2-Mission and Weight@aviation PDFs

Airplane Design I
Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation
1396 - 1 A. Banazadeh
‫ورودیها‬
‫‪-------‬‬
‫‪ -1‬شاخصه های عملکردی و مأموریتی‬ ‫تخمین اولیه وزنها‬
‫(نیاز بازار یا خواست مشتری)‬ ‫(وزن خالی‪ ،‬برخاست و سوخت)‬ ‫ارائه سه طرح با سه تکنولوژی‬
‫تحلیل ابتدایی عملکردی‬ ‫آنالیز هزینه‬

‫تخمین سطح بال ‪ ،‬تعداد و نوع موتورها‪،‬‬
‫ضرایب ایرودینامیکی‬
‫چیدمانی خارجی اولیه‬ ‫ترسیم دقیق سه نما‬
‫شکل و موقعیت بال‪ ،‬دُم‪ ،‬چرخ ها و ‪...‬‬
‫تخمین ابعاد دم افقی و عمودی‬ ‫بررسی نهایی الزامات عملکردی‬

‫پروفیل مأموریت ‪‬‬ ‫طراحی پارامترهای هندسی بال‬
‫‪ -2‬قیدهای هندسی حاکم بر طراحی‬ ‫تعیین موقعیت و نوع ارابه فرود‬ ‫بررسی الزامات آییننامه‬
‫‪ -3‬تجهیزات پروازی و کمک پروازی‬ ‫چیدمانی کابین مسافرین و خلبان‬
‫‪ -4‬قیدهای فناوری‬ ‫تخمین مشخصات ایرودینامیکی‬
‫تخمین وزن و باالنس‬
‫تخمین حجم سوخت‬
‫تجمیع سیستم پیشرانش‬
‫طراحی سطوح کنترلی‬ ‫طراحی سازه ای‬
‫تحلیلهای پایداری‬
‫‪Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation‬‬

Airbus A380 Engine Failure 2017
forced to land in a remote part of eastern Canada
GP7200 engines

‫پروفیل مأموریت یک تصویر ‪ 2‬بعدی از شرایط دقیق پروازی هواپیما‬
‫‪Mission Profile‬‬ ‫مانند ارتفاع‪ ،‬سرعت‪ ،‬زمان‪ ،‬بارگذاری و سایر اطالعات عملکردی الزم‬
‫?‪What the airplane has to do‬‬ ‫برای تعیین وضیعت هواپیما در مراحل مختلف پروازی آن است که‬
‫بدون آن امکان سایزینگ وزنی وجود ندارد‬
‫نمونه پروفیل مأموریت یک جنگنده‬

‫‪Mission Profile‬‬
‫اطالعات حاصل از پروفیل مأمویت به منظور‬
‫طراحی و توسعه شکل ایرودینامیکی‪،‬‬
‫سیستم پیشران و اجزای وزنی هواپیما مورد‬
‫استفاده قرار می گیرد که در نهایت منجر به‬
‫تعیین خصوصیات دقیق عملکردی پرنده‬
‫میشود‬
‫خصوصیات عملکردی پرنده با تعریف درست پروفیل مأموریت در ارتباطند‬

Mission Profile
‫شماتیک پروفیل مأموریت یک جت جنگنده چند منظوره‬

Mission Requirement
First Published
Mission Requirement, 1907
Signal Corps, 1860

Support for the command and
control of combined arms forces
(communications and information) systems

Fighter: Interception Mission, Hi-Lo-Hi
‫ انجام مأموریت و یا‬،‫ به مفهوم پرواز هواپیما در ارتفاع بهینه کروز تا رسیدن به هدف‬Hi-Lo-Hi ‫عبارت‬
.‫درگیری در ارتفاع پایین و بازگشت مجددا در ارتفاع بهینه کروز است‬
35,000 ft
Cruise Out (Optimum Mach and Altitude)
Configuration: (34,000 ft)

2 …External Tanks 33,000 ft
4 …Bombs
2 …Missiles Cruise Back 31,000 ft
1 …Gun 29,000 ft
Climb
Combat
7 minutes, 35 nm Radius
Reserves: S.L.
15 minutes (Loiter at S.L.) Mach 0.8
plus 5% of T/O Fuel
Start & Taxi (3 min)
440 nmi

UAV: Surveillance Mission

UAV: Close Range Support
Xition Transition
HOGE Hover Out of Ground Effect
Vbr Velocity for best range

Mission Profile: Jet Transport
3 4
Loiter
9 10
Loiter
Climb 5
2nd Climb
11
8
Missed approach
0 1 2
6 7 12 13
Taxi and take off Landing and taxi Land and taxi
Tehran Designed Range 7700 nm New York 200nm
 Pax 300
 Cruise Mach 0.81 For more, refer to chp. 10 of fixed wing
 Cruise Altitude 41000 ft performance: standard mission profiles
 Take off field Length 7500 ft U.S. NAVAL TEST PILOT SCHOOL,
GERALD L. GALLAGHER

Mission Profile: Design World Air Distance
Mission Legs  Speed & Altitude Some

(Airport Specifications, Runway Constraints) Profile Advantages
Wider destination choices
Airworthiness Constraints High cabin volume (comfort)
35,000 ft Cruise Out (1500 nm, M=0.8)

Descent
No. of Passengers,
Loiter No. of Crew
Climb 0.3 hr
Taxi &Takeoff FAR/JAR …
4000 ft
Range
Main Alternate
Destination Destination
Market Analysis: Capacity (Pax Growth), Fuel Price
≈ 140% increase for twin-aisle planes (wide-body) in 2014 (Aerospace America)
Modern and Fuel Efficient
Two successful single aisle family: A320, B737

Common Reasons for Airplane Upgrade

GLOBAL FLEET MARKET FORECAST SUMMARY
Source: Oliver Wyman

2017-2027 AVERAGE AGE OF FLEET BY REGION
Source: Oliver Wyman
Boeing
CURRENT
MARKET
OUTLOOK
2016–2035

Design Improvement (Subsonic Transports)
People are looking toward an environmentally friendly aircraft
Improvement
Weight Fuel Noise Nox Field Length
Technology Consumption Emission
Flow Control Over Wing and Body
Active Engine/Aircraft Control
Composite Material
Oil-free Bearings in engine
High-Bypass Geared Turbofan Engine
Propulsion Airframe Aeroacoustics
Landing Gear Fairings
Cabin Shield
Modern High Lift Devices
Recyclable Materials
Alternate Fuel

Case Study: A380

Case Study: A380
Variants
Primary Customers
Specification (380-800)
Max. Takeoff Weight (MTOW) = 1,250,000 lb (569,000 kg)
Reference Wing Area (S) = 9,095 ft2 (845 m2)
Cruise Mach Number = 0.85 (up to 0.89)
Number of Passengers = 525 (3-class), 853 (economy)
Range (full passenger payload) = 8,300 nm (15,400 km)
Stall Speed (Vstall) = 121 kt (224 km/h)
Thrust to Weight Ratio (T/W) = 0.23
Clmax(TO) = 2.6
Unit cost = US$ 430 million

Case Study: A380
Motivation and Requirements (Airbus)
Customer Requirement:
50% less cabin noise than currently flying 747-400

Larger windows and overhead bins

Case Study: A380

Weight Estimation ‫تخمین اولیه وزن بر اساس پروفیل مأموریت‬
‫اساس پرواز غلبه بر وزن است‬
‫و لذا وزن قبل از شکل اهمیت‬ Anything more than 0.5% of total
‫دارد‬ weight should be accounted for
WTO = WOE + WPL + WF (Wused + Wreserved)
WOE = WE + WTFO + WCrew ~45 minutes of operation at

maximum continuous power
WE = WME + WFE
Wreserved = % of Wused
WTFO = Trapped Fuel and Oil = % of WTO
WME = Manufacturing Empty
WFE = Fixed Equipment

Manufacturing empty weight
Depends on:
Category and Configuration
Mission (Flight Envelope, Loading)
Manufacturing process and Technology
Material (Metal, composites)
Fixed Equipment
• Systems (APU, Air Conditioning, Avionics…)
• Interior Furniture

Payload Weight ‫وزن محموله به طور مشخص تابع مأموریت است‬

Weight Estimation
1- Determine: WPL & WCrew

2- Guess: WTO From Similar Airplanes
3- Determine : WF
4- Find Out: WOE = WTO – WF – WPL
5- Find Out: WE = WOE – WCrew – WTFO WTFO =~ 0.5 % of WTO
6- Find Out Acceptable: WE Linear Relationship between Log(WTO) and Log(WE)

Log(WTO) = A + B Log(WE)
Change your guess for WT.O.

WE & WE
0.5% Tolerance

Weight Estimation
1- Determining WPL & WCrew
According to Mission Analysis  Payload Type is found (Passenger, Cargo, Missile, …)
Commercial Airplanes 
Crew (Cockpit, Cabin) …… CS 23.25 or CS 25.785
170 lb/passenger, 30-40 lb/baggage (Short, Medium or Long Range)
175 lb/crew, 30 lb/ baggage (190 lb/for utility and acrobatic category)
Military Airplanes 
200 lb/crew
In FAR 23 certified airplanes crew weights are frequently calculated as payload

Weight Estimation
2- Guessing WTO
Compare similar airplanes with the same mission  Jane’s or Web
No similar airplane  Arbitrary Guess!

Weight Estimation %10 Required Flight Time + 200 n.m. alternate with 30 min. loiter
3- Determining : WF Mission Fuel Weight

WF = Wused + Wreserved (FAR part 121.643 and 645)
Reserved Fuel (More Loiter Time, Alternate Airport, Mission Requirement )  % Wused
Fuel Weight Estimation  From Fuel Fraction Method (Based on Statistics) = Wi/Wi-1
‫ احتمال عبور از باند و تکرار فرآیند نشستن و موارد‬،‫ ترافیک هوایی مقصد‬،‫ سوخت مورد نیاز پرواز با توجه به شرایط باد‬،‫در عمل‬
.‫خاص عملیاتی محاسبه میگردد‬
Cruise
W5 Loiter
W4
W6
Engine Start - Warm Up

Descent
W1 Climb/ Acceleration
W7 W8
W3 Landing Rotation Taxi and Shut Down
W2 T.O. Rotation
WT.O. Taxi “Mission Segments for Arbitrary Airplane”
Calculating Mission Fuel Weight:
WT .O.  WFUsed  W8
1  WFUsed / WT .O.  W8 / WT .O.
7
1  WFUsed / WT .O.  M ff  (W1 / WT .O. ) (Wi 1 / Wi )
i 1
1  M ff  WFUsed / WT .O.
 WFUsed  (1  M ff )WT .O.
If there is weight drop in Wi :
Wi  WDrop
Wi 1 / Wi Corrected  [1  (1  Wi 1 / Wi ) ]
Wi
regular weight drop ratio
WF = Wused + Wreserved (% Wused )

Fuel Fraction Method: Fraction Table

Fuel Fraction for Climb-Acceleration (Nicolai)
،‫در اعداد ماخ باال به علت افزایش ضریب درگ‬

Wf/Wi
‫نسبت مصرف سوخت جهت رسیدن به سرعتهای‬
‫متفاوت متغیر و به صورت غیر خطی افزایش مییابد‬
Light Weight Fighter
Drag
Rise

Fuel Fractions: For Cruise Climb (W4/W3)
W4/W3 W4/W3
Breguet Equation for Endurance
For Propeller Airplane
For Jet Airplane
Find From Mission Profile (Altitude, R/C)

Use the Average Values
For Efficiencies (cj) Use the next Table !

Maximum L/D versus Mach Number for Cruise (Nicolai)
Cruise or Cruise Climb L/D is usually between 86%-94% of Maximum L/D
1
( L / D) max 
2 CD0 K

Case Study: CDo
Boeing BWB
Antonov An-2

Case Study: Maximum L/D

Fuel Fractions: For Cruise and Loiter (W5/W4 or W6/W5)
W5/W4 W6/W5
Breguet Equation for Range Breguet Equation for Loiter
For Propeller Airplane For Propeller Airplane
w : lb cP : lb / Hphr V : mph Rcr : miles

For Jet Airplane For Jet Airplane
W fuel 1
 1 Rcr
W4  D
V L Rcr and Vcr or Eltr and Vltr are found From Mission Profile
cj
e
w : lb c j : lb / lbhr V : knots Rcr : n.mi.
Design Parameters: CJ or C p or L / D

Performance review

Decision Data: For Cruise and Loiter (W5/W4 or W6/W5)

‫با کمک نمودا تکنولوژی یک ارتباط منطقی میان وزن برخاست هواپیما خود با وزن خال احتمالی آن برقرار کنید‬
‫این نمودار بیانگر اینست که با تکنولوژی موجود در مواد‪ ،‬طرح سازه و ساخت‪ ،‬تحمل حد مشخصی از بار وزن‬
‫مطابق استاندارد در پرواز امکانپذیر خواهد بود!‬
‫)‪6- Find Out Acceptable: WE (Based on Manufacturing Data‬‬

‫‪Linear Relationship between Log(WTO) and Log(WE):‬‬ ‫)‪Log(WTO) = A + B Log(WE‬‬

Log(WTO) = A + B Log(WE)

Weight Estimation: Technology Trend

Empty Weight Fraction for Current Aircraft
Fixed means payload

Trend of Empty weight with Take-off Gross Weight
Your category!
y = 0.9235x + 0.5641
Log(WTO)
Log(WE)
Weight Estimation: If you use composite material
Reduce acceptable WE (from your data base) if composite material is selected or you think
you may use better material, smarter design or improved manufacturing process!
Finally: WE & WE Change your guess of WTO !
Do the cycle until less than 0.5% error in WE is found

Example:
CJ 0.5 L/ D 16 Range
CJ 0.6 L/ D 18 Endurance
Range for Alternate

Example: (Continued)
No reserve fuel is requested
WOE 72730 lb
WE 72730 1025(crew weight ) 0.005 130000(TFO) 71055

Example: (Continued)
WE Tech 70000
From Iterative Process

Answer is found as:
WE Tech WE 1055 Reduce WTOGuess

Parameter Pros Cons
Cj Wf Reduction, Technology,
Performance Acquisition Cost, …
L/D Performance Feasibility, Cost, …
Weight

Sensitivity Analysis: Airplane growth factors
Both for Mission and Technology parameters
Sensitivity of T.O. Weight to small changes in:
WT .O. WT .O. WT .O. WT .O. WT .O. WT .O. WT .O.

WPL WE R E L/D Cj , Cp p
Separately for Cruise and Loiter

By knowing growth factors you can:
1- Check your decision penalty!
2- Find out which decision parameter is dominant and which one is less!
3- Refining the mission
4- Refining the aerodynamic and propulsion system guestimates

Sensitivity Analysis
d y
WE  WTO  WF  WPL  Wtfo  Wcrew [ Log h ( y )] =
dx y Ln (h)
WF  (1  M ff )WTO  WFres
WFres  M res (1  M ff )WTO
Wtfo  M tfoWTO Mres & Mtfo are Constant Factors
C  (1  (1  M res )(1  M ff )  M tfo )

D  (WPL  Wcrew )
WE  CWTO  D
log WTO  A  B log(CWTO  D) Use this in your iterative process in weight sizing!
Sensitivity Analysis of " y " parameter :
(1/ WTO )WTO / y  B(WTO C / y  CWTO / y  D / y ) / (CWTO  D)
The main Equation WTO / y  {B(WTO ) 2 C / y  BWTO D / y}/{C (1  B)WTO  D}

in Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity Analysis: (Relative to WTO or WE)
WT .O. 1
BWT .O.{D C (1 B )WT .O.} lb / lb
WPL
1lb of WPL ? lb of WT .O.
From Log(WTO) = A + B Log(WE)
WT .O. 1
BWT .O.[inv log{(log WT .O. A) / B}]
WE
1lb of WE ? lb of WT .O.
Case Study:
WT .O.
3.65 1lb increase in WPL 3.65 lb increase in WT .O.
WPL

Sensitivity Analysis: (Relative to Other Parameters)
WT .O. 2 1
B(WTO ) [C (1 B)WTO D] C/ y
y
C / y (1 M res ) M ff / y
M ff / y M ff (Wi / Wi 1 ) (Wi 1 / Wi ) / y 7
All Remaining Terms

M ff  (W1 / WT .O. ) (Wi 1 / Wi )
i 1
ln( x)  log e x
For Cases involving Wi 1 / Wi Depend on Range
(Wi 1 / Wi ) / y (Wi 1 / Wi ) R / y
1 1
Jet: R Rc j (V L / D) Propeller: R Rc p (375 p L / D)
For Cases involving Wi 1 / Wi Depend on Endurance

(Wi 1 / Wi ) / y (Wi 1 / Wi ) E / y
1 1
Jet: E Ec j ( L / D) Propeller: E EVc p (375 p L / D)
Sensitivity Analysis: (Relative to R, E, V, L/D, Cp, Cj, hp)
Concluding Equations:
For Cases involving Wi 1 / Wi Depend on Range ...... Cruise

WT .O.
F R/ y
y
For Cases involving Wi 1 / Wi Depend on Endurance ....... Loiter

WT .O.
F E/ y
y
2 1
F B(WTO ) {C (1 B)WTO D} (1 M res ) M ff

Sensitivity Analysis: Factors
Propeller Jet
(Statute mile)
1 NM = 1,852 meters 1 SM = 1,609 meters

‫‪Case Study:‬‬
‫‪WT .O.‬‬ ‫چنانچه فاز گشت زنی در تعریف مأموریت ‪ 0.5‬ساعت کاهش‬
‫‪15000 lb / hr‬‬
‫‪E‬‬ ‫یابد وزن برخاست ‪ 7500‬پوند کاهش خواهد یافت!‬
‫‪WT .O.‬‬ ‫چنانچه بتوان راندمان ملخ را ‪ 0.1‬ارتقاء داد حدود ‪ 5700‬پوند‬
‫‪57000 lb‬‬ ‫صرفه جویی در وزن برخاست خواهیم داشت!‬
‫‪P‬‬
‫چنانچه بتوان شکل ایرودینامیکی را به گونه ای بهبود بخشید که نسبت‬

‫‪WT .O.‬‬ ‫‪ L/D‬افزایش یابد بازهم ‪ 9000‬پوند صرفه جویی در وزن برخاست خواهیم‬
‫‪9000 lb‬‬ ‫داشت!‬
‫‪L/D‬‬
‫این پارامتر معموالً یک پارامتر اساسی و غالب در طراحی مفهومی محسوب‬
‫می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪WT .O.‬‬ ‫توجه کنید که برخی از حساسیت سنجی ها تنها از جنبه ریاضی معنا دارند!!!‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫سرعت را نمی توان تنها و به صورت خالص تغییر داد زیرا بر روی ‪ L/D‬و ‪ Cp‬نیز اثر می گذارد‪.‬‬
‫توجه داشته باشید که به علت استفاده از معادله تکنولوژی‪ ،‬حساسیتسنجی تنها در نزدیکی اعداد مأموریتی‬
‫معنای فیزیکی دارد و با دور شدن از آن‪ ،‬اعتبار نتایج خطی کاهش مییابد‬

Correct your Mission Profile
35,000 ft Cruise Out (1600 nm, M=0.82)

No. of Passengers,
Descent No. of Crew
Loiter FAR/JAR …
Climb 0.2 hr
Taxi &Takeoff
4000 ft
Range
Main Alternate
Destination Destination

First Cycle:
Mission Profile
Weight Sizing
Sensitivity Analysis
WTO WPL WE

Any Question?
Dassault Group, Aerospace & Defense
Dassault Rafale Dassault nEUROn
CATIA (Computer-Aided Three Dimensional Interactive Application)

SolidWorks
3DVIA
Case Study
Dassault Falcon 900 (LX), Business jet, Dassault Aviation
The only trijet engine family in production
4,750 nautical miles nonstop, small runway and high altitude, composite materials
Leading-edge slats and double-slotted Fowler flaps, Blended winglets
First flight : 1996

Primary users : French, Japan, Nigerian, Malaysia Landing Distance: 2415 ft
Number built > 200 Maximum speed: Mach 0.87
Developed from : Dassault Falcon 900
Variants : Dassault Falcon 2000 ,Dassault Falcon 7X Capacity: < 15 passengers
Price : $ 18,000,000  $ 40,000,000 Service ceiling: 15,500 m (51,000 ft)
Case Study
Antonov, Aerospace & Defense
1946
More than 20,000 aircraft
An-72
An-70
An-225
An-2-100
Case Study
An-158 (orders reduced to 58), 2010 first flight
Variant of An-148 with extended fuselage (29 m  34 m and about 1 Ton heavier)
1 Class 99 Pax
Wingtip added
Range 1,600 mile (2500 km)
Fuel consumption less than 2 Tons per hour
Two turbofan engines, Progress D-436 (67.0 kN)
Max Take off weight 44 Tons
Cruise Speed 870 km/hr
Cruise Alt 40000 ft
$M 28
Case Study

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Airplane Design I

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

‫تحلیل ابتدایی عملکردی‬ ‫آنالیز هزینه‬

‫تخمین ابعاد دم افقی و عمودی‬ ‫بررسی نهایی الزامات عملکردی‬

‫‪Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation‬‬

forced to land in a remote part of eastern Canada

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

‫نمونه پروفیل مأموریت یک جنگنده‬

‫‪Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation‬‬

‫خصوصیات عملکردی پرنده با تعریف درست پروفیل مأموریت در ارتباطند‬

‫‪Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation‬‬

‫شماتیک پروفیل مأموریت یک جت جنگنده چند منظوره‬

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Signal Corps, 1860

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Configuration: (34,000 ft)

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Tehran Designed Range 7700 nm New York 200nm

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Legs  Speed & Altitude Some

35,000 ft Cruise Out (1500 nm, M=0.8)

Modern and Fuel Efficient

Two successful single aisle family: A320, B737

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Flow Control Over Wing and Body

Active Engine/Aircraft Control

Oil-free Bearings in engine

High-Bypass Geared Turbofan Engine

Propulsion Airframe Aeroacoustics

Landing Gear Fairings

Modern High Lift Devices

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

50% less cabin noise than currently flying 747-400

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

WTO = WOE + WPL + WF (Wused + Wreserved)

WOE = WE + WTFO + WCrew ~45 minutes of operation at

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

1- Determine: WPL & WCrew

6- Find Out Acceptable: WE Linear Relationship between Log(WTO) and Log(WE)

Change your guess for WT.O.

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

1- Determining WPL & WCrew

According to Mission Analysis  Payload Type is found (Passenger, Cargo, Missile, …)

In FAR 23 certified airplanes crew weights are frequently calculated as payload

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

3- Determining : WF Mission Fuel Weight

Engine Start - Warm Up

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation

،‫در اعداد ماخ باال به علت افزایش ضریب درگ‬

Light Weight Fighter

Mission Requirements & Weight Estimation