Unit 4 Sensors and Actuators

Sections:
1. Sensors
2. Actuators
3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion
5. Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
 Computer-Process Interface

 To implement process control, the computer must

collect data from and transmit signals to the
production process
 Components required to implement the interface:
 Sensors to measure continuous and discrete
process variables
 Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process
parameters
 Devices for ADC and DAC
 I/O devices for discrete data
Computer Process Control System

Transformation Process

Continuous and Discrete Continuous and Discrete

Parameters Variables

Actuators
Actuators Sensors
Sensors

DAC
DAC ADC
ADC
Computer
Computer
Controller
Controller
Output Devices Input Devices
 Analog and Digital

DIGITAL
ANALOG

Liên tục theo thời gian, gần gũi Rời rạc theo thời gian, gần gũi
Tín hiệu
với tự nhiên hơn. với máy tính và thiết bị tính toán.

Thường dùng cho đo lường, làm

Dùng trong tính toán, truyền
Công dụng việc với các thiết bị chuyên về
thông dữ liệu số.
analog.

Lưu dưới dạng sóng, trên các Lưu dưới dạng bit, trên các thiệt
Khả năng lưu trữ thiết bị từ (băng từ, đĩa từ,...), bị nhớ đắt tiền (fash, rom, ...),
chứa nhiều thông tin hơn. chứa ít thông tin hơn.

Lượng dữ liệu truyền đi trong 1

Lượng dữ liệu truyền đi nhiều
Truyền thông khoản thời gian rất ít và dễ bị
hơn và ít bị lỗi.
nhiễu.
 Sensors

Stimulus (s) Signal (S)

Physical
Physical
Medium Sensing
Sensing Conditioning
Conditioning Target
Target
Medium
Element
Element Handling
Handling

Temperature Resistance Voltage Information

Transducers
Micro-sensors 10-6m
 Transfer Function

S  f (s )

where S = output signal; s = stimulus; and f(s) = functional relationship

For binary sensors: S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s < 0.

The ideal functional form for an analogue measuring device is a simple

proportional relationship, such as:

S  C  ms
where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero
and m = constant of proportionality (sensitivity)
 Example

 The output voltage of a particular thermocouple sensor is

registered to be 42.3 mV at temperature 105C. It had
previously been set to emit a zero voltage at 0C. Since an
output/input relationship exists between the two
temperatures, determine (1) the transfer function of the
thermocouple, and (2) the temperature corresponding to a
voltage output of 15.8 mV.
 Solution

S  C  ms 42.3 mV = 0 + m(105C) = m(105C)

or m = 0.4028571429
 
S = 0.4 (s)
 
 15.8 mV = 0.4 (s)
 15.8 / 0.4 = s
 s = 39.22C
 Sensors

A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical

stimulus from one form into a more useful form to
measure the stimulus
 Two basic categories:
1. Analog
Ultrasonic
2. Discrete (distance)
 Binary
 Digital (e.g., pulse counter)

Light
(light intensity)
Sound Touch
(db pressure)
Time of Flight sensor
 Other Sensors

 Temperature
 RFID radio frequency identification
 Barcode
 Proximity – occupation detection
 Vision sử dụng camera
 Gyroscope – góc, vận tốc góc
 Compass – hướng
 Tilt/Acceleration – gia tốc
 Etc.
 Actuators

Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal

into a change in a physical parameter
 The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or
velocity)
 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one
type of physical quantity into some alternative form
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command
signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide
sufficient power to drive the actuator
 Actuators

Logical Mechanism
Mechanism
Signal Signal
Signal Processing
Processing Electric
Electric Hydraulic
Hydraulic
&& Amplification
Amplification Final
Final Actuation
Actuation
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Element
Element

Actuator
Actuator
Sensor
Sensor
 Types of Actuators
1. Electrical actuators
 Electric motors
 DC servomotors
(direct current)
 AC motors
(Alternative current)
 Stepper motors
 Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
 Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
 Use compressed air as the driving force
 Stepper motor and Servomotor

Điều khiển có phản hồi

và không phản hồi

Tạo chuyển động cho một trục của máy CNC

Servo
Motor
 Stepper motor
 Permanent-Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors
Permanent-magnet stepper motors have smooth armatures and include a permanent magnet core that is
magnetized widthwise or perpendicular to its rotation axis. These motors usually have two
independent windings, with or without center taps. The most
common step angles for PM motors are 45 and 90, but motors with step angles as fine as 1.8 per
step as well as 7.5, 15, and 30 per step are generally available.
 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors
Variable reluctance (VR) stepper motors have multitooth armatures with each tooth effectively an
individual magnet. At rest these magnets align themselves in a natural detent position to provide
larger holding torque than can be obtained with a comparably rated PM stepper. Typical VR motor
step angles are 15 and 30 per step. The 30 angle is obtained with a 4-tooth rotor and a 6-pole stator,
and the 15 angle is achieved with an 8-tooth rotor and a 12-pole stator.

 Hybrid Stepper Motors

Stepper motor
Stepper motor
 Torque-Speed Curve of a
DC Servomotor and Load Torque Plot

Torque, T
Load
Stepper
AC Servo
DC Servo

Operating
Points

Speed, ω
 Ví dụ động cơ DC
 A DC servomotor has a torque constant Kt = 0.092 Nm/A. Its voltage constant is K
v = 0.13 V/(rad/sec). The armature resistance is Ra = 2.0 ohms.
A terminal voltage of 24 V is used to operate the motor. Determine (a) the
starting torque generated by the motor just as the voltage is first applied, (b)
the maximum speed at a torque of zero, and (c) the operating point of the
motor when it is connected to a load whose torque characteristic is given by
TL = KL*w and KL = 0.0065 N.m/(rad/sec). Express the rotational speed as
rev/min.
 T khởi động ?
 Chạy không tải w=? N =?
 Với tải w=? N=?
 SERVOSYSTEM FEEDBACK SENSORS

 Rotary Encoders

Incremental Encoders
 SERVOSYSTEM FEEDBACK SENSORS

 Absolute Encoders
 SOLENOIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 Solenoids: An Economical Choice for Linear or Rotary Motion

 SOLENOIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 Solenoids: An Economical Choice for Linear or Rotary Motion

 SOLENOIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 Solenoids: An Economical Choice for Linear or Rotary Motion

 SOLENOIDS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 Solenoids: An Economical Choice for Linear or Rotary Motion

 Motor Controllers
The POSYS® 3004 (Designed & Made in Germany) is a PC/104 form factor board dedicated to high
performance motion control applications with extensive interpolation functionality. The POSYS® 3004 is
designed to control up to 4 axes of servo and stepper motors and provides hardware linear, circular, Bit Pattern
and continuous interpolation which allow to perform the most complex motion profiles. Update rates per axis do
not exist as each axis runs in absolute real-time mode simultaneously which makes these boards to one of the
best performing motion controllers for up to 4 axes in the market.
 Stepper Motors

360
Step angle is given by: 
ns
 
where ns is the number of steps for the stepper motor (integer)

Total angle through which the motor rotates (Am) is given by: Am  n p
 where np = number of pulses received by the motor.
2f p
Angular velocity is given by:  where fp = pulse frequency
ns
60 f p
N
Speed of rotation is given by: ns
 Example
 A stepper motor has a step angle = 3.6. (1) How many pulses are
required for the motor to rotate through ten complete revolutions?
(2) What pulse frequency is required for the motor to rotate at a
speed of 100 rev/min?
 Góc bước: 3.6 độ
 Bao nhiêu xung để động cơ quay 10 hết vòng? Np?
 Am=360*10=3600
 Np=Am/step angle=3600/3.6=1000 (xung)
 Tần số xung để động cơ quay với tốc độ N=100 vòng/phút
 Fp=N*Ns/60
 =N*360/(step angle*60)
 =100*360/(3.6*60)=166,67 (Hz)
 Solution

360 (1) 3.6 = 360 / ns; 3.6 (ns) = 360; ns = 360 / 3.6 = 100 step

ns angles
 
Am  n p (2) Ten complete revolutions: 10(360) = 3600 = Am
Therefore np = 3600 / 3.6 = 1000 pulses
 
60 f p Where N = 100 rev/min:
N
ns 100 = 60 fp / 100
10,000 = 60 fp
fp = 10,000 / 60 = 166.667 = 167 Hz
Ví dụ 2:
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Sampling – converts the continuous signal into a series of
discrete analog signals at periodic intervals
Quantization – each discrete analog is converted into one of
a finite number of (previously defined) discrete
amplitude levels
Encoding – discrete amplitude levels are converted into
digital code

Variable Analogue Signal

Discrete
1001 1101 0101
Variables

Time
 Hardware Devices in
Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Transformation Process

Continuous
Variable
Sensors
Sensors
&& Transducer
Transducer
Multiplexer

Amplifer Signal
Digital
Digital Analog
Analog Conditioner
Computer
Computer Digital
Digital
Converter
Converter
Other Signals
 Features of an ADC

 Sampling rate – rate at which continuous analog signal is

polled e.g. 1000 samples/sec
 Quantization – divide analog signal into discrete levels
 Resolution – depends on number of quantization levels
 Conversion time – how long it takes to convert the
sampled signal to digital code
 Conversion method – means by which analog signal is
encoded into digital equivalent
 Example – Successive approximation method
 Successive Approximation Method

 A series of trial voltages are successively compared to

the input signal whose value is unknown
 Number of trial voltages = number of bits used to
encode the signal
 First trial voltage is 1/2 the full scale range of the ADC
 If the remainder of the input voltage exceeds the trial
voltage, then a bit value of 1 is entered, if less than trial
voltage then a bit value of zero is entered
 The successive bit values, multiplied by their
respective trial voltages and added, becomes the
encoded value of the input signal
 Example
 Analogue signal is 6.8 volts. Encode, using SAM, the signal for a 6 bit
register with a full scale range of 10 volts.
 Analogue signal is 6.8 volts. Encode, using SAM, the signal for a 6 bit
register with a full scale range of 10 volts.

 6.8?0.5^1*10(5) > -> 1

 6.8-1*5?0.5^2*10(2.5) < -> 0 < -> 0
 1.8-2.5*0?0.5^3*10(1.25) > -> 1
 1.8-1.25*1 >0.5^4*10(0.625) < -> 0
 0.55-0.625*0<0.5^5*10(0.312) > ->1 -> 0
 0.238>0.5^6*10(0.156) > -> 1
 101011
 Giá trị thực tế encode được
 1*5+0*2.5+1*1.25+0*0.625+1*0.312+1*0.156=12(0.5*0+….)
 Sai số = 5.5 – giá trị tính được
 Analogue signal is 5.5 volts. Encode, using SAM, the signal for a 6 bit
register with a full scale range of 12 volts.

 5.5<0.5^1*12(6) -> 0
 5.5>0.5^2*12(3) -> 1
 2.5>0.5^3*12(1.5) -> 1
 1 >0.5^4*12(0.75) -> 1
 0.25<0.5^5*12(0.375) -> 0
 0.25>0.5^6*12(0.187) -> 1
 011101
 Giá trị thực tế encode được
 0*6+1*3+1*1.5+1*0.75+0*0.375+1*0.187=12(0.5*0+….)
 Sai số = 5.5 – giá trị tính được
 Resolution

Quantisation levels is defined as: N  2n

q
 where Nq = quantisation levels; and n is the number of bits.

Resolution is defined as: L L

R ADC   n
  Nq 1 2 1
where RADC is the resolution of the ADC; L is the full-scale range of the ADC
 
Quantisation generates an error, because the digitised signal is only sampled from the original
analogue signal. The maximum possible error occurs when the true value of the analogue
signal is on the borderline between two adjacent quantisation levels, in which case the
error is half the quantisation-level spacing; this gives us the following for quantisation error
(Quanerr):

where RADC is the resolution of the ADC. 1

Quanerr   R ADC
2
 Example

 Using an analogue-to-digital converter, a continuous

voltage signal is to be converted into its digital counterpart.
The maximum voltage range is 25 V. The ADC has a 16-
bit capacity, and full scale range of 60 V. Determine (1)
number of quantization levels, (2) resolution, (3) the
spacing of each quantisation level, and the quantisation
error for this ADC.
 Solution
(1) Number of quantization levels:
Nq  2 n
= 216 = 65,536
 
L L (2) Resolution:
R ADC   n RADC = 60 / 65,536 -1 =  0.0009155 volts
Nq 1 2 1
 
1 (3) Quantisation error:
Quanerr   R ADC
2 =  (0.0009155)/2 =  0.00045778 volts
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion

 Convert digital values into continuous analogue signal

 Decoding digital value to an analogue value at discrete
moments in time based on value within register


E0  Eref 0.5B1  0.25B2     2 
n 1
Bn 
Where E0 is output voltage; Eref is reference voltage; Bn is status of
successive bits in the binary register

 Data Holding that changes series of discrete analogue

signals into one continuous signal
 Example

 A DAC has a reference voltage of 100 V and has 6-bit

precision. Three successive sampling instances 0.5 sec
apart have the following data in the data register:
Instant Binary Data
 Output Values: 1 101000
2 101010
3 101101

E01 = 100{0.5(1)+0.25(0)+0.125(1)+0.0625(0)+0.03125(0)+0.015625(0)}
E01 = 62.50V
E02 = 100{0.5(1)+0.25(0)+0.125(1)+0.0625(0)+0.03125(0)+0.015625(0)}
E02 = 65.63V
E03 = 100{0.5(1)+0.25(0)+0.125(1)+0.0625(0)+0.03125(0)+0.015625(0)}
E03 = 70.31V
 Input/Output Devices
Binary data:
 Contact input interface – input data to computer
 Contact output interface – output data from computer
Discrete data other than binary:
 Contact input interface – input data to computer
 Contact output interface – output data from computer
Pulse data:
 Pulse counters - input data to computer
 Pulse generators - output data from computer
 MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS
MOTION CONTROL SYST
 A modern motion control system typically consists of a motion controller, a
motor drive or amplifier, an electric motor, and feed- back sensors.
Intro duc tio n
A modern motion control system typically consists of a moti
 The system might also contain other controller,
components such
a motor drive as oneanorelectric
or amplifier, moremotor, and fee
belt-, ballscrew-, or leadscrew-drivenback sensors.
linear The system
guides mightstages.
or axis also contain other componen
such as one or more belt-, ballscrew-, or leadscrew-driven line
guides or axis stages. A motion controller today can be a stan
alone programmable controller, a personal computer containing
 A motion controller today can be a stand-motion
alone programmable
control controller,
card, or a programmable a
logic controller (PLC
personal computer containing a motion control card, or a programmable logic
controller (PLC).
 Merits of Electric Systems

 More precise load or tool positioning, resulting in fewer

product or process defects and lower material costs
 Quicker changeovers for higher flexibility and easier
product customizing
 Increased throughput for higher efficiency and capacity
 Simpler system design for easier installation,
programming,
 and training
 Lower downtime and maintenance costs
 Cleaner, quieter operation without oil or air leakage
 ing and economic con-
multiaxis X-Y-Z motion
xes required to move a Clo s e d-Lo o p S ys te m
h three degrees of free-
ctromechanical compo- A closed-loop motion control system, as shown in block diagram
ee axes can provide up
g. 2.
Motion Control Classification
Fig. 3, has one or more feedback loops that continuously com-
pare the system’s response with input commands or settings to
found in such diverse correct errors in motor and/or load speed, load position, or motor
ipment, machine tool torque. Feedback sensors provide the electronic signals for cor-
recting deviations from the desired input commands. Closed-
 Closed-Loop System loop systems are also called servosystems.

Fig . 3 Block diagram of a basic closed-loop control system.

Each motor in a servosystem requires its own feedback sen-

sors, typically encoders, resolvers, or tachometers, that close
loops around the motor and load. Variations in velocity, position,
and torque are typically caused by variations in load conditions,
showing six degrees but changes in ambient temperature and humidity can also affect
load conditions.

Fig . 4 Block diagram of a velocity-control system.

A velocity-control loop, as shown in block diagram Fig. 4,

typically contains a tachometer that is able to detect changes in
motor speed. This sensor produces error signals that are propor-
Fig . 4 Block diagram of a velocity-control system.

Motion Control Classification

A velocity-control loop, as shown in block diagram Fig. 4,
typically contains a tachometer that is able to detect changes in
motor speed. This sensor produces error signals that are propor-
tional to the positive or negative deviations of motor speed from
 Closed-Loop System
its preset value. These signals are sent to the motion controller so
that it can compute a corrective signal for the amplifier to keep
motor speed within those preset limits despite load changes.

Fig . 4 Block diagram of a velocity-control system.

A velocity-control loop, as shown in block diagram Fig. 4,

typically contains a tachometer that is able to detect changes in
motor speed. This sensor produces error signals that are propor-
tional to the positive or negative deviations of motor speed from
its preset value. These signals are sent to the motion controller so
that it can compute a corrective signal for the amplifier to keep
motor speed within those preset limits despite load changes.

Fig . 5 Block diagram of a position-control system. Fig . 7 Examples of position feedback sensors installed on a
ballscrew-driven slide mechanism: (a) rotary encoder, (b) linear
encoder, and (c) laser interferometer.
A position-control loop, as shown in block diagram Fig. 5,
typically contains either an encoder or resolver capable of direct
or indirect measurements of load position. These sensors gener- equipped with position sensors. Three examples of feedback sen-
ate error signals that are sent to the motion controller, which pro- sors mounted on the ballscrew mechanism that can provide posi-
duces a corrective signal for the amplifier. The output of the ampli- tion feedback are shown in Fig. 7: (a) is a rotary optical encoder
fier causes the motor to speed up or slow down to correct the mounted on the motor housing with its shaft coupled to the motor
position of the load. Most position-control closed-loop systems shaft; (b) is an optical linear encoder with its graduated scale
also include Fig
a velocity-control loop.
. 5 Block diagram of a position-control system. mounted on the base
Fig. 7 Examples of the
of position mechanism;
feedback and (c)onisa the less com-
sensors installed
The ballscrew slide mechanism, shown in Fig. 6, is an exam- ballscrew-driven slide mechanism: (a) rotary
monly used but more accurate and expensive laser encoder, (b) linear
interferometer.
ple of a mechanical system that carries a load whose position must encoder, and (c) laser interferometer.
A torque-control loop contains electronic circuitry that mea-
A position-control loop, as shown in block diagram Fig. 5,
 Trapezoidal Velocity Profile

 the motion con- troller must command the motor amplifier

to ramp up motor velocity gradually until it reaches the
desired speed and then ramp it down gradually until it
stops after the task is complete. This keeps motor
acceleration and deceleration within limits.
Kinds o f Co ntro lle d Mo tio n
There are five different kinds of mo
sequencing, speed, torque, and incre

• In point-to-point motion control t

sequence of numerically defined
stopped before it is moved to the
at a constant speed, with both vel
tored by the motion controller. Po
be performed in single-axis or mu
motors in closed loops or steppin
Fig . 8 Servomotors are accelerated to constant velocity and X-Y tables and milling machines
decelerated along a trapezoidal profile to assure efficient operation. multiaxis point-to-point control.
• Sequencing control is the control o
and closing valves in a preset sequ
the motor stops. Amplifier current and output voltage reach max- ping a conveyor belt at specified s
imum values during acceleration, then step down to lower values
during constant velocity and switch to negative values during • Speed control is the control of the
 Proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
 In proportional control the signal that drives the motor or actuator is
directly proportional to the linear difference between the input
command for the desired output and the measured actual output.
 In integral control the signal driving the motor equals the time integral
of the difference between the input command and the measured
actual output.
 In derivative control the signal that drives the motor is pro- portional to
the time derivative of the difference between the input command and
the measured actual output.
 In proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control the signal that drives
the motor equals the weighted sum of the differ- ence, the time
integral of the difference, and the time deriva- tive of the difference
between the input command and the measured actual output.
 Kinds of Controlled Motion
 In point-to-point motion control the load is moved between a sequence of
numerically defined positions where it is stopped before it is moved to the next
position. This is done at a constant speed, with both velocity and distance
moni- tored by the motion controller. Point-to-point positioning can be
performed in single-axis or multiaxis systems with servo- motors in closed loops
or stepping motors in open loops. X-Y tables and milling machines position their
loads by multiaxis point-to-point control.
 Sequencing control is the control of such functions as opening and closing
valves in a preset sequence or starting and stop- ping a conveyor belt at
specified stations in a specific order.
 Speed control is the control of the velocity of the motor or actuator in a system.
 Torque control is the control of motor or actuator current so that torque remains
constant despite load changes.
 Incremental motion control is the simultaneous control of two or more variables
such as load location, motor speed, or torque.
 Fig . 10 Leadscrew drive: As the leadscrew rotates, the load is
translated in the axial direction of the screw. to be actuated and
minimizing friction.
ballscrew-driven sin
the mechanics, which in turn influence the motion controller and motor turns the balls
software requirements. the linear motion tha

Mechanical Components
Mechanical actuators convert a motor’s rotary motion into lin- bolt nut. The bearing
ear motion. Mechanical methods for accomplishing this include these stages can be e
the use of leadscrews, shown in Fig. 10, ballscrews, shown in ear encoder or a lase
Fig. 11, worm-drive gearing, shown in Fig. 12, and belt, cable, or A ballscrew-drive
chain drives. Method selection is based on the relative costs of the pled to the motor sh
alternatives and consideration for the possible effects of backlash. method ignores the
All actuators have finite levels of torsional and axial stiffness that mechanical compon
can affect the system’s frequency response characteristics. encoder that can cau
Linear guides or stages constrain a translating load to a single positions. Conseque
degree of freedom. The linear stage supports the mass of the load accuracy to ballscrew
Fig. 13 Ballscrew-driven single-axis slide mechanism translates Other kinds of s
rotary motion into linear motion. antifriction rolling el
lating balls or rollers
Fig . 10 Leadscrew drive: As the leadscrew rotates, the load is units, hydrostatic un
translated in the axial direction of the screw. to be actuated and assures smooth, straight-line motion while A single-axis air-
minimizing friction. A common example of a linear stage is a Some models being
ballscrew-driven single-axis stage, illustrated in Fig. 13. The carriage for mountin
the mechanics, which in turn influence the motion controller and motor turns the ballscrew, and its rotary motion is translated into the loads can reach ve
software requirements. the linear motion that moves the carriage and load by the stage’s these stages can be e
Mechanical actuators convert a motor’s rotary motion into lin- bolt nut. The bearing ways act as linear guides. As shown in Fig. 7, effective linear enco
ear motion. Mechanical methods for accomplishing this include these stages can be equipped with sensors such as a rotary or lin- eters. The resolution
the use of leadscrews, shown in Fig. 10, ballscrews, shown in ear
Fig. 11, worm-drive gearing, shown in Fig. 12, and belt, cable, or Figencoder or a laser interferometer
. 13 Ballscrew-driven single-axis slide for feedback.
mechanism translates encoder can be as f
Fig . 13 Ballscrew-driven
A ballscrew-driven single-axis stagesingle-axis
with a rotary slideencoder
mechanism cou-translates However, these valu
chain drives. Method selection is based on the relative costs of the rotary motion into linear motion.
rotary motion
pled to the motor into linearanmotion.
shaft provides indirect measurement. This submicron accuracy
alternatives and consideration for the possible effects of backlash. method ignores the tolerance, wear, and compliance in the The pitch, roll, an
. 10 Leadscrew
Fig actuators
All have drive: As the leadscrew rotates,
axialthe load is that
Fig . 10finite levels
Leadscrew ofdrive:
torsional
As theand
leadscrew stiffness
rotates, the load ismechanical components between the carriage and the position resolution and accur
translated in the axial
can affect thetranslated direction
system’sinfrequencyof the screw.
responseofcharacteristics. to be actuated beand assuresand smooth, straight-line motion while
the axial direction the screw. encoder
minimizingthat to
Fig.
can 11 actuated
cause
friction.
Ballscrew
deviations
Again
common
assures
drive: between
example
smooth,
Ballscrews the use straight-line
recirculating
adesired
ofexample linear of and true
stage
motion
balls while
to reduce
is a stage is a
Linear guides or stages constrain a translating load to a single positions. minimizing
friction
Consequently, and friction.
thishigher A common
efficiency
feedback than
method conventional
limits a leadscrews.
positionlinear
degree of freedom. Theinlinear stage supportsmotion
the mass of the load ballscrew-driven single-axis single-axis
ballscrew-driven stage, illustrated stage, in Fig. 13.inThe
illustrated Fig. 13. The
the mechanics, which turn influence accuracy to ballscrew accuracy, typically ±5motion
to 10 µm per 300 mm.
the mechanics, which in turnthe
influence controller
the motionand controllermotor
and turns the ballscrew,
motor turns the and its rotary
ballscrew, and its rotaryis translated
motion isinto
translated into
software requirements.
software requirements. Other kinds
the linear motion of single-axis
thatmotion
moves that stages
the carriage include those
andcarriage
load byand containing
the load
stage’s
Mechanical actuators convert a motor’s rotary motion into lin- antifriction the linear
rolling elements such moves the by the stage’s
Mechanical actuators convert a motor’s rotary motion into bolt
lin-nut. The bearing ways act as as recirculating
linear guides. Asand shownnonrecircu-
in Fig. 7,
ear motion. Mechanical methods for accomplishing this include lating balls bolt
or nut.
rollers, The bearing
sliding ways
(friction act as
contact) linearunits,guides. As
air-bearing shown in Fig. 7,
ear motion. Mechanical methods for accomplishing this include these stages can be equipped with sensors such as a rotary or lin-
the use of leadscrews, shown in Fig. 10, ballscrews, shown in units, these units,
hydrostatic stagesand canmagnetic
be equipped with sensors
levitation (Maglev) such as a rotary or lin-
units.
the use of leadscrews, shown in Fig. 10, ballscrews, shown ear inencoder or a laser interferometer for feedback.
Fig. 11, worm-drive gearing, shown in Fig. 12, and belt, cable, or ear encoder
AAsingle-axis air-bearing or a guide
laser interferometer for feedback.
Fig. 11, worm-drive gearing, shown in Fig. 12, and belt, cable, or ballscrew-driven single-axis stage with a rotary encoder 14.
or stage is shown in Fig. cou-
chain drives. Method selection is based on the relative costs of the Some modelsmotor A ballscrew-driven
being offered are 3.9single-axis
ft (1.2 m) stage
long withinclude
and a rotaryaencoder cou-
chain drives. Method selection is based on the relative costs of pled
the to the pled shaft provides an indirect measurement. This
alternatives and consideration for the possible effects of backlash. carriage to the motor shaft provides an indirect measurement. This
alternatives and consideration for the possible effects of backlash. method for mounting
ignores the loads. Whenwear,
tolerance, drivenand by a compliance
linear servomotor in the
All actuators have finite levels of torsional and axial stiffness that the loads can method
reach ignores
velocities ofthe
9.8 tolerance,
ft/s (3 m/s). wear,
As shown and in compliance
Fig. 7, in the
All actuators have finite levels of torsional and axial stiffnessmechanical that components between the carriage and the position
mechanical components between the carriage and the position
can affect the system’s frequency response characteristics. these stages can be equipped with feedback
encoder that can cause deviations between the desired and true devices such as cost-
can affect
Linear guides the system’s
or stages constrain frequency response
a translating load characteristics.
to a single encoder that orcan cause deviations between the desired and true
effective
positions.linear encoders
Consequently, ultrahigh-resolution
this feedback method laser interferom-
limits position
Linear guides or stages constrain a
degree of freedom. The linear stage supports the mass of the loadtranslating load to a single positions. Consequently, this feedback method limits position
eters. The resolution of this type of stage with a noncontact linear
degree of freedom. The linear stage supports the mass of theaccuracy load to ballscrew accuracy, typically ±5 to 10 µm per 300 mm.
accuracy to ballscrew accuracy, typically ±5 to 10 µm per 300 mm.
encoder
Othercankinds
be asoffine as 20 nmstages
single-axis and accuracy
include can
those becontaining
1 µm.
However,
antifrictionthese Other
values
rolling kinds
can beof
elements single-axis
increased
such to 0.3
as recirculatingstages
nm and include
resolution those
nonrecircu-and containing
submicron antifriction
lating ballsaccuracy
or rollers, rolling
if asliding elements contact)
laser interferometer
(friction suchisasinstalled.
recirculating
units, air-bearing and nonrecircu-
units, hydrostatic units, and magnetic levitation (Maglev) units. air-bearing
The pitch,lating
roll, balls
and or
yaw rollers,
of sliding
air-bearing (friction
stages can contact)
affect units,
their
resolution units,
and
A single-axis hydrostatic
accuracy. Someguide
air-bearing units, and
manufacturers magnetic
or stage isclaim
shownlevitation
1inarc-s (Maglev)
Fig. per14. units. Fig . 14 This single-a
Fig . 11 Ballscrew drive: Ballscrews use recirculating balls to reduce Fig.A12single-axis
Worm-drive air-bearing
systems can guide
provide or stage
high speedis shown
and highin Fig. 14.
torque. ported by air bearings
Some models being offered are 3.9 ft (1.2 m) long and include a
carriage forSome models being offered areby 3.9a ft (1.2 servomotor
m) long and include a
friction and gain higher efficiency than conventional leadscrews.
mounting loads. When driven linear
carriage for mounting loads. When driven by a linear servomotor
MOTION-CONTROL SYSTEMS
Many different kinds of mechanical components are listed in
manufacturers’ catalogs for speeding the design and assembly
of motion control systems. These drawings illustrate what,
where, and how one manufacturer’s components were used to
build specialized systems.

Fig . 1 Punch Press: Catalog pillow blocks and rail assemblies were Fig . 2 Microcomputer-Controlled X-Y Table: Catalog pillow blocks,
installed in this system for reducing the deflection of a punch press rail guides, and ballscrew assemblies were installed in this rigid sys-
plate loader to minimize scrap and improve its cycle speed. tem that positions workpieces accurately for precise milling and
drilling on a vertical milling machine.
 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS FORM
SPECIALIZED MOTION-CONTROL SYSTEMS
Fig . 1 Punch Press: Catalog pillow blocks and rail assemblies were
installed in this system for reducing the deflection of a punch press
plate loader to minimize scrap and improve its cycle speed.
Fig . 3 Pick and Place X-Y System: Catalog support and pillow
blocks, ballscrew assemblies, races, and guides were in the assem-
bly of this X-Y system that transfers workpieces between two sepa-
rate machining stations.
Fig . 2 Microcomputer-Controlled X-Y Table: Catalog pillow blocks,
rail guides, and ballscrew assemblies were installed in this rigid sys-
tem that positions workpieces accurately for precise milling and
drilling on a vertical milling machine.
Fig . 4 X-Y Inspection System: Catalog pillow and shaft-support
blocks, ballscrew assemblies, and a preassembled motion system
were used to build this system, which accurately positions an inspec-
tion probe over small electronic components.
29