Chuong 1

Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu
AIRCRAFT CONTROL
SURFACES AND STABILITY
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4 Phần 5

Character The Basic Basic Mass Stability Aircraft
-istics Concept Limitation Flight
quantities Control

Z
1. Characteristic quantities
6000 m
❑ Pressure
Ptotal = Pstatic + Pdynamic
1 hPa = 15,5 m. (511Ft)
Pdynamic = V 2
4000 m 2
- Phương trình Bernoulli cho lưu chất không nén được ở 1013,25
một cao độ Hpa
xác định: 1 hPa = 12,5 m. (41 Ft)
1 1
V + p = V 2 + p = pT = const
2
2
2000 m
2
1 hPa = 8,5 m. (28 Ft)
0m
1013 hpa
P.
472 hpa 616 hpa 795 hpa
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân
33
32 km Mesopause
❑ Temperature
Inversion
Mesosphere
20 km Stratopause
Isothermal Stratosphere
15° C
11 km Tropopause
- 6,5° every 1000 m.

Troposphere
- 2° every 1000 Ft
0
T°
-100° -80° -60° -40° -20° 0° 20° 40°
4
Mass
❑ Density =
Unit volume
❑ Viscosity Đặc trưng cho ma sát của lưu chất.

V
❑ Mach number M=
a
- Phân loại chế độ dòng chảy theo số Mach:
▪ Dòng chảy dưới âm, không nén được 0  M  0.3
▪ Dòng chảy dưới âm, nén được 0.3  M  0.8
▪ Dòng chảy cận âm 0.8  M  1.2
▪ Dòng chảy trên âm 1.2  M  5
▪ Dòng chảy siêu âm 5 M
5
❑ Speed
• VCAS: là vận tốc đã được hiệu chỉnh từ vận tốc hiển thị bởi thiết bị đo
(Indicated airspeed).
• VTAS: là vận tốc thực của tàu bay(True airspeed).
• VGS: là tốc độ thực tế của tàu bay khi nhìn từ mặt đất. Ground speed
là VTAS tính đến ảnh hưởng của gió.
o Gió xuôi (tailwind): VGS tăng VGS = VTAS + Vwind
o Gió ngược (headwind): VGS giảm VGS = VTAS − Vwind
• Relative wind: là vận tốc gió tương đối - là hướng di chuyển của các
phần tử lưu chất (không khí) so với máy bay. .

6
❑ Axis

7
Pilot Handbook - FAA

8
❑Lift

9
❑Lift

10
❑Lift

11
❑Drag
1
L=    V 2  S  CL
2
1
D =    V 2  S  CD
2
12
❑Moment
Pitch
Motion about the lateral axis
Roll
Motion about the longitudinal axis
Yaw
Motion about the vertical axis

13
❑Thurst
Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through the air. Thrust is
generated most often through the reaction of accelerating a mass of
gas.

14
❑Thurst
Total Fuel Flow (FF)
FF = fuel flow by engine x Number of engines
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

The specific fuel consumption SFC is the total fuel flow flat rated to
thrust unit.
FF
SFC =
Ta
Ta is the available thrust, supplied by the engines.

15
❑Power
Power is the rate of doing work, the amount of energy (ΔE)

transferred per unit time (Δt).
E W F  s
P= = = = F  V (F, V = const)
t t t
Trên tàu bay Power cơ học được tạo ra thông qua hệ thống lực đẩy
(the propulsion system) mà động cơ là 1 thành phần.

16
❑Power
Đối với tàu bay, ta có:
PowerTotal = PowerInduced + PowerParasite
PowerInduced: is the power required to maintain enough lift to overcome

the force of gravity.
Powerparasite: is the power required to overcome the drag of the body.

17
2. The basic concepts

Aircraft Flight Mechanics (Cơ học bay): can be divided into five broad
areas: trajectory analysis (performance), stability and control, aircraft
sizing, simulation, and flight testing.
Aircraft Performance (Tính năng tàu bay): is the capability of aircraft at
various phases of flight. It is discussed in this subjects to show the
physical limitations concern the configuration of the aircraft and the
characteristics of the runways from which it takes off and lands.
Aircraft Stability (Ổn định tàu bay): is basically defined as an aircraft's
ability to maintain/return to original flight path (after having been
slightly disturbed from that condition) without any efforts on the part of
the pilot.
Aircraft flight Control (Điều khiển tàu bay): Forces and moments
produced by pilot inputs to bring the airplane back to equilibrium after
disturbance (the direction and attitude of an aircraft in flight).
18

19

20
21
22

European regulation (EASA)
REGULATION
ORGANISATION TECHNICAL
Prod/ Concept Part-21 A/C  5.7 T CS-23
Operation JAR OPS A/C  5.7 T CS-25
Maintenance Part-145 Engines/APU CS-E/APU
License Part-66 Propellers CS-P
Training Part-147 Very light A/C CS-VLA

organisation
A/C: Aircraft
CS: Certification specifications 23
24
3. Basic mass limitations

❑Load factor (hệ số tải)
In aeronautics, the load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift of an
aircraft to its weight and has a trigonometric relationship. It represents
a global measure of the stress ("load") to which the structure of the
aircraft is subjected.
Lift L
n= =
Weight mg
Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless.
However, its units are traditionally referred to as Gs, because of the
relation between load factor and apparent acceleration of gravity felt
on board the aircraft.
Load factors greater or less than one (or even negative) are the result
of Aircraft Performing manoeuvres or wind gusts.

25

❑Load factor (hệ số tải)

26

❑Giới hạn của load factor
Limit load: is defined as the maximum load that an aircraft is
expected to see at any point in the service life of that aircraft. Any part
of the structure of an aircraft must be able to support the limit load
without permanent deformation.
Ultimate load: is the amount of load applied to a component beyond
which the component will fail. The chance that it will occur is,
however, not zero, and, if it were to occur, then the relevant structure
in the aircraft would stand a large chance of fracture.
Ultimate load  Limit load  Factor of Satefy ( = 1.5 )

27


28


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❑Ảnh hưởng của wind gust
A gust is a sudden change in the wind velocity. It can be broken down

into two parts:
• A horizontal component. Example: wind shear
• A vertical component called updraft or downdraft and clear air
turbulence.

30

Horizontal gust: (gió giật ngang)
Let us consider a horizontal gust first. An aircraft in level flight at a
velocity V encounters a gust of intensity ± u. the positive sign being
for a gust that increases the relative wind.
1
Lgust 2  (V  u ) 2
SC L
n= =
W W
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Horizontal gust: (gió giật ngang)
Because the aircraft was in level flight before the gust, L = W.

As well, due to the sudden nature of a gust and to the aircraft's inertia,
the α, thus CL, remains essentially the same.
1
Lgust 2  (V  u ) SC L (V  u ) 2
2
2u
n gust = = = 2
1
W W V V

32

Vertical gust: (gió giật dọc)
A vertical gust, on the other hand,

will change the (increasing it for
an updraft and decreasing it for a
downdrart) α, a value angle is 𝛥α.
u > 0: gust increase α.
Lgust Lgust CL  CLgust

ngust = = =
W L CL
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Vertical gust: (gió dọc)
where: CLgust dCLgust dCL So u << V:

= =
 gust d  gust d u
tan  gust =   gust
dCL V
 CLgust =  gust
d

34

Vertical gust: (gió dọc)
dCL dCL u dCL

 gust   u V
n gust = 1  d = 1  d V = 1    d
CL W   mg 
2  2 
S  S 
V 2
 ngust = 1  ku

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4. Stability

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4. Stability
❑Static Stability
Equilibrium (or flying at a trim condition): the sum of the forces
must be zero and they must produce no moment.
Static Stability: The initial tendency of an airplane when disturbed to

return to its original position.

37
4. Stability
❑Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability: refers to the aircrafts subsequent response over
time when disturbed (The overall tendency of an aircraft, when
disturbed, to return to its original position).

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4. Stability
Positive dynamic stability – over time, the motion of the displaced
object decreases in amplitude and returns back towards its original
equilibrium state.
Positive static
stability
Positive Dynamic Stability

Returns to Aircraft is Original attitude
original disturbed
attitude

39
4. Stability
Neutral dynamic stability – once displaced, the displaced object
neither decreases or increases in amplitude.
Positive static
stability
Neutral Dynamic Stability Aircraft is Original attitude

Will continue to disturbed
oscillate about
original attitude

40
4. Stability
Negative dynamic stability – over time, the motion of the displaced
object increases and becomes more divergent.
Positive
static stability
Diverges from
original attitude
Aircraft is Original
disturbed attitude
Negative Dynamic Stability

41
4. Stability
Aircraft may be statically unstable, but dynamically stable
Longitudinal Stability Over a long period,

aircraft recovers.
6 Dynamically stable.
Alpha, in degrees
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time, in seconds
Initial tendency may be to pitch the nose up

Statically unstable.

42
4. Stability
❑ Longitudinal, Lateral and Directional Stability
When designing an aircraft, a great deal of effort is spend in developing
stability around all three axis:
• Stability around the longitudinal axis is known as lateral stability
• Stability around the lateral axis is known as longitudinal stability
• Stability around the vertical axis is known as directional stability

43
4. Stability
Longitudinal stability
A longitudinally unstable aircraft has the tendency to descent or climb
or even a stall.
Longitudinal stability is affected by:

1. Size and position of horizontal stabilizer
2. Position of the CG (center of gravity)

44
4. Stability
Longitudinal stability – Position of the CG
We know in a correctly loaded aircraft the centre of pressure
(aerodynamic) should be behind the centre of gravity.

45
4. Stability
Longitudinal stability – Horizontal Stabilizer

46
4. Stability
Because of the length of the moment arm between the CG and the
tailplane, the aerodynamic force need not be great for it to have an effect.
• The further forward the CG, the greater the moment arm of the
tailplane, therefore the greater the force of the tailplane. This has
a strong stabilising effect longitudinally.
• An aft CG reduces the moment arm and therefore reduces
longitudinal stability.
CG CoP Tailplane CG CoP Tailplane
Long arm - stable Short arm – less stable

47
4. Stability
Longitudinal stability – Wing pitching Moment
We know in a correctly loaded aircraft the CP should be behind the CG.
As AoA increase the centre of pressure moves forward.
LIFT LIFT
WEIGHT

48
4. Stability
If the CG is placed too far reward the CP will then go in front of the CG. This
will create a Nose pitch up moments making the aircraft unstable.
LIFT
WEIGHT

49
4. Stability
Lift produced on Nose up disturbance

Tailplane pitches Presents tailplane at
Aircraft back to Higher angle of attack
Level flight. to airflow.
LIFT

50
4. Stability
Negative lift Nose down

Produced on the Disturbance presents
Tailplane pitches Tailplane at a
Aircraft back to Negative angle of
Level flight. Attack to airflow.
NEGATIVE
LIFT

51
4. Stability
Lateral stability
Stability around the longitudinal axis
Also known as roll stability
There are a number of design factors which

make an aircraft laterally stable:
• Dihedral
• Sweepback
• Keel effect
• Wing position
• Weight distribution

52
4. Stability
Lateral stability - Diheral
Dihedral is the most common way
for producing lateral stability, here
the wingtips are inclined upwards
with respect to the wing roots
Restoring Moment
If the aircraft is displaced, for
example by a gust of wind, a flow Lift
of air will strike the down going
wing at a higher angle of attack Lift
with a resultant increase in lift. =>
rolling moment opposing the initial
displacement. AoA
53
4. Stability
Lateral stability – Wing Position
A high wing aircraft is more laterally
stable than a low wing for two reasons:
1. Here we can see the aircraft has
been displaced in roll, as the aircraft
begins to slip the fuselage will block Restoring Moment
the lateral component of the relative
Lift
airflow on the up going wing
Lift
This will result in the up going wing
creating less lift resulting in the
restoring moment, this is known as Shielding
shielding
AoA

54
4. Stability
Lateral stability – Wing position Restoring Moment
2. The second reason is due to the
distance between the CP and CG
Here we can see the aircraft has been Lift
displaced in roll creating a lateral
couple between the CP and CG
resulting in the restoring moment
The combined effect of these two
restoring moments may make the Weight
aircraft so stable that it becomes
uncontrollable, in this case the aircraft
may be built with anhedral wings
which can be seen as the opposite of
dihedral
55
4. Stability
Lateral stability – Keel (or pendulum) effect
The keel effect involves the
positioning of the plane’s
centre of gravity. In very
simplistic terms, the keel
effect means that aeroplanes
with a CG below the wing are
more stable than those with
a CG above the wing.

56
4. Stability
Lateral
stability -
Sweepback

57
4. Stability
Lateral stability - Sweepback
When a disturbance causes an

aircraft with sweepback to slip or
drop a wing, the low wing presents
its leading edge at an angle that is
more perpendicular to the relative
airflow. As a result, the low wing
acquires more lift, rises, and the
aircraft is restored to its original
flight attitude.

58
4. Stability
Lateral stability - Distribution of Weight
Proper distribution of weight will aid in keeping the aircraft level

If too much weight is on one side, the aircraft may not have enough
aileron authority to maintain level flight

59
4. Stability
Directional stability
If an aircraft is made to yaw to

one side by an air disturbance,
the side-wind blowing on its
fuselage and fin surfaces creates
a sideways force which, on areas
to the rear of the centre of
gravity, will tend to yaw the
aircraft back to its original
heading, just like a weathercock.

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4. Stability

61
4. Stability
The aircraft designer must
ensure positive directional
stability by making the side
surface greater aft than
ahead of the CG

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4. Stability
Directional stability – Vertical Tail surface (fin and rudder)

63
4. Stability

64
4. Stability

65
4. Stability
❑ Dutch roll
Dutch roll is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation (with strong lateral
stability and weak directional stability) that is usually dynamically
stable but is unsafe in an aircraft because of the oscillatory nature.
The damping of the oscillatory mode may be weak or strong
depending on the properties of the particular aircraft.
Dutch roll usually die out automatically in very few cycles unless the
air continues to be gusty or turbulent.

66
4. Stability
❑ Dutch roll

67
4. Stability
❑ Dutch roll

68
4. Stability
❑ Spiral Instability
Found in aircraft with strong directional stabiliy but weak lateral
stability.
If it is disturbed in roll it will continue to roll in the same direction, the
increased angle of bank leads to more yaw and more roll so the nose
begins to drop.
Without pilot input the aircraft will enter a steep spiral dive.

69
4. Stability

70
4. Stability

71
5. Aircraft flight control
• Wing
− Flap/ Slat
− Aileron
• Tail
− Rudder
− Elevator



❑Flap/ Slat
Extended for approach, landing and take-off to increase the lift of the
wings at low speed.
Flap: Attached to the TE and Slat: Protrusions from LE
• downward deflection • upward deflection

increases angle of attack decreases angle of attack
• lift is increased • lift is reduced


❑Flap/ Slat


❑Flap/ Slat


❑Flap/ Slat


❑Flap/ Slat




❑Ailerons
Aircraft heading or
direction of flight is
changed by rolling the
aircraft using the
ailerons.
Ailerons are controlled
by twisting the yoke
(or stick, control
column) to the left or
right.


❑Ailerons



❑Elevators
They control the pitch (nose-up
or nose-down ) state of the
aircraft.
Elevators are controlled by

pushing the yoke to the back or
forward.


❑Elevators


❑Rudders
Control the yaw of the airplane.
Rudder permits the pilot to

move the tail of the aircraft left
or right by use of the rudder
pedals in the cockpit.


❑Rudders


❑Rudders


Pitch
Motion about the lateral axis
Controlled by the elevator
Roll
Motion about the longitudinal axis
Lateral Stability
Controlled by the ailerons
Yaw
Motion about the vertical axis
Controlled by the rudder

Axis Motion Stabilized by Control Pilot Control
Longitudinal Roll Wings Aileron Yoke twist left

or right
Lateral Pitch Horizontal Elevator Yoke forward
stabilizer or aft
Vertical Yaw Vertical Rudder Rudder pedals
stabilizer



❑Secondary effect of Ailerons


❑Secondary effect of Ailerons
8. Why do you normally apply rudder when applying aileron?


❑Secondary effect of Rudders


❑Secondary effect of Elevators
If the elevator is used to pitch the nose of the aircraft up, this has the
secondary effect of increasing the angle-of-attack of the wing and so
more lift is generated which will make the aircraft climb. However, at
the same time the change of attitude will increase the drag of the
aircraft which will tend to slow it down and cause it to descend. So,
provided the engine output remains the same, the secondary effects
of the elevator are to control the speed of the aircraft.


5. Aircraft flight control TRIM TAB

❑Trim tabs
TAILPLANE
ELEVATOR


❑Trim tabs
If the pilot has to maintain a backwards pressure on the control
column to maintain level flight. DOWNWARD FORCE TO KEEP
AIRCRAFT NOSE UP
By moving the trim tab down, the increase in angle of attack will
cause the elevator force to be counteracted.
SMALLER FORCE
DOWNWARD FORCE TO KEEP TO BALANCE
AIRCRAFT NOSE UP ELEVATOR FORCE


❑Trim tabs
TRIM
TABS

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Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3 Phần 4 Phần 5

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 2

1 hPa = 8,5 m. (28 Ft)

- 6,5° every 1000 m.

❑ Viscosity Đặc trưng cho ma sát của lưu chất.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

Pilot Handbook - FAA

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

FF = fuel flow by engine x Number of engines

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

Power is the rate of doing work, the amount of energy (ΔE)

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

PowerTotal = PowerInduced + PowerParasite

PowerInduced: is the power required to maintain enough lift to overcome

Powerparasite: is the power required to overcome the drag of the body.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

2. The basic concepts

2. The basic concepts

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

2. The basic concepts

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

2. The basic concepts

2. The basic concepts

2. The basic concepts

Prod/ Concept Part-21 A/C  5.7 T CS-23

Operation JAR OPS A/C  5.7 T CS-25

Maintenance Part-145 Engines/APU CS-E/APU

License Part-66 Propellers CS-P

Training Part-147 Very light A/C CS-VLA

2. The basic concepts

3. Basic mass limitations

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

A gust is a sudden change in the wind velocity. It can be broken down

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

3. Basic mass limitations

Because the aircraft was in level flight before the gust, L = W.

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations

A vertical gust, on the other hand,

u > 0: gust increase α.

Lgust Lgust CL  CLgust

3. Basic mass limitations

where: CLgust dCLgust dCL So u << V:

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

3. Basic mass limitations