Theoretical perspectives of

Urban Sociology
By
Dr. Mohita Chaturvedi Sharma
Department of Sociology
Introduction
Urban sociology is the study of causes that lead populations in an urban area to respond to
their environment in the manner they do. It further studies how the dynamics of these
reactions affect their lives, economics, structures and governmental processes of that
specific area. It also embraces the consequential problems that arise from these interactions.
In other words, in the urban context, it is the sociological study of cities and their role in
the development of society.
नगरीय समाजशास्त्र उन कारणों का अध्ययन करता है जो नगरीय समाज को प्रभावित करते हैंl इसके साथ साथ वह ऐसे गत्यात्मक
परिवर्तनों को भी अपने अध्ययन में सम्मिलित करता है जिनकी वजह से आर्थिक, संरचनात्मक एवं राजनैतिक प्रक्रियाओं को बढ़ावा मिलता
हैl दूसरे शब्दों में यदि कहा जाए तो नगरीय समाजशास्त्र , एक नगरीय व्यवस्था का समाजशास्त्रीय अध्ययन है जिसमें वह नगरों कि समाज
को विकसित करने की भूमिका का अध्ययन सम्मिलित होता हैl
 The Classical Theoretical Perspectives
The classical theoretical perspectives that form the philosophical foundations of modern urban sociology were provided by such
philosophers as Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Ferdinand Tonnies, Emile Durkheim, George Simmel, Max Weber and W.E.B. Du
Bois.

Marx- believed that people in pre-industrial and traditional societies were generic, tribal beings and the rise of the city happened as
a shift from barbarism to civilization and through the realization of political and economic freedom and productive specialization.
He believed that social evolution of humans is not complete until capitalism got transformed into socialism. Marx condemned the
consequences of urbanization under capitalism. He viewed the concentration and misery of the mass of workers in the new urban
agglomerations as a necessary stage in the creation of a revolutionary force.

नगरीय समाजशास्त्र के पारंपरिक सैद्धांतिक विचारधारा पर बहुत सारे समाजशास्त्री ने अपना प्रभाव छोड़ा इनमें से प्रमुख है कार्ल मार्क्स, मैक्स वेबर, इमाइल दुर्खीम एवं जॉर्ज सिम्मल l
कार्ल मार्क्स के अनुसार पारंपरिक समाज मे समरूपता देखी जा सकती थी परंतु जैसे ही पारंपरिक समाज का रुख सभ्यता निर्माण की ओर जाने लगा वैसे ही इसमें विभिन्न परिवर्तनों को देखा
जाने लगा l इन परिवर्तनों में प्रमुख रूप से राजनैतिक, आर्थिक एवं विशेषीकरण से संबंधित परिवर्तनों को उन्होंने नगर के विकास का कारण माना l उनके अनुसार सामाजिक उद्विकास तब तक पूर्ण
नहीं माना जा सकता जब तक समाज पूंजीवादी सभ्यता से परिवर्तित होकर साम्यवादी सभ्यता की ओर अग्रसर नहीं होता l उनका प्रमुख उद्देश्य नगरीय समाज में व्याप्त बेरोजगारी एवं सामाजिक
लाचारी को उजागर करना था उन्होंने यह भी माना कि यही वह कारण है जो आगे चलकर क्रांतिकारी विचारधारा को प्रभावित करेंगे l
The Classical Theoretical Perspectives ….2

Ferdinand Tonnies(1855-1936), a German sociologist,dwelt on the social structure of the city. He explained the impact of
the market economy on traditional forms of social association; the implications of urbanization and the development of the
state for the conduct of social life and the mechanisms of social solidarity in an individuating society. He categorized basic
organizing principles of human association into two. The first was what he called Gemeinschaft or community. This was
characterized by a country village where people have an essential unity of purpose, work together for the common good
and are united by ties of family and neighbourhood. The other was Gesellschaft or association. This was marked by a
large city which is a mechanical aggregate with the attributes of disunity, unbridled individualism and selfishness and an
emphasis on self as against the group.

पारंपरिक विचारधारा के दूसरे प्रमुख समाजशास्त्री हैं टोंनीज़ , इन्होंने समाज को दो समूहों में विभाजित किया प्रथम समुदाय और दूसरा समितिl उन्होंने ग्रामीण समाज को एक समुदाय
विशेष के रूप में समझाया जहां पारंपरिक सामाजिक व्यवस्था, सामाजिक व्यवहार के नियम एवं सामाजिक समरूपता देखी जा सकती थी l इसके विपरीत समितियों को सामाजिक नियंत्रण
का एक औपचारिक तरीका माना गया, यह समितियां अपने सदस्यों को न के वल नियंत्रित करती हैं अपितु नियमबद्ध भी करती हैं जिसकी वजह से नियमों का उल्लंघन एक दंड के रूप में
देखा जाता है l
The Classical Theoretical Perspectives ….3

Emile Durkheim considered the social structure of the city and social solidarity, the bond between all
individuals within a society. He developed the model of contrasting social order types. The first was
mechanical solidarity. This refers to social bonds constructed on likeness and largely dependent upon
common belief, custom, ritual, routines, and symbols. The second was organic solidarity. This social
order was based on social differences, complex division of labour founded on specialization and greater
freedom and choice for city inhabitants despite acknowledged impersonality, alienation, disagreement and
conflict.
दुर्खीम ने सामाजिक संरचना को एक व्यक्ति एवं समाज के बीच संबंध के रूप में समझाया है l उनके अनुसार समाज में दो प्रकार की एकता देखी जा सकती है -
यांत्रिक एकता तथा जैविक एकता l यांत्रिक एकता प्रमुख रूप से कृ षक समाज का एक प्रतिरूप माना गया है जहां पर समान रीति-रिवाजों एवं विचारधाराओं को
प्रोत्साहित किया जाता हैl इसके विपरीत जैविक एकता नगरीय समाज का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है जहां हम विविधता, विशेषीकरण एवं संघर्ष को व्यापक रूप से
पाते हैंl
 The Classical Theoretical Perspectives ….4

Max Weber (1868-1920)in his 'The City' has defined the city on the basis of political and administrative conception.He
considered the social structure of the city and its ecological and demographic characteristics.According to Weber, the city
was a relatively closed and dense settlement. A typical city required trade/commercial relations such as a market. It had a
court and law of its own and a degree of political autonomy. It was militarily self-sufficient for self-defence and could
display a fort-like formation. It had forms of association or social participation whereby individuals engage in social
relationships and organizations. He suggested that cities stand linked to larger processes such as economic or political
orientations and different cultural and historical conditions could result in different types of cities

मैक्स वेबर ने अपनी पुस्तक, “ द सिटी” में नगर को प्रशासनिक एवं राजनीतिक आधार पर परिभाषित किया हैl उनके अनुसार शहर एक घनत्व आबादी वाला क्षेत्र है जहां पर व्यापार
एवं उसी संबंधित व्यवस्थाओं को प्रोत्साहन मिलता हैl उन्होंने नगरों का महत्व न के वल राजनीतिक एवं प्रशासनिक रूप में समझाया अभी तो उसके आर्थिक एवं सांस्कृ तिक पहलुओं
को उजागर करते हुए अनेक प्रकार की न नगरों को अपनी विशेषताओं के आधार पर विभाजित कियाl
The Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives

Patrick Geddes (1854-1932) was a pioneering thinker in the area of urban planning and sociology. He is
credited with the introduction of the concept of "region" to architecture and planning and coined the term
‘conurbation’. Geddes championed a mode of planning that sought to consider "primary human needs" in
every intervention, engaging in "constructive and conservative surgery".

समकालीन सैद्धांतिक विचारधारा में गिड्डेन्स योगदान प्रमुख रूप से देखा जाता है lउन्हें नगरी व्यवस्था एवं समाजशास्त्र के बीच सामंजस्य बिठाने के लिए प्रमुख रूप से याद
किया जाता हैl उन्होंने समाजशास्त्र में “ क्षेत्र” के महत्व को समझाते हुए उसके आधार पर नगरीय एवं ग्रामीण समाजों के बीच अंतर स्पष्ट कियाl
 The Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives...2
Louis Wirth(1897-1952) developed the first urban theory in the United States with a focus on urbanism rather than on structure. He
defined the city as a large, dense and permanent settlement with a socially and culturally homogeneous people. He indicated that size,
density and heterogeneity – regarded as the principal traits in defining cities – are conducive to specific behavioural patterns and
moral attitudes
According to him, urbanism is that complex of traits that makes up the characteristic mode of life in cities. Urbanism, as a way of
life, may be approached empirically from three interrelated perspectives:(1) as a physical structure comprising a population base, a
technology, and an ecological order; (2) as a system of social organization involving a characteristic social structure, a series of social
institutions, and a typical pattern of social relationships; and (3) as a set of attitudes and ideas, and a constellation of personalities
engaging in typical forms of collective behaviour and subject to characteristic mechanisms of social control.

लुइस वर्थ पहले ऐसे समाजशास्त्री हैं जिन्होंने नगरीय समाजशास्त्र को पढ़ने के लिए नगरवाद का सहारा लियाl उनके अनुसार नगर एक ऐसा विस्तृत घनत्व आबादी एवं स्थाई रूप से पाए जाने वाला
भौगोलिक क्षेत्र हैl उन्होंने नगरवाद की अवधारणा को समझाते हुए यह माना कि , नगरवाद नगरों में जीवन जीने का एक तरीका है l
 The Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives...3

Anthony Giddens is credited with the theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. The most recent stage
concerns modernity, globalization and politics, especially the impact of modernity on social and personal life. He explores the question
of whether it is individuals or social forces that shape our social reality. For Giddens, urbanization is a unique feature of all societies
characterized by far-reaching time-space distanciation.Giddens concentrates on a contrast between traditional (pre-modern) culture
and post- traditional (modern) culture. In traditional societies, individual actions need not be extensively thought about, because
available choices are already determined (by the customs, traditions, etc.). In contrast, in post-traditional society people (actors,
agents) are much less concerned with the precedents set by earlier generations, and they have more choices, due to flexibility of law
and public opinion.

एंथोनी गिड्डेंस को आधुनिक संरचनावाद के जनक के रूप में देखा जाता हैl उन्होंने न के वल आधुनिकरण की प्रक्रिया को समझाया अपितु उससे संबंधित वैश्वीकरण एवं राजनीतिक परिपेक्ष की भी व्याख्या
करी है l उनके अनुसार नगरवाद की प्रक्रिया प्रत्येक समाज में भिन्न रूप से पाई जाती है तथा जिसका प्रभाव समय एवं स्थान की अनुसार भिन्न हो सकता हैl उन्होंने पारंपरिक एवं आधुनिक
परंपराओं के बीच अंतर स्पष्ट करते हुए यह माना कि पारंपरिक समाज में एक व्यक्ति का व्यवहार रीति-रिवाजों एवं परंपराओं पर आधारित होता है इसके विपरीत आधुनिक परंपराएं व्यक्ति की मान्यताओं
कानून एवं सामाजिक विचारधारा से प्रेरित होती हैंl
 Rural-Urban Continuum Perspectives

Robert Redfield gave the concept of rural -urban continuum on the basis of his study of Mexican
peasants. He believed that the rapid progress of urbanization through the establishment of
industries, urban traits and facilities have decreased the differences between villages and cities. He
arrived at certain conclusions on the basis of his studies and combined these observed
characteristics into three major categories of urban change: (a) the increase in cultural
disorganization, (b) the increase in secularization, and (c) the increase in individualization.

ग्रामीण नगरीय सत्यता की अवधारणा रॉबर्ट रेड फील्ड ने दी थीl उनके अनुसार नगर वाद एवं बढ़ते औद्योगिकीकरण के कारण नगरों एवं शहरों के
बीच अंतर धूमिल होते जा रहे हैंl उन्होंने नगरों में होने वाले परिवर्तनों को तीन श्रेणियों में बांटा सबसे पहले सांस्कृ तिक विघटन को बढ़ावा मिलना
दूसरा धर्मनिरपेक्षता को प्रोत्साहन मिलना तथा तीसरा व्यक्तिवाद की भावना को प्रोत्साहन मिलना l
Theoretical Snapshot

➔ Functionalism- ( प्रकार्यवाद ) A basic debate within the functionalist perspective centres on the relative
merits of cities and urbanization: In what ways and to what extent are cities useful functional) for
society, and in what ways and to what extent are cities disadvantageous and even harmful
(dysfunctional) for society?
➔ Conflict Theory-( संघर्षवाद) It assumes a basic conflict between society’s “haves” and “have-nots,” or
between the economic and political elites and the poor and people of colour More recent applications of
conflict theory to urbanization emphasize the importance of political economy, or the interaction of
political and economic institutions and processes.
➔ Symbolic Interactionism-( सांके तिक अन्तरक्रियावाद ) Symbolic interactionism is a view that focuses on the
nature of urban residents’ interaction with each other, the reasons for their patterns of interaction, and
their perceptions of various aspects of urban life.
MSA Rao’s Point of view related to Indian Urbanization

M.S.A. Rao (1970) analyzes urbanization and urbanism keeping in mind the larger social structures of Indian
society. For him, urbanism is a heterogeneous process and hence there be many forms of urbanisms giving rise to
many types of urbanization. Rao states that the dichotomy between cities and villages is incorrect as both have the
same structural features of caste and kinship and are parts of the same civilization. Moreover, urbanization and
westernization are not identical and should not be confused. Thus, for Rao, urbanization is a complex, multifaceted
process comprising ideological, cultural, historical, demographic and traditional sociological elements. Rao defines a
city as a centre of urbanization and urban of life. Urbanization is a two way process.

He distinguishes three kinds of situations of social change in rural areas resulting from urbanization: (i) villages near
an industrial town, (ii)villages with a sizable number of emigrants working in towns and cities, and villages on the
metropolitan fringe