Qatar
Public Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. 2014.
Department for Transport. “Highway Link Design.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 6, Section 1, Part 1. TD 9/93. UK Highways Agency: London, England.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol6/section1/td993.pdf. June 1993; updated
February 2002.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). Qatar National Construction Standards (QCS 2010). State of
Bibliography
CH2M HILL. Aesthetic Design Guidelines I-580 Freeway Extension Nevada. Project report.
Prepared for Nevada Department of Transportation, United States. 2000.
District Department of Transportation. Design and Engineering Manual. Government of the

District of Columbia: Washington, DC, United States. April 2009.
District Department of Transportation. Public Realm Design Manual: A Summary of District of

Columbia Regulations and Specifications for the Design of Public Space Elements. Government of
the District of Columbia: Washington, DC, United States. 2011.
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Appendix A
Plant List from Natural
Resource Protection Group
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Stage 5 Advisory Services for
Interim Public Realm Guidelines Public Realm and Landscape Design
Plant List
IMAGE
LOCAL SPECIES Arad

ENGLISH COMMON NAME Nyanga Flat Top Kimberley’s Wattle Ear Pod Wattle Australian Soap Wattle Halls Creek Wattle Sweet Wattle Grey Haired Acacia
SCIENTIFIC NAME Acacia abyssinica Acacia anthochaera Acacia auriculaformis Acacia colei Acacia cowleana Acacia etbaica Acacia farnesiana Acacia gerardii
“Gaypari”
TYPE ST LS ST LS LS ST ST ST
WATER
FEATURE Umbrella shape covered in bright yellow long yellow catkins of broad blue grey leaf and blue grey broad foliage dense canopy good shade tree with low even shaped small tree
flowers flower bright yellow flowers and bright yellow flowers water requirement low water requirement
COMMENTS
Peak Water Consumption Plant Abbreviations

Low irrigation requirement 5-10 litres/irrigation event CI Climber SSGC Small shrub or Ground
Cover
Medium low irrigation requirement 10-15 litres/irrigation event
SU Suculent G Grass
Medium irrigation requirement 15-25 litres/irrigation event
GC Ground Cover LT Large Tree
Medium to High irrigation 25-35 litres/irrigation event
requirement S Shrub T Tree
High irrigation requirement 50-90 litres/irrigation event LS Large Shrub ST Shade Tree
Symbol for half rate SS Small Shrub P Palm
H Herbaceous perennial
Samr
Wanderry Wattle Mountford’s Wattle Scented Acacia Weeping Myall Willow Acacia Golden Wreath Wattle Sims wattle Umbrella Thorn
Acacia kempeana Acacia mountfordiae Acacia nilotica Acacia pendula “Amata” Acacia salicina “Marntala” Acacia saligna “Cujong” Acacia simsii Acacia tortillis
LS MT ST ST LS ST ST
bright yellow flowers Attractive shrub with long Good Acacia for urban Weeping foliage weeping bright green masses of bright yellow bright green foliage and yellow flowers and
bright yellow catkins use, well shaped and foliage flowers on weeping foliage bright yellow flowers umbrella shape
attractive flowers
Use for restoration of
wadis vegetation
Elegant Wattle Baobab Tree Desert Cotton or Snow Queen Victoria’s Agave
Bush
Acacia victoriae “Alita” Adansonia gregorii Aerva javanica Agave parryi Agave victoriae Aloe africana Aloe claviflora Aloe debrana
“Jamulang”
LS LT S SU SU SU Su/GC SU
masses of yellow flowers bottle shaped trunk light grey foliage and architectural form architectural form
white seeds/flowers
ebombo Aloe
Aloe sessiflora Aloe striata Aloe striata Aloe virens Alstonia actinophylla Alstonia scholaris Aptenia cordifolia Arctotis hybrids
SU SU SU SU T T GC GC
architectural form and form and flowers white trunk and graceful interesting foliage carpet of leaves and pink bold coloured multiple
bright yellow flowers form fragrant flowers flowers flowers
Mediterranean Saltbush Old Man Saltbush Australian Saltbush Bismark Palm Frankincense Tree Illawarra Flame Tree belladonna Flame Tree Pink Kurrajong
Atriplex halimus Atriplex numalaria Atriplex semibaccata Bismarckia nobilis Boswellia sacra Brachychiton acerifolius Brachychiton “Bella Brachychiton diversifolius
Donna”
SS S GC P ST T T T
blue/grey foliage blue/grey foliage blue/grey foliage Powder grey palm fronds Interesting shape and mass of delicate red dense pink bell shaped bell shaped flowers hang
excellent feature plant, deep cultural significance flowers when leafless. flowers cover the tree. amidst attractive foliage
tolerant of Qatar Spectacular flowering Also a good shade tree excellent shade tree
conditions tree
Arta
Leopard Tree Fire Bush Bottlebrush Blue Cypress Pine Cypress pine Beauty Leaf Beach Pea
Caesalpinia ferrea Calandrina balonensis Calligonum comosum Callistemon viminalis Callitris intratropica Callitris preissii Callophyllum inophyllum Canavalia rosea
“Oenpelli”
ST GC S ST T T ST GC
nteresting patterned prominent pink flowers red ball flowers General use as a dense, very attractive, hardy very attractive, hardy glossy green leaves and tough, spreading vine/
trunk. Yellow flowers colourful screen plant conifer conifer fragrant flowers ground cover for
stabilising sand areas
Wadis planting
Akamba Bush Desert Cassia Velvet Cassia Coral Shower Red Cassia Belah African Nettle Tree Day Blooming Jasmine
Carissa edulis Cassia biflora Cassia brewsterii Cassia grandis Cassia roxburghii Casuarina cristata Celtis africana Cestrum diurnum
ST LS/ST T ST T T T S
deep green foliage and yellow flowers pink catkins pink flowers ribs of bright, brick red excellent wind break light green shade tree fragrant white flowers
white fragrant flowers flowers and well shaped
tree
Silk Floss Tree Sturts Desert Pea Butterfly Pea Myhrr Yellow Geiger Tree Geiger Tree White Gum Alice White Gum
Chorisia speciosa Clianthus formosus Clitoria ternata Commyphora myrrha Cordia lutea Cordia sebestena Corymbia apperinja Para Corymbia apperinja” Alice
para”
ST GC CI ST ST ST T T
bold pink flowers brilliant red/black pea lilac flowers plant of ancient cultural flowers and broad green Broad leaves and vibrant pure white trunk and pure white trunk and
shaped flowers on grey significance leaves orange flowers graceful form graceful form
foliage
Bird Flower Rubber Vine Mexican Heather Australian Lemon Grass Lemon Grass Indian Rosewood White Poinciana Tree
Crassula multicava Crotalaria Cryptostegia Cuphea mexicana Cybopogon ambiguus Cymbopogon citratus Dalbergia sissoo Delonix elata
cunninghamiana madagascarensis compacta
SU S CI GC G G T ST
interesting lemon yellow strong evergreen vine with dense fine leaf/pink interesting perennial fresh green perennial good shade tree feathery foliage and white
flowers attaractive pink flowers flowered ground cover grass grass lemon fragrance flowers
suitable for shade

ocations
Brazilian Jasmine Dragon Tree Blue Butterfly Bush Earpod Tree Narrow leaved Emu Bush Arakoora Emu Bush
Dipladenia sanderi Dracaena draeco Duranta repens Echeveria elegans Encelia farinosa Enterolobium Eremophila alternifolia Eremophila arookara
contorisiliquum “Irmangka” “Amoonguna”
CI ST LS SU/GC SS/HP T S SS
brilliant red flowers umbrella shape cascades of blue flowers feathery foliage and white flowers blue flowers on grey
flowers foliage
mass of yellow in late

winter
White Emu Bush Blue Emu Bush Weeping Emu Bush Red Emu Bush Red Emu Bush Fine Leaf Emu Bush Pink Emu Bush
Eremophila bignoniflora Eremophila christopheri Eremophila longifolia Eremophila maculata Eremophila maculata Eremophila obovata Eremophila polyclada Eremophila racemosa
X polyclada “Kurubimi” “Areyonga” “Tulypurpa” “Atitjere” “Brevifolia Eridunda” “Imampa”
LS S LS SS SS S LS S
weeping foliage blue flowers weepinf foliage masses of bright red masses of bright red blue flowers and grey fresh green foliage flowers and grey foliage
flowers flowers foliage
There are many species of

Eremophila suitable to
this region
Variegated Coral Tree Northern Salmon Gum Shiny Leaved Mallee Darwin Woolly Butt Thozets Gum Peepul Tree Willow Leaf Fig
Erythrina orientalis Eucalyptus bigalareta Eucalyptus lucens Eucalyptus miniata Eucalyptus thozetiana Euphorbia larica Ficus populneus Ficus salicifolia
variegata “Ngukurr” “Mijilypa” “Manyuwan” “Nhulunbuy”
T T ST ST ST S LT T
variegated tropical beautiful patterned trunk shiny green leaves orange red flowers white waxy trunk and form foliage form foliage
ooking leaf and bird like and fresh green poplar interesting flowers
red flowers like leaves
Excellent shade tree
Mulberry Fig Hairy Sea Heath Wilga Carolina Jasmine Australian Desert Rose Desert Rose Darwin’s Cotton
Ficus sycomorus Frankenia hirsuta Galphimia glauca Geijera parviflora Gelsemium sempervirens Gossypium australe Gossypium bickii Gossypium darwinii
“Nurom”
T GC Cl ST CI S S S
form foliage compact fine textured flowers beautiful weeping foliage masses of yellow flowers delicate pink hibiscus like white hibiscus like flowers yellow hibiscus like
foliage flowers flowers
Wadis vegetation
Rimth Wild Heliotrope Blood Grass Sapphire Vine
Haloxylon salicornicum Heliotropium Imperata cylindrica Jacquemontia violaceae Kalanchoe Kalanchoe rotundifolia Lampranthus aurantiacus Lampranthus saturatus
curassavicum diagremontiana
SS SS G CI SU SU SU/GC SU/GC
transparent amber to pink white flowers on a grey grass colour Blue flowers all year round
coloured seed capsules green foliaged plant
Leptadenia pyrotechnica Leucochrysum stipitatum Leucophylum frutescens Limmonium axillare Lippia nodiflora Livistona chinensis Livistona marie Maerua crassifolia
“Oombulgurri”
LS GC S GC GC P P ST
Fine Broom like foliage brilliant yellow flowers purple flowers massed on delicate Haze of pink compact foliage and Tall slender Palm Tall slender Palm delicate flowers
blue grey fine foliage flowers fragrant flowers loved by
bees
Paperbark Drumstick Tree Weeping Boobialla Mazari Palm Dwarf Variegated Screw
Palm
Melaleuca bracteata Melaleuca quinquenervia Mimusops lauifolius Moringa perigrina Myoporum floribundum Nanorrhops ritcheana Ochradenus baccatus Pandanus singaporensis
pygmaeus
LS T T ST ST P SS H
fresh green foliage and paper bark and white well formed shade tree flowers weeping lacey foliage and palm foliage yellow flowers on comact form and fine texture, gold
white flower brushes scented flowers deicate white flowers bush colour
Attractive Spreading Native species with bright

palmfor covering green needle like foliage
embankments or similar with yellow flowers in
winter . Potentially
effective landscape plant
Screw Palm Variegated Screw palm Rusty Shield Bearer African Feathergrass African Fountain Grass Purple Wreath Miniature Date Palm Manila Tamarind
Pandanus utilis Pandanus viethchii and Peltophorum inerme Pennisetum macrourum Pennesetum villosum Petrea volubilis Phoenix roebelenii Pithecelobium dulce
“Arkaroola” P.v. Variegata
“Barndioota”
H H G G CI
form form white flowe heads flowers flowers and grey foliage
Pongam Jade Plant Ghaf Tree Flame Vine Desert Rose Mallow Abyssinian Rose Ashok Beach Naupaka
Pongamia pinnata Portulacaria afra Prosopis cinerarea Pyrostegia venusta Radyera farragei Rosa abyssinica Saraca indica Scaevola frutescens
T GC LT CI S S ST LS
Pink to Mauve fresh green rounded form strong growing with flowers flowers bright green shiny, large
fleshy leaves spectacular orange leaves
flowers
very good ground cover Particular use for wadis
corridors and restoration
of Ghaf forests
Peppercorn Tree Narrow Leaf Desert Sturts Senna Sea Purslane Desert Grass Silver Trumpet Tree Pink Trumpet Tree Yellow Tabebuia
Cassia
Schinus molle Senna artemisioides Senna desolata sturtii Sesuvium portulacastrum Stipagrostis plumosa Tabebuia argentea Tabebuia rosea Tabebuia spectabilis
T S S GC G ST MT ST
weeping form and red grey fine foliage and grey fine foliage and Foliage flowers Evergreen with pink flowers
berries yellow flowers yellow flowers flowers at a mature age
Tamarind Cape Honeysuckle Roheda Arjun Tree Indian Almond Madagascar Almond Sea Hibiscus Rosewood Tree
Tamarindus indica Tecoma capensis Tecomella undulata Terminalia arjuna Terminalia catappa Terminalia mantaly Thespesia populnea Tipuana tipu
T LS ST t T T T T
Form foliage Feb/ March Excellent coastal shade Excellent coastal shade excellent coastal tree yellow flowers
tree with red leaf colour in tree with interesting form yellow flowers glossy
cooler months and smaller leaf cf Indian poplar like leaves
Almond
Moss Verbena Beach Vitex Cotton Palm

Verbena tenuisecta Vitex purpurea Vitex rotundifolia Washingtonia robusta
GC S GC P
Blue flowers fine foliage grey green foliage and Very tall, slender palm,
blue flowers excellent feature plant
Broader leaf- White only

VOLUME 3 PART 22
PAGE 58 VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 22
Appendix B
Plant List, Spacing, and Size
VOLUME 3 PAGE 59
VOLUME 3 PART 22
PAGE 60 VOLUME 3
Appendix A: Plant List, Spacing and Sizes Required for the Project
PALMS & Cycads WATER REQUIREMENT SPACING POT SIZE ROOT BALL DIA STEM GIRTH SPREADING
COMMON NAME CLEAR TRUNK
BOTANICAL NAME L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Bismarkia nobilis Bismark palm 120.0 1.5 –2.0 M
Brahea armata Mexican Blue Palm 120.0 1.5 –2.0 M
Butia capitata Pindo palm 120.0 1.5 M
Chamaerops humilis European fan palm 80.0 30 1.0 –1.5 M
Cocos nucifera Coconut palm 120.0 As 75 1.5 –2.0 M
Cocos plumosa Coconut palm 120.0 75 1.5 –2.0 M
Copernicia alba Wax Palm 120.0 1.80 –3.0 M
Cycas circinalis Queen Sago 60.0 1.0 –1.5 M
Cycas revoluta Sago palm 60.0 25-30 0.75–1.5 M
Dioon edule Mexican Cycad 60.0 25-30 0.75–1.5M
Elaeis oleifera American oil palm 80.0 75 2.0–3.0 M
Hyophorbe lagenicaulis Bottle Palm 80.0 75 1.25–2.0 M
Hyophorbe verschaffeltii Spindle Palm 80.0 1.25–2.0 M
Livistonia chinensis Chinese fan palm 80.0 Per 30 2.0–3.0 M
Phoenix canariensis Island Date palm 120.0 125 1.5–2.0 M
Phoenix dactylifera Date palm 120.0 Design 125 2.0–3.0 M
Phoenix roebelenii Miniature date palm 60.0 60 1.0 –1.5M
Phoenix sylvestris Silver date palm tree 120.0 125 2.0–3.0M
Roystonea regia Cuban Royal Palm 120.0 60 1,5 M
Sabal domingensis the Hispaniola palmetto 120.0 35 60 2.0–3.0 M
Trachycarpus fortunei Chusan Palm 60.0 1.5 M
Washingtonia filifera California fan palm 120.0 75 2.0–3.0 M
Washingtonia robusta Washingtonia palm 120.0 75 2.0–3.0 M
Wodyetia bifurcata Foxtail Palm 80.0 60 1,5 M
Zamia furfuracea Cardboard Palm 40.0 0.25–0.40M
LARGE EVERGREEN TREES WATER REQUIREMENT SPACING POT SIZE ROOT BALL DIA STEM GIRTH SPREADING
COMMON NAME
BOTANICAL NAME L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Brachychiton populneus Bottle tree 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Casuarina equisetifolia Horsetail tree, Australian pine 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Chorisia speciosa Bottle tree 80.0 35.0 50.0 100.0 2.0 M
Ficus Alii Amstel king 80.0 2.0 M
Ficus Alii Amstel queen 80.0 2.0 M
Ficus altissima Council tree 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Ficus bengalensis Banyan tree 80.0 As 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Ficus infectoria White-Fruited Wavy Leaf Fig 80.0 25.0 2.0 M
Ficus panda indian ficus panda 80.0 25.0 2.0 M
Ficus religiosa Scacred ficus 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Ficus salicifolia Willow leaved fig 80.0 2.0 M
Ficus sycomorus sycamore fig 80.0 2.0 M
Harpullia pendula tulip lancewood 80.0 2.0 M
Khaya senegalensis African mahogany 80.0 2.0 M
Kigelia pinnata Sausage tree 80.0 2.0 M
Moringa oleifera (pterygosperma) Horse radish tree 60.0 Per 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Parkinsonia aculeata Jerusalem thorn 60.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Pithecelobium dulce Manila tamarird 80.0 Design 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Prosopis alba White carob tree 60.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Prosopis juliflora Honey mesquite 60.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Schinus molle Pink pepper, peruvian pepper 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Tamarindus indica Tamarind 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Taxodium dsistichum bald cypress 80.0 2.0 M
Terminalia cattapa Indian almond 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Zizyphus chinensis jujuba tree 60.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Zizyphus jujuba Chinese date 60.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Ziziphus spina-christi Christ Thorn 80.0 25.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
BOTANICAL NAME WATER REQUIREMENT SPACING POT SIZE ROOT BALL DIA STEM GIRTH SPREADING
COMMON NAME
DECIDIOUS TREES L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Albizia julibrissin Silk tree, memosa 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Albizia lebbeck Women's tongue 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Azadirachta indica Neem tree 80.0 As 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Bauhinia variegata Orchid tree 60.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Coccoloba uvifera Seagrape tree 60.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Delonix elata Royal poinsiana, flame tree 80.0 Per 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Delonix regia Flame of forest 80.0 Page 1 of 5 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Millingtonia hortensis Indian Cork Tree 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Melia azedarach China berry 80.0 Design 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Morus alba Fruitless mulberry 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Morus nigra Black mulberry 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
peltophorum inerme yellow ponciana 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Paulownia tomentosa Princess Tree 80.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
Thespesia populnea Portia tree 60.0 20.0 8.0 50.0 2.0 M
COMMON NAME
MEDIUM EVERGREEN TREES L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Acacia arabica Arabian acacia 60.0 As 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Acacia farnesiana yellow mimosa 60.0 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Dalbergia sisso Indian rosewood 60.0 Per 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Schinus terebintifolius Brazilian pepper tree 60.0 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Tabebuia argentea Silver Trumpet Tree 60.0 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Tabebuia rosea White trumpet tree 60.0 Design 20.0 6.0 50.0 2.0 M
Xanthorrhea sp. Grass Tree 40.0 20.0 12.0 35.0 1m
COMMON NAME TOTAL HEIGHT
SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Aillanthus altissima Tree Of heaven 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Alstonia Scholaris Devil tree 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Bauhinia purpurea orchid tree 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Bauhinia variegata orchid tree 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Bucidia buceras Black Olive tree 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Bambusa ventricosa–thick stem Buddha's Belly Bamboo 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Caesalpinia gilliesii Bird of paradise bush (yellow flowers) 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Calliandra haematocephala Red Powder Puff 20.0 15-20 4.0 40.0 2.0 M
Callistemon viminalis Weeping bottle brush 20.0 15-20 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Calotropis procera Dead sea apple 20.0 15-20 50.0 2.0 M
Carica papaya Papaya 20.0 15-20 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Cassia fistula Golden shower tree 60.0 15-20 4.0 60.0 2.0 M
Cassia glauca Cassia glauca 60.0 15-20 4.0 60.0 2.0 M
Cassia javanica apple blossom tree 20.0 15-20 60.0 2.0 M
Cassia nodosa Pink & white shower 20.0 15-20 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Cordia sebestena Scarlet cordia, aloe wood 60.0 As 15-20 3.0 60.0 2m
Dodonaea viscosa Hopseed bush 12.0 15-20 3.0 10.0 0.5 m
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis China rose 20.0 Per 15-20 3.0 30.0 0.5 m
Jatropha integerrima Peregrina 20.0 15-20 3.0 30.0 0.5 m
Lagerstroemia indica Crape myrtle 20.0 Design 15-20 3.0 40.0 2.0 M
Lagerstroemia loudonii Thai Bungor 20.0 15-20 3.0 40.0 2.0 M
Lagerstroemia speciosa Pride of India 20.0 15-20 3.0 40.0 2.0 M
Leucophylum frutescens Texas ranger 20.0 15-20 3.0 30.0 0.5 m
Malvaviscus arboreus pendiluflorus Sleepy hibiscus 20.0 15-20 3.0 30.0 1m
Musa paradisiaca Banana 20.0 15-20 3.0 50.0 .75 m
Nerium oleander Oleander 20.0 15-20 3.0 30.0 1m
Parmentiera edulis Candle Tree 20.0 20.0 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Plumeria obtusa Temple tree 60.0 20.0 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Plumeria rubra acutifolia Temple tree Red flower) 60.0 20.0 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Polyalthia longifolia Ashoka tree 60.0 20.0 3.0 60.0 2.0 M
Punica granatum Pomegranate 60.0 15-20 3.0 40.0 2.0 M
Sesbania sesban Sesban 60.0 15-20 3.0 40.0 2.0 M
Tamarix sp. Athel tree 20.0 25.0 6.0 50.0 1.5 m
Tecoma stans Yellow bells 20.0 15-20 3.0 20.0 1.0 m
Thevetia peruviana nereifolia Yellow oleander 20.0 15-20 3.0 20.0 1m
Vitex agnus castus Hemp tree 20.0 15-20 3.0 20.0 0.5 m
SHRUBS L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Acalypha wilkesiana Irish Petticoat 12.0 20.0 3.0 20.0 0.5 m
Bougainvillea glabra Paper flowers 12.0 20.0 3.0 30.0 1m
Bougainvillea torch glow Torch Glow 3.0
Bougainvillea spectabilis Bougainvillea 12.0 As 30.0 3.0 50.0 1m
Caesalpinia pulcherrima Barbados pride (orange-red flowers) 20.0 20.0 3.0 40.0 0.75 m
Carissia grandiflora Natal plum 12.0 Per 20.0 3.0 30.0 0.5 m
Cassia alata the Candle Bush 12.0 20.0 3.0 0.5 m
Cassia bicapsularis Senna 12.0 Design 20.0 3.0 30.0 0.5 m
Cestrum diurnum Day jasmine 12.0 Page 2 of 5 20.0 3.0 20.0 0.5 m
Cestrum nocturnum Night jasmine 12.0 20.0 3.0 20.0 0.5 m
Jasminum sambac Arabian jasmine 20.0 10-15 3.0 15.0 0.5 m
Ixora chinensis Flame of the woods 12.0 20.0 3.0 10.0 0.3 m
Lantana camara Lantana 12.0 20.0 3.0 25.0 0.3 M
Nandina domestica Sacred bambo 12.0 20.0 3.0 10.0 0.4
Tabernaemontana corymbosa Great Rosebay 12.0 3.0
Tabernaemontana divaricata crepe jasmine 12.0 3.0
CONIFERS L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Cupressus sempervirens Italian cypress 80.0 As Per Design 25.0 3.0 30.0 2.0 M
Hedge L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Atriplex halimus Salt bush-high salt tolerant 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Atriplex lentiformis Salt bush 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Clerodendron inerme Wild jasmine 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Dodonaea viscosa Hopseed bush 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Leucophylum frutescens Texas ranger 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Myrtus communis Myrtle 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
Nerium oleander Oleander
Ruellia tuberosa Ruellia 12.0 0.4 10-15 15.0 0.5 M
Vitex agnus castus Hemp tree 12.0 0.4 15.0 15.0 0.5 M
SUCCULENTS & CACTUS L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Adenium obesum Desert rose o.40 M
Agave americana Century Plant 10.0 30.0 0.3 M
Agave angustifolia variegata Caribbean Agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave attenuata lion's tail 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave elegans Salm-Dyck 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave filifera thread agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave geminiflora Twin-flowered Agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave lechugilla lechuguilla 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave macroacantha Black-spined Agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave nigra sharkskin agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave potatorum verscafeltii Dwarf Butterfly Agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave pygmaea Dragon Toes 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave stricta A young specimen 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave titanotta Rancho Tambor 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave verschaffeltii Blue Agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Agave Victoria regina Queen Victoria agave 10.0 30.0 o.40 M
Aloe vera (Berbadensis) Medical plant 10.0 As Per Design 20.0 0.3 M
Agave america mediopicta Agave mediopicta 10.0 20.0 0.3 M
Agave Victoria regina Queen Victoria Agave 10.0 20.0 0.3 M
Agave zebra Zebra Agave 10.0 30.0
Alluaudia procera Madagascan Ocotillo 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe arborescens candelabra Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe clavifolia Aanteelaalwyn 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe dichothoma quiver tree 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe littoralis on the coast 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe eru vicornuta 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe excelsa Zimbabwe Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe humilis Spider Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe maculata Zebra Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe marlothii Mountain Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe melanacantha Black-spined Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe pelegrae Pauline 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe ramosissima Maiden's Quiver Tree 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe mitriformis Gold Tooth 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe squarrosa Yemen Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe striata coral aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe tharskii the Dune Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe tomentosa Hairy Green Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe vaombe Malagasy Tree Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe vera (Berbadensis) Aloe indica royle 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aloe zebrina Zebra Leaf Aloe 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Austrocephalocereus dybowskii Cereus dybowskii 10.0 Page 3 of 5 30.0 1.5 M

Austrocephalocereus estevesii Thumbnail 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Aylostera archibuininguiana 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Carnegiea gigantea saguaro cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cephalocereus senilis Old Man Cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cleistocactus braunii climbing cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cleistocactus jujuyensis argentina cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cleistocactus strausii silver torch 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Copiapoa cinerea chalky/white stems 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Copiapoa haseltoniana chille cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Crassula baby jade 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cylindropuntia bigelowi 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Didierea madagascariensis Didierea 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Discocactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Dyckia brazilian cactus 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia alba 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia canariensis Canary Island spurge 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphobia enopla 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia erythraea 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia ingens Euphorbia candelabrum 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia lactea brain plant 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia milli Christ plant 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia tirucallii pencil tree 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Euphorbia stenoclada Euphorbia insulae-europae 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Cereus sp. Lady of the night cactus 10.0 35.0 1M
Echinocactus grussonii Golden barrel 10.0 20.0 0.25 M
Euophorbia lactea Mottled Spurge 10.0 20.0 0.35 M
Echinopsis hauscha Red torch cactus 10.0 20.0 0.20 M
Ferocactus sp. Desert Barrel 10.0 20.0 0.25 M
Furcraea gigantea boojum tree
Cephalocerus seniies Old Man Cactus 10.0 20.0 0.35 M
Carnegia giganta cactus saguaro cactus 10.0 30.0 1M
Mamelaria elongata Monstrous Lady Fingers 10.0 20.0 0.25 M
Melocactus Melon cactus 10.0 20.0 0.25 M
Pachypodium lamerei Madagascar Palm 10.0 20.0 1M
Portulacaria afra elephant bush
Sansevieria trifasciata bird's nest snake plant
Sansevieria hahnii baseball bat
Yucca elephantips soft-tip yucca 10.0 30.0 1.5 M
Yucca filamentosa Adam's needle 10.0 30.0 30.0 1.5 M
Vines L/PLANT (M) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Antigonom leptopus Coral vine 12.0 15.0 15.0 1.0 m
Bougainvillea sp. Bougainvillea 20.0 As 15.0 15.0 1m
Clerodendron inerme Wild Jasmine 20.0 15.0 15.0 0.75 m
Ipomoea pes-caprae Beach Morning Glory 12.0 Per 10.0 15.0 0.3 m
Ipomoea palmata Railway creeper 12.0 10.0 15.0 0.3M
Jasminum officinalis grandiflorum Poet's Jasmine 20.0 Design 15.0 15.0 1.0 M
Lonicera sempervirens trumpet vine 20.0 15.0 15.0 1.0 m
Quisqualis indica Rangoon creeper 20.0 15.0 15.0 1.0 m
BOTANICAL NAME WATER REQUIREMENT SPACING MIN. POT SIZE ROOT BALL DIA STEM GIRTH SPREADING
COMMON NAME REQUIRED SIZE
GROUND COVERS LTR/M2 (PLANT/M2) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Alternanthera versicolor red border weed 10.0 9.0 10.0 30.0 0.2 M
Aptenia cordifolia Baby sun rose 10.0 9.0 10.0 30.0 0.2 M
Asparagus densiflorus Asparagus fern 10.0 9.0 10.0 30.0 0.3 M
Asparagus myers Monrovia's Foxtail Fern
Canna indica Lana 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 0.3 M
Carissa prostrata Natal plum dwarf 10.0 9.0 10.0 30.0 0.3 M
Carprobrutus edulis
Cortaderia selloana Pampas grass 10.0 10.0 10.0 0.3 M
Cyperus alternifolius Umbrella sedge 10.0 As Per Design 10.0 10.0 0.3 M
Delaspermum alba White ice plant 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 0.1 M
Dianella tasmanica Tasman Flax Lily
Drosantemum hispidum Rose ice plant 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 0.1 M
Euphorbia milii Crown of thorns 10.0 9.0 10.0 20.0 0.3 M
Gazania rigens Treasure flower 10.0 Page 4 of 5 9.0 10.0 10.0 0.1 M
Ipomea pes-caprae railroad vine 12.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Ipomoea palmata or cairica Railway creeper 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Iresine herbstii Blood leaf 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Lampranthus aureus / Malephora crocea Orange ice plant 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.7 M
Lampranthus spectabilis Training ice plant 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.1 M
Lantana montevidensis Geeper lantana 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Limonium sinuatum Sea-lavender 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Ocimum basilicum Sweet basil 10.0 As Per Design 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Osteospermum fruiticosum African daisy 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Pachpodium lamerei Medagascar plam 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 1M
Pennisetum setaceum rubrum Purple fountain grass 10.0 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Pennisetum setaceum Beach grass (Fountain grass) 10.0 As Per Design 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Portulacaria afra Elephant bush 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.15 M
Pseuderanthemum atropurpureum Chocolate plant (dark purple) 8.0 15.0 20.0 0.3 m
Pseuderanthemum atropurpureum tricolor Chocolate plant (3 colors) 8.0 As Per Design 15.0 20.0 0.3 m
Rhoeo discolor Moses in the cradle, Boat lily 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Russelia equisetiformis Coral plant, firecracker plant 10.0 As Per Design 10.0 10-15 0.3 M
Sesuvium portulacastrum Sea pureslane 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.2 M
Setcreasea pallida Purple heart 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.15 M
Verbena peruviana Blood leaf "Springtime" 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.1 M
Wedelia trilobata Creeping daisy 10.0 9.0 10.0 10-15 0.15 M
SEASONALS LTR/M2 (PLANT/M2) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Ageratum mexicanum Floss flower 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Althea rosea
Amaranthus tricolor Joseph's coat 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Alyssum sp.
Antirrhinum majus Floral snapdragon 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Asclepias curassvica Blood flower 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Calendula officinalis Port marigold 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Callistephus chinesis China aster 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Catharanthus roseus Madagasar periwinkle 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Celosia cristata Fair fountains 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Celosia cristata var.nana Cockscomb 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Celosia plumosa Burut plume 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Chrysanthemum carinatum Monarch court 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Chryanthemum morifolium Florist's mum 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Cosmos bipinnatus Mexican aster 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Dianthus barbatus Sweet william 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Dianthus chinensis Chinese pink 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Gaillardia pulchela Blanket flower 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Gazania splendens Gazania 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Gomphrena globosa Globe amaranth (red) 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Kochia scoparia Summer cypresus 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Kochia trichophylla
Lobularia maritima Sweet alysum 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Mathilola incana stock 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Pelargonium x hybrida Garden Geranium 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Mirabillis jalaba
Pellionia pulchra Training begoria 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Petunia x hybrida Petunia hybrid 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Polianthes tuberosa The pearl 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Portulaca graniflora var.Corniche Moss rose, sun plant 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Salvia splendens Scarlet sage 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Senecio cineraria Dusty miller 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Tagetes Marigold 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Verbena peruviana Aztec queen 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Viola tricolour Kiss-me-love 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
Zinnia sp. Zinnia 10.0 9.0 10.0 One flower
GRASS LTR/M2 (PLANT/M2) (CM) (CM) (CM) (CM)
Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass, high salt tolerant 12 T0 18
Paspalum vaginatum (notatum) Bahia grass, seashore paspalum 12 TO 18
Zoysia japonica Japanese grass 12 TO 18 Page 5 of 5

Volume 3
Part 23
Design and Operations of Road
Safety
VOLUME 3 PART 23
DESIGN AND OPERATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY
Disclaimer
VOLUME 3
‫‪DESIGN AND OPERATIONS OF ROAD SAFETY‬‬
‫تنويه‬
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... vii
1 Road Safety Principles...................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Basic Principles...............................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Safe System .................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 A Shared Responsibility .................................................................................. 3
1.1.3 Results-Focused Approach ............................................................................. 3
1.1.4 Data-Driven Analysis ...................................................................................... 4
1.2 Using Data to Inform Road Safety Policy and Safety Countermeasures
Implementation .............................................................................................................5
1.3 Crash Data ......................................................................................................................7
1.4 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools ................................................................9
2 Speed ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 19
2.1.1 Safe System Approach.................................................................................. 19
2.1.2 Road Characteristics ..................................................................................... 21
2.1.3 Design Characteristics .................................................................................. 21
2.1.4 Design Speed ................................................................................................ 22
2.1.5 Actual Speeds (Operating or Travel Speed) ................................................. 22
2.1.6 Self-Explanatory Roads................................................................................. 22
2.1.7 Posted Speed Acceptance ............................................................................ 22
2.1.8 Road Hierarchy ............................................................................................. 23
3 Setting Posted Speeds .................................................................................................... 25

3.1 General........................................................................................................................ 25
3.1.1 Roles and Organizational Responsibility ...................................................... 26
3.1.2 Speed Limit Working Group ......................................................................... 26
3.1.3 Overseeing Organization .............................................................................. 26
3.1.4 Public Works Authority ................................................................................ 26
3.1.5 Traffic Police ................................................................................................. 27
3.1.6 Accredited Practitioner ................................................................................ 27
3.1.7 Posted Speed Assessment for Existing Roads .............................................. 27
3.1.8 New Roads.................................................................................................... 28
3.1.9 Function versus Use of the Road.................................................................. 29
3.1.10 Existing Roads............................................................................................... 29
3.1.11 Safety Countermeasures .............................................................................. 31
3.1.12 Posted Speed Review Report ....................................................................... 31
3.1.13 Signing Posted Speeds.................................................................................. 32
4 Traffic Calming ............................................................................................................... 33

4.1 General........................................................................................................................ 33
4.2 Relationship between Speed and Injury Severity ....................................................... 33
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
4.3 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 34
4.4 Benefits and Disadvantages of Traffic Calming ........................................................... 34
4.4.1 Benefits ........................................................................................................ 34
4.4.2 Disadvantages.............................................................................................. 35
4.5 Types of Traffic Calming Measures ............................................................................. 35
4.5.1 Vertical Measures ........................................................................................ 35
4.5.2 Horizontal Measures ................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Other Measures ........................................................................................... 36
4.6 General Design Criteria ............................................................................................... 36
4.7 Vertical Measures ....................................................................................................... 37
4.7.1 Speed Tables ................................................................................................ 37
4.7.2 Speed Humps............................................................................................... 38
4.7.3 Rumble Devices ........................................................................................... 38
4.8 Horizontal Measures ................................................................................................... 39
4.8.1 Road Narrowing ........................................................................................... 39
4.8.2 Traffic Splitter Islands/Pedestrian Refuges ................................................. 39
4.8.3 Gateway Entry Treatments Physical Measures ........................................... 40
4.9 Design Process ............................................................................................................ 41
4.9.1 Process Overview ........................................................................................ 42
4.9.2 Step 1 – Identification of Need for Traffic Calming Measures .................... 42
4.9.3 Step 2 – Data Collection and Analysis ......................................................... 43
4.9.4 Step 3 – Preparation of Preliminary Design ................................................ 44
4.9.5 Step 4 – Consultation .................................................................................. 45
4.9.6 Step 5 – Detailed Design.............................................................................. 46
4.9.7 Step 6 – Construction .................................................................................. 46
4.9.8 Step 7 – Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................................ 46
4.10 School Zones ............................................................................................................... 47
4.10.1 Speed ........................................................................................................... 47
4.10.2 Components ................................................................................................ 48
4.10.3 Process......................................................................................................... 49
5 Roadside Clear Zones..................................................................................................... 53

5.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 53
5.1.1 New Designs ................................................................................................ 55
5.1.2 Existing Layouts ........................................................................................... 55
5.2 Urban and Low Flow Roads ......................................................................................... 56
5.3 Design Criteria ............................................................................................................. 56
5.3.1 Surface Conditions....................................................................................... 57
5.3.2 Slopes .......................................................................................................... 58
5.3.3 Drainage Channels ....................................................................................... 59
5.3.4 Obstructions ................................................................................................ 59
5.3.5 Curbs ............................................................................................................ 60
5.3.6 Nonmotorized Users.................................................................................... 60
5.4 Horizontal Curves ........................................................................................................ 61
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
6 Vehicle Restraint Systems .............................................................................................. 65

6.1 General........................................................................................................................ 65
6.1.1 Provision of Vehicle Restraint Systems ........................................................ 65
6.1.2 Reduction of Risk Level Posed by a Safety Concern ..................................... 65
6.1.3 Clear Zone Concept ...................................................................................... 66
6.2 Longitudinal Safety Barriers and Containment Curbs ................................................ 67
6.3 Median Safety Barriers and Containment Curbs ........................................................ 67
6.4 Verge Safety Barriers and Containment Curbs ........................................................... 68
6.4.1 Roadside Conditions ..................................................................................... 68
6.4.2 Side Slopes ................................................................................................... 68
6.4.3 Selection of a Verge Safety Barrier or Containment Curb ........................... 70
6.5 Impact Severity Level .................................................................................................. 71
6.6 Deflection Characteristics ........................................................................................... 71
6.7 Safety Barrier Layout .................................................................................................. 72
6.8 Vehicle Parapets ......................................................................................................... 76
6.8.1 Height of Vehicle Parapets ........................................................................... 77
6.8.2 Impact Severity Level ................................................................................... 77
6.8.3 Deflection Characteristics ............................................................................ 77
6.8.4 Addition Vehicle Parapet Considerations .................................................... 78
6.9 End Treatments/Terminals ......................................................................................... 78
6.10 Transitions................................................................................................................... 80
6.11 Impact Attenuators ..................................................................................................... 81
6.12 Additional Vehicle Restraint Systems’ Selection Considerations ............................... 83
References .............................................................................................................................. 85
VOLUME 3 PAGE III

VOLUME 3 PART 23
Tables
Table 1.1 Types of Data Used to Inform Safety Policy and Countermeasures .................... 6
Table 1.2 Stakeholders and Crash Data Uses ...................................................................... 8
Table 1.3 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools – New Roads................................ 9
Table 1.4 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools – Existing Roads ......................... 10
Table 1.5 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Road Safety Impact
Assessment and Economic Appraisal ................................................................ 11
Table 1.6 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – iRAP .......................... 12
Table 1.7 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Road
Safety Audit ....................................................................................................... 13
Table 1.8 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Safe
System Review ................................................................................................... 14
Table 1.9 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Near-Miss
Observational Studies ........................................................................................ 14
Table 1.10 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Blackspot
Location Analysis and Treatment ...................................................................... 15
Table 1.11 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Posted Speed
Review .............................................................................................................. 16
Table 1.12 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Maintenance
Inspections ......................................................................................................... 17
Table 1.13 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Pedestrian and
Cyclist Environment Reviews ............................................................................. 17
Table 1.14 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Crash
Investigation ...................................................................................................... 18
Table 4.1 Traffic-Calming Measures for Use in School Zones ........................................... 49
Table 5.1 Straight Road Clear Zone Widths for Standard Design Speeds ......................... 57
Table 5.2 Clear Zone Width Increase for Noncontainment Curbs Greater Than
100 mm in Height .............................................................................................. 60
Table 5.3 Clear Zone Run-out Lengths for Standard Design Speeds ................................. 62
Table 5.4 Curve Clear Zone Widths for Standard Design Speeds– Czm (m)
Curve = 2o – Radius = 875m .............................................................................. 62
Curve = 3o – Radius = 580m .............................................................................. 62
Curve = 4o – Radius = 435m .............................................................................. 63
Curve = 5o – Radius = 350m .............................................................................. 63
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
Curve = 6o – Radius = 290m .............................................................................. 63
Table 6.1 Minimum Length L2 Required to Reduce the Risk of a Vehicle
Sliding On or Behind a Safety Barrier ................................................................ 74
Table 6.3 Minimum Performance Levels for Impact Attenuators .................................... 82
Figures
Figure 1.1 The Safe System Approach for Roadway Systems .............................................. 2
Figure 1.2 Data-Driven Analysis of Road Safety Countermeasures and Policies ................. 5
Figure 2.1 Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds ............................ 20
Figure 2.2 Road Characteristics and Their Impact on Driver Acceptance of
Posted Speeds ................................................................................................... 23
Figure 4.1 Raised Pedestrian Crossing ............................................................................... 38
Figure 4.2 Road Narrowing using a Build Out .................................................................... 39
Figure 4.3 Example of a Traffic Island Narrowing the Roadway ........................................ 40
Figure 4.4 Gateway into a School Zone .............................................................................. 41
Figure 4.5 Process for Developing and Monitoring Traffic-Calming Measures ................. 42
Figure 5.1 Typical Clear Zone for Cut Slope including Shoulder......................................... 55
Figure 5.2 Typical Clear Zone for Fill Slope including Shoulder ......................................... 55
Figure 5.3 Clear Zone Width for Compound Fill Slopes ..................................................... 58
Figure 5.4 Clear Zone Width for Drainage Channel............................................................ 59
Figure 5.5 Additional Clear Zone Dimensions around Horizontal Curves .......................... 61
Figure 6.1 Steps to Consider Before Providing a VRS ......................................................... 66
Figure 6.3 Minimum Length of Safety Fence for Single Lane Roads .................................. 74
Figure 6.4 Minimum Length of Safety Fence for Dual Lane Roads .................................... 75
Appendixes
Appendix A Designer Checklist for School Zones ................................................................. 87

Appendix B School Consultation Guide ................................................................................ 91
VOLUME 3 PAGE V
VOLUME 3 PART 23
PAGE VI VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 23
Ashghal Public Works Authority
AusRAP Australian Road Assessment Programme
CERS Cyclist Environment Review System
EuroRAP European Road Assessment Programme
GIS geographic information system
iRAP International Road Assessment Programme
km kilometer(s)
m meter(s)
MASH Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
mm millimeter(s)
NMU nonmotorized user
NGO nongovernmental organization
NRA National Roads Authority
OIV occupant impact velocity
ORA occupant ridedown acceleration
PERS Pedestrian Environment Review System
VOLUME 3 PAGE VII

VOLUME 3 PART 23
QNRSS Qatar National Road Safety Strategy
RSA Road Safety Audit
RSIA Road Safety Impact Assessment
usRAP United States Road Assessment Program
VRS Vehicle Restraint System
PAGE VIII VOLUME 3

VOLUME 3 PART 23
1 Road Safety Principles

This Chapter addresses the basic principles of road safety: the Safe System, the need
for a shared responsibility among transportation experts and road users, taking a
results-focused approach, and data-driven analysis. The Chapter also explains how
crash data and other road safety data can be used to inform safety countermeasures
and policies.
1.1 Basic Principles

In its publication World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention (World Health
Organization, 2004), the World Health Organization recognized road safety as a public
health issue. The report highlighted the preventable and predictable nature of road
crashes, clearly stating that it is a human-made issue that is amenable to rational
analysis and countermeasures.
1.1.1 Safe System

The Qatar National Road Safety Strategy (QNRSS) has adopted the Safe System
approach. In a Safe System, the road transport system is designed to anticipate and
accommodate human error, protect the vulnerable human body, and thus ensure that
the forces the body is exposed to in a crash are survivable.
The challenge under the Safe System approach is to manage the interaction between
road users, vehicles, travel speeds and roads not only to reduce crashes but also, most
importantly, to ensure that any crashes that occur do not result in death or serious
injury. This approach requires working holistically and collaboratively across each of
the four core Safe System elements:
• Safe road users are competent and compliant with traffic laws. This element
includes road user education, managing the licensing of drivers, and taking action
against those who break the rules.
• Safe vehicles have technology that can help prevent crashes and safety features
that protect road users in the event of a crash. This element includes the
promotion of safety features to encourage consumers and fleet operators to
purchase safer vehicles.
• Safe roads are self-explanatory and forgiving of mistakes to reduce the risk of
crashes occurring and to protect road users from fatal or serious injury should a
crash occur. This element requires roads and roadsides to be designed, built, and
maintained to reduce the risk and severity of crashes, supplemented by law
enforcement and public education.
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
• Safe speeds at which vehicles travel that suit the function and the level of safety
of the road to ensure that crash forces are kept below the limits that cause death
or serious injury. This element requires the setting of appropriate posted speeds
supplemented by enforcement and education.
The Safe System is also supported by the following:
• Road safety management: Effective management of road safety to improve road

safety performance.
• Post-crash response: Effective post-crash response that minimizes the severity of
injuries received and facilitates fast and comprehensive rehabilitation.
The Safe System approach requires a shift in thinking by transportation experts to

recognize that people will always make mistakes and that it is the responsibility of the
roadway agency to ensure the safety of all road users. The Safe System approach
challenges those responsible for designing and maintaining the roadway system to
share the responsibility of managing the interaction between road users, vehicles,
travel speeds, and roads.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the Safe System approach.
Figure 1.1 The Safe System Approach for Roadway Systems
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
1.1.2 A Shared Responsibility

An important road safety principle is that everyone has a role to play in reducing
traffic crashes and improving road safety. While road users are expected to be alert to
risk and compliant with road rules, the Safe System recognizes they will continue to
make mistakes. It is the shared responsibility of all involved to ensure that road use is
safe, including those who plan, design, build, maintain, and regulate roads and
vehicles, as well as the community that uses the road.
Organizations with a responsibility for improving road safety include the following:
• Road authorities and road operators

• Traffic police
• Health authorities, hospitals, and ambulance service
• Fire and rescue service
• Legislators and regulatory bodies
• Driver training, testing, and licensing authorities
• Vehicle testing and licensing authorities
• Educators (for example, schools, government ministries, and media)
• Private sector (for example, petrochemical organizations, haulage organizations,
and organizations that take an interest as part of their social responsibility
program)
• Vehicle manufacturers and suppliers
• Insurance companies
• Public transportation operators (including taxi companies)
• Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (for example, the Red Crescent Society
and road safety charities).
1.1.3 Results-Focused Approach

When measuring road safety performance, road safety stakeholders and practitioners
have traditionally measured the amount of effort, activities, and resources spent.
However, best practices suggest a results-focused approach instead.
Taking a results-focused approach places the emphasis on collecting and monitoring a

range of quantifiable safety indicators that are either final outcomes or intermediate
indicators of safety performance.
Final outcomes are directly related to safety levels such as the numbers of fatalities
and injuries. These can be expressed as absolutes or as rates, such as fatalities per
population, fatalities per number of registered vehicles, fatalities per vehicle
kilometers driven.
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
Intermediate indicators are strongly linked to improvements in final outcomes Typical

measures include average or 85th percentile speeds, helmet or seatbelt wearing
rates, road conditions, and standard of vehicle fleet.
Monitoring and evaluating against final outcomes and intermediate indicators should
occur both at the highest strategic level in terms of national priorities and targets, as
well as at the level of the individual road safety countermeasure. Monitoring and
evaluating can be undertaken on all aspects of road safety activity, including the
following:
• National casualty reduction targets

• Local plans and strategies
• Education and public awareness campaigns
• Enforcement campaigns
• Mass engineering treatments
• Individual blackspot sites
In an effort-focused approach, resources can be wasted on ineffective safety

countermeasures and initiatives and it becomes difficult to make a business case for
investment if the impact of different countermeasures is not known. However,
moving from an effort-focus to a results-focus is not easy. It requires commitment
and dedication to collect data and measure results so that unsuccessful safety
countermeasures and policies can be highlighted.
1.1.4 Data-Driven Analysis

Road safety is increasingly viewed as a public health issue, and as such, the public
health approach can be applied (as shown in Figure 1.2). It is critical that data are
used to inform, measure, and evaluate road safety activities Without taking an data-
driven approach, it is likely that traffic safety resources and efforts will not be
invested in the most efficient and effective manner.
It is important to understand how and why road crashes occur by analyzing the data.
This analysis will identify high-risk locations, predominant crash types, and road users
and behaviors that need targeted countermeasures. In addition, it is important to
evaluate safety countermeasures so that those that are effective can be scaled up and
repeated and those that are ineffective are not repeated and resources are not
wasted.
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
Figure 1.2 shows data-driven analysis as a cyclical model with the following five steps.
These steps are a continuous process towards road safety improvement:
• Step 1 defines the issue through systematic data collection and analysis.
• Step 2 uses data to identify the causes of the issue and who is at risk.
• Step 3 plans safety countermeasures based on the data and research.
• Step 4 evaluates the safety countermeasures to determine their effectiveness,
under what circumstances they are effective, and for whom they were effective.
• Step 5 develops those safety countermeasures and policies that are proven
effective.
Figure 1.2 Data-Driven Analysis of Road Safety Countermeasures and Policies
1.2 Using Data to Inform Road Safety Policy and Safety

Countermeasures Implementation
The United Nations’ Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020
(United Nations Road Safety Collaboration, 2010) identifies the importance of crash
and other road safety data in formulating safety policy and countermeasures.
Table 1.1 lists the types of data that should be used to inform policy and
countermeasures.
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
Table 1.1 Types of Data Used to Inform Safety Policy and Countermeasures
Type of Data Detail
Crash • Traffic police crash data recorded at the scene by a traffic police officer
• In-depth data from crash investigation and fatality files
Health • Injury surveillance data collected at hospitals (provides more accurate

information about injury severity than a traffic police officer can record at
the roadside)
• Vital register containing information about traffic fatalities
Traffic • Traffic flows (for example, annual average daily traffic [AADT])
• Vehicle speeds (for example, 85th or 50th percentile speeds)
• Classified counts
Socio-Spatial • Population (counts, densities, age/gender distribution, etc.)

• Deprivation
• Ethnicity
• Media usage
Road Inventory • Information about the condition of the roadway relating to maintenance
(surface condition, rutting, potholes, etc.)
• Information about road design features and land use relating to safety (lane
width, presence and type of median, intersection type, roadside geometry
and objects, pedestrian and cyclist facilities, land use and type of
development, etc.)
Road User • License holders by class

• Violation/penalty point data
• Attitudinal surveys
• Survey data on protective equipment or distractions (seatbelt and child
restraint use, helmet use, mobile phone use, etc.)
Vehicle • Vehicle features (type, age, safety features, models, etc.)
Safety • Education data (take-up, target audience, medium, etc.)

Countermeasure • Engineering data (features, locations, dates, costs, density, etc.)
• Enforcement data (labor hours, offenses, etc.)
Without crash and other road safety data, it is not possible to:
• Set road safety targets

• Measure progress against targets
• Benchmark against performance in other similar countries or among regions
• Plan and prioritize road safety countermeasures
• Evaluate countermeasures and learn from what does, and does not, work
• Make a business case for investment in road safety
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
1.3 Crash Data

Crash data records contain information gathered by traffic police officers at the scene
of a crash. The numerous elements of information are recorded in a standardized
way, using a crash form or booklet. This information is the most commonly used data
develop road safety countermeasures and determine their effectiveness. Ideally, the
traffic police record the following detailed information about a crash:
• Type of crash (head-on, pedestrian-related, animal-related, shunt, side impact at

intersection, side-swipe, run-off-the-road, overturning, etc.) and maneuver
(turning, parking, crossing the road, etc.)
• Precise location of the crash
• Road characteristics (urban or rural, number of lanes, posted speed, lane and
shoulder width, surface type, lighting, intersection type, surface condition and
state, straight or curve, median, road works, etc.)
• When the crash occurred (date, day, time of day, weather conditions, etc.)
• Why the crash occurred (contributing factors such as traffic controls, speed and
route type, road characteristics, weather impacts, road classification, number of
persons involved in the crash, driving under the influence, and light conditions at
time of crash)
• Casualty details (mode, location in vehicle, age, injury severity, seatbelt or helmet
use, alcohol or drug use, etc.)
• Vehicle details (type of vehicle make or model, vehicle defect, age of vehicle,
damage sustained, etc.)
Injuries resulting from a crash are coded according to their severity as follows:
• Fatality: A person who dies as the result of a crash. A fatality is recorded if the
person dies up to 30 days after the crash occurs, in accordance with international
best practice.
• Serious injury: A person receives injuries including fractures, concussion, internal
injuries, crushing, burns (excluding friction burns), severe cuts, or severe general
shock requiring treatment and who is detained in a hospital as an in-patient. An
injured person who dies 30 days or more after the crash is recorded as a serious
injury.
• Minor injury: A person who receives a slight injury such as a sprain (including
whiplash); a bruise or cut that is not determined to be severe; or slight shock
requiring roadside attention. Generally, this definition includes injuries not
requiring medical attention.
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Similarly, the crashes themselves are coded according to the following severity:
• Fatal: A crash in which at least one person is killed at the scene or dies within
30 days of the crash.
• Serious: A crash where no one is killed, but at least one person is seriously injured.
• Minor: A crash where no one is killed or seriously injured, but at least one person
receives a minor injury.
• Damage only: A crash where no one is injured and vehicles or roadway facilities
(including fixed objects in the roadside), or both, are damaged.
These data are centrally held by the traffic police and shared with all road safety
stakeholders so they can conduct their own analyses and develop informed safety
policy and countermeasures. The data shared with stakeholders has sensitive
information, such as crash victim names and addresses, hidden or removed. Table 1.2
lists safety stakeholders and how they use the crash data.
Table 1.2 Stakeholders and Crash Data Uses
Stakeholder Crash Data Use
National Traffic Safety • To set and monitor performance against national targets.
Committee • To identify focus areas for targeted action.
• To benchmark performance.
• To monitor emerging trends.
Traffic Police • To target enforcement of high-risk behaviors and road user

groups.
• To target enforcement at high-risk locations.
Hospitals and Rehabilitation • To ensure appropriate levels of staffing and resources available
Services to treat persons with different injury severities.
Ambulance Services and Civil • To determine the location and level of resourcing required for
Defense effective and efficient response to traffic crashes.
Legislators • To identify priority areas for new or improved legislation.
Engineers • To identify high-priority locations (areas, corridors, or individual

blackspots) that require treatment and to use intelligence about
the type of crashes occurring to ensure safety countermeasures
are targeted correctly.
Educators • To ensure that educational activities are targeted at high-risk

road user groups and behaviors; applies to road safety
education in schools, campaigns and awareness programs, and
driver training and testing.
Vehicle Safety Experts • To identify vehicle defects and lack of protective qualities and
to introduce legislation or incentives to improve vehicle safety.
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1.4 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools

Many road safety engineering management tools are available that should be used to
ensure that new and existing roads are as safe as possible. These tools match key
functions that must be fulfilled to effectively manage road safety within the road
infrastructure:
• Management of the road safety of new roads:

− Assess safety impact and costs and benefits of different options
− Assess safety at concept stage, preliminary stage, detailed design stage and
pre-opening
− Monitor and review safety of newly opened roads
• Management of the road safety of existing roads:
− Identify and treat locations with safety concerns
− Identify and treat crash themes specific to routes or areas
− Identify and treat network-wide emerging crash themes and trends
− Assess the likely impact of programs and their cost effectiveness
Table 1.3 lists the road safety engineering management tools for new roads. Table 1.4
lists the road safety engineering management tools or existing roads.
Table 1.3 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools – New Roads
Road Safety Management Need Tools
Assess safety impact and costs and benefits of • Road Safety Impact Assessment (RSIA) and
different options Economic Appraisal
• iRAP1
Assess safety at concept stage, preliminary stage, • Road Safety Audit (RSA)
detailed design stage and pre-opening • Safe System Review
• iRAP
Monitor and review safety of newly opened roads • RSA (post-opening stage)
• Near-miss observational studies
Note:
1The International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) is a registered charity dedicated to preventing
more than 3,500 traffic deaths that occur every day worldwide.
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Table 1.4 Road Safety Engineering Management Tools – Existing Roads
Road Safety Management Need Tools
Identify and treat locations with safety concerns • Road Safety Impact Assessment (RSIA)
• Safe System Review
• iRAP1
• Blackspot location analysis and treatment
• Near-miss observational studies
• Posted speed review
• Maintenance inspections
• Pedestrian and cyclist environment review
Identify and treat crash themes specific to routes • RSIA

or areas • Safe System Review
• iRAP
• Road network screening/route or area analyses
• Posted speed review
• Maintenance inspections
• Pedestrian and cyclist environment review
Identify and treat network-wide emerging crash • Road network screening/route or area analyses
themes and trends • Crash Investigation
Assess the likely impact of programs and their • RSIA and Economic Appraisal
cost effectiveness • iRAP
Note:
1The International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) is a registered charity dedicated to preventing
more than 3,500 traffic deaths that occur every day worldwide.
Each of these road safety engineering management tools is described in more detail in
Table 1.5 through Table 1.14.
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Table 1.5 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Road Safety
Impact Assessment and Economic Appraisal
Road Safety Impact Assessment and Economic Appraisal
Description Road Safety Impact Assessment (RSIA) is a strategic comparative analysis of the
impact of a new road or a substantial modification to the existing road network on
the safety performance of the road network. The methodology allows the
consideration of different options and their relative impact on road safety at an
early stage of project development.
An Economic Appraisal assigns a monetary value to an impact assessment,
comparing the costs of different options and treatments to the benefits of the
treatment. This economic approach to appraisal assigns a monetary value to all
costs and benefits, and compares these over a period to give an indication of the
net benefit of a particular potential project.
Calculating the benefits of the treatment requires an estimation of the likely injury
savings expected over a defined time multiplied by the crash cost. These figures
provide an estimate of the value of preventing a fatal, serious, minor, or damage
only crash.
Several different economic appraisal measures can be used to express the size of
the benefits: first year rate of return, benefit-to-cost ratio, net present value, or
internal Rate of Return.
Urban/Rural Suitable for both urban and rural locations
Data/Software Must have:

Requirements • Crash costing values (for fatal, serious, minor, and damage only crashes)
• A database indicating the potential impact of different options (preferably
from local studies)
Personnel Road safety engineer with a good understanding of crash modification factors and
Requirements economics
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Table 1.6 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – iRAP
iRAP
Description iRAP and its regional programs, including EuroRAP, usRAP, and AusRAP, have
developed drive-through inspection methodologies for the systematic assessment
of existing roads. Using this methodology allows safety concerns related to the
four main crash types (head-on, run-off-the-road, intersection, and vulnerable
road user) to be identified and safety improvement programs to be proposed.
Results are presented cartographically, with star ratings allocated to lengths of
road, allowing color-coding of the results.
Inspection methodologies involve the capture of high-resolution video data that
are geo-referenced. A rating team then code approximately 30 variables along the
inspection network using specialized software. The models in the iRAP
methodology estimate the number of people likely to be killed along the road
network that trigger potential treatments to mitigate safety concerns, and
propose appropriate safety engineering programs. The tools estimate the number
of fatalities that should be reduced if the treatments are implemented, which in
turn allows a cost-benefit analysis to be presented (comparing the cost of
treatment with the potential economic savings associated with the likely fatality
reduction).
The iRAP methodology has been designed for use on existing roads. However, it is
increasingly being used to assess the relative safety impact of different design
options for new roads and to assess the intrinsic safety of new roads. By entering
different design parameters into the iRAP model, the impact on overall safety and
the iRAP star rating can be quantified. This allows an assessment of different
options to be made.
It is not mandatory, but is a tool to enable road safety priorities should be set.
Urban/Rural Can be used on both urban and rural roads
Data/Software Specialized equipment and software are required to record the road attribute
Requirements data from videos. This equipment must be accredited by iRAP.
iRAP has developed its own software for the analysis of data in accordance with
iRAP protocols.
Some crash data are required to calibrate the iRAP models.
Personnel The road characteristic coding task is necessarily labor intensive and so a team of
Requirements highly motivated individuals is required. These individuals require specific training
in the iRAP methodology by iRAP.
It is recommended that iRAP outputs be reviewed by an experienced road safety
engineer.
Notes:
AusRAP = Australian Road Assessment Programme
EuroRAP = European Road Assessment Programme
iRAP = International Road Assessment Programme
usRAP = United States Road Assessment Program
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Table 1.7 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Road Safety
Audit
Road Safety Audit1
Description An RSA is an independent review of a roadway project that conducted by a

multidisciplinary team of experts to identify potential road safety concerns that
may affect any users of the roadway.
These audits are also called Road Safety Assessments or Road Safety Inspections
when conducted on existing roads to identify any prevailing road safety concerns.
Crash data should also be reviewed during these assessments.
RSAs are intended to identify road safety concerns early in the life of a project to
make sure that any issues are identified and addressed both before the road
works begin and treatments are implemented and after construction is complete.
An RSA is not a check against design standards, a technical audit, or a redesign
exercise. It is a common misconception that a design that fully meets the relevant
design standards will have no road safety concerns.
During an RSA, the auditors seek to identify any aspects of the project that could
either contribute to crashes or increase the severity of a crash should one occur.
After identifying and explaining the concern, auditors should make
recommendations on how to remove or reduce the risk posed by the identified
road safety concern. However, the designer and client have the final responsibility
on how these recommendations are implemented.
RSAs need to be undertaken at every stage of the design process (concept,
preliminary design, detailed design, pre-opening, and post-opening) and take into
account the safety of all road users.

Nonmotorized user (NMU) audits may be used in areas with high pedestrian flows
Data/Software Crash data are required for post-opening stage monitoring audits that are
Requirements conducted after the road has been opened for traffic and for Road Safety
Assessments.
If a new project is to upgrade or replace an existing road, crash data should be
supplied to identify issues on the existing road that need to be considered during
the new design.
No specific software is required, although access to current design standards and
works specifications is necessary.
Personnel The RSA team is made up of at least two road safety engineers: an audit team
Requirements leader and an audit team member. The RSA team can be augmented by specialists
relevant for the type of audit being undertaken.
RSAs are only as good as the auditors themselves. Therefore, it is necessary to
ensure that auditors have the necessary skills and experience. It is good practice
to have clear requirements in place regarding the experience and qualifications of
road safety auditors when selecting the RSA team members.
Notes:
1 Refer to Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this manual for additional information on Road Safety Audits.
RSA = Road Safety Audit
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Table 1.8 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Safe System
Review
Safe System Review
Description A Safe System Review is similar to a RSA, except it focuses on the Safe System
principles. In a Safe System Review, a multidisciplinary team (often including road
safety engineers. as well as traffic police, educators, psychologists, etc.) will
review the plans or existing road based on the Safe System principles.
Data/Software There are no clear requirements for data or software, although data should be
Requirements analyzed to help inform the process.
Personnel Personnel must be familiar with Safe System principles and should be experienced
Requirements in road safety engineering or crash investigation.
Table 1.9 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Near-Miss

Observational Studies
Near Miss Observational Studies
Description Near-miss observational studies are conducted to study the effect of road design
changes on driver behavior and near misses. They can also be used to investigate
emerging concerns on existing roads.
In near-miss observational studies, traffic conflicts (events that would have
resulted in a crash if the vehicles had not changed their direction or speed) are
recorded and rated according to their severity. A serious conflict is one that nearly
results in a crash, in which the road user makes evasive maneuvers at the last
moment.
Recent progress in software for analyzing video images has transformed the study
of traffic conflicts. In the past, the study of traffic conflicts was somewhat of a
subjective technique that relied on manual coding by human observers. Although
these observers were able to make reliable observations when properly trained, a
subjective element remained. Modern techniques for processing video images
allow for the objective estimation of time to collision by estimating the speed and
trajectories of the road users involved. It is then possible to classify conflicts more
accurately and consistently than before and, therefore, study their relationships
to crash occurrence more rigorously.
Data/Software These studies require sophisticated equipment and video analysis software.
Requirements
Personnel These techniques require skilled personnel, particularly when dealing with
Requirements algorithms for automatic detection of near misses.
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Table 1.10 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Blackspot

Location Analysis and Treatment
Blackspot Location Analysis and Treatment
Description Blackspot or cluster analyses indicate locations on the road network that have a
high number of crashes. Different countries have different criteria that define
whether a location is a blackspot or not. The number of crashes, the time period
in which they occurred, and the distance between them all vary, as indicated by
the following examples:
• Three or more similar injury crashes within 3 years and a relative coefficient
of 0.8 (a factor of the crash rate), based on 250-m rolling length along the
route; at least five crashes of similar type within 1 year based on 250-m
rolling length along the route (Austria).
• At least four crashes and statistically different than the normal expected
(Denmark).
• Five crashes in 12 months or three serious injury crashes in 36 months
(Germany).
• A location less than 100 m long where at least four injury crashes occurred in
the last 5 years (Norway); a section less than 1 km where at least 10 crashes
occurred in the last 5 years.
In some countries, the number of crashes is weighted by severity.
In Qatar, blackspots will be identified on the road network to develop the national
crash database and it is recommended that the same criteria as in Norway is
applied.
Make sure the blackspot analysis reflects a real safety issue rather than random
variation. This can be checked by reviewing multiple years (at least 3 years) of
data.
Once blackspots have been identified, further analysis at each site should be
carried out to determine the nature of the crashes at each site and to rank sites
for treatment. Potential safety countermeasures can be identified at each site,
together with the likely benefit of each.
Analysis of crashes at the blackspot site should continue after the implementation
of any remedial project so that its effect can be evaluated. Care should be taken
to ensure that all evaluations have control sites and that any positive changes
observed are not just simply regression to the mean.
A blackspot analysis can be carried out for different road user types since
locations with safety concerns for pedestrians may be different than locations
with safety concerns for motorcyclists.
Data/Software Crash data must include accurate location coordinates.

Requirements Software that supports spatial analysis of crash clusters is required.
Personnel Personnel should be trained in conducting blackspot analysis and should have
Requirements basic knowledge of statistics and data analysis.
Notes:
km = kilometer(s)
m = meters
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Table 1.11 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Posted Speed
Review
Posted Speed Review1
Description A posted speed review is conducted to determine the appropriateness of the

posted speeds along the road network. Traditionally posted speed reviews have
been conducted based on a review of actual vehicle speeds, notably the
85th percentile speed of traffic. However, current best practice is to review
posted speeds based on Safe System principles, taking into consideration the
likely levels of posted speed acceptance. The speed review methodology
developed for Qatar assesses two main components:
• Road type – The road type will suggest the ideal speed at which the road
should operate in order to fulfill its function in the road network.
• Road characteristics – The characteristics of the road determine the level of
safety and the acceptability of a posted speed and its affect:
− Safety – Road characteristics impact the survivability of crashes at
different speeds
− Posted speed acceptance – Road characteristics impact the acceptability
of a speed limit by road users and, therefore, the level of compliance
that might be achieved
To use the Safe System methodology, a road safety engineer inputs details about
the road (number of lanes, median treatment, roadside objects, etc.) and assigns
the road a function within the road hierarchy. Using a number of simple rules
based on Safe System principles, the decision-aid tool highlights any road
characteristics considered to lack safety at the desired speed of the road. These
issues, along with actual driven speeds, are considered and a treatment program
developed.
Data/Software While particular software is not necessary for conducting a posted speed review, a
Requirements simple tool based on the Safe System principles has been developed for use in
Qatar. Actual observed speeds from speed surveys should be considered as part of
the review process.
Personnel A road safety engineer should use the posted speed review tool.
Requirements
Note:
1 Refer to Chapter 2, Speed, in this Part for additional information on posted speed limits.
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Table 1.12 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Maintenance

Inspections
Maintenance Inspections
Description A maintenance inspection periodically reviews the road characteristics to identify

any issues or wear that require maintenance work for reasons of safety.
Maintenance Inspections are designed to identify those issues that are or are
likely to create a safety concern to the public and, therefore, require immediate
attention. Normally, maintenance inspections are mobile inspections carried out
from a slow-moving vehicle, with the occasional need to proceed on foot, which
are conducted at frequencies that reflect the importance of a particular road.
The frequency of a maintenance inspection will be determined by the type of
road. For the high-volume roads, inspections should be carried out on a regular
basis (for example, every 6 weeks).
Different levels of defect are recorded by the maintenance inspection and these
have different levels of priority and requirements for action. Maintenance
inspections include the road surface, roadway edge or verge, pedestrian paths,
bike paths, drainage, road signs, crash barriers, etc.
Data/Software No particular software or data are required for maintenance inspections.

Requirements Efficiencies can be made if a crash triggers a maintenance inspection to determine
if any damage occurred to the road infrastructure.
Personnel The inspections are normally carried out by a two-person team.

Requirements
Table 1.13 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Pedestrian and
Cyclist Environment Reviews
Pedestrian and Cyclist Environment Reviews
Description A pedestrian or cyclist environment review is a specialized approach that can be

used systematically to assess the provision for pedestrians or cyclists.
The Pedestrian Environment Review System (PERS) and Cyclist Environment
Review System (CERS) are software tools that create systematic frameworks so
that pedestrian and cyclist provision can be assessed, reviewed, and audited with
a standard and consistent methodology. PERS and CERS provide a methodology
for a holistic audit to be undertaken on the pedestrian environment and can assist
in the identification of opportunities to improve pedestrian walking routes, public
spaces, and bike routes.
Urban/Rural Most suitable for urban locations
Data/Software PERS and CERS require a team to record conditions on a standard data template.
Requirements These data are then entered into a software application called street audit. This
tool allows detailed analysis and GIS mapping.
Personnel PERS and CERS auditors require some basic training to use the software tools.
Requirements
Note:
GIS = geographic information system
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Table 1.14 Details of Road Safety Engineering Management Tool – Crash

Investigation
Crash investigation
Description A crash investigation is conducted by experienced crash investigators who collect

in-depth crash data that provide a greater level of detail than can be found in
standard traffic police crash reports. Generally, a crash investigation is only
conducted for fatal or serious crashes. The degree of examination depends on the
severity of the crash.
A crash investigation will piece together the fine details of the crash. Information
gathered from the scene and witness statements is used to reconstruct the most
probable sequence of events leading up to the crash. A detailed vehicle
examination is also conducted. Details such as vehicle defects, human factors,
visibility, accurate vehicle speeds, vehicle stability, weather conditions, stopping
distances, road layout, and geometry are recorded and analyzed.
Specialized computer software is used to analyze the pre-impact and post-impact
trajectories of vehicles; to reconstruct the visibility available to the driver and
witnesses; and to prepare plans from photographs of the scene and other
analyses that assist in understanding a crash.
Data/Software Specialized equipment is required to take measurements at the scene.

Requirements Specialized computer software can be used for analyses and reporting.
Personnel On average, a crash investigator will require 1 working week to complete all the
Requirements work necessary to produce a technical report on a single fatal crash.
Internationally, the basic training program for an investigator takes between 1 and
2 months. To obtain an internationally recognized qualification takes
approximately 2 years. It takes approximately 5 years to complete all the training
necessary to be recognized as an expert in Forensic Crash Investigation.
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2 Speed
2.1 Introduction
The management of speed on a road network is a core activity to create a safe road
environment.
The setting and signing of posted speeds and the location and signing of speed radars
are just two elements that should be included in a comprehensive speed
management strategy. It is recommended that a comprehensive multi-sector speed
management strategy be developed to supplement the setting and signing of posted
speeds. Such a strategy should include road safety education countermeasures, a
comprehensive speed enforcement strategy, and extensive engineering
improvements. However, in the absence of that overarching strategy, posted speeds
need to be reviewed and applied in a consistent way that provides users with a clear
understanding of what speed is appropriate on a particular road.
Posted speeds need to be safe, understandable, and enforceable to all users. To

determine the appropriate posted speed for any new or existing road, each
characteristic of the road needs to be compared against an idealized set of
characteristics for that road type. Where there are discrepancies, a set of parameters
have been established that can be consulted to set the maximum target speed at
which all characteristics are considered safe and understandable.
Even a new road has to have its design speed carefully aligned with the proposed
posted speed to operate successfully. The following issues should be considered when
determining the design speed of a new road:
• Gap analysis and review, which will compare the existing practice in Qatar with
international best practice regarding posted speed setting and signage, and radar
locations and associated signage
• Setting speed limits
• Identifying radar locations and associated signage
2.1.1 Safe System Approach

A Safe System approach has been adopted to review and assess appropriate posted
speeds. Countries that have adopted a similar approach to road safety are leading the
way in road safety performance. Within the Safe System, the forces experienced by
road users in the event of a crash are managed so that crashes become survivable.
Setting safe posted speeds and managing driver compliance with those posted speeds
is critical to achieving a substantial reduction in fatal crashes.
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The safe speed is the impact speed at which crashes are survivable for the majority of
people. These speeds have been calculated by crash type using in-depth crash
investigation data (Wramborg, 2005). This has resulted in the fatality risks, as shown
in Figure 2.1. The following principles are not necessarily posted speeds, but a guide
to managing conflict points in a road network:
• Where conflicts between pedestrians and cars are possible (unrestricted roads),
the survivable impact speed is approximately 30 kilometers per hour (kph)
• Where side impacts are possible at intersections (for example, crossroads and
T-intersections), the survivable impact speed is approximately 50 kph
• Where head-on crashes are possible (for example, where there is no median
separation), the survivable impact speed is approximately 70 kph
Figure 2.1 Crash Types and Indicative Fatality Risks at Various Speeds
Source: Wramborg, 2005
According to research in A Safe Road Transport System—Factors Influencing Injury

Outcome for Car Occupants (conducted by Stigson [2009]), a road is considered “safe”
for run-off-the-road crashes if it:
• Has a posted speed not higher than 50 kph

• Has a safety zone of at least 4 meters (m) and a posted speed not higher than
70 kph
• Has a safety zone of at least 10 m and a posted speed higher than 70 kph
Using these principles, it is possible to develop a posted speed hierarchy that takes
into account the level of risk to all road users that exists on the road network. It
becomes possible to match the type of road and its design with an improved level of
safety. For example, on freeways and expressways, higher speed can be adopted as
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the potential for head-on or right-angle crashes is removed by constructing medians

and grade-separated interchanges. On urban arterial roads, the potential for right-
angle crashes can be reduced by installing signalized intersections.
Ideally, the posted speed corresponds with the need to ensure safety, the speed
required for traffic to flow reliably based on function, and the engineering design of
the road. This is not always possible, and where there are high travel speeds or
unacceptable crash histories, additional actions need to be taken. This may include
treating the road through engineering measures to improve the passive safety of the
road or increasing enforcement efforts to ensure vehicles are traveling at the posted
speed.
2.1.2 Road Characteristics

The characteristics of the road determine the safety of the posted speed and the
degree to which the posted speed will be accepted by road users. Road characteristics
describe all aspects of the road including the basic geometry of the road (for example,
lane widths and median treatment) and the environment in which the road functions
(for example, type and level of development, parking, and presence of service roads).
Five different posted speeds have been developed to apply to all roads in Qatar based
on the Safe System criteria.
However, the initial allocations of posted speed do not align directly with the road
types listed in Part 2, Planning, of this manual, since these functional classifications
can contain different road characteristics. The recommended posted speeds are
assessed as safe when a road conforms to a set of typical road features and the safety
assessment rules.
2.1.3 Design Characteristics

The engineering design characteristics have a major impact on the safety performance
of the road and can influence driver behavior. It is important that design
characteristics such as stopping sight distance, curve radii, lane widths, and super
elevations correspond to the posted speed of the road. However, there needs to be a
balance between core engineering characteristics and potential risk to road users.
Over-designing these engineering characteristics can contribute to speeding, which
can be a concern if there is conflicting road use, such as the presence of
nonmotorized users (NMUs), adjacent parking, short weaving maneuvers, or
numerous at-grade intersections or private accesses.
Drivers often do not perceive the risk created by conflicting road use and may travel
at unacceptable speeds. A range of strategies can be adopted to manage safety in
these circumstances, such as speed enforcement, restricting access to the road by
both pedestrians and vehicles, or implementing engineering treatments to mitigate
safety concerns on the road.
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2.1.4 Design Speed

When new roads are designed, an appropriate design speed is determined for the
road, which is an expectation of the posted speed. Historically, the relationship
between design speed and posted speed has been confused, with many instances
where the posted speed is actually higher than the design speed. To resolve this, a
consistent approach has been adopted within this manual so that the design speed
for any given road will always be equal to or higher than the posted speed.
2.1.5 Actual Speeds (Operating or Travel Speed)

Operating speeds are determined on existing roads by conducting surveys of vehicle
speeds to determine the speed that drivers choose to drive when they are not
restricted by other traffic. These surveys require observation over at least 48 hours,
and preferably over 7 days, to obtain sufficient data. Only vehicles that have the
opportunity to select their desired speed should be analyzed. These vehicles can be
determined by defining a sufficient distance between vehicles that their presence
does not restrict speed. This distance is related to the average reaction time at a given
speed, typically 1 to 3 seconds. From this survey, a range of parameters for evaluation
can be determined, for example, 85th and 50th percentile speeds, different speeds by
vehicle class, and traffic volumes.
The actual speed is useful for prioritizing speed management countermeasures;

however, it should not be used to set posted speeds. This is because the
characteristics of the existing road may not be consistent with the Safe Systems
approach, especially if the road has been in existence for some time. The assessment
of actual speeds will assist in determining whether or not the road is self-explanatory
and being used appropriately.
2.1.6 Self-Explanatory Roads

Roads are self-explanatory when they align with the expectations of the road user,
eliciting safe behavior simply by design. In reference to posted speeds, a road is self-
explanatory and the posted speed is accepted if driving above the posted speed is
uncomfortable either physically or psychologically and obvious to the road user. It is
important to design roads so that their appearance provides road users with
consistent and appropriate information about their function, and so that the posted
speed is acceptable and intuitive for road users. If the characteristics of a road
indicate to drivers that a higher speed is permissible, in comparison with the typical
characteristics for a particular type of road, there is the potential that the posted
speed will not be observed and alternative safety countermeasures will be needed to
ensure compliance.
2.1.7 Posted Speed Acceptance

Each road type has a set of features that provide the road user with an indication of
how fast, or how slow, they should drive on the road see Figure 2.2. Where typical
design characteristics are exceeded, there is a risk that drivers may choose to drive
faster than is desirable and safe.
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A closed environment is one where development buildings are multi-story and close
to the edge of the road corridor. An open environment is one where there is no
development or development is low lying and set well back from the road corridor.
An example of a conflict between driver acceptance of a posted speed and safety

would be a wide, straight, multi-lane road with a school adjacent to the roadway. The
posted speed would be 30 kph; however, the road would give an impression of being
appropriate for much higher speeds. In this instance, the posted speed would be
flagged as potentially in conflict with driver acceptance and additional measures
including safety countermeasures such as traffic calming devices or speed
enforcement would need to be considered.
Figure 2.2 Road Characteristics and Their Impact on Driver Acceptance of Posted
Speeds
Not only do posted speeds need to be designed to be safe, they need to be operated
safely by those who use them. This relies on users understanding the risk that has
been assessed through the development of the design characteristics Tables 5.1 and
5.2 in Part 1: Planning list typical road characteristics for each road type for driver
acceptance in urban and rural environments, respectively.
2.1.8 Road Hierarchy

Part 2, Planning, of this manual lists five main types of road within the Qatar urban
road network and four types of road within the rural road network. These roads can
have different design characteristics within each functional classification. The design
characteristics influence both design speed and driver speed.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 23
VOLUME 3 PART 23
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
3 Setting Posted Speeds

3.1 General
Chapter 2 provided detailed background on how the posted speed categories had
been derived for application across the main road types of the network. These posted
speeds cover all the typical cross sections included within the road classifications and
direct comparison has been developed for the multiple characteristics that are
included within each classification of the Qatar road hierarchy. The range of possible
posted speeds detailed in Section 2.1.8. Intersections may be subject to the same
posted speed as the approaching road, but may also be treated separately, depending
on their form of control.
Where it is other than a priority intersection, signal controlled or roundabout, and

more than one posted speed applies on the approaches, the intersection shall be
subject to the lower of any posted speed in force on the approaches.
The default posted speeds for urban areas shall be 50 kph, and for rural roads will be
100 kph.
To minimize the number of signs needed across the whole network, repeater signs
shall not be used when the posted speed is 50 kph on urban roads and 100 kph on
rural roads.
For all other posted speeds, repeater signs will be required as defined in Part 2 of the
Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM). All posted speeds shall be specifically signed
and the terminal points clearly identified as defined in Part 2 of the QTCM.
The process of setting appropriate posted speeds aims is to ensure that the posted
speed is:
• In accordance with the posted speed recommended for the type of road
• Safe in accordance with the rules described previously
• Accepted by road users
• Close to the majority of observed speeds on the road
If all of the speeds for the road align, then the posted speed should be observed
readily by drivers and the impact speed should be survivable for most people if a
crash occurred.
Consequently, an overall framework has been developed that provides the ideal
combination of elements to derive the appropriate posted speed in both the rural and
urban setting.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 25
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However, the analysis in the Setting Speed Limits report (Ashghal, 2013) demonstrates
that it is not always easy to achieve derive the appropriate posted speed with the
existing roads in Qatar. Even a new road has to have its design speed carefully aligned
with the proposed posted speed to operate successfully. Design speeds are
determined from the 85th percentile speed of traffic; the posted speed is generally
determined from the 50th percentile posted speed of traffic. To align these, in Qatar
design speeds and posted speeds up to and including 80 kph will be equal. Above this
speed, design speed will exceed posted speed by 20 kph.
3.1.1 Roles and Organizational Responsibility

The posted speed agreed for any length of road is a legal limit and is required to be
enforced by the Traffic Police, and has to be supported by all parties involved.
However, the assessment framework in Setting Speed Limits (Ashghal, 2013) provides
five distinct posted speeds to be applied to a range of different circumstances. These
need to be made clear to all road users and the key parameters applied in a consistent
way across the entire road network. There will be circumstances where not all
parameters align consistently and alternative approaches for resolving that
misalignment may be different on different lengths of road. The assessment tool
provides a consistent framework for consideration, but the various agencies still need
to agree the final solution before implementation.
3.1.2 Speed Limit Working Group

It is recommended that posted speeds be reviewed by a Speed Limit Working Group
comprising representatives from the Traffic Police, the Overseeing Organization, and
the Public Works Authority and that appropriate legislation is put in place to legally
define the basis for implementing posted speeds across the road network (Setting
Speed Limits [Ashghal, 2013]). The responsibility for setting posted speeds should rest
with the relevant authority and the responsibility for enforcement with the Traffic
Police.
3.1.3 Overseeing Organization

The Overseeing Organization is responsible for the overall planning of roadway
development in Qatar. As such, they need to be involved in the posted speed review
process to ensure that design standards and development layout give the greatest
opportunity for posted speeds to be understood by the general road user from the
outset.
3.1.4 Public Works Authority

The Public Works Authority (Ashghal) is responsible for the concept design of new
roads. It is at this stage that the design speed is determined. Therefore, they need to
consider, through the application of this manual, how design speed and posted speed
are consistently related through the design process. Ashghal is also responsible for
the development and maintenance of the main road network and therefore need to
apply appropriate posted speeds to the road network. To assess any modification to
the road network that might be necessary to apply the revised posted speeds on the
network, a full program of speed surveys on all roads in Qatar has to be undertaken.
Speed surveys can then be used to measure performance of speed management
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
programs and inform enforcement programs. Posted speed reviews can be conducted
with short-term observational speed surveys (that is, hand-held radar or moving
observer). However, to revise posted speeds without any understanding of the
current speed characteristics potentially imposes an additional and unacceptable
burden on both road users and the Traffic Police.
3.1.5 Traffic Police

The Traffic Police are responsible for the enforcement of traffic laws, and in this
instance the adherence to posted speeds. They need the support of appropriate
legislation to specify the legal framework for signing and enforcing posted speeds so
that both the traffic police and road users know what is being enforced. An analysis of
the speed survey sites in Setting Speed Limits (Ashghal, 2013) noted a number of
locations where additional enforcement or the use of speed cameras may be
necessary to ensure compliance with the posted speed. In determining the
appropriate solution to posted speeds on individual lengths of road, the traffic police
will need to agree on any potential enforcement solutions proposed through the
assessment process.
3.1.6 Accredited Practitioner

An accredited road safety/roadway design practitioner should be responsible for
reviewing any modification to posted speeds by following the procedure detailed in
the Setting Speed Limits report (Ashghal, 2013) and presenting the recommendations
to the Speed Limit Working Group.
The Road Safety Audits Guidelines and Procedures (Ashghal, 2014) summarized in
Part 24, Road Safety Audits, of this manual provides details of the definition of an
accredited practitioner.
3.1.7 Posted Speed Assessment for Existing Roads

This posted speed assessment process is described fully in the Setting Speed Limits
report (Ashghal, 2013), but is summarized in this section and for consistency within
other parts of this manual; speed limits are referred to as posted speeds.
The assessment should be used to identify the appropriate posted speed for any road.
The recommendations from this process will not only include the proposed posted
speed, but also the potential measures, either engineering or enforcement, that need
to be in place to ensure maximum compliance from the driving public.
The assessment will identify a number of alternative treatments that could be applied
to each length of road for it to comply fully with the assessment. For instance, if the
recommended speed is higher than the speed suggested by the safety assessment,
then engineering treatments may have the potential to raise the posted speed of the
road. Alternatively, if the actual/observed speeds are in excess of the speed suggested
by the assessment and posted speed, then there is an option to increase enforcement
to reduce vehicle speeds.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 27
VOLUME 3 PART 23
If it is decided that engineering measures are appropriate, then the Overseeing

Organization would be responsible for their implementation.
If it is decided that enforcement is the appropriate approach, then Qatar Traffic Police
would be responsible for the safety countermeasure.
Different agencies will be responsible for the most appropriate measures needed to
achieve safe observed speeds.
Whatever safety countermeasure is identified, the responsible party must prepare a

budget estimate for its successful implementation and submit a report to the Speed
Limit Working Group for approval.
There may also be a need for an education campaign to support the changes in the
posted speed and signing requirements. This should be fully explored through the
Speed Limit Working Group.
It may be assumed that enforcement has a negligible cost. However, any enforcement
needs the trained personnel and relevant technology to be in place to correctly
identify and process all infringements. Similarly, engineering measures have more
than just the cost of implementation. They also have an ongoing cost of maintenance
that needs to be accounted for in the evaluation of any appropriate measures.
All parties need to agree to the costs and commitment involved for both the overall
strategy and on a case by case basis when the appropriate posted speed on each
length of existing or new road is being considered.
3.1.8 New Roads

For new roads, the posted speed shall be equal to the design speed for all roads with
design speeds up to and including 50 kph. Above 50 kph, posted speeds are generally
lower than design speeds. Posted speed for roads with design speeds of greater than
50 kph and less than 80 kph is 10 kph lower. For roads with design speeds of 80 kph or
greater, posted speed is 20 kph lower.
Where different design speeds are deemed appropriate for specific road links, these
shall be signed with a specific posted speed in accordance with Part 2 of the QTCM.
This signing should provide a logical step down from the mainline posted speed to the
minor road posted speed.
Posted speeds on connector roads shall be at least one posted speed below the
mainline posted speed. In the case of a freeway connecting to a rural arterial that
have respective posted speeds of 120 and 100 kph, it is acceptable to have a
connector road speed of 100 kph, since the design standards in the link will be
compatible with both the links at either side.
However, the lower posted speed shall not be used to justify the use of a reduced
design standard. In these circumstances, an advisory posted speed shall be used to
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identify the particular features such as a limited radius curve that represents a
departure from the relaxations permitted for the overall design speed of that link.
3.1.9 Function versus Use of the Road

Ideally, roads operate with a single function and can be designed and built specifically
to that function. Modern expressways are a good example of this approach.
Unfortunately, in urban areas, the function of the road and the way local communities
use the road can lead to conflict. Local communities will demand on-road parking,
pedestrian access, and driveway accesses. In addition, as traffic load increases, there
will be a need for additional and larger intersections. Accordingly, the function and
use of the road come into conflict.
In these cases, it is important that the posted speed reflect the use of the road and
provide an acceptable level of safety to the local community.
3.1.10 Existing Roads

Part 2, Planning, of this manual defines the road hierarchy across Qatar. This
establishes the default posted speeds across the existing road network from a
functional point of view.
To establish the correct posted speed for each link on the road network, its overall
characteristics need to be assessed against the criteria identified and, if necessary,
which safety countermeasures are needed to achieve the appropriate posted speed
need to be determined.
The first step in any assessment of posted speeds is to identify the length of road that
is being considered for review. This may be specified by a local understanding, such as
Corniche or Doha Expressway. This may not relate to a coherent length of road in
posted speed terms. Therefore, it is essential that before any assumptions are made,
the length of road under consideration is clearly identified In addition, a site visit is
essential to determine the key characteristics that are likely to influence the speed
assessment.
It is necessary to identify homogeneous lengths of road. A homogeneous length of

road is determined by the consistency of key characteristics. If none of the
characteristics changes over several kilometers, there is no need to subdivide the
road into shorter lengths. Only where a particular parameter changes should
subdivision be considered.
There are two outcomes for any difference between assessed and recommended
speed:
• Recommended speed higher than assessed speed:

− Where the recommended speed is higher than the assessed speed, changes
need to be made that raise the assessed speed to match the recommended
speed. In many cases, it may be possible to make the recommended changes
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VOLUME 3 PART 23
quite easily, especially where there are only isolated instances where the
characteristics fail to meet the required level.
− If the change is to only one or two characteristics, such as median treatment,
parking provision, or infrequent roadside obstacles and it is over a short
segment (less than 1 km), then it may be better to alter that characteristic to
be consistent with the rest of the length to match the recommended speed for
the road.
− However, if a major change needed to improve the highlighted assessed
elements, it is more likely that the posted speed will need to be lowered to
match the assessed speed rather than engage in extensive reconstruction and
improvement until there is a wider economic justification, that is, major
development or upgrading of the road.
− For example, if a multi-kilometer length of rural freeway has all grade-
separated intersections except for one location with an intersection that
requires crossing of median, closure of the median crossing or major works to
make the intersection fully grade-separated (surface accesses would need to
join a parallel connector road that would join the main road at a grade
separated intersection) would allow the whole length to be safely posted at
120 kph.
− If that is not undertaken, then a substantial length either side of the median
crossover must have a posted limit of 80 or 100 kph to give drivers advance
warning of turning vehicles. This would need to cover at least 500 m either
side of the crossover. Note: advance warning signage must continue beyond
the crossover to account for vehicles merging into the outside lane, as well as
those slowing down to leave the outside lane.
• Assessed speed higher than recommended speed:
− If the assessed speed is higher than the recommended speed, then the
recommended speed should be used as the posted speed in order to move
towards a consistent set of posted speeds by road type. The actual observed
speeds and the posted speed assessment should be used to determine
whether increased enforcement or traffic calming might be required in order
to achieve compliance.
− It is most likely that this situation will arise on the rural undivided roadways,
which are subject to an 80-kph posted speed, and extensive treatments will be
required to ensure their safe operation. It is unlikely that engineering
measures will be appropriate (other than extensive improvement to divided
roadways) and an overall enforcement strategy will need to be developed in
conjunction with Qatar Traffic Police to make these posted speeds effective.
− On these lengths of road, there may also be isolated features such as small
embankments or drainage culverts that also need to be protected, even if the
recommended speed is to be lowered in line with the assessed speed.
− There is also the possibility that the assessed speed and the recommended
speed will be equal. In this instance, it will be necessary for the practitioner to
review the actual speeds and the posted speed acceptance assessment to
PAGE 30 VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 23
determine whether it is likely that road users will comply with the posted
speed without additional countermeasures being implemented. If actual
observed speeds are significantly higher than the recommended speed, if the
acceptance assessment suggests that there are characteristics of the road that
may suggest to the road user that the posted speed may be higher than it is,
or both, then additional engineering or enforcement efforts may be
appropriate.
3.1.11 Safety Countermeasures

A combination of approaches is required to ensure that the posted speed and actual
speeds align. Research has shown substantial benefits have been achieved simply by
reducing the posted speed; however, even greater casualty savings can be achieved
using a combination of safety countermeasures:
• Engineering
− To improve the passive safety of the road (for example,. introduce obstacle-
free zones or crash barriers, provide median separation, or improve
intersection design)
− Reengineering the road to improve driver acceptance of the posted speed
− Using traffic calming devices to reduce speed where NMUs are present
• Enforcement
− Speed cameras, traffic patrols, etc.
• Education
− Campaigns on the importance of obeying the speed limit, use of dynamic
message signs, vehicle-activated signs, etc.
Once the review has been undertaken, it may be recommended that the posted
speed is changed to be in line with the assessed speed for the road.
However, it is necessary to ensure the road and roadside is maintained to ensure a

safe operating environment correspond with the posted speed. For example, a rural
freeway (recommended speed of 120 kph) with roadside obstacles within 4 m of the
edge of the road should only have a posted speed of 120 kph if the obstacles are
removed to create a safe zone of more than 10 m or if a high-quality containment
barrier is installed.
3.1.12 Posted Speed Review Report

Whichever strategy is proposed, the evaluation of the posted speed must be reported
to the Speed Limit Working Group for their approval. The report must be prepared by
the experienced practitioner giving full details of the review and issues addressed,
together with recommended actions and any cost implications.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 31
VOLUME 3 PART 23
A typical report must include the following:
• Reason for the report being presented

• Brief description of the length(s) of road being considered
• Current posted speed
• Existing vehicle speeds and volumes (if known)
• Results of the assessment evaluation, either full compatibility of all parameters or
identification of those elements that do not align
• Outline of measures that need to be implemented to align all parameters
• Signing implications
• Any enforcement requirements
• Any known safety issues
• Outline of costs
• Any wider considerations, implication on adjacent lengths or development
proposals
• Overall recommendation with technical justification
In this way, the Speed Limit Working Group can make a considered decision taking
into account not only the posted speed strategy, but also the longer-term implications
and costs of enforcement or improvement, or both, and achieve a posted speed that
is both acceptable and consistent with the road hierarchy. It can then agree the legal
basis for any posted speed to be applied.
3.1.13 Signing Posted Speeds

The posted speed is the legal posted speed for any length of road as shown on the
signs installed along the roadway. Signs are the primary way of communicating the
posted speed of a road to drivers, especially where this changes from one location to
the next. Clear signing where a posted speed changes, together with repeater signs
placed at appropriate intervals and after major intersections to remind drivers, is an
important means of controlling traffic speeds. Careful consideration needs to be given
to the use and placement of signs to ensure that all drivers on a given section of road
are given consistent information to comply with the posted speed for that length of
road.
The way in which posted speeds are signed is critical to the successful implementation
and efficient enforcement of any posted speed.
Details of posted speed signs are provided in Part 2 of the QTCM.
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4 Traffic Calming
4.1 General
The purpose of this section is to outline the different ways in which traffic engineers
can find solutions to traffic speed problems within residential or other low-speed
environments, such as around schools, mosques, or community parks.
Consideration is given to a variety of neighborhood traffic concerns and to the

characteristics of these concerns on a case-by-case basis. Each situation is reviewed
with respect to the available traffic calming measures that have been, or could be,
found effective to alleviate the neighborhood traffic concern.
The remainder of this section sets out the guidelines and procedures, which can be
used to develop the optimum solution or solutions to each particular situation. There
are many factors taken into consideration when reviewing traffic speeds and driver
behavior on local roads, to determine the most feasible traffic calming measure.
These factors may include the surrounding local and minor road network, resident
access, speeds and volume of traffic, crash history, pedestrian facilities, and
construction in the nearby area.
4.2 Relationship between Speed and Injury Severity

There are multiple variables that affect the severity of any injuries arising from a
crash. These factors include the following:
1. The injured person(s), their age, gender, existing medical conditions, or if they
were using a seatbelt at the time of the crash
2. Vehicle factors, including the overall safety of the vehicle and its ability to protect
passengers, the speed at which it was traveling, the vehicle type, and its
interaction with other vehicles at the time of the crash
3. The road environment, including variables such as the road layout and any objects
struck
Extensive research across Western Europe, the United States, and Australasia has
been conducted into the effects of speed on injury severity and the likely outcomes of
a crash. For vehicle-to-vehicle or vehicle-to-object crashes, there has been extensive
research previously conducted and used to enhance vehicle design and in the
promotion of new roads design standards. Testing and analysis of vehicle-to-
pedestrian crashes have also been extensively studied predominantly in terms of the
relationship between impact speed and risk of fatality.
VOLUME 3 PAGE 33
VOLUME 3 PART 23
The risk of pedestrian fatality calculated using logistic regression for child, adult, and
elderly pedestrians exponentially increases once the impact speed is greater than
approximately 50 kph.
While on high-speed roads such as arterial or expressways, there is a low exposure of

pedestrian movements to vehicles traveling at speed. When drivers do not comply
with posted speeds on local roads where there is much higher pedestrian exposure,
the risk of serious or fatal injuries resulting from a crash is significant.
This is where traffic calming is best used.
4.3 Objectives
One of the primary objectives of the State of Qatar is to have safe roads for all road
users, and traffic calming can be used as part of the overall approach to:
• Promote a safer and better environment for residents, pedestrians, cyclists, and
motorists on local roads.
• Reduce cut-through traffic on local roads.
• Reduce speeding on local roads.
• Preserve and enhance pedestrian and bike access to neighborhood destinations
such as parks, mosques, and shopping areas.
• Improve the environment through reduced noise and emissions.
• Encourage resident and school pupil involvement in residential traffic calming
planning. Provide a process to address residential traffic concerns that balances
the needs of the neighborhood with those of the entire community
4.4 Benefits and Disadvantages of Traffic Calming

Traffic calming projects are typically implemented to tackle concerns with vehicles
traveling at speed and crash risks. Additionally, the careful application of traffic
calming measures can help to improve road safety through enhanced connectivity
and overall environment for pedestrians and other NMUs. Traffic calming projects
require careful design and are not without potential disadvantages.
4.4.1 Benefits
Where properly designed and constructed, traffic calming measures can do the
following:
• Reduce vehicle speeds

• Reduce the number and severity of crashes
• Address road safety concerns of residents
• Shift the priority of the road environment
PAGE 34 VOLUME 3
VOLUME 3 PART 23
• Encourage walking and cycling

• Reduce the severing effect on communities of traffic traveling at speed
• Integrate easily with other project types
• Improve the environment by reducing vehicle noise and emissions, including
particulates
• Encourage traffic to use more suitable routes
4.4.2 Disadvantages
It should be noted that, as with all other engineering countermeasures, there can be a
number of disadvantages that arise from the implementation of traffic calming
projects, particularly those which have not given due consideration to the overall road
environment or existing conditions, including:
• Potential discomfort for drivers and passengers, particularly those with back or
neck problems
• Vehicle damage where drivers fail to adjust their speeds to the road environment
• Potential delays for emergency services response times and damage to equipment
• Potential increase in bus journey times
• Increased noise and vehicle emissions usually associated with braking or
acceleration of vehicles and body/load noise for trucks
4.5 Types of Traffic Calming Measures

Traffic calming measures can be broadly classified into three types: vertical measures,
horizontal measures, and other measures, which are typically used in conjunction
with other features.
4.5.1 Vertical Measures

Vertical measures are characterized as those that result in a vertical shift of the
roadway; within the context of this manual, they are limited to:
• Speed tables
• Speed humps
• Rumble devices
4.5.2 Horizontal Measures

Horizontal measures are characterized as those that result in a horizontal shift or
deflection of the traveled way; within the context of this QHDM, they are limited to:
• Road narrowing – both build-outs and chicanes

• Traffic splitter islands or pedestrian refuges
• Gateway entry treatments (physical measures)
• Compact roundabouts
VOLUME 3 PAGE 35
VOLUME 3 PART 23
4.5.3 Other Measures

Other measures, which can be used to enhance a traffic calming project, or used
individually, include the following:
• Traffic signs and posted speed

• Gateway entry treatments (soft measures)
• Vehicle-activated signs
• Speed cameras
• Permanent road closures
• Traffic management and traffic control
• Pavement markings and colored surfacing in gateways
4.6 General Design Criteria

This Section outlines the general types of traffic-calming measures available and the
design criterion to be followed.
It should be noted that traffic calming is a remedial measure and is not a panacea to
inadequate geometric design.
When developing a traffic-calmin

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Volume 1

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Acronyms and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................iii

Table 1.1 Qatar Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development ....................................... 3

Figure 1.1 Integration with Other Publications .................................................................... 5

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

CSD/CSS context sensitive design/context sensitive solutions

GSPD General Secretariat for Development Planning

HSM Highway Safety Manual

MMUP Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning

QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual

QNV Qatar National Vision 2030

QTCM Qatar Traffic Control Manual

VOLUME 1 PAGE III

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• A collaborative approach to defining the scope of road projects

1.2 Scope and Jurisdiction of the Manual

1.3 Intended Audience

1.4 Road Design and Collaboration

By involving stakeholders and road planners, designers will be able to provide

Table 1.1 Qatar Stakeholders in Roadway Project Development

Civil Aviation Authority Qatar 2022 Supreme Committee

Doha International Airport Qatar Airways

Ministry of Interior Qatar National Broadband Network

Ministry of Municipality and Urban Planning Qatar Ports

Ministry of Tourism Qatar Rail Company

1.5 Organization of this Manual

Table 1.2 Qatar Highway Design Manual Organization

1.6 Integration with Other Publications

Figure 1.1 Integration with Other Publications

2.3 Sustainability Concepts and Definitions

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

For Qatar, a sustainable road or highway is one designed to facilitate Qatar’s

2.3.1 Hima: Ancient Sustainable Best Practice in Qatar

2.3.2 Sustainability in Qatar Today

• Cleaner water and sustainable use

Qatar’s Ministry of Environment has made a commitment to sustainable growth and

2.3.3 International Best Practice in Qatar―Key Considerations

• Water Use: Water scarcity is an acute issue in Qatar. Minimizing volumetric

scope of the project or delaying its implementation. This involves two-way

2.4 Safety in Design

2.4.1 Human Factors in Roadway Design

2.4.2 Road Safety Audits

2.5 Design for Maintenance

• Providing maintenance pull-outs that enable safe access to facilities

2.5.1 Maintenance Organizations

2.6 Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions

2.6.1 Problem Definition

2.6.2 Policy, Strategy, and Plan Context

2.6.3 Development of the Design Vision and Objectives

2.6.4 A Collaborative Multi-Disciplinary Approach

Multi-disciplinary teamwork is a key part of the CSD/CSS design approach. Project

2.6.5 Working with Stakeholders

• Participation and Working in Partnership: The project team works with

The stakeholder engagement process should be defined clearly in a stakeholder

2.6.6 Community Engagement

Often, community engagement proceeds concurrently with stakeholder engagement,

2.6.7 Understanding the Urban and Landscape Context

2.6.8 The Importance of Incorporating Landscaping into Qatar Urban Streets

Brundtland Commission. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development:

Salah, W. and M. Hashemi. The Governance of Hima: A Community‐based Natural Resources

Copyright © 2015. All rights reserved.