Chuong 4

Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu
Dòng chuyển động không

nén được bao quanh cánh
hữu hạn & lý thuyết cánh 3D
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3

BIÊN DẠNG DOWNWASH AND DRAG POLAR
CÁNH HỮU HẠN INCLUDED DRAG
Phần 4 Phần 5
AIRCRAFT COMPONENT GROUND EFFECT
1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn



❑ Planform wing
5
GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân

❑ Planform wing
Hình dạng của cánh, khi nhìn từ trên cao nhìn xuống cánh, được gọi
là planform.
6

❑ Planform wing
1 số hình dạng cánh tiêu biểu:
• Cánh hình chiếu hình chữ nhật
Loại cánh này thường dùng cho máy bay có tốc độ thấp.
7

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh hình chiếu hình chữ nhật
Piper PA-38-112 Tomahawk
R8
8

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh hình chiếu dạng elip
9

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh hình chiếu dạng elip
Supermarine Spitfire
10

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh hình chiếu dạng khác (cánh sweep hoặc tapper)
11

❑ Planform wing
▪ Sweep:
X5 X29
▪ Taper:
Cessna 172
DC-8
12

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh delta
13

❑ Planform wing
• Cánh delta
Eurofighter Typhoon
Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde
14
15

❑ Diện tích cánh (Wing Area)
16

17

18

19

❑ Tỉ số dạng (Aspect ratio)
2
b
AR =
S
20

❑ Tỉ số thon cánh (Tapper ratio)
50 ft
What is the aircraft’s aspect ratio? = 25
2 ft
What is the aircraft’s planform? Tapered
21

❑ Tỉ số thon cánh (Tapper ratio)
ct
=
cr
22

Diheral angle (góc nhị diện)
23
Sweep angle (góc mũi tên): + về phía sau; – trước
24
25
Cánh xoắn về mặt hình hoc Xoắn về mặt khí động

-Độ cong không đổi -Đường cong thay đổi từ trong
-Thay đổi góc tấn ban đầu ra ngoài
→ cải thiện tách dòng khi góc -Góc tấn ban đầu không đổi
tấn lớn →tách dòng
→ Kết hợp cả hai cách sẽ tốt hơn
26
2. Downwash and included drag

Pressure imbalance on the top and
bottom surface:
⇒Flow near the wing-tips tend to
curl around the tips
• On the top surface: spanwise
flow from tip to root➔ streamlines
bend toward root
• On the bottom surface : spanwise
flow from root to tip➔ streamlines
bend toward tip
➔ Flows over finite wing are 3D:
different aerodynamic properties
from airfoil


The tendency for the flow to “leak”
around the wing tips has another
important effect on the aerodynamics of
the wing. This flow establishes a
Wing-tip vortices
circulatory motion that trails downstream
of the wing, that is, a trailing vortex.
Large airplanes (ex. B747), the tip
vortices can be powerful enough to
cause light airplanes (following to
closely) out of control.
The two vortices induced a velocity
component on downward direction at the
wing➔ downwash, denoted by the
symbol ω.









❑ Ramifications of Downwash


❑ ICAO wake turbulence category – base on Maximum Certificated
Takeoff Weight (MCTOW):
L (Light) aircraft
types of 7 000 kg (15
500 lb) or less.


M (Medium) aircraft
types less than 136
000 kg (300 000 lb)
and more than 7 000
kg (15 500 lb);


H (Heavy) aircraft
types of 136 000 kg
(300 000 lb) or more;


Super Heavy for

Airbus A380 with a
maximum take-off
mass in the order of
560 000 kg.




αgeometric: angle between direction of freestream
the and
velocity downwash
chord linecombines with the freestream velocity V∞ to produce a
αeffective
local relative
: angle windlocal
between which is canted
relative downward in the vicinity of each
wind and
chord line.section
airfoil Small of theαwing.
than geometric because of
downwash. This is the angle of attack actually
seen by the local airfoil section.
αinduced: difference between these two angles
Di Drag created by the presence
of downwash➔ induced drag
(drag due to lift) → CL < cl and
CD > cd
Downwash


▪ Total drag on a finite subsonic
wing in real life is the sum of:
Induced drag Di
Skin friction drag Df (due to viscous
effect) profile drag
Pressure drag Dp (flow separation
near trailing edge)
▪ At moderate angle of atttack,
profile drag on finite wing is
essentially the same as for its
airfoil section


Profile Drag Also called drag due to lift
Profile Drag coefficient relatively
constant with M∞ at subsonic
speeds
D = D friction + D pressure + Dinduced
D = D profile + Dinduced
Di D f + Dp Di
CD = cd , profile + = +
q S q S q S
May be calculated from
Look up
Inviscid theory:
(Infinite Wing )
Lifting line theory
From airfoil data
• The Biot-Savart Law

• Helmholtz’s vortex theorem
• Prandtl’s Classical Lifting-Line Theory
• With general wing: Fourier sine series
N
d ( y ) N
d
( y ) = 2bV  An sin n = 2bV  nAn cos n
1
dy 1 dy
Angle of attack equation:
2b N N
sin n 0
 ( y) = 
 c( 0 ) 1
An sin n 0 +  L =0 ( 0 ) +  nAn
1 sin  0


❑ Problem Model


❑ Problem Model


❑ Problem Model


▪ Total lift
b /2 b /2 b /2
L= 
− b /2
L '( y0 )dy0 = 
− b /2
 V ( y0 )dy0 =  V 
− b /2
( y0 )dy0
b /2
L 2
CL = = 
q S V S − b/2
( y0 )dy0
▪ Induced drag
Di ' = Li 'sin  i
b /2 b /2 b /2
Di = 
− b /2
Di '( y0 )dy0 = 
− b /2
L'i ( y0 )sin  i dy0  
− b /2
L'i ( y0 )i dy0
b /2 b /2
Di 2
Di =  V 
− b /2
( y0 ) i ( y0 )dy0  CD ,i = = 
q S V S − b/2
( y0 ) i ( y0 )dy0


❑ Elliptical Lift Distribution


Induced Drag:
2
C
CD ,i = L
 AR
➔ Important results
• CD,i : proportional to CL2
• CD,i : inversely proportional to AR


We saw that induced drag is a consequence of the presence of
the wing-tip vortices, which in turn are produced by the difference
in pressure between the lower and upper wing surfaces => Lift
and induced drag come from pressure difference on finite wing
➔ Induced drag is drag due to lift and intimately related to the
production of lift on a finite wing. Clearly, an airplane cannot
generate lift for free, induced drag is the price for the
generation of lift ➔ power required from an aircraft engine to
overcome induced drag is the power required to generate lift of
the aircraft
➔ CD,i ~ CL2 : induced drag coefficient increases rapidly as CL
increases. In high cruising speeds, induced drag is typically 25%
of total drag.

➔To reduce induced drag: highest possibie AR → high structural
strength
➔ AR is chosen from a compromise between conflicting
aerodynamic and structural requirements: the larger the AR→ the
larger are the bending moment at the wing root caused by the lift
distribution farther away from the root→ increase in internal structural
weight of the wing
➔ AR of conventional subsonic aicraft from 6 to 8


Consider a elliptical wing with no geometric twist   = constant
Consider a elliptical wing with no aerodynamic twist   L =0 = constant
L '(y) = q c ( y ) cl
The lift per unit span is given by:
cl = constant along the span.


We have:
L'
c( y) = (+)
q cl
In Equation (+), 𝑞∞ and cl are constant along the span. However, L’
varies elliptically along the span. Thus, Equation (+) dictates that for
such an elliptic lift distribution, the chord must vary elliptically along the
span; that is, for the conditions given above, the wing planform is
elliptical.


Supermarine Spitfire Supermarine Spitfire


❑ General Lift Distribution
Lift coefficient:
b /2 2 N 
2 2b
CL =
SV  ( y0 )dy0 =
S
 A  sin n sin  d
n
− b /2 1 0
b2
= A1 = A1 AR
S

 / 2 n = 1
0 sin n sin d =  0 n  1
CL depends only on the leading coefficient of the Fourier series
expansion.


Induced Drag coefficient:
  
2
 C2 2
 An 
N
A
CD ,i = A12 AR 1 +  n  n   =
N
(1 +  )

 = n  ;   0
L
  1  
A  AR
2
2  A1 
e: span efficiency factor e = (1 +  )−1
δ = 0 ( or e = 1): for the
elliptical lift distribution
C 2L
CD ,i = ⇒ minimum induced drag
e AR is the elliptical lift
Total drag of a finite wing: distribution
2
C
CD = cd + L
 eAR

Induced drag minimum but big
difficulty in manufacturing
Constant chord along span➔ easy

in manufacturing but increase in
induced drag
Compromise case: acceptable induced

drag (close to optimum) and easy in
manufacturing


❑ Effects of Aspect Ratio (AR)
▪ Strong effect of AR on
induced drag coefficient.
▪ weak effect of δ: 10%
difference in typical range
of tapered ratio
➔ Primary design factor for
minimizing induced drag is
large AR.
Induced drag factor δ as a function of taper ratio


❑ Finite wing generates induced drag
❑ Effect of finite wing is reduce the lift
slope
Comparison of the lift slope of an

airfoil and that of a finite wing
❑ Airfoil – lift slope ao=dcl/dα
αL=0 is the same for finite ❑ Finite wing – lift slope a= dC /dα.
L
and infinite wing Airfoil section see αeff= α-αi
❑ ➔ ao=dcl/dα= dCL/dαeff > a=dCL/dα


The values of a0 and a are related as follows
dCL
= a0
d ( − i )
C L = a0 ( − i ) + const
 CL 
C L = a0   −  + const (*)
  AR 
Differentiating Equation (*) with respect to α:
dCL a0
For elliptic wing
=a=
d 1+
a0
 AR

For a finite wing of general planform
a0
a=
a0 (1 +  )
1+
 AR
τ is a function of the Fourier coefficients An. Values of τ typically range
between 0.05 and 0.25.
Low AR: a≠a0
High AR: a≈a0


❑ Ảnh hưởng của wing planform


Aspect Ratio


Wing planform
(Oswarld’s efficiency)

3. Drag polar
Drag Polar : the drag coefficient is that it depends on lift coefficient
and the typical variations on Cl and Cd is called as Drag polar.
The Drag polar is very important in performance analysis of aircrafts.

3. Drag polar 100*CL
100*CD

4. Aircraft component
❑Five typical components

❑Exterior parts

❑Interior parts

❑Fuselage
• Main body of airplane
• Contains:
− Cockpit or flight deck
− Passenger compartment
− Cargo compartment
• Produces a little lift, but can also produce a lot of drag

❑Fuselage
• Generally constructed in two or more sections
• Carries accessories and other equipments
• Includes numerous access doors, inspection plates, landing wheel
wells, and other openings

❑Fuselage
Cockpit (or flight deck)
is the area,
usually near
the front of
an aircraft,
from which
a pilot
controls the
aircraft.

❑Fuselage
Cargo (or baggage compartment)
is used for loading baggage of the passengers.

❑Fuselage
Cabin
The portion of enclosed airplane intended for transporting passengers
or freight .

❑Fuselage
Cabin Intercommunication system
These include cabin lighting, cockpit/cabin announcements, door
status indication, emergency signals, non –smoking/fasten seat belt
signs, smoke detectors, cabin temperature, etc.

❑Fuselage
Passenger service unit
It contains reading lights, loudspeakers, illuminated signs and
automatically deployed oxygen masks and air conditioning.

❑Fuselage
Jump seat
A jump seat refers to an auxiliary seat can be located in cockpits or
passenger cabins for cabin crew members . Jump seats are normally
located near to emergency exits.

❑Fuselage
Slide raft
The part of the aircraft door/exit that holds the slide/ raft in a
compressed state. Slide raft is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an
aircraft quickly during emergency landing.

❑Empennage
Attached on the rear of the
fuselage is the tail group
called the empennage.
Provides stability and
control.
Consist of:
− Vertical Stabilizer
− Rudder
− Horizontal Stabilizer
− Elevators
Pilot Handbook - FAA

❑Empennage
Butterfly
empennage,
Fouga magister
Empennage, A380

❑Landing gear (or Undercarriage)
Consists of:
− Main gear
− Nose wheel and/or tail wheel
Main gear
Nose wheel
Tail wheel

❑Landing gear

❑Landing gear

❑Power plant (or Propulsion System)
• Provides thrust for the
airplane.
• Many different types of
engines.
− Piston engines and
propellers
− Turboprop
− Turbojet
− Turbofan
− Scram jet

❑Power plant (or Propulsion System)
PISTON (PROPELLER) TURBOPROP(PROPELLER TURBINE)
TURBOJET
TURBOFAN

❑Wing
• Most important lift-producing part of the aircraft
• Various design size and shape.
• May be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage
− High wing
− Mid wing
− Low wing
• The number of wings can also vary

❑Wing
Low wing
Mid wing
High wing

4. Aircraft component Biplane

❑Wing
Monplane
Triplane

RECTANGULAR TAPERED
❑Wing
SWEPT
DELTA

❑Wing
1. Winglet
2. Low Speed Aileron
3. High Speed Aileron
4. Flap track fairing
5. Krüger flaps
6. Slats
7. Three slotted inner flaps
8. Three slotted outer flaps
9. Spoilers
10. Spoilers-Air brakes

❑Winglet
Sharklets is ‘Airbus' designation

for winglets.

❑Winglet

❑Wing fence (boundary layer fences and potential fences)
Giữ cho dòng chảy luôn từ LE→TE

❑Vortex Generator
▪ Small, low Aspect Ratio airfoils

mounted in pairs at 90o on wing
surfaces
▪ Produces strong vortex around
end = pulls air back onto wing
surface
▪ → delays airflow separation
▪ Pair mounting = pairs work together
for greater effectiveness

❑Wing fence (boundary layer fences and potential fences)
Giữ cho dòng chảy luôn từ LE→TE

❑Spoiler

❑Drag Devices
These devices may be located
at the trailing edges of the
wings, or they may protrude
from the aircraft’s fuselage upon
activation by the pilot.
These devices may be called
dive brakes, air brakes, dive
flaps, or drag parachutes. Their
purpose is to produce a
significant amount of drag
without affecting the airfoil’s lift.

❑Drag Devices

5. Ground effect
To explain ground effect we must first start by talking about induced
drag
Induced drag is created from the pressure differential between the
upper and lower surface of the wing and creates
wing tip vortices
In flight these vortices travel from the
bottom surface of the wing to the top

5. Ground effect
If the wing is close to the ground, approximately half of the wing span,
the wing tip vortices are deflected. This deflection reduces the amount
of induced drag.
• More vertical lift, which opposes weight

• Less rearward lift, which reduces drag
• Smaller vortices and less downwash, which reduces drag

5. Ground effect
Ground Effect is the
name given to the
positive influence on the
lifting characteristics of
the horizontal surfaces of
an aircraft wing when it is
close to the ground. This
effect is a consequence
of the distortion of the
airflow below such
surfaces attributable to
the proximity of the
ground. It applies to both
fixed and rotary wing
aircraft.

5. Ground effect
Cessna 172

5. Ground effect

Ground effect changes drag and lift

5. Ground effect
❑Ground effect on take off

5. Ground effect
❑Ground effect on landing
During landing ground effect is most significant and unavoidable
Ground effect is the main reason why the aeroplane floats for an
extended distance during the flare, any excess speed during landing
will aggravate the float

5. Ground effect
❑Ground effect on landing

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Học viện Hàng Không Việt Nam – Khoa Không lưu

Dòng chuyển động không

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 1

Phần 1 Phần 2 Phần 3

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 3

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 4

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

Piper PA-38-112 Tomahawk

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

Sweep angle (góc mũi tên): + về phía sau; – trước

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

1. Biên dạng cánh hữu hạn

Cánh xoắn về mặt hình hoc Xoắn về mặt khí động

→ Kết hợp cả hai cách sẽ tốt hơn

2. Downwash and included drag

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 27

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GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 28

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2. Downwash and included drag

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2. Downwash and included drag

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2. Downwash and included drag

Super Heavy for

GVHD: Nguyễn Ngọc Hoàng Quân 40

2. Downwash and included drag