UNIT 1 Chapter 1

Minelyn Cochingco
Science, Technology,
& Society
UNIT 1
General Concepts and Historical
Developments
Chapter 1
Historical Antecedents of Science and
Technology
Presentation title 2
Throughout history, science and
technology have continuously
provided humankind with various
breakthroughs and inventions that
heavily influence the way people
think, act, and live.
In The World: Ancient Age
Science comes from the latin word
scientia meaning “knowledge.”
Science as a systematized body of

knowledge for it urges people to
find answers to questions thay have
regrding the things around them.
Science is about knowing how the

world works, which is why everyone
is involved in its study.
MESOPOTAMIA
The first recorded civilizations of the
world around 3300-750 BC.
The region now corresponds to most

parts of present-day Iraq, Iran, Syria,
Kuwait, and Turkey
From the Greeks, means “between two

rivers,” which signifies its location within
the Tigris-Eupharates river system.
Among early civilizations that flourished

in Mesopotamia were the Sumerian,
Babylonian, and Assyrian civilization.
Sumerian Civilization
Sumer, now modern-day Iraq, is
the earliest known civilization in
Mesopotamia.
The Sumerians called

themselves “the black-headed
people” and their hand, in
cuneiform script, as “the land of
the black-headed people.”
They were known for building a

walled city-state and their many
inventions are still widely used
Presentation title today. 7
Sumerians are known:
• Inventing the cuneiform, one of the earliest systems of writing, at around 3000
BC. It is characterized by wedge-shaped scripts pressed into day tablets. This
system of writing was adopted by other civilizations until the development of
the Phoenician script.
• Number System. It was helpful in their conduct of trade. Main base of 60 and
auxiliary base 10.
• Sailboat. Made of planks of wood and sails made of cloth. Allows them to
travel by sea to trade goods with other neighboring civilizations.
• Wheel. First used for pottery in 3500 BC and later for transportation in
chariots in 3200 BC.
• First Astronomers. They observed the phases of the moon and the
movements of the planets and stars.
Referring to the phases of the moon, they were
able to develop a lunar calendar that became
the basis for having 12 lunar months in a year.
With the invention of sailboats and wheels,

Sumer served as one of history’s earliest
trading grounds through their production of
textiles, leather goods, and jewelry.
Babylonian Civilization
Babylonian
• Served as the center of Mesopotamian civilization for nearly two

millennia.
• Babyloan is known to be derived from bav-il or bav-ilim meaning “Gates
of the Gods.”
• The many biblical references to Babyloan reveal much about from the
time of Hammurabi in 2000 BC to its downfall around 500 BC.
Babylon is first mentioned in Genesis 10,
an account that traces the genealogy of
Noah’s three sons. According to this,
Noah’s son Ham became the father of
Cush, who became the father of Nimrod,
who became a great warrior and built a
kingdom that included the city of
Babylon.
Genesis 11. The story of the Tower of Babel, a
structure that the Babylonians wanted to build “with
its tops in the heavens” to make a name for
themselves. God disrupted the tower’s construction
by confusing the language of the workers so that they
could no longer understand one another. The tower
was never finished and people, having different
languages, spread out to different parts of the world.
References to Babylon in the Biblical books of Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezequiel, Daniel, and the Revelations prompted
the expedition of German archaeologist Robert Koldewery,
who directed the excavation of Babylon in 1899. The
excavation provided a glimpse of the ancient city.
1. He was able to unearth the Temple of Etemenanki, which

he believed to have inspired the biblical story of the Tower
of Babel, and the Nebuchadnezzar’s palaces.
2. Koldewey’s team also discovered a
basement with 14 large rooms with stone
arch ceilings believed to be the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon.
It is believed that the gardens were
King Nebuchadnezzar II’s gift to his
homesick wife, Amytis.
Babylonian
• Adopted the number system of the Sumerians and they were known for advancing
the number system. Archaeologists discovered the different ways that the
Babylonians used mathematics in their daily lives in cuneiform tablets. Topics
concerning fractions, square and cube formulas, and the Pythagorean Theorem were
found written on the tablets.
• Babylonian priests were known to have observed the sun, moon, and stars to make
astronomical calculations and predictions that they recorded on clay tablets. In some
temples, they were able to record the phases of Venus.
• They derived a lunar calendar similar to that of the Sumerians and divided one year
into 12 months with each month divided into an alternate of 29 and 30 days.
• The Babylonian invented sundials and water clocks to determine time.
Africa
Africans excel in various fields such:
1. Agriculture (coffee, palm oil, sugarcane, cotton, African rice, and sorghum),
2. Metallurgy (bow, arrows, knives, and axes)
3. Engineering (buildings and monuments)
4. Textile production
5. Medicine (plants for anesthetics, analgesics, antidotes, anthelmintics, and
antimicrobials)
Ancient Egypt
o One of Africa’s most famous civilizations was the ancient Egyptian civilization, which
was born along the Nile River, and provided rich soil for agriculture.
o The land of Egypt was known as Kemet, meaning “Black Land”, because of the rich dark
soil along the river. Nile helped in cultivating crops, such as wheat and flax.
o One of the first scientific innovations of this civilization was the construction of a canal
for irrigation and other agricultural needs.
o Egyptians also made use of and further developed the plow to make farming easier in
cultivating the soil for the planting of different crops.
o They also developed the shadoof, an irrigation tool composed of a pole and a bucket
used to lift water.
Ancient Egypt
Egyptians are also known for inventing breath mints from frankincense, myrrh, and
cinnamon made into pellets and discovering honey.
The Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt was rich in architectural feats.
a. Pyramids. Served as tombs for the kings and queens of Egypt. Djoser, pharaoh of the
third dynasty of the Old Kingdom, build the first Step Pyramid in Saqqara designed
by Imhotep his architect and physician. The great pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and
Menkaure were also constructed during the reign of Djoser.
b. Great Sphinx of Gaza. A 20-meter-high statue made of white limestone depicting a
reclining sphinx with a lion’s body and a human head.
Ancient Egypt
o Papyrus. A material made from the pith of the papyrus plant that is similar to paper
was used by the Egyptians as a writing surface. It was also used to make mats,
baskets, rafts, ropes, and more.
o Ancient Egypt was also responsible for cosmetics inventions including wigs and make-
up.
o Developed medicines to treat different kinds of illnesses. As a physician, Imhotep
wrote texts describing more than 200 diseases and their corresponding treatments.
Indus Valley Civilization
• Indus Valley was an ancient civilization located in present-day Pakistan and

Northwest India. It was a Bronze-Age civilization and the largest of the four
urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia, and China.
• Indus Valley civilization – the 4,600-year-old city of Mohenjo-Daro proved
that Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Egypt were not the only ancient civilization.
• Introduced new techniques of metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper, and lead) and
handicraft (seal carving and carnelian products).
• Their cities are well known for having well-organized and baked brick
houses and clusters of large non-residential buildings, a complex drainage
system, and a sophisticated water storage system.
Indus Valley Civilization
• People who reside also developed accurate weighting systems and

measurements for trade and a writing system consisting of 250 to 500
characters.
• Also known for its advanced agricultural practices. People grew crops
such as barley, mustard, peas, and even cotton. They also had
domesticated animals that included dogs, cats, cattle, fowls, camels, and
buffaloes.
Ancient China
• Is known to be one of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations in the world.

• “China” derived from the Sanskrit Cina from the name Qin Dynasty,
pronounced “Chin”. The Greeks and the Romans called China Seres meaning
“the land where the silk comes from.”
• China was the first to record astronomical phenomena such as the solar
eclipse and one of the few to witness a guest star supernova in 1054 BC, that
created the Crab Nebula.
• The Chinese also developed a counting device called the abacus sometimes
between 1000 BC and 500 BC. It was used for basic and complex
mathematical operations.
Ancient China
• Responsible for introducing and developing medicinal treatments including acupuncture and
herbal medicine.
Acupuncture is the practice of relieving pain, healing illnesses, and improving the general
metal needles at precise points into the skin and tissue.
• Under Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)
Paper
Movable printing press
• Another famous invention from China was porcelain.
Porcelain is a type of ceramic clay pottery used to craft vases, plates, cups, and
decorative furniture which were treasured by other nations at the time of its invention. It has a
hard surface and is made from special clay that turns crystalline when heated.
Ancient China
• Silk originated in China as early as the Chinese Neolithic period. It is

produced by silkworms that feed on mulberry leaves and create the
cocoon where they will later develop.
• Gunpowder, initially used for fireworks, was also one of the popular
creations of Chinese Taoist alchemists who mixed sulfur, charcoal, and
potassium nitrate in hopes of creating a potion for immortality in 142
AD. Later on used in the Mongol Wars of the 10th century and, ironically
European domination of China in the 1800s.
Aegean Civilization
Ancient Greece
• Refers to a time between 800 BC and 500 BC after the so-called Greek
Dark Ages.
• Greek is a country in Southeastern Europe also known as Hellas or
Ellada, which is “Greece” in Greek.
• Early inhabitants of Greece relied on trade. Various commodities were
traded such as fruits, vegetables, wines, and herbs.
• It is also known for its achievements in politics, art, philosophy, and
science. It vastly democratized education, thus nurturing great
philosophers and scientists.
Ancient Greece
Greek Philosophy is undeniably the most renowned contribution of the Greeks to Western
Civilization.
• Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates questioned human existence and how the world came to be. These
philosophers and many who came after them denied the explanation of religion, superstition, and
myths in decoding the human condition and the mechanisms of the world.
• Pythagoras, who was also a philosopher, was best known for the Pythagorean Theorem, which was
used to measure distance and space. He also believed that “number” is the only objective concept in
the understanding of reality.
• Thales of Miletus, regarded as the first Western philosopher and mathematician, became popular for
his precise prediction of the solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC. He is also the founder of the Milesian
School.
• Hippocrates, considered the “Father of Western Medicine,” made big leaps in the field of medicine by
observing wounded soldiers, the veins and arteries of the body, and by determining the correlation of
diet and lifestyle to diseases. Oath formulated after his death is an oath of ethics taken by physicians
and medical practitioners to promise to uphold values and ethics in the practice of medicine.
Ancient Rome
• Ancient Rome was originally a small town near the Tiber when Augustus Caesar
became its first Emperor. Eventually grew greater and stronger because of
trade. Rome borrowed and enriched the culture of Greece and became a
powerful empire.
• Ancient Rome’s legacy can be traced to its civil and military engineering that
led to the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and architectural feats
such as arenas, monuments, pantheons, and more.
• In Pergamum (present-day Turkey), the physician Galen was the first to
describe and diagnose symptoms of different diseases and their corresponding
treatment. His medical books were considered the standard for many years.
Ancient Greece
• Innovations in engineering and mechanics.

Water mills will be used to grind grain.
Perachora wheel was the pioneering invention that contributed to the creation of water mills.
Aqueducts were also constructed for water management in Samos and Athens.
Ctesibius is known for developing the water clock or clepsydra. Ctesibius water alarm clock
worked by using water droppings and clay vessels to track time. He also used bells that were supposed
to be hit by dropping pebbles in order to make sounds.
Odometer is attributed to Archimedes of Syracuse during the First Punic War. Was used to
measure the distance covered by a vehicle. It has since then paved the way for the advancement of
transportation and the construction of roads.
Surgical instruments such as rectal speculum, bone levers, and cupping vessels were used by
Roman Physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. These were typically made of lead, steel, or
bronze.
Ancient Greece
• Use of concrete, known for its durability due to the volcanic ash present in the
mixture.
• Appius Claudius Caecus built the first Roman aqueduct called Aqua Appia in 312 BC.
It transported water to Rome from different bodies of water and was the precursor
of Rome’s development of sewage systems, sanitation management, and public baths.
• Roman’s also constructed great architectural feats, two of which are the Colosseum –
the largest amphitheater ever built – and the Pantheon – a former Roman temple.
These two monuments are well-preserved today.
• Ancient Rome was famous for its powerful military characterized by formidable
leadership and advanced machinery. Romans used the ballista to penetrate the enemy
frontier.
• The Greek fire, adopted from the Greeks, was a combustible weapon capable of
propelling bombs at the opponent.
Mesoamerica
Is a historical region and cultural area in North
America that spans territories from Mexico to
Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
The earliest known Mesoamerican civilization is
the Olmec civilization which was established in
the northeastern part of Mexico at around 1,200
BC. Other early Mesoamerican civilizations, the
Maya, Aztec, and Inca, existed from about 900 to
1,500 AD and thrived until the arrival of the
Spanish conquistadors in Mexico.
Maya Civilization
• The Maya people were considered by many scholars as one of the most scientifically
advanced individuals in Mesoamerica.
• They had a system of writing called Maya hieroglyphics with 1,000 characters They had
writing tools crafted from animal hair and feathers. Most Mayan texts written on tree bark
are called codices containing records, culture, rituals, and scientific observations. Most of the
texts were burned by the Spaniards because they were considered pagan literature.
• The Maya were also known for pictorial scripts (glyphs) inscribed on stone monuments. One
of the three texts that were salvaged was the Dresden Codex which contains accurate
predictions of solar eclipses, celestial writings, and astronomical tables of the Maya.
• The knowledge of the Mayan people in astronomy and mathematics enabled them to refer
to the 365-day solar year and 260-day sacred year annual cycles. These two annual cycles
were known as the calendar round. They also devised another calendar called long count that
measured days by cycles or sets.
Maya Civilization
• The Maya civilization was also technologically advanced for its innovations in
architecture, art, and warfare. Artifacts evidence that the Maya used various metals
an
• Maya cities were well developed with formidable structures such as large pyramids
and temples made from limestone bricks. The Mayan used mica, plants, and other
minerals to decorate the temples.
• They built complex waterways using hydraulics technology that aided their
agricultural practices.
• They also produced textiles using looms to weave colorful patterns. The women
made tunics called huipiles with unique designs and colors.
• The Mayan also used rubber products from rubber trees and morning glory plants
which they used for binding books, gluing materials, and manufacturing cloth.
Aztec and Inca Civilization
• Persisted for 200 hundred years before the Spaniards conquered their lands.
• The Aztec thrived in the capital city of Tenochtitlan, present-day Mexico City.
Where they built chinampas or artificial islands.
• Aztecs were able to predict astronomical events and performed celestial
observations. They used Mayan calendar in agricultural and religious activities.
• One of the notable artifacts of the Aztec civilization is the sun stone with the
image of the Aztec sun god at the center.
• The Aztec were also advanced in terms of their established cultural and social
systems, particularly in the context of religion and education. They used
pictographs as their systems of writing, and their language was called the
Nahuatl, the modern variation of which is still being spoken today.
• The Aztecs were also known for having massive stone temples where religious
rituals and offerings were made before the statues of their gods.
• The Inca civilization, also known as the Incan Empire, was the largest
Mesoamerican civilization. The Inca were known as great and innovative
engineers.
• They had an elaborate system of roads from mountains to valleys. They built
bridges over bodies of water and canals for irrigation.
• Their architectural buildings, which still stand today, were designed to be

robust and pleasing to the eye.
• In the field of medicine, the Inca also performed cranial surgeries (trepanation)
and amputation for injured warriors.
• They also produced textiles: tunics, long shirts, and delicate clothing.
• They also had musical instruments such as flutes, drums, panpipes, and horns.
• The Inca’s official language is called Quechua which is still spoken by natives
today.
• They also developed the Quipu, a set of strings used for recording information
such as tax records, census records, and calendar information.
In the World: Middle Age
Is usually associated with the time when
people were seen as tasteless, vulgar, and old-fashion.
This is a common misconception because many
scholars were biased against this historical period.
Although many innovations from the Roman empire
were lost during this time, the Middle Ages still boast of
many valuable inventions and technological
advancements, some of which are considered to be the
touchstones of many innovations of the present.
Middle Ages is also known as the Dark Ages

due to the invasion of various Germanic tribes on the
previous domain of the Roman Empire.
The Middle Ages is generally believed to have
coincided with the fall of the Roman Empire. Alaric 1, king
of the Visigoths – one of the many Germanic tribes of
Northern Europe – invaded Rome thrice, which was critical
to the fall of the empire. He was appointed Magister
Militum meaning Master of the Soldiers.
Scholars believe that the Middle Ages lasted from the

6th century up to the end of the 15th century. It is split into
three different periods: early, high, and late middle ages.
Byzantine Empire
• The only Easter part remained with Byzantium as its capital later renamed
Constantinople when it was captured by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th
century (320-330).
• The peak of the Byzantine Empire was witnessed during the rule of Emperor
Justinian who was able to reclaim the land invaded by the various Germanic tribes.
• Notable weapons utilized by this empire include the Greek Fire and the Handheld
Trebuchet also called cheiromangana was made as an alteration of the
counterweight trebuchet that uses a siege engine in its mechanisms to throw a
projectile.
• Various inventions were also made during Middle Ages to improve agriculture. One
is the tidal mill which like the water mill, it uses running water to grind grains. One
of the earliest tide mills was discovered in Northern Ireland.
Islamic Empire
• Islamic Empire grew as one of the largest empires in history.

• Islam has been instrumental in the study and development of science in the region.
The holy book of the Muslims, the Koran, encouraged the development of science
by allowing believers to seek knowledge and observe nature for signs of Allah
through scientific study.
• Papermaking technologies spread to different parts of the world during the Middle
Ages. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques by using starch instead of
mulberry bark for using pens rather than brushes for writing.
• The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was built – as a result of translations of Greek
and Syriac texts to Arabic. Belonging to the Abbasid Caliphs the house of wisdom
housed a community of intellectuals and scientist, and researchers.
Islamic Empire
One of the first works to be translated into Arabic was Ptolemy’s Al-Magest
which described an Earth-centered universe.
The Golden Age of Islamic Science also began in the 8th century and
continued up to the 13th century.
• In the field of medicine, Mathematician Ibn Al-Haytham or Alhazen laid the
foundation for moderns optics when he applied the scientific method to his optic
experiments and he made him known as the “Father of Modern Optics,”
• Abu Ali al-Hussein Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, was a physician and philosopher
who wrote al-Qanum fi al-Tibb, or The Canon of Medicine. This medical
encyclopedia was the first to describe the anatomy of the human eye and
recognize the contagious natures of tuberculosis and meningitis. The Canon of
Medicine had been translated into Latin and used as a standard medicinal textbook.
Islamic Empire
• Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al Zahrawi or simply Al Zahrawi is recognized as the
“Father of Surgery” and considered the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages.
• Algebra is known to be developed by Persian scholar Muhammad ibn Musa al-
Khwarizmi as manifested in his book Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wal-
muqabala or The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing.
• Al-Biruni devise a method of determining the radius of the earth by observing the
height of a mountain in Nandana (now in Pakistan). He also proposed the theory
of the earth rotating on its own axis and made precise calculations of the specific
gravity of 18 precious stones and minerals.
• Jabir ibn Hayyan, known as the “Father of Chemistry,” is believed to have authored
a multitude of books on alchemy, cosmology, astrology, medicine, mysticism, and
philosophy.
Medieval Europe
• Charles the Great or Charlemagne, assisted by the English monk Alcuin of

York, founded the Carolingian Empire that forged the Carolingian
Renaissance.
• Viking Age (793-1006 AD). Vikings are known to be cruel warriors, pillagers,
and skillful navigators.
• Axe was the most commonly used weapon of the Vikings both for battle and
as a tool. Dane Axe was used for battle. Viking men were also required to
have shields, typically made out of wood and lined with leather.
• Vikings also developed a magnetic compass, which uses the Sun to help them
navigate the seas.
Medieval Europe
• Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church to curb
the spread of the Islamic faith in Europe. Pope Urban II of the Latin Church of
Western Europe gave a sermon at the Council of Clermont.
• Crossbow key invention in weaponry and was considered an essential weapon in
battle.
• The improvement of agricultural technology and practices, an example of which is
the three-field system, this involves the division of a single piece of land into three
smaller plots where different seasonal crops would be planted.
• Aristotle’s works, Physics and Metaphysics, were revived in the 12th and 13th
centuries. Among the translator of Aristotle’s works were Averroes and William of
Moerbeke. Claudius Ptolemy was also translated into Latin. Mathematicians Euclid and
Archimedes also help with Latin translation.
Medieval Europe
• The translated works of Greek philosophers became part of the curriculum

of Europe’s first set of universities. These first medieval universities were
colloquially called Stadium Generale.
• The blending of such ideas established the pillars of Christian scholasticism – a
method of critical thought that integrated religious theology with scientific
truth. The Franciscans were founded by St. Frances of Assisi in 1209 and the
Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic in 1215. scholars such as Albertus,
Magnus, Robert Grosseteste, and Roger Bacan belonged to either the
Franciscan or Dominican order.
• Roger Bacon contributed to the development of one of modern-day science’s
greatest tools – the scientific method. Opus Majus’s book described a
repeating cycle of scientific inquiry that took the following steps: (a)
observation, (b) formulation of hypothesis, and (c) experimentation.
Medieval Europe
• Alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy that mainly seeks to

convert base metals into noble metals such as gold.
• Astrology, on the other hand, establishes the connection between the
position of heavenly and celestial bodies to the dwellings of human life
and the natural world.
• Mathematician Nicholas Oresme was able to establish the mean speed
theorem or theorem on uniform acceleration.
• John Buridan developed a theorem that described how a body in
motion continues to stay in motion through the body’s intrinsic and
natural quality which he called impetus.
Medieval Europe
• Scientific and technological innovations of the Late Middle Ages include

spectacles (a precursor to modern eyeglasses), windmills, magnets
(which lead to the development of the world’s first compasses), and
spinning wheels.
• Medieval scholars’ interest in alchemy and astrology also led to the
invention of astrolabes and clocks.
In the World: Modern Ages
Renaissance is a period from the 14th to
the 17th century marking the transition
from the Middle Ages to modernity.
Renaissance is a French word that means
“rebirth”. The term was used to represent
the rebirth of Greek and Roman interests
in the sciences and arts. Its characterized
by marine expeditions, discoveries,
inventions, and scholastic controversies.
One of the highlights of this period is the invention of the printing press by
Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg a known goldsmith during his time who used his
expertise in metalwork, was the creator of the first movable printing press.
• Literary and artistic achievements pioneered by notable writers and artists were
evident during the Renaissance. Among the renowned writers and artists of the
Renaissance was Dante known as the “Father of Italian Poetry” for his Magnus Opus
The Divine Comedy.
• Francisco Petrarca, more commonly known as Petrarch, rediscovered Greek and
Roman classics and was hailed “The Father of Humanism,”
• Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, and scientist known for his works Mona
Lisa, Vitruvian Man and The Last Supper.
• Michaelangelo is famous for painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican with scenes
from the Book of Genesis.
• Rafael, an Italian painter, and architect were known for embodying both the clear
arrangement of elements and clarity of form as seen in his paintings, The School of Athens
and The Sistine Madonna.
The era also ushered in major shifts in science and technology. Scientific Revolution, a
series of events that marked the rise of modern science during the early modern ages. This
period is credited for introducing the most prominent scientists of the West. Among them
are:
• Nicolaus Copernicus, the heliocentric theory that went against the general belief that the
Earth is at the center of the universe.
• Galileo Galilei an Italian astronomer, eventually proved Copernicus’s theory to be correct.
• Sir Isaac Newton, eradicated all doubts of heliocentrism’s validity through a mathematical
description of the motion of the Earth and other celestial bodies around the Sun.
The use of fuel began during this period due to the demand for mass
production, lessening the use of animals and humans for mechanical work, and
employment of machines for various purposes. Fuel from coal was used to convert raw
materials to manufacture different products.
The use of the iron and steel became common in the 15th century due to the
invention of the blast furnace, a type of metallurgical furnace used to produce industrial
metals.
The rise of the textile industry was evident in the production of high-quality
fabrics such as cotton, silk, figured fabrics, and tapestries.
Agricultural techniques were also developed to accumulate more income with
less capital and manpower. Sheep farming was popularized because it required less
human effort and provided larger yields of food to support the growing population. The
sickle was replaced by the scythe for cutting both crops and grass., while horses replace
oxen for carrying and delivering goods.
There were significant advancements in navigation and expedition that contributed
greatly to the exploration of more territories and trade with other nations. One of
whom was the Italian explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus.
The construction of canals for inland transport also began during this period though it
made less progress in early modern times than sea transport.
Masts, sails, and sternpost rudders were among the various inventions for maritime
transport. Aside from great ships such as Henry VIII’s Great Harry, merchant ships
became common with the rise of shipbuilding in Europe, particularly in Italy.
The Mariner’s compass, quadrant, and forestaff were among the instruments developed for
navigation and voyage.
The introduction of the wheel barrow and wooden tracks for mining led to the
development of railway transportation.
Industrial Revolution
Begun in the 18th century, a period
characterized by the shift from agricultural
processes to urbanized and industrial
processes. During this time, machineries and
factories rose in order to give way for mass
production.
Arnold Toynbee is widely regarded as

the one who popularized the term
“Industrial Revolution,”
England is considered to be the first

country to be industrialized.
Iron and Steel Industry

• Tobern Bergman, a Swedish metallurgist, discovered the important role
of carbon in steel in 1750.
• Henry Bessemer and William Kelly improved the methods of
manufacturing steel from iron.
• Robert Mushet discovered an alloy of iron that combined carbon and
manganese with the formed iron.
Textile Industry
• John Kay invented the flying shuttle to increase the output of yarn.
• James Hargreaves developed the spinning jenny, also called Saxon Wheel in
1764. it is a machine that is able to spin more than one spindle at a time.
• Richard Arkwright patented a textile machine powered by water and not
by hand called a water frame. This machine was developed to cater to the
spinning of multiple threads in 1769.
• Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779, which combines the
features of the spinning jenny and water frame.
• Edmund Cartwright created the power loom for spinning and weaving in 1787 to
increase the production of cotton from plantations in England.
• Eli Whitney invented the machine called the cotton gin and multiplied the
amount of cotton that could be cleaned, which increase the production of
cotton for textiles.
• Thomas Saint, a cabinet maker, submitted a patent for a mechanized sewing
machine in 1790.
• Barthelemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, invented the chain stitch machine in
1829.
Transportation Industry
• Thomas Newcomen developed the steam engine this invention is one of
the most important inventions during this period.
• Denis Papin, the inventor of the pressure cooker.
• John Calley together with Newcomen developed an engine based on
pistons that were more efficient but used a lot of energy.
• James Watt perfected and patented the steam engine that produces the
needed power without consuming too much fuel.
• Matthew Boulton, an industrialist, became interested in the steam engine and he

continued to develop it as it became important in powering ships and trains.
• Richard Trevithick, developed the first locomotive, an engine or rail transport
vehicle. It was named the New Castle. However, it was unsuccessful due to its
weight which made the rails collapse.
• George Stephenson, considered to be the “Father of Railways,” designed an
effective locomotion called The Blucher that was used to tow coal in
Northumberland in England. Together with his brother they improved the
locomotion and named Locomotion 1 which can manage to go 12 miles per
hour.
• Robert Fulton utilized the steam engine from Boulton and Watt and developed
the North River Steamboat, which was later on called Clermont.
Science and Technology in the 18th and 19th
Centuries
• Charles-Augustin de Coulomb made noteworthy progress in the field of

physical science when he published a series of studies on
electrodynamics, which later on culminated into Coulomb’s Law.
• Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen gas by collecting colorless gas from
heated mercury in 1774.
• This colorless gas was later named oxygen by French scientist Antoine
Lavoisier.
Centuries
• By 1803, John Dalton had proposed the Atomic Theory which primarily states that all matter is composed
of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
• In 1820, a huge breakthrough for Hans Christian Oersted occurred when he discovered that electric
current produces magnetic fields.
• This discovery will later on help Michael Faraday construct his first crude electric motor in 1821. Soon
Faraday conducted experiments on electromagnetic induction in 1831 and published two volumes of books
on electricity.
• James Clerk Maxwell had managed to formulate a theory on electromagnetic radiation which poses that
light, magnetism, and electricity are variations in manifestation of the same phenomenon. His work
published in 1865, A Dynamical Theory of Electromagnetic Field explains that electric and magnetic fields,
in the form of waves, travel through space at the speed of light. By 1873 he had published A Theatise on
Electricity and Magnetism, a two-volume discourse on electromagnetism.
Centuries
• In 1874, George Johnstone proposed the theory that electrons have fundamental quantities of electricity.
• In 1879, cathode rays were discovered by William Crookes when he utilized the vacuum tube created by Heinrich
Geissler.
• Several years later, Eugen Goldstein discovered the positive particles called protons from a tube filled with
hydrogen gas.
• In the 19th century, x-rays, electrons, and radioactive elements were discovered. X-rays were accidentally
discovered by William Roentgen while doing research on cathode rays in 1895.
• The electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson when he placed Crooke’s tube within a magnetic field in 1897,
wherein the cathode rays were negatively charged, leading to his conclusion that all atoms have a negative charge.
• Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which was later on expounded by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie. Marie
Curie discovered the radioactive elements in uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium from the late 19th century
until the early 20th century.
Centuries
• Telegraph and wireless communication became widespread in the later part of the 19th Century.
• In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell filed a patent for the telegraph because of his success in developing a
means to exchange messages in real time through electric current.
• Other investors improved and upgraded the telegraph system including Elisha Gray, Philip Reis, and Thomas
Edison.
• In the field of biology, Carolus Linnaeus, dubbed as the “Father of Taxonomy,” developed a system of naming
organisms called the binomial nomenclature. Linnaeus is known for his works Species Plantarum (1753) and
System Naturae (1758) that list down every species of plant known at the time and laid down the Linnaean
Taxonomy.
• In 1759, Scottish geologist James Hutton proposed that there are still gradual mechanisms on Earth that
explain the variability of fossils.
Centuries
• George Cuvier, a pioneer in the fields of Paleontology, the study of fossils, proposed the Theory of
Catastrophism in 1813, which hypnotized those extinctions must have been common in the Earth’s history.
• In 1830, Charles Lyell proposed the principle of Uniformitarianism based on Hutton’s theory, which states
that the same geological processes are operating today as in the past.
• In 1809, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, a French naturalist, proposed the Theory of Acquired Characteristics
through Use and Disuse, also known as the Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, which
theorizes that an organism can pass on some of its traits, obtained from either use or disuse, to its offspring.
• In 1859, Charles Darwin published his work explaining the variability of living organism entitled On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for
Life.
Centuries
• Similar research by Alfred Wallace entitled On Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original
Type was published in the same year.
• Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, known as the “Father of Genetics,” wrote a paper on his experiments on
breeding pea plants, which he conducted from 1856 to 1863.
Science and Technology in the 20th Century
• Modern physics advanced with the discovery of quantum theory in 1900, whose originator was Max Planck.
• The theory of relativity, which was established by Albert Einstein in 1905. Einstein also explained the
phenomenon called photoelectric effect where electrons are released from materials when hit by light.
• In 1926, an equation on quantum mechanics was proposed by Erwin Schrodinger that enabled scientists to
develop semiconductors and atomic power.
• Robert Goddard launched the first successful rocket at a farm near Auburn, Massachusetts.
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron in the nucleus of an atom.
• In 1944, Oswald Avery discovered that genes and chromosomes are caried by DNA cells.
• In 1953, Francis Crick and James Watson proposed the double helix model of the deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA, which depicts the double-stranded appearance of DNA, opposite each other.
• In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a drug against bacterial infections caused by staphylococci
and streptococci.
• In 1945, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain developed the first antibiotic that could be mass produced.
• By 1955, Niels Jerne expounded the anti-body formation process that states that the body has its own
antibodies that could fight antigens.
• In the same year, Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine.
• In 1961, Albert Sabin improved on Salk’s work and proposed the oral polio vaccine. Before the end of
century, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the eradication of the smallpox virus.
• In 1983, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was discovered by Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo,
which led to the awareness of the causes of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the
measures needed to avoid contracting HIV.
• The first cloning in animals, through a sheep named Dolly, was successfully performed before the end of the
20th century. It was a huge success in the field of genetic research that Gregor Mender pioneered in 1866.
• The first manned engine-powered aircraft flight was launched by Orville and Wilbur Wright in 1903.
• In terms of land transportation, the first production model of the automobile was launched by Henry Ford in
1908.
• In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite named Sputnik and instigated the first manned
space flight in 1961.
• A few years later, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spearheaded the space
program Mercury and Apollo.
• In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon.
Computer and
the Age of Information
• The invention of the computer from the early systems of calculation of Charles Babbage in 1812 significantly
made an impact on how the world progressed in the age of technology.
• Claude E. Shannon the “Father of Information Technology” working as a researcher at Bell Laboratories in
the 1940’s, he formulated his ideas on digital communication and published his work, A Mathematical
Theory of Communication. Proposed the notion that information media can be encoded as a series of 1s and
0s through various devices such as television, radio, and many more.
• Shannon worked with Warren Weaver, an American mathematician and scientist to formulate the Shannon-
Weaver Model of Communication. It is also called the “mother of all models” because it integrated the
various concepts at work in the field of technological communication.
Computer and
• The transactional model involves both the sender and the receiver as communicators who exchange
messages rather than have messages come from a single sender.
• The interactive model operates similarly to the transactional model; however, it is often in the context of
studying new media such as the internet.
• The use of a transmitter by the Shannon-Weaver model revolved around the idea of pulse-code modulation
(PCM), a binary and digital way of transmitting analog-type data.
• Alec H. Reeves a British engineer adapted the use of PCM technology for voice communication. In 1938 and
1939, he was granted French and British patents, respectively, for his PCM machine.
Computer and
• Bell Laboratories was responsible for developing SIGSALY – a secure speech system during World War II.
SIGSALY, also known as the Green Hornet, X System, Project X, and Ciphony I. as a secure speech system, it
used a highly secure one-time pad (OTP) encryption.
• Between the years 1936 and 1937, English mathematician Alan Turing introduced the universal Turing
machine (UTM). Mathematical computation was done manually by individuals referred to as “computers,”
• German civil engineer and entrepreneur Konrad Zuse devised the world’s first programmable computer
between 1936 and 1938. His electromechanical computer; the Z3, was the first Turing-complete digital
computer to be created, which became operational in 1941.
• Around 1939, John V. Atanasoff, with the help of his graduate student, Clifford Berry, created the first
electronic digital computer called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). The machine was able to solve for
variables one at a time until an entire system of equations is solved.
Computer and
• Despite the machine’s success is up for debate, its method of storing data known as dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM or RAM), became the model of the main memory systems of modern computers.
• In 1942, Perry Crawford, a graduate student at MIT, described in his thesis, entitled Automatic Control by
Arithmetic Operations that a magnetic drum could be used to store electronic digital information.
• A pioneering computer firm of the 1950s known as Engineering Research Associates (ERA) used parts of
captured German Magnetophones to build magnetic drums and disks under the alias Project Goldberg. The
mechanism called the magnetic drum memory system was used by the US Navy to decipher encryptions and
was later developed for computers in US military universities.
• Tommy Harold Flower, a British Post Office employee, invented the world’s first programmable electronic
computer in 1943 called the Colossus.
Computer and
• Harvard Mark 1, a general-purpose electromechanical computer devised by Howard Aiken and built by IBM
in 1944, was able to compute and print mathematical tables.
• The creation of the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), nicknamed the Manchester Baby computer,
was spearheaded by English engineer Frederic “Freddie” Calland Williams in 1946 and English
mathematician and computer scientist Tom Kilburn in 1947.
• William Shockley and his team of engineers were the first to commercially mass-produce transistors. In
1957, members of his team, later called the “traitorous eight,” founded their own company called Fairchild
Semiconductors.
• In a similar manner, engineers from this company also eventually left to start their own companies, such as
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel Corporation, laying the foundation for what is now known today
as Silicon Valley, a center of digital and technological research and development.
Computer and
• In 1948, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) built the 604 Electronic Calculating Punch.
• By December 1957, IBM used the 604 model as a basis to create the 608 models, the first solid-state
computer available on the commercial market.
• American engineer Jack Kilby is credited for being the first to create and patent the integrated circuit (IC)
chip. The IC chip was patented in 1959 under the title of a miniaturized electronic circuit.
• By 1961, IBM released the 7030 Data Processing System known as the IBM Stretch computer. It was the first
IBM supercomputer that ran completely through transistors. The first commercially viable storage device
was the floppy disk which was originally designed by IBM.
• By 1977, floppy disks gained popularity with the introduction of the Apple II.
Computer and
• The floppy disk was improved on to create the computer disc (CD). The beginnings of the CD can be traced to James Russel’s
invention of a system that can record digital information on an optical transparent foil lit by a high-power halogen lamp. Russel
was granted a patent for his invention in 1970, which was licensed by Sony and Philips in the 1980s.
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was a packet switching network that grouped data in a message into
parts or “packets” that are sent independently to other computers in the system through the most optimal route.
• When ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990, it was replaced by a system called the internet. The internet is a collection and
interconnection between and among numerous networks from around the globe. To access information from this global network,
the World Wide Web (WWW) was created in 1989 by Tim Berner-Lee, a British computer scientist and researcher at the Conseil
Europeen pour la Recherche (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee was also able to establish groundbreaking concepts
related to the WWW including HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the standard language used to create websites and
applications: Uniform Resource Identifier/Uniform Resource Locator (URI/URL), the resource or address of a webpage; and
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the protocol that defines how information is formatted and distributed on servers and
browsers.
• To properly identify each individual device connected to the internet, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses were used.

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Minelyn Cochingco

Science as a systematized body of

Science is about knowing how the

The region now corresponds to most

From the Greeks, means “between two

Among early civilizations that flourished

The Sumerians called

They were known for building a

With the invention of sailboats and wheels,

• Served as the center of Mesopotamian civilization for nearly two

1. He was able to unearth the Temple of Etemenanki, which

• Indus Valley was an ancient civilization located in present-day Pakistan and

• People who reside also developed accurate weighting systems and

• Is known to be one of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations in the world.

• Silk originated in China as early as the Chinese Neolithic period. It is

• Innovations in engineering and mechanics.

• Their architectural buildings, which still stand today, were designed to be

Middle Ages is also known as the Dark Ages

Scholars believe that the Middle Ages lasted from the

• Islamic Empire grew as one of the largest empires in history.

• Charles the Great or Charlemagne, assisted by the English monk Alcuin of

• The translated works of Greek philosophers became part of the curriculum

• Alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy that mainly seeks to

• Scientific and technological innovations of the Late Middle Ages include

Arnold Toynbee is widely regarded as

England is considered to be the first

Iron and Steel Industry

• Matthew Boulton, an industrialist, became interested in the steam engine and he

• Charles-Augustin de Coulomb made noteworthy progress in the field of

• James Chadwick discovered the neutron in the nucleus of an atom.

• In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon.

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