You are on page 1of 41

第十九章 合约生效日期及还款担保

1. SAJ 与 NEWBUILDCON 的相关条文

这方面在 SAJ 标准格式合约是 Article XIX 如下:


“This Contract shall become effective as from the date of execution hereof by the BUYER
and the BUILDER.
However, in the event that Export license and Construction Permit for the Vessel shall not
have been issued by the Japanese Government with ( 日 子 ) days from the date of this
Contract, then, in such case, this Contract shall automatically become null and void, unless
otherwise mutually agreed in writing between the parties hereto, and the both parties hereto
shall be immediately and completely discharged from all of their obligations to each other
under this Contract as though this Contract had never been entered into at all”

在 NEWBUILDCON,有关的内容是在 Clause 44 如下:


“44 Effective date of Contract
(a) This Contract shall become effective when the conditions stated in Box 25 have been
satisfied. If no conditions are stated in Box 25 then the effective date of the Contract shall be
the date stated in Box 1. The parties shall immediately notify each other when the conditions
stated in Box 25 relevant to that Party have been satisfied.

(b) If any of the conditions referred to above have not been satisfied within the number of
days stated in Box 26 after the date of this Contract stated in Box 1, this Contract shall be
deemed null and void and both Parties shall immediately be relieved of any obligations or
liabilities to the other party under this Contract.”

2. 先决条件与后续条件的介绍

有许多的合约,双方当事人在他们之间的谈判完结并且已经是双方签署了合约后,实
际上可以说已经达成协议,互相约束,甚至可以开始履行,但有各种原因无法或者不
愿意无条件受到约束,而真正的希望有一个脱身的机会,针对如果在某一些剩下的重
要要求如果办不成或者是不满意。在造船合约而言,这种重要的要求会是船厂 或/与把
船东需要他们公司董事局的批准(特别是一个大企业,这要求会是真正需要),或是
双方需要得到银行的融资(船厂会需要建造船舶的融资,因为船东分期付款通常是不
足够满足在造船期间流动资金的需要,另需要银行提供还款担保,而船东则需要银行
融资去支付船价),或者是需要政府的批准与出口许可证(例如日本以前就需要政府
签发出口证,这个要求现在已经取消,但仍然需要交通部 [现在改名为 Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport]签发一份批文)等。

上述重要的工作都有一个可能存在问题,是无法去预先准备,去进行只能是整个造船
合约已经是在一份完整的文件中确定与正式记录了。换言之是船东或船厂不能尚在谈判
的时候,对最后能达成什么结果没有底,就去进行 例如向中国进出口银行申请还款担
保。即使达成了造船合约,去进行的时候也不能把双方整个谈判过程存在大量文书件往
来去交出,让董事局、银行或者政府当局去慢慢找出双方到底同意些什么条文 /内容,
而必须是去把这些谈判中的文件往来整理出一份完整的造船合约。

这一来,希望解释了为什么船厂与船东谈判与签署造船合约后,还 需要有一个脱身的
机会。因为船厂需要取得出口证才能去合法建造船舶,或船东取得银行融资才能去支付
船价,但如果不成功,显然该造船合约无法生效或者履行下去。这一来,去在造船合约
中提供给双方在一份签署了的合约中有一个合法脱身的机会就是本章所要介绍的合约
有效日期条文(Effective Date of Contract Clause)。它也可以用其他的标题,例如是
AWES 标准格式第 16 条名为“令合约生效的条件”( Conditions for the Contract to
Become Effective)。在该些条文中,会清楚规定了是有哪一些重要的要求或条件必须
去进行。它也会去规定一段时间,例如是一、两个月不等,如果办不成就可让船厂与船
东从该造船合约中脱身。去规定一个时间是为了避免双方去无止境的受到造船合约的约
束或是不肯定,例如在 Total Gas v. Arco British (1998) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 209。

去让双方脱身的文字/措辞可以是令该造船合约从来不生效或是令已经生效的造船合约
变 为 是 无 效 , 前 者 可 称 为 是 先 决 条 件 ( condition precedent ) 后 者 则 是 后 续 条 件
(condition subsequent)。它们如果出现在一个已经谈判完结与签署了的造船合约,会
是差别不大,反正合约就是有条件(conditional)才能生效下去。前者会是针对双方什
么都不用做,只去等待先决条件的满足的情况。而后者会是订约双方要去做一些造船合
约规定的事情,例如是船东支付 5%的船价,然后等待后续条件的满足。如果办不成,
就存在船厂要归还船东已经支付了的船价。在造船合约,NEWBUILDCON 的第 44 条文
与 AWES 的第 16 条文在文字/措辞上显然是先决条件,但 SAJ 之 Article XIX 显然是后
续条件。但已经是说过,它们之间带来的后果差别不大。

总 而 言 之 , “ 条 件 ” ( condition ) 一 词 是 可 以 有 许 多 的 解 释 : Wickman v. Schuler


(1973) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 53。笔者比较喜欢的名称是如果一个合约是有条件,不论是先决还
是后续条件,这可被称为是“可能发生的条件”(contingent condition),条件一旦发
生,双方就可以从合约脱身,不存在违约索赔。另一种可被称为是“承诺的条件”
(promissory condition),是订约一方向另一方作出承诺。这一来如果做不到就会构成
违约,并根据它们的轻重分为保证条文(warranty)与条件条文(condition)。这方面
可以参阅 Total Gas v. Arco British (1998) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 209。
2.1 先决条件的定义

在这里不妨先给出先决条件与后续条件权威的定义。首先,先决条件是在《 Chitty on
Contracts》第 29 版之 2-145 段中写到:
“Effects of agreements subject to contingent conditions precedent: in general. Where an
agreement is subject to a contingent condition precedent, there is, before the occurrence of the
condition, no duty on either party to render the principal performance promised by him: for
example, a seller is not bound to deliver and a buyer is not bound to pay. Nor, in such a case,
does either party undertake that the condition will occur. But an agreement subject to such a
condition may impose some degree of obligation on the parties or on one of them. Whether it
has this effect, and if so what degree of obligation is imposed, depends on the true
construction of the term specifying condition. Various possible degrees of obligation are
discussed in …”。

另在 12-028 也说:
“Condition precedent. The liability of one or both of the contracting parties may become
effective only if certain facts are ascertained to exist or upon the occurrence or non-
occurrence of some further event. In such a case the contract is said to be subject to a
condition precedent. The failure of a condition precedent may have one of a number of
effects. It may, in the first place, suspend the rights and obligations of both parties, as, for
instance, where the parties enter into an agreement on the express understanding that it is not
to become binding on either of them unless the condition is fulfilled. Secondly, one party may
assume an immediate unilateral binding obligation, subject to a condition. From this he
cannot withdraw, but no bilateral contract, binding on both parties, comes into existence until
the condition is fulfilled. Thirdly, the parties may enter into an immediate binding contract,
but subject to a condition, which suspends all or some of the obligations of one or both parties
pending fulfillment of the condition. These conditions precedent are, however, normally
contingent and not promissory, and in such a case neither party will be liable to the other if
the condition is not fulfilled.”。

《Chitty on Contracts》接下去也讲到根据该先决条件的文字/措辞又会有几种可能性程度
不同的解释。一种可能性就是双方都可以随时脱身,令一个文书的合约变为“根本不是
一个合约”(not an agreement at all):Pym v. Campbell (1856) 6 E & B 370。

另一个可能的解释是如果有关的要求或者条件可以满足,但时间还没有到,双方不可
以脱身。但如果是规定的时间过了,或者是明确该条件不能满足,双方就可以脱身。这
一来,所谓的先决条件事实上等于一个后续条件,这是《Chitty on Contracts》在 2-147 段
所说:
“… However, if it becomes clear that the condition has not occurred, or that it can no longer
occur, within the time specified in the contract, the parties will be under no further obligations
under the contract. In such a case, the effect of the non-occurrence of the condition is that the
parties are ‘no longer bound’ by the contract, or that the contract is ‘discharged’. What the
parties have called a ‘condition precedent’ can thus operate as, or have the effect of, a
condition subsequent.”。

第三种可能的解释是在该要求或者条件满足之前,双方都不能做任何事情去对该条件
的满足造成障碍:
“A third possibility is that, before the event occurs, the main obligations have not accrued;
but that in the meantime neither party must do anything to prevent the occurrence of that
event. … ”。

2.2 后续条件的定义

至于后续条件在《Chitty on Contracts》中的定义是在 12-030 段如下:


“The obligation of one or both parties may be made subject to a condition that it is to be
immediately binding, but if certain facts are ascertained to exist or upon the occurrence or
non-occurrence of some further event, then either the contract is to cease to bind or one or
both parties are to have the right to avoid the contract or bring it to an end. In such a case the
contract is said to be subject to a condition subsequent. An example is provided by the case of
Head v. Tattersall (1871) LR 7 Ex 7 where A bought a horse from B which B warranted to
have been hunted with the Bicester hounds. If it did not answer to its description, A was to
have the right to return it by a certain day. The horse did not answer its description and A
accordingly returned it before the day. In the meantime, however, the horse had been injured
without A’s fault. It was held that the injury did not cause A to lose his right to return the
horse and he could recover the purchase price paid.”(已经马上约束双方的其中一方所作
出的承诺是以一个条件为准,如果该条件的事实被确认是存在或是一些将来应该会发
生的事情没有发生,合约就变得不再约束双方或双方有权去避免该合约或去中断。一个
著名的先例是 Head v. Tattersall,案情涉及了 A 向 B 购买一匹马,说是它有经验与猎犬
一起打猎。合约并说明了如果该匹马并非有该经验,A 就有权在某天前把它退还给 B。
结果是该匹马并没有这种经验,A 就马上把它退还给 B。但该匹马受了伤,而受的伤并
非是 A 的过错引致[上面已经讲过如果一方有过错就可能不适用,因为合约已经存在,
或是 A 作为该马匹的托管人至少会有赔偿损失的责任]。法院判 A 有权退还该匹马并取
回已经支付的钱)。

3. 有条件合约下的默示地位
上述的有条件合约(conditional contract)或可能发生的条件(contingent condition),
通常都会有一个默示条件就是双方都不能去做一些事情阻止有关要求或者条件的满足。
这实际上是与另一个默示的大道理是一致,就是任何人不能以他的过错去取巧(no
man can take advantage of his own wrong)。了解这一个默示地位对造船合约是十分重要,
因为这种合约的签订通常是有条件的,加上去满足这些要求或者条件往往需要时间。但
由于船价市场有非常大的波动,所以就会有其中的一方在对他而言市场逆转的时候去
取 巧 。 加 上 , 造 船 合 约 会 同 意 一 些 同 样 船 价 的 “ 造 船 选 择 权 协 议 ” ( optional
agreement),并允许选择权在很后期去行使,这更加会造成相隔多年后,船价市场变
了与造船合约的船价是有天壤之别:Gyllenhammar v. Split (1989) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 403。例
如,船厂故意不去申请针对船东选择增加建造船舶的出口许可证、批文或者是还款担保,
等。笔者更加见过船厂主动对船东说:“除非你去抬高 10%的造船合约的船价,否则我
不继续申请与取得还款担保”。这一来,船厂是否是违约,毕竟是已经解释过,还款担
保应该只属于可能发生的条件而不是一个承诺的条件。如果造船合约去多加了一句说明:
“船厂必须行使它最大的努力去取得还款担保”(the builder shall use best endeavour to
procure refund guarantee)。这等于去多加了一个承诺的条件,可以令船厂如果没有去做
到就构成违约,令船东可以提出索赔。但如果造船合约没有去多加一个承诺的条件,这
就要看英国法律默示的地位了,以下去介绍有关的先例:

3.1 案例之一:New Zealand Shipping Co. Ltd v. Societie des Ateliers et Chantiers de
France

这里第一个先例是 New Zealand Shipping Co. Ltd v. Societie des Ateliers et Chantiers de
France (1919) A.C.1。案情有关一个法国的船厂,他在 1913 年同意了一个造船合约,承
诺了完工日期是 1915 年 1 月 3 日。造船合约中有一条允许延长交船日期的条文,就是
针对一些船厂无法控制的情况所导致的延误。造船合约也另有一条说明是如果延长交船
日期超出原来约定的日期 18 个月,该合约就变为无效,船厂并要归还船东预付的船价。
换言之,该条文是写作一个后续条件。后来由于法国卷入第一次世界大战导致延误超出
了 18 个月,到了该天,1916 年 7 月 30 日就有了争议是船厂能否去中断该造船合约。贵
族院判在这样的情况下,船厂没有过错(延误是属于可允许的延误),所以不影响船
厂去以后续条件中断合约。

Atkinson 勋爵曾说有过错或者因他的行为而导致的一方不能去依赖后续条件去中断合
约:
“If the … contract shall be void on the happening of an event which one or either of them
can by his own act or omission bring about, then the party, who by his own or omission
brings that event about, cannot be permitted either to insist upon the stipulation himself or to
compel the other party, who is blameless, to insist upon it, because to permit the blamable
party to do either would be to permit him to take advantage of his own wrong.”。
另 Finlay 勋爵也说:
“… The decisions on the point are uniform, and are really illustrations of the very old
principle laid down by Lord Coke … that a man shall not be allowed to take advantage of a
condition which he himself brought about. In the present case the builder was in no way
responsible for the non-completion within eighteen months, and there is no reason why clause
12 should not be interpreted according to the natural meaning of the words so as to render the
contract void.”。

Wrenbury 勋爵是说该后续条件是令造船合约变为是一个“可以变为无效”(voidable)
的合约,但变为无效并不属于任何其中一方的权利,而是针对一个可能发生的情况,
就是战争的发生令交船日期超出了 18 个月,这情况也不能是任何订约方的过错所引起
的。他说:
“… Here the contract is, in my opinion, voidable at the option of either party provided
always that he is not seeking to avoid it in his own wrong. The contingency of war lasting
more than eighteen months is a contingency not within the control of either party. The
contract is void as against each, or, if you like so to express it, is voidable at the option of
either, if the contingency occurs.”。

3.2 案例之二:Cheall v. Association of Professional Executive Clerical and Computer


Staff

在 New Zealand Shipping 先例后,另有两个非造船的案例进一步明确这一个默示的地位 ,


它们是:Cheall v. Association of Professional Executive Clerical and Computer Staff (1983)
2 AC 180 与 Thompson v. ASDA-MFI plc (1988) 1 Ch. 241。

其中在前一个先例,案情涉及了 Cheall 先生本来是另一个工会 ACTSS 的会员,但被


APEX 收为会员,这样做是违反了工会之间的协议(Trade Union Congress Bridlington
Principles),就是工会之间大家不去抢对方的会员。接下去 Trade Union Congress 或
TUC 作出不利的决定后,APEX 只能去根据他章程的第 14 条文(该条文说明 APEX 可
根据 TUC 的决定给会员 6 个星期的通知去中断他的会员资格)去中断 Cheall 先生的会
员资格。这导致了 Cheall 先生把这一个争议一直打到贵族院,但最终是败诉。这方面的
说法就是 APEX 与 Cheall 先生是合约关系,而 APEX 接收 Cheall 先生作为会员如果是
一个错误的做法,他就不能去根据章程的第 14 条文(性质上等于是后续条件)去中断
合约。但这里有一个重要的区分,也就是最终在贵族院 Cheall 先生败诉的理由。这就是
APEX 如果犯错(不论是故意犯错还是无意犯错),这是在 TUC Bridlington Principles
原则下针对其他工会的过错,而其他工会是第三者。至于 APEX 与 Cheall 先生之间,不
存在谁对谁错,所以不影响 APEX 去根据章程行使中断会员资格的权力。这些关系可去
节录 Diplock 勋爵所说如下:
“Since rule 14 can only come into effect when there has been a breach by A.P.E.X. of the
duty owed by it to another trade union under the Bridlington Principles, it is hopeless to argue
that A.P.E.X. is debarred from relying on the rule to terminate the membership of a poached
member, merely because it acted in breach of the Bridlington Principles in poaching him. So
counsel for Cheall felt constrained to introduce the concept of a distinction to be drawn
between a ‘conscious and deliberate’ breach of the Bridlington Principles and a breach that
was merely inadvertent. The former it was argued disentitled A.P.E.X., as a matter of law,
ever to rely upon rule 14 to terminate the membership of the person in respect of whom the
conscious and deliberate breach was committed, while an inadvertent breach did entitle it to
do so.

My Lords, I know of no principle of law which justifies this distinction. The New Zealand
Shipping case [1919] AC 1, the only authority relied upon for it, contains no hint that any
such distinction between deliberate and inadvertent breaches of duty is to be drawn in
applying the rule that was the subject of discussion in that case. To attract the principle,
whether it be one of contraction or one of law, that a party to a contract is not permitted to
take advantage of his own breach of duty, the duty must be one that is owed to the other party
under that contract; breach of a duty whether contractual or non-contractual owed to a
stranger to the contract does not suffice. I have no hesitation in rejecting the argument based
upon the supposed rule of law.”

但 本 段 最 主 要 去 表 达 的 大 精 神 还 是 与 New Zealand Shipping 一 致 , 以 下 可 去 节 录


Diplock 勋爵所说的如下:
“… the rule of construction [is] that, except in the unlikely case that the contract contains
clear express words to the contrary, it is to be presumed that it was not the intention of the
parties that either party should be entitled to rely upon his own breaches of his primary
obligations as bringing the contract to an end …”。(除非是在不寻常的情况下就是合约
中另有不同的明示规定,否则就应该假设订约双方不会是有意图去允许其中对条件的
满足是有责任的一方可以去依赖他自己的违约或者过错令一个合约中断。)

3.3 案例之三:Gyllenhammar v. Split

接下来再回到有关造船合约的案例,这就是 Gyllenhammar v. Split (1989) 2 Lloyd’s Rep.


403。该先例的案情与目前中国船厂经常遇到的困境十分接近,就是船厂(前南斯拉夫
的国家船厂)在 1986 年 6 月 12 日订的造船合约(建造一艘巴拿马型散装船,Hull No.
358)去同时允许买方(挪威船东)多一个造船选择权协议,协议是以一封信函的形式
由船厂给船东说明如下:
“For the consideration aforesaid and subject as mentioned below, we hereby grant to your
nominee an option to purchase a sister vessel (the ‘Optional Vessel’) to the vessel on identical
terms to those in the Building Contract (including, without limitation, specification, price and
payment terms) save that the delivery date in respect of such optional vessel shall not be after
the date falling three (3) years after the exercise of such option. Such option shall be
exercisable up to and including the actual delivery date of the vessel pursuant to the Building
Contract, and may be exercised by written or telex notice to ourselves … ”。

在上述的协议中,显然是允许船东在原来的造船合约所针对 Hull No. 358 交船前任何时


间行使选择权。结果是在造船合约后 3 年船东才去行使,显然时间隔了这么久市场上的
船价有了很大的差别。这加上了前南斯拉夫当时的经济非常差劲与面对每年 100%的高
通胀。这一切令船厂如果依照原来造船合约的价格去建造会是严重亏损,高达合约船价
的一倍。理所当然的是,船厂千方百计想去脱身,虽然在证据上没有显示。船厂与船东
在 1988 年 4 月 12 日为船东行使了的选择权签了第二艘船舶的造船合约,船舶是 Hull
No. 365。

根据造船选择权协议的内容,其他的条文也是与原来的造船合约一样。这就包括了第
15(2)条文的船厂提供还款担保条文与第 23 条文的后续条件条文如下:
“Article 15 Defaults By The Builder, Bank Guarantee

(2) Bank Guarantee
The Builder agrees to provide the Buyer with a Bank Guarantee from a Jugobanka Split in the
form attached hereto marked Appendix F guaranteeing the refund as per paragraph (1) of this
Article and it is hereby agreed that the entire cost for the Bank Guarantee shall be borne by
the Builder.

Article 23 Entering Into Force
This Contract is subject to:
(a) The Builder declaring by telex to the Buyer and the Bank that the Letter of Guarantee, as
provided for in Article 15 (2) of the Contract, has been obtained and airmailed to the Bank at
9 King Street, London EC2V 6EA (telex 8812511) and that a copy thereof has been faxed to
the Bank (fax no. 7268930).
(b) The Builder declaring by telex to the Buyer and the Bank that all necessary permissions
and approvals have been obtained.
(c) The payment by the Buyer of the first instalment of per Article 5 (a) of the Contract.

If (a) and (b) above are not obtained within thirty (30) days of the date of this Contract, or if
the first instalment as per Article 5 (a) is not paid within ten (10) days of its due date of this
Contract, unless otherwise mutually agreed, shall become null and void.”。

以 上 的 条 文 可 指 出 的 就 是 第 15(2) 条 文 是 一 个 严 格 或 绝 对 的 承 诺 ( absolute
obligation),就是船厂提供一个还款担保。这一来,就与第 23 条文的后续条件,特别
是(a)的条件,有了冲突。这个冲突就是船厂即使尽了很大的努力但还是拿不到还款担保,
他还是违约,因为他有一个严格的责任去提供。这一来,岂非他根据第 23 条文以提供
不了还款担保去中断造船合约的话,不管怎样他都是违反了一个严格的责任。变了是船
厂去行使第 23 条文的后续条件,而如果又不能有过错的话,就有点说不通了。除非是
解释起来,第 23(a)条文是不理会船厂错还是没错,也就是说属于一条“ fault-free”/
“no fault”的条文。

案 情 再 发 展 下 去 , 的 确 也 是 证 据 显 示 了 船 厂 在 1988 年 5 月 6 日 向 他 的 商 业 银 行
(Jugobanka)申请还款担保,但不被批准。这导致了在 5 月 9 日,船厂通知船东说取不
到还款担保并要求船东给在造船合约的第 23 条文的最后一句去多延长 30 天时间。但到
了 1988 年 5 月 19 日,Jugobanka 还是拒绝了为船厂提供还款担保,这导致了船厂必须
要根据造船合约的第 23(a)条文去以后续条件为由中断合约。的确,在 5 月 30 日船厂给
船东以下的通知,说:
“Regretfully, we have to advise you that the conditions provided by Article 23 of the
Shipbuilding Contract – Entering into force have not been complied. Namely, the bank
refused to approve the Contract, to accept the crediting of the subject transaction and to issue
the letters of guarantee, despite to the fact that we made our best efforts to obtain such a
bank’s approval. As such approval and crediting by the bank is a condition for obtaining the
permissions and approvals by Yugoslav financial authorities, the above said prevents the
obtaining of such approvals and permissions which form a condition precedent for the
contract to enter into force.

As a consequence thereof the contract for contraction of Hull No. 365 has become null and
void as stipulated by Article 23 para. 2 of the said Contract.”

这带来船东非常大的反应,说这是不能接受,并在 6 月 2 日发出以下的传真说:
“We have received your telefax message of 30 th May. Needless to say we are extremely
surprised to hear that your bank has refused to approve the Contract and that, because of this,
an application has not even been made to the Yugoslav financial authorities for their approval.
It clearly makes a mockery of the original option granted by yourselves for a sister vessel to
Hull No. 358. Gyllenhammar/Merckoll ( 船东) have followed the exact requirements of the
Option Agreement and have concurred with all your requirements in relation to the Contract
for the sister vessel. Now to be told that application has not even been made for the necessary
Governmental approvals because your own bank has not approved the Contract is quite
extraordinary and very unsatisfactory. Your bank must have been aware of the grant of the
Option at the time that it was given and the fact that this would involve a credit …”。

双方的争议导致了一个去英国法院紧急的诉讼,看看双方对造船合约第 23 条文的不同
解释到底谁的立场得到支持。船厂的立场是他们是无辜,因为银行不批准与提供还款担
保是在他们的控制之外。船东的立场是船厂自己的过错,毕竟还款担保是船厂在第
15(2)条文作出的严格承诺,船厂是否尽了努力并不足够。而最后谁的立场是正确的关键
之处仍是去看合约的解释,特别是第 23 条文。

船东的争辩主要就是依赖 New Zealand Shipping 的先例,就是船厂不能去依赖自己的过


错(因为船厂有关提供银行担保作出了绝对/严格的承诺,所以不论是什么原因提供不
了,在合约下都是有过错,这与道德的犯错是两码事)去让造船合约的后续条件发生。

船厂的争辩主要是较早时解释过的,即 New Zealand Shipping 的先例不影响关键之处仍


在解释每一个不同造船合约的条文。而在本造船合约就是在第 23 条文,后续条件的(a)
与(c)变了毫无意义,如因为第 15(2)条文是绝对/严格承诺。第 23 条文也针对造船所需要
的批文与批准(necessary permissions and approvals),而船厂由于是社会主义下的南斯
拉夫,一个批准是属于船厂自己的工人委员会(Workers Council)。这一来,批
不批又是涉及了船厂错或没错的争议。所以第 23 条文的一条后续条件条文所针对的各
方面,去给它一个有意义的解释,只能是不针对错或没错(fault-free 或者 no fault)。
这表示银行不批准,不提供还款担保,即使是造船合约其他条文有规定是绝对 /严格的
承诺,也不影响第 23 条文。而 New Zealand Shipping 的先例在本造船合约的解释下,一
样不影响第 23 条文的解释。船厂大律师的英语争辩大纲如下:
“First, the title and the opening words showed that the contract was essentially an ‘if’
contract.

Secondly, sub-cll. (a) and (c) would in effect be dead letters, since both art. 15 (2) and art. 5
(a) constituted absolute obligations, which would have inevitably been broken when either of
those two sub-clauses were invoked, so that those two sub-clauses could only have effect on
the footing that art. 23 was on its proper construction ‘fault-free’.

If (a) and (c) are properly to be regarded as ‘fault-free’, the same must apply, Mr. Sumption
(船厂代表大律师) submitted, to sub-cl. (b) too; in any event, since, as was common ground,
one of the necessary approvals was that of Split’s (船厂) own Workers Council, sub-cl. (b)
itself would be unworkable save on a ‘fault-free’ basis. Furthermore, by invoking the best of
‘control’, Mr. Aikens ( 船 东 代 表 大 律 师 ) was impermissibly importing into art. 23 the
concepts of force majeure which are fully dealt with art. 18.
Mr. Sumption submitted that the New Zealand and Cheall cases were of no assistance to Mr.
Aikens, since the rule of construction as Lord Diplock expressly stated in the latter case. In
the present case the wording of the article itself excluded that construction. …”。

Hirst 大法官是接受船厂的解释,就是第 23 条文不受 New Zealand Shipping 先例的影响,


否则难以去给它解释。看来,Hirst 大法官也受到影响,就是船厂从证据上看来是尽了
力,在“due diligence”与道德方面并没有过错,只因为无法提供还款担保本身违反了
合约的严格责任是合约上的过错。有关过错去区分为故意犯错与无意犯错,在 Cheall v.
Association of Professional Executive Clerical and Computer Staff (1983) 2 AC 180 先例也
有争论过,虽然没有被上诉庭接受。最后 Hirst 大法官认为船厂是可以去这样做,说:
“For all these reasons I accept Mr. Sumption’s construction of art. 23 and reject Mr.
Aikens’. It follows that the defendants (船厂) are entitled to succeed, because, as is common
ground, sub-cl. (a) was not satisfied since the telex was not sent, and the letter of guarantee
had not been obtained; and sub-cl (b) was not satisfied seeing that the telex was not sent, and,
for the reasons given below, the necessary permissions and approvals of the National Bank of
Yugoslavia and the National Bank of Croatia had not been obtained. Nor had the approval of
the yard’s commercial bankers been obtained if, contrary to my view expressed below, that
falls within the ambit of sub-cl. (b).”

最后去一提的是,第 23 条文的(b)后续条件之“造船所需要的批文与批准”(necessary
permissions and approvals)不包括 Jugobanka 拒绝去提供给船厂造船的融资,这是私下
的事情。该后续条件的批文与批准是指船厂所在地的法律上的要求,而其中要取得国家
银行(National Bank of Yugoslavia)的批准是法律规定,所以国家银行不批准等于满足
不了第 23 条文之(b)的后续提条件。

虽然这一个先例主要是针对造船合约中第 23 条文的解释,但判的结果还是令部分人士
不满意。这主要是认为船厂既然给了一个造船选择权,就不能去找一个理由让船厂可以
轻易脱身,令一个选择权变成一场空。这可节录 Millett 大法官在 Little v. Courage Ltd.
(1995) 70 P & C R 469 所说如下:
“The whole point of an option is that the grantor undertakes to grant an interest to the
grantee in the future if the grantee calls on his to do so, whether the grantor is then willing to
grant it or not. The Court will struggle to avoid a construction which would render the option
illusory by making it impossible for the grantee to exercise it unless the grantor were willing
to grant the interest anyway.”

3.4 案例之四:Fast Ferries v. Ferries Australia

这个先例 Fast Ferries v. Ferries Australia (2000) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 534 涉及了建造 2 艘双体
船(catamaran),其中建造船舶的融资是来自一家名为 Debis 的财务公司。由于受到压
力,就是船厂有其他船东在谈判,会导致船厂没有空泊位,所以在 1995 年 2 月 20 日双
方就去签了造船合约。该合约有一个先决条件(其实是后续条件),是第 27 条文如下:
“This agreement is conditional upon Debis agreeing to provide finance for the vessel on
terms and conditions which are satisfactory to the purchaser and builder.
The above condition shall be met before the 28 th February 1995 for this agreement to become
effective.”

之后,船东支付了 5%的船价作为定金,而 Debis 与船东/船厂有关融资的谈判也继续。


到了 5 月 18 日,船东不接受 Debis 新提出的条件而中断了融资谈判,并要求船厂归还
定金。但船厂拒绝归还,并指称船东应该接受 Debis 的条件,而不这样做是犯错,根据
New Zealand Shipping 的先例,应该有一个默示条件不能让船东自己犯错去令后续条件
满足而中断造船合约。但高院拒绝船厂这个说法,认为船东没有必要去接受不同的融资
条文,Steel 大法官是这样说:
“… it is important to bear in mind that the [shipbuilding] contract had been conditional on
the provision of finance by Debis on terms which were satisfactory to [the buyer and the
builder]…. While a term could readily be implied that neither party would prevent approval
[of the financing] being given on the terms offered (e.g. by withdrawing the application),
there is no basis … for implying any term to the effect that either party was under an
obligation to accept different finance terms.”

4. 对合约先决或后续条件的弃权

这里涉及了一个相当重要的与现实的问题,就是可否对造船合约的先决或后续条件弃
权,以争取该合约不会被自动或对方中断。比如说,船厂要在 3 个月期间内提供给船东
一个还款担保,而船厂在期间有证据显示了尽力去申请还款担保但不成功,这会导致
造船合约的后续条件不满足而令合约中断。但期间市场上的船价急涨,船东宁可不要还
款担保(尤其船厂是一个财雄势大的集团公司例如是中远的船厂)也希望保住这一个
造船合约。这一来,船东可否在 3 个月前的 1、2 天,肯定了船厂无法提供还款担保时,
去向船厂明确说明他放弃要还款担保的权利?

英国法律对这一方面是十分明确,就是在合约中先决或后续条件明显是属于一方当事
人的利益,他就可以去放弃这一个条件。这在 Heron Garage Properties Ltd. v. Moss
(1974) 1 All E.R. 421 中 Brightman 大法官说:
“where the stipulation is in terms for the exclusive benefit of the plaintiff because it is a
power or right vested by the contract in him alone … or where the stipulation is by inevitable
implication for the benefit of him alone….”
接下去可举两个非造船的争议,第一个是 Manheath Ltd v. H. J. Banks & Co Ltd. (1995)
The Times, 2 June 1995。该苏格兰判例是涉及了土地买卖,但合约有一个先决条件就是
买方必须在 5 年内取得有关当局的规划许可(planning permission)去发展该土地,并
且要通知卖方。如果没有在 5 年内发出这样的通知,该土地买卖合约就自动中断。法院
判是买方不能单方面去对这一个条件弃权,因为规划许可并非只对买方有利,而对双
方都有利益与重要。法院在该案例中也很受到一个因素的影响,就是条件如果不满足,
该合约就自动中断而不是只去让买方中断,后者才显示条件的利益属于一方。

另一个案子就是 Chiemgauer Membran und Zeltbau GmbH v. New Millennium experience


Co Ltd. (2000) CILL 1595,合约有关去提供与安装一个天幕,但有一个先决条件就是承
建商必须先提供一个履约担保。合约另外也有第 31 (5)条文去允许雇主为了自己的方便
去中断合约,但要支付赔偿给承建商。之后雇主去行使了他在第 31 (5)条文下的权利,
中断了合约。雇主也拒绝了承建商提出的赔偿要求,说是根据先决条件没有被满足而中
断合约。上诉庭不同意雇主的说法,Chadwick 大法官是这样说:
“The condition precedent was a condition wholly for the benefit of the Millennium
Company (雇主). It was a condition which the Millennium Company was entitled to waive.
By choosing to serve a notice under Clause 31(5), that is what the Millennium Company did
in this case. By bringing the contract to an end by notice, the Millennium Company made it
impossible for the condition precedent … to be fulfilled; and so must be taken to have chosen
not to rely upon it.”(这里是说有关提供履约担保的先决条件只是属于雇主的利益,他
可以去放弃。事实上,他根据第 31 [5]条文去发出了通知给承建商说是为了他的方便去
中断了合约,这导致了还没有满足的先决条件无法去满足,因为已经是变了无关。雇主
这样做,就等于在给通知的时候以行为放弃了先决条件,再也不能推搪说是根据先决
条件去中断该合约。)

有一些先决或者后续条件到底是属于哪一方的利益或是双方的利益也不好说。举例说,
董事局的批准就应该属于双方的利益。需要取得董事局批准的一方显然就是得利,但对
方能够去通过这样做而肯定了合法的授权,也同样得利。所以,这一个条件是不能任由
一方当事人去弃权。相反,好像是还款担保就明显属于船东得利,船东可以去及时弃权
以保住造船合约。

5. 还款担保(Refund Guarantee)

还款担保对船东十分重要,因为船东(或者他的融资银行)会在造船期间支付给船厂
庞大的分期付款,但直到交船的一刻,船东是什么东西都没有在手的。虽然,在少数的
地方,好像是德国,允许在建造中的船舶注册并且去登记抵押权(mortgage),但英
国法律是不接受这一个做法。而在今天国际上的造船合约,绝大部分都适用英国法,所
以船东要去在分期付款预付,但手头什么保障都没有,自然会感到忐忑不安。毕竟,除
了船厂会扯皮(例如不交船或甚至把船舶卖给其他人),还会有各式各样的理由令到
交不了船,例如是根据 SAJ 标准格式合约之 Article III,有各种违约导致了船东有权去
中断合约,例如是过度延误交船日期,船速/耗油量/载重量等方面的严重不足等。如果
在这种情况下去中断了造船合约,船东自然需要去把已经预付了的船价尽快要回来。这
可以是很大一笔钱,例如在 Gold Coast v. Caja Ahorros (2002) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 617,当船
东因为交船日期过度延误而去中断造船合约的时候,他已经付了给船厂 38,500,000 美
元船价的 80%。固然,预付多少完全是订约自由,例如在 Gyllenhammar v. Split (1989) 2
Lloyd’s Rep. 403,涉及的预付船价只有船价的 15%,因为余下的 85%船价是由船厂提
供的融资,在交船后分 12 年去归还。但即使是 15%仍是一大笔钱,船厂还是需要提供
还款担保。

还款担保的重要性还可以去看其他方面,就是船厂自己交不了船给船东并且愿意退还
预付了的部分船价,但也不一定有这笔流动资金。船东预付了的金钱恐怕早已经为了建
造该船舶(虽然最终还是交不了船)支付材料与工资等所剩无几了。加上,不少船厂是
在一些被国际船东认为是难以执行判决/裁决的地区,例如在中国或者是韩国。至于一
些特殊情况例如是船厂属于中国远洋集团,导致外国船东针对船厂可以在国际上许多
地方找到中远的财产去执行只是极少数。再说,即使能够向船厂执行,也会是麻烦与费
时,甚至要去把船厂清盘。所以,一有一份还款担保,有银行作为担保人,船东所有在
以上谈到的顾虑就可以一扫而空了。

还款担保对船东来的重要性可以从造船合约中通常会去明示它是一条条件条文
(condition)看到,也就是船厂不能在订立造船合约的短期限内取得还款担保的话,
造船合约就会自动中断。很多时候,船东也不会先去作出任何船价的预付,除非船厂取
得了还款担保。这变了是不少造船合约下船东第一期支付的船价的时间,例如是 5%或
10%不再是双方签订造船合约时,而是船厂提供了还款担保后,这才能给船东有保障。

只会在比较罕见的情况下船厂才会是不需要提供还款担保:

(一)在 70/80 年代的时候,国际造船不景气,船厂通过政府的资助去廉价造船并提供


给船东信贷,例如是船东只需要支付 20%甚至是更低的船价就可以接船,剩下的船价
分期以固定利率去慢慢地分 8 年甚至更长时间去还款。显然,在这种情况下是船厂不一
定需要向船东提供还款担保,而是船东要向船厂提供交船后的还款担保(包括像船舶
抵押,船东个人担保,船东集团公司担保,等等)。但这也不一定,例如在上述
Gyllenhammar v. Split 先例,船东只需要预付 15%的船价,船厂一样要提供还款担保,
只是金额上会低得多。

(二)船厂提供不了还款担保,但船东还是选择冒这个风险去继续造船。例如笔者听闻
现在中国有大量的船厂在造船,而其中有大概一半的船厂(主要是一些小的与没什么
名气的船厂)向进出口银行拿到还款担保会有困难。这一来,根据造船合约生效条文的
一般措辞,造船合约就会中断。但在近年来船价猛涨的情况下,一份造船合约本身就是
一个很值钱的资产,估计会有船东去放弃要求船厂提供还款担保。

(三)可能船东与船厂是老客户的关系,船东也充分了解船厂雄厚的背景。例如是属于
一个大的商业集团,在技术上也不可能交不了船。这一来,双方可能在一开始谈造船合
约的时候连还款担保这个问题也不必去涉及。但光是船东有信心还不够,恐怕还需要他
的融资银行同意才行。

由于今天造船的资金庞大,船东通常会有商业银行的融资。这一来,以分期付款预付给
船厂的钱也往往来自融资银行。所以,如果交不了船,根据合约之间的关系就是还款担
保的担保人(如进出口银行)要去还款给船东,而船东再要把这笔钱根据贷款合约的
要求去归还给融资的商业银行。但在商业社会涉及这么大的一笔钱,谁也不应该相信谁。
所以商业银行通常在贷款合约内会坚持如果涉及船厂还款,就要直接把钱由担保人支
付给他而不必通过船东(这可能是一家空壳的巴拿马公司)。这种做法就是要去把还款
担保的利益(benefit)通过转让(assignment)给船东的融资商业银行。

5.1 还款担保的形式

还款担保是可以有两种形式,第一种是一般的“银行担保”( bank guarantee),它基


本上是去担保船厂的履约,包括了在造船合约中断的时候去退还预付船价。第二种是
“备用信用证”(standby letter of credit),或者现在的名称是“限令担保”(demand
guarantee)。它们之间有很大的分别与有严重后果,会在接下去作出解释。

5.1.1 形式之一:银行担保

这种银行担保已经有很长的历史,例如在 Calvert v. London Dock Co. Ltd (1838) 2 Keen


638。它是通常由银行或一个保险公司为了他们的客户去保证受益人他们会支付一笔钱
( 通 常 有 一 个 限 额 ) , 如 果 他 们 的 客 户 没 有 去 履 行 他 们 在 基 本 合 约 ( underlying
contract)下的承诺(包括了是有了争议在败诉之后赔钱)。银行作为担保人所承担的
责任是属于次要的(secondary),即银行只会在首要(primary)负责的一方不履行承
诺的时候才需要出面。随意去给这些银行担保一个定义,可见 Dolan 先生在《The Law of
Letters of Credit》一书第 p. 2-26 所说的:
“Traditionally, a guaranty or security contract is an undertaking by one party to assure a
second party of payment or performance by a third party. The liability of the guarantor is
secondary and arises upon non-performance by the third party, the ‘principle obligor.’”

还款担保如果是以银行担保的形式就会对船东很不利,因为如果遇上争议(例如在
Gold Coast v. Caja Ahorros [2002] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 617 的中断造船合约,涉及了船东与船
厂完全不同的有关交船日期延误的计算)这会拖上几年去仲裁,甚至还会进一步上诉
法院。其中由于没有交船,光是船厂去确定损失金额也会要很长时间。这会涉及去把已
经造好(或造了一半要去完成)的船舶在市场出售后才知道损失,但航运市场不好的
时候想去出售也非易事。在这期间,由于首要的责任,也就是船厂与船东之间的谁是谁
非,还没有定论,所以不存在作为担保人的银行要去作出任何的支付。但在期间,船东
的融资银行,也就是替船东支付了一大笔的预付船价,由于交不了船肯定是要去向船
东要回这笔钱。这就会令船东夹在当中,一方面无法尽早向船厂取回预付的船价,另一
方面无法去还钱给融资银行,期间还要负担沉重的利息损失,这可不是开玩笑。

5.1.2 形式之二:限令担保

限 令 担 保 是 在 近 期 才 出 现 的 , 正 如 Jauncey 勋 爵 在 Trafalgar House Construction


(Regions) Ltd v. General Surety and Guarantee Co Ltd (1996) 1 AC 199 说 : “ in recent
years there has come into existence a creature described as ‘on demand bond’ in terms which
the creditor is entitled to be paid merely on making a demand for the amount of the bond.”。
但限令担保很快就变得非常受欢迎,在几年之间已经变成是“国际贸易中部分的主要
机 制 ” ( part of the essential machinery of international trade ) , 这 是 Denning 勋 爵 在
State Trading Corp of India Ltd v. ED & F Man (Sugar) Ltd (1981) Com LR 235 所说的。限
令担保与传统的真正担保有很大的不同,它们是要银行承担首要的责任,而不去理会
担保背后的基本合约,例如是造船合约或货物买卖合约。在这些基本合约中谁是谁非,
银行作为担保人或者开证人是毫不关心也不去理会。一个说法可以说是它们完全独立于
基本合约外,这道理是与信用证一致。反正,银行根据限令担保与信用证所规定的要求
(通常是针对一份受益人要求支付的文件而不针对事实 真相)马上付钱,银行不理会
双方在基本合约中会有的争议,这是另一个合约可留待它去将来慢慢去解决:Cargill
International SA v. Bangladesh Sugar & Food Industries Corp (1996) 4 All ER 563 。所以,
限令担保在 The “Bhoja Trader” (1981) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 256 被视为是“相等于现金在手”
(the equivalent of cash in hand)。也有另一种说法是限令担保相针对提供担保方而言等
于“自杀担保”(suicide guarantee)或“断头备用信用证”(guillotine standby letter of
credit):Lane-Mullins v. Warrenby Pty Ltd (2004) NSWSC 817。

在《United Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of Credit》


的国际公约,给限令担保的定义是如下:
“For the purposes of this Convention an undertaking is an independent commitment, known
in international practice as an independent guarantee or as a stand-by letter of credit, given by
a bank or other institution or person (‘guarantor/issuer’) to pay to the beneficiary a certain or
determinable amount upon simple demand or upon demand accompanied by other documents,
in conformity with the terms and any documentary conditions of the undertaking, indicating,
or from which is it to be inferred, that payment is due because of a default in the performance
of an obligation, or because of another contingency, or for money borrowed or advanced, or
on account of any mature indebtedness undertaken by the principal/applicant or another
person.”

另在 Paget 先生的《Law of Banking》一书第十一版标题“Contract of suretyship v. demand


guarantee”下,对限令担保有定义如下:
“Where an instrument (i) relates to an underlying transaction between parties in different
jurisdictions, (ii) is issued by a bank, (iii) contains an undertaking to pay ‘on demand’ (with
or without the words ‘first’ and/or ‘written’) and (iv) does not contain clauses excluding or
limiting the defences available to a guarantor, it will almost always be construed as a demand
guarantee.”

最后可去节录 Denning 勋爵所给的定义如下:


“A bank which gives the performance guarantee must honour that guarantee according to its
terms. It is not concerned in the least with the relations between the supplier and the
customer; nor with the question whether the supplier has performed his contracted obligations
or not; nor with the question whether the supplier is in default or not. The bank must pay
according to its guarantee, on demand, if so stipulated, without proof or conditions. The only
exception is when there is a clear fraud of which the bank has notice (Edward Owen Ltd v.
Barclays Bank [1978] 1 Q.B. 159 at 171)”

限令担保的形式就十分明显对船东很有利了,因为船东一方面作出预付船价,另一方
面又把这笔钱抓在手中(通过限令担保)。这会给船厂造成极大的危险,就是,在造船
合约中断后,双方有争议而且船厂认为船东是因为市场下跌而去借理由脱身,所以谁
是谁非还完全没有搞清楚的情况下(甚至看来明显是船东违约,只是一天还没有最终
判下来就不能说死),船东或他的融资银行就马上可以向提供还款担保的银行要求立
即退还预付船价。这往往是船厂根本没有办法去阻止的,例如通过法院的禁令。这一来,
在付了钱之后,船东往往是“单船”公司,但由于没有接收船舶所以是完完全全的皮
包公司,可以说船厂再去通过仲裁向船东追偿也会是毫无意义了。

所以,船厂如果是同意提供给船东一份限令担保(例如像 NEWBUILDCON 的附录


A[iii]),就会很需要去坚持船东提供其他一流与可靠的履约担保,例如是船东集团公
司(希望是大公司)的担保或船东个人担保。这至少可以在还款担保支付后,如果船厂
还有必要向船东索赔,也有另一个比较有经济实力的船东担保去作出一定的保障,而
不是光是面对皮包公司。

5.1.3 银行担保与限令担保在文字/措辞上的区分
这两种不同形式的担保去作出区分其实也是去看它的文字与措辞,因为它们本身就是
一种合约,也同样可以享有千变万化的订约自由。但很多时候,订约自由并没有被好好
利用,反而是写得不清不楚,这很大部分的原因是订约者本身没有这方面的知识 /水平。
比如说,如果担保是针对文件而非事实,这就有一个假设即该文件是一份限令担保 。
Staughton 大法官在 I.E. Contractors Ltd. v. Lloyds Bank Plc. (1990) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 496 说:
“There is a bias or presumption in favour of the construction which holds a performance
bond to be conditioned upon documents rather than facts. But I would not hold the
presumption to be irrebuttable, if the meaning is plain.”

但在 Esal (Commodities) Ltd. v. Oriental Credit Ltd. (1985) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 546,有关的担
保在文字上是如下:
“… We undertake to pay the said amount on your written demand in the event that the
supplier fails to execute the contract in perfect performance….”

上述的文字是针对供应商不履约的事实才需要去作出支付,这一来,除非供应商承认
不履约,否则有关是否履约的争议就要去仲裁或法院判决后担保人才能去作出支付,
这看来不像是限令担保。但最终上诉庭认为在其他方面看来该担保的主要目的是要去针
对受益人可以尽快得到支付,所以判是限令担保。Ackner 大法官是这样说:
“… If the performance bond was so conditional, then unless there was clear evidence that
the seller admitted that he was in breach of the contract of sale, payment could never safely be
made by the bank except on a judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction and this result
would be wholly inconsistent with the entire object of the transaction, namely to enable the
beneficiary to obtain prompt and certain payment.”

所以,由于担保写得不清楚就会带来不稳定的后果,因为仲裁员或者法官也只能是根
据双方所用的文字去作出全面与客观的解释。在造船合约,也会带来这种严重的争议,
其中一个近期的先例就是 Gold Coast v. Caja Ahorros (2002) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 617。已经介
绍过部分案情,有关的一艘化学品船舶因交船日期延误而被船东中断造船合约,但船
厂有不同的计算,所以认为死亡日期还没有届临。显然,双方又有一个严重而且会需要
耗时才能解决的争议。在该案件中,还款担保的文字是如下:
“In consideration of your payment to Naval Gijon, S.A. (‘the Builder’) of the … instalment
(the ‘Instalment’) under the Shipbuilding Contract we do hereby irrevocably and
unconditionally undertake (except as provided below) that we will pay to you within five (5)
days of your first written demand U.S.$ … together with interest thereon at the rate of two per
cent (2 per cent), per annum over LIBOR from the date of your payment of the instalment to
the date of our payment to you of amounts due to you under this Guarantee if and when the
instalment becomes refundable from the Builder pursuant to the terms and conditions of the
Shipbuilding Contract.
This Guarantee is subject to the following conditions:
1. We shall pay any amount payable under this Guarantee upon receipt of a certificate issued
by LLOYDS BANK PLC stating the amount of the Instalment paid to the Builder under the
Agreements, the date of such payment that you have become entitled to a refund pursuant to
the Agreements and that the Builder has not made such refund.
2. This Guarantee shall become null and void upon the earlier of
(a) … delivery and acceptance of the Vessel or
(b) … payment in full … either from us under this Guarantee or directly from the Builder, or
(c) 1 July 2000, provided that in this latter case if arbitration proceedings have been
commenced by the Builder or you under Article 15 of the Shipbuilding Contract, then this
Guarantee will remain in full force and effect until 21 days after the publication of the final
award in those arbitration proceedings except that we shall not be liable under this Guarantee
for any interest accruing on the instalment after 1 May 2001 …
5. Any variation, amendment or waiver given in respect of the Agreements will not limit,
reduce or exonerate our liability under this Guarantee, always provided such variation,
amendment or waiver will not increase our maximum liability assumed under this Guarantee

8. This Guarantee shall be governed in every respect by English law. Any dispute arising
under or in connection with this Guarantee shall be referred to the exclusive jurisdiction of the
English Courts.”

在上述的担保文字中,船厂与船东各自提出不同的理由支持他们的解释。船厂认为这是
银行的一个真正担保,因为:
(一)上述担保的第 1 个条件是说明只在一种情况去作出支付,即如果“你有权得到
还款”(you have become entitled to a refund)。船厂认为船东只能够明确有权得到还款
的情况就是在仲裁中胜诉。
(二)在上述担保的第 2 个条件的(c)项,针对了造船合约下的仲裁与裁决书。换言之,
担保去针对事实。
(三)上述担保的第 5 个条件说明担保并不是独立于基本合约的,因为它针对造船合
约有任何更改、修改或者弃权的情况。这在贵族院的 Trafalgar House Construction Ltd. v.
General Surety and Guarantee Co. Ltd., (H.L.) (1996) 1 A.C. 199 判这是一个真正担保而不
是一个限令担保。

船东认为文字上是限令担保,理由是包括它的文字,尤其是在第一段,都是一些限令
担保所用的文字,如“不可撤销与无条件地保证”( irrevocably and unconditionally
undertake),“你的首次文书要求”(your first written demand),等。另在第 1 个条件,
它只需要一份文件就可去作出支付,就是由 Lloyds Bank 出一份证明确认预付给船厂多
少船价以及在哪一天支付(计算利息)。看来,Lloyds Bank 是船东的融资银行,预付
船价的分期付款是由他去支付,所以让他去出证明应该是十分恰当。

在上诉庭,判是该担保属于限令担保,Tuckey 大法官是这样说:
“… The instrument has all the appearance of a first demand guarantee. It describes itself as a
guarantee, but this is simply a label; it does not use the language of guarantee. Rather the
obligation, which is expressed to be an ‘irrevocable and unconditional undertaking’, is that
the banks ‘will pay’ on a first written demand. The only express condition of payment is
contained in condition 1. This requires a certificate but makes no reference to arbitration or
underlying liability under the shipbuilding contract. The instrument contains its own dispute
resolution provisions.”

至于船厂所提的 3 点,Tuckey 大法官都有去作出解释如下:


(一)“你有权得到还款”(you have become entitled to a refund)这一句话在限令担
保中也经常出现,它不是去针对必须在法律上确定有权,而是受益人自己认为有权。
(二)去针对仲裁与裁决书是会适用在一个情况,就是 Lloyds Bank 因为某种原因不肯
出证明有关预付船厂多少钱,这一来就不能按照担保的第一个条件作出支付,船东就
只能靠在仲裁胜诉后向这一份履约担保要求支付了。
(三)即使在一份完全独立的文件,也会有情况去加上好像第 5 个条件的条文,以避
免一些争议说是造船合约作出了更改(例如改变分期付款)而影响了还款担保。

最后,可去介绍 NEWBUILDCON 的标准还款担保格式,它就清楚表达了它是限令担


保,内容中根本没有像上述案例中的模棱两可与矛盾的措辞。其中第 2 条文的第一段所
用的文字可以说几乎是无懈可击,不妨去节录如下:
“In consideration of you entering into the Contract, agreeing to pay an Instalment or
Instalments to the Builder and agreeing to accept this Guarantee pursuant to the Contract, at
the request of the Builder we irrevocably and unconditionally guarantee (but as primary
obligor and not by way of secondary liability only) that if the Builder becomes liable under
the Contract to repay any part of any Instalment we shall, upon receipt by us from you of a
Demand for the same (together with a copy of a demand made by you against the Builder for
repayment), pay to you or to your order upon the expiry of thirty (30) days from receipt of
such Demand the sum demanded by you by way of the repayment of any Instalment together
with Contractual Interest and Award Interest (if any) provided that our total liability shall not
exceed the Maximum Liability.”

5.1.4 作出限令担保的船厂或银行如何保障自己

上面已经提到过,限令担保对受益人(造船合约下就是船东)来说好比“现金在手”,
这一来也很容易被受益人滥用(abuse),这也是一个令人头痛的问题。至于法律是否
能够对作出限令担保的一方作出保障,可以说是微乎其微,而且是国与国之间也不尽
相同。例如说是英国法律就几乎没有什么保障,但相比下新加坡法律就提供较大的保障。
这表示船厂如果非得去作出限令担保,相比下受到新加坡法律的管辖较为安全。在上述
已经提到的《United Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of
Credit》公约想去对这方面的问题,特别是对待受益人滥用限令担保的问题,在国际上
作出统一规定,它虽然已经在 2000 年 1 月生效,但直到 2006 年,只有 8 个非重要的国
家 签 署 ( Belarus , Ecuador , El Salvador , Gabon , Kuwait , Liberia , Panama 与
Tunisia),所以起不了作用。这一来,表示英国、美国或是新加坡还是要去看它们个别
的法律。

5.1.4.1 英国法律

去阻止受益人(在造船合约下就会是船东)滥用权利,唯一合法的办法就是去马上向
法院申请一个禁令。这一个禁令可以是针对作出限令担保(或信用证也是同样地位)的
银行,也可以针对受益人。前者是禁止银行去作出支付,后者是禁止受益人去作出支付
要求。但英国法律很明显是采取不干预的态度,理由是为了商业上的肯定性,让限令担
保的收益人知道自己完全受到保障。而唯一的例外就是著名的“欺诈例外”( fraud
exception ) : Edward Owen Engineering Ltd v. Barclays Bank International Ltd (1978) 1
Lloyd’s Rep. 166 ;The “Bhoja Trader” (1981) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 256 ; United Trading Corp
SA v. Allied Arab Bank Ltd (1985) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 554 与 R D Harbottle (Mercantile) Ltd v.
National Westminster Bank Ltd (1978) QB 146。

但问题是在英国法律下,想要去在法官面前说服他有欺诈的情况,难度会是很大。第一
就是证明欺诈的证据一定要清楚明确:Bolivinter Oil SA v. Chase Manhattan Bank NA
(1984) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 251。而且这些证据虽然还没有去全面审理,但可以显示给法官看
表明有一个很大的成功机会去最后成立欺诈: United Trading Corp SA v. Allied Arab
Bank Ltd (1985) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 554 与 Solo Industries UK Ltd v. Canara Bank (2001) 1
WLR 1800。

此 外 , 即 使 满 足 了 这 一 个 欺 诈 例 外 , 还 要 去 说 服 法 官 在 平 衡 方 便 ( balance of
convenience)的考虑下,应该去作出这一个中间禁令。这方面针对限令担保而言,被说
是 有 不 可 超 越 的 困 难 ( an insuperable difficulty ) : R D Harbottle (Mercantile) Ltd v.
National Westminster Bank Ltd (1978) QB 146 ; United Trading Corp SA v. Allied Arab
Bank Ltd (1985) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 554 与 Czarnikow-Rionda v. Standard Bank (1992) 2
Lloyd’s Rep. 187。

可以说去针对银行的禁令,这平衡方便的考虑几乎是不会有成功的希望。换言之,想去
说服法院禁止银行去兑现他支付给受益人金钱的承诺相比留待申请禁令方将来去向限
令担保的受益人作出损失索赔是更加方便与恰当的做法,这是不可能的。另是去针对受
益人的禁令,而受益人是一家大公司,显示申请禁令方将来可以去向受益人提出损失
索赔并把限令担保付出的钱要回来,也是很难去说服法院去作出禁令的做法会是更加
方便。Denning 勋爵在 State Trading Corp of India Ltd v. ED & F Man (Sugar) Ltd (1981)
Com LR 235 先例中说是“即使欺诈能够成立,我也会拒绝作出禁令,因为受益人是一
家老牌的食糖贸易商,经济稳定,而将来如果能够成立他在限令担保要求支付是错误
的话,也可以作出赔偿给申请人”( Even if fraud had been established, he would have
refused an injunction because the beneficiary, a very old established firm of sugar dealers in
England, was financially sound and would have been able to meet any damages which might
have been awarded against them, if the call was wrongful.)

平衡方便的考虑只有在非常明确与局限的情况下会有可能对申请禁令方(也就是去作
出限令担保的一方)有利,就是能够证明将来才去向受益人索赔损失并不是一个足够
的救济,或是法院不去作出禁令会造成无可补救的伤害。例如是受益人在收到支付的金
钱后就有可能破产: Barclay Mowlen Construction Ltd v. Simon Engineering (Australia)
Pty Ltd (1991) 23 NSWLR 451。但再去提醒,大前提是先要去成立受益人的欺诈。

5.1.4.2 美国法律

美国法律在这一方面基本上与英国法律是一致的,但它在欺诈例外中去成立受益人欺
诈的尺度比较宽松,而在平衡的考虑方面,也对申请禁令方比较有利。所以,可以说美
国法律对作出限令担保的一方或他的银行比较有利。

首先,在针对欺诈例外,有先例说是“有伸缩性”( is flexible ):United Bank v.


Cambridge Sporting Goods Corp (1976) 41 NY 2d 254。也有案件判是只要有证据显示了受
益人要求作出支付是“在一种情况暗示有一个巧妙的欺诈”( was made in a situation
that was subtly suggestive of fraud),就足够去作出禁令:Harris Corp v. National Iranian
Radio and Television (1982) 691 F 2d 1344 ; Itek Corp v. First National Bank of Boston
(1981) 511 F Supp 1341。同样的程度在英国是不足够去说服法院作出禁令的: Tukam
Timber Ltd v. Barclays Bank Plc (1987) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 171。

除了上述的证据方面,连对构成欺诈的定义是什么也有所不同。例如在英国法律,要求
限令担保作出支付所针对的违约实是受益人自己违反基本合约,这并不构成欺诈:
Edward Owen Engineering Ltd v Barclays Bank International Ltd (1978) 1 Lloyd’s Rep
166;Howe Richardson Scale Co Ltd v. Polimex-Cekop and National Westminster Bank Ltd
(1978) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 161 。 但 在 美 国 , 在 这 种 情 况 就 会 被 视 为 是 欺 诈 : Penn State
Construction Inc v. Cambria Savings and Load Association (1987) 519 A 2d 1034; 2 UCC
Rep Serv 2d 1638。另是受益人只要诚实相信自己,在英国法律下就已经不足够去成立
欺诈:State Trading Corp of India Ltd v. ED & F Man (Sugar) Ltd (1981) Com LR 235。但
在美国,有先例判是申请禁令方不需要去证明作出支付的银行或是受益人去欺诈性地
行动或有恶意(it is not necessary for [the accounting party] to demonstrate that either [the
paying bank] or [the beneficiary] acted deceitfully or with malicious intent ) : Rockwell
International Systems Inc v. Citibank NA (1983) 719 F 2d 583 ; Harris Corp v. National
Iranian Radio and Television (1982) 691 F 2d 1344;Dynamics Corp of America v. Citizens
and Southern National Bank (1973) 356 F Supp 991。

有关这些对欺诈定义的松紧有所不同,也不是太奇怪的事。比如香港特区的法律与中国
大陆的习惯做法就会有所不同,在香港特区如果随意或者根据猜测去指称他人欺诈会
带来非常严重的后果,例如被他人以诽谤起诉索赔。

5.1.4.3 新加坡法律

新加坡的法律看来是最保障作出限令担保的一方或者银行,但相对来讲也是对限令担
保的受益人不利。这是因为新加坡的法律除了像英国一样有一个欺诈的例外,还有一个
“过分不合理”(unconscionable)的例外。这一种例外是在近年才发展起来的,以前
新 加坡 是跟从英 国法 律只有一种 欺诈 的例 外 可以去作出 禁 令。在 American Home
Assurance Co v. Hong Lam Marine Pte Ltd (1999) 3 SLR 682,Young Pung How 大法官说:
“the bank must pay, regardless of how unfair that might be to the account party.”。但随着
限令担保被受益人越来越多的滥用,新加坡法院的态度有了改变。其中最重要的一个先
例是 GHL Pte Ltd v. Unitrack Building Construction Pte Ltd (1999) 4 SLR 604 ,案情涉及
一个建筑合约要求承建商提供给雇主一个限令担保,金额是工程费用的 10%。之后双方
同意把工程费用下调,但这限令担保的金额没有去下调。双方后来出了争议,在承建商
的申请下,新加坡上诉庭作出了禁令。在该先例显然是不涉及欺诈,法院的禁令只是根
据过分不合理。上诉庭也有说明这一个过分不合理的例外是属于欺诈例外以外的另一种。
这一点在后来的另一个先例 Samwoh Asphalt Premix Ote Ltd v. Sum Cheong Piling Pte
Ltd (2002) Build LR 459 , 有 去 肯 定 了 这 一 个 说 法 , 说 : “ In Singapore,
unconscionability on the part of the beneficiary in calling for payment on a performance
guarantee is a separate and distinct ground from fraud for seeking injunctive relief.”

新加坡法律有了这一种例外,可以说是再也不需要欺诈的例外了。因为能够达到欺诈的
举证程度,恐怕早就已经过了过分不合理的界线。所以在新加坡近期有关作出禁令针对
限令担保的案例,几乎都是根据过分不合理的例外。

5.1.4.4 英国对新加坡法律这另一种例外的看法
首先,英国法律也曾经有过这种并不足够去成立欺诈,而只是属于过分不合理或并非
善意的情况去作出禁令。这是在 Elian and Rabbath v. Matsas (1966) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 495。该
先例是船东为了卸港的滞期费对货物行使占有留置权(possessory lien),结果黎巴嫩
的发货人同意提供给船东一个银行担保(是一个真正的担保而非限令担保),以交换
船东中止留置货物。但船东在中止了原来的留置后马上又因为新的延误去行使占有留置
权。这导致了英国上诉庭去作出禁令,不让船东去向银行担保作出支付要求。其中
Danckwerts 大法官认为允许船东去这样做是有点违反了双方约定的善意,说:“ if the
shipowners were entitled immediately after obtaining the [guarantee] to claim a fresh lien and
use it for the purpose of the [guarantee], it would amount at least to a breach of faith in regard
to the arrangement between the parties.”

但在后来的先例中,对这一点有所保留。在 Howe Richardson Scale Co Ltd v. Polimex-


Cekop and National Westminster Bank Ltd (1978) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 161,Roskill 大法官说
Elian and Rabbath v. Matsas 属于“一个非常特殊的案件”(a very special case)。另在
Group Josi v. Walbrook Insurance (1996) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 345,英国上诉庭的 Clarke 大法官
认为 Elian and Rabbath v. Matsas 并非是先例,说:“In my judgement the Elian case is
not authority for the proposition that there is any exception to the general rule that the Court
will not interfere with the operation of a letter of credit in the absence of fraud.”

另也是在上诉庭的 Staughton 大法官也说到一直以来的做法,也就是只有欺诈的例外,


已经十分确定的做法,如果“要改就不是由本法院去改”( too well established for
change to take place in this court)。这显示了如果要去改变或放宽,是必须去到贵族院才
能作出改变。

其他的案例有 Cargill International SA v. Bangladesh Sugar & Food Industries Corp (1996)
4 All ER 563,Morrison 大法官拒绝去作出禁令,虽然有证明受益人(买方)实际上在
下跌的市场中以比合约更便宜的价格买入了代替品而没有任何损失,但他拒绝去在申
请中间禁令的时候去提前参与实质争议的审理。Morrison 大法官认为即使是事实,在受
益人根据限令担保取得的比损失更多的金钱,也可以去在将来的诉讼中取回,这毕竟
不是属于欺诈的例外。

最 后 一 提 的 是 上 诉 庭 的 Eveleigh 大 法 官 在 Potton Homes Ltd v. Coleman Contractors


(Overseas) Ltd (1984) 28 Build LR 19 说:
“in principle I do not think it possible to say that in no circumstances whatsoever, apart from
fraud, will the court restrain the buyer. The facts of each case must be considered. If the
contract is avoided or if there is a failure of consideration between buyer and seller for which
the seller undertook to procure the issue of the performance bond, I do not see why, as
between the seller and buyer, the seller should not be unable to prevent a call on the bond the
mere assertion that the bond is to be treated as cash in hand.”

但上述的话只是 Eveleigh 大法官随口说说的(obiter),并非是有约束性的权威说法。


所以可去总结说,英国法律与新加坡法律在这方面是有分歧的。

5.1.4.5 英国法律不接受过分不合理例外的原因

简单地说,英国不接受新加坡法律对“过分不合理例外”(unconscionable exception)
的说法大致上有三个主要原因:

(一)就是认可了这一个例外,就等于再也不需要欺诈的例外了,这可以从新加坡的
经验看得到。而实质的影响就是去把法院不干预限令担保的尺度降低,影响限令担保大
受欢迎的客观情况。要知道,限令担保是在你情我愿的情况下双方约定去作出的,如果
提供限令担保的一方认为不公道,他可以拒绝提供,而不是去改变法律。正如在 Eltraco
International Pte Ltd v. CGH Development Pte Ltd (2000) 4 SLR 290 所 说 的 : “ it is
important that the courts guard against unnecessarily interfering with contractual arrangement
freely entered into by the parties. The parties must abide by the deal they have struck.”

(二)接受这一个过分不合理的例外会提前把法院卷入双方的争议,因为要去看是否
是过分不合理就会要去涉及有关的争议。而这正是限令担保想去避免的情况,就是受益
人先把钱拿到手再慢慢去处理双方的争议。

(三)有了这一个例外会带来不肯定而导致更多有关限令担保的争议。

所以,伦敦作为一个国际金融中心看来是不会对这一方面作出较宽松的对待,也就是
说想去申请禁令阻止一个限令担保(或信用证)作出支付,欺诈的例外是唯一的例外。

5.1.5 以限令担保的内容去作出保障

限令担保也是一个合约,可以有充分的订约自由。一种给提供限令担保的一方(例如是
船厂)的保障就是双方在谈判的时候去要求在限令担保的内容中作出一定的保障,这
些保障的程度就要看是什么内容。最简单的,可以在限令担保中说明受益人必须在要求
银行作出支付之前的一段时间(比如是 3 个银行工作天)向作出限令担保方给一个文
书的通知:TTI Term Telecom International Ltd v. Hutchison 3G UK Ltd (2003) EWCH 762
(TCC); (2003) 1 All ER (Comm) 914。这一来,如果受益人明知道没有去给通知,却去声
称已经给了通知甚至去伪造一份书面通知并要求银行作出支付,就会构成欺诈,可让
法院以欺诈例外作出禁令了。另一种情况是要求受益人向银行要求作出支付的时候,必
须自己去提供一个证明,确认是在对方违约下要求支付:State Trading Corp of India Ltd
v. ED & F Man (Sugar) Ltd (1981) Com LR 235;Attock Cement Co Ltd v. Romanian Bank
of Foreign Trade (1989) 1 All ER 1189 ; Kvaerner John Brown Ltd v. Midland Bank Plc
(1998) CLC 446。这一来,如果这一个证明并不符合事实,例如明明是船东说是船价市
场下跌,所以不去接收船舶,但同时又去向提供限令担保的银行作出一个证明说是船
厂违约,这就也会构成一个欺诈了。例如在 I E Contractors Ltd v. Lloyds Bank Plc (1990)
2 Lloyd’s Rep. 496,Staughton 大法官说这个证明会:“may place him (受益人) in the
peril of a charge of obtaining money by deception if it [the statement] is untrue to his
knowledge.”

还会有更大程度作出保障的内容,例如是受益人必须提供给作出支付的银行一份来自
独立的专家的证明,例如是工程师,建筑师或者是测量师所签署。当然,受益人绝对不
能接受要有一份证明是由对方(作出限令担保方)所签署,因为双方利益有直接的冲
突:Tukam Timber Ltd v. Barclays Bank Plc (1987) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 171。有了这一个保障,
银行在没有看到这一份证明时就可以拒绝作出支付。而如果有证据显示该证明是伪造的
话,这又变成是一个明显的欺诈,可以尽快与及时去向法院申请禁令。

还有一个可能会作出保障的内容是限令担保的支付必须在境内,这是给作出限令担保
方如果无法去成功取得禁令阻止限令担保的支付,也有多了一个机会再去向法院申请
一个冻结禁令(freezing injunction)去把付了的金钱冻结起来。虽然冻结禁令的申请也
有相当的难度,但会是相比阻止限令担保作出支付的禁令会是难度较低。虽然英国法院
可去作出全球性的冻结禁令(worldwide freezing injunction),但针对在境外作出支付
的 限 令 担 保 , 英 国 法 院 是 不 愿 意 去 作 出 冻 结 禁 令 的 : The “Bhoja Trader” (1981) 2
Lloyd’s Rep. 256 ; Potton Homes Ltd v. Coleman Contractors (Overseas) Ltd (1984) 28
Build LR 19。

反正还有其他千变万化的内容可以去作出保障,但这是要看双方的谈判实力与知识了。
只去说,在 NEWBUILDCON 附件的还款担保格式,是一个没有对船厂或他的银行作
出任何保障的限令担保。

6. 还款担保与向船厂索赔违约损失的关系

这里涉及的问题是根据 SAJ 标准格式的 Article X 有关船东可以根据合约权利去行使中


断造船合约的权利并可以要求船厂归还预付的船价与普通法下的权利的关系与重叠之
处。显然,Article X 所针对的船东中断合约是针对造船合约下的一些明示权利,主要是
Article III 的交船日期的过度延误或船速/耗油量/载重量的严重违约。这些都不是普通法
下默示的权利去中断合约,普通法所默示的例如是合约受阻( frustration)或毁约
(repudiation)看来都没有在 SAJ 标准格式内有所针对。这一来,就存在一种情况是如
果船厂毁约,最常见的就是拒绝为船东造船与交出船舶,而船东也接受了毁约,这普
通法下的损失应该是怎样的地位?这种情况在船价高涨的今天经常会发生,就是船厂
可能是有理也可能是无理去拒绝履行造船合约,结果导致了船东接受毁约并且向船厂
提出往往是非常庞大的索赔(根据该船舶市场价格与合约价格的差额),与合约下的
一些议定赔偿金额可能有天渊之别。

6.1 有关的先例:Stocznia Gdynia SA v Gearbulk Holdings Ltd

这 两 者 之 间 的 关 系 最 近 有 一 个 比 较 难 明 白 的 高 院 先 例 名 为 Stocznia Gdynia SA v
Gearbulk Holdings Ltd (2008) EWHC 944 (Comm)。该 3 份造船合约涉及了 3 艘散装船舶,
合约是在 2000 年 6 月 29 日与 2001 年 2 月 13 日签订。但之后船厂发生严重的财政问题,
导致了该 3 艘船舶根本没有依照合约中的交船日期交给船东。甚至过了 150 天的死亡日
期,船厂也交不出船舶。事实上,后 2 艘船舶根本还停留在设计的阶段。这在后来的仲
裁中,独任仲裁员 Neill 前大法官判是船厂毁约并被船东接受(accept),把造船合约
中断。在船东接受毁约后,船东自然的反应是去根据还款担保把预付的船价取回。但船
东这样做就带来了船厂的争议,就是他可否再去向船厂索赔普通法下的船价损失(估
计这个损失不小)?

船厂有几方面的争议,第一就是根据造船合约第 10 条文有关延误交船与船舶规范说明
有不妥的议定赔偿中,其中说明船东除了议定赔偿外不能向船厂索赔其他的损失。但船
东在中断造船合约后并在还款担保取回预付了的船价,也就不存在议定赔偿了。可是这
样还是不影响合约的明示规定,即除了议定赔偿外不能索赔其他损失,也就是普通法
下的船舶损失。该条文是如下:
“10. Delay In Delivery And Deficiencies: Seller’s Default

The Contract Price of the Vessel shall be adjusted by way of reduction in the event of any of
the contingencies set out in this Article. Such adjustment shall be effected by way pf
reduction of the amount of the delivery instalment of the Contract Price referred to at (e) in
Article 5.3 hereof (it being understood by the Parties that any such reduction of the Contract
Price shall [be] by way of liquidated damages and not by way of penalties).

The Purchaser shall not be entitled to claim any other compensation and the Seller shall
not be liable for any other compensation for damages sustained by reason of events set
out in this Article and/or direct consequences of such events other than liquidated
damages specified in this Article.

In case the total amount of liquidated damages claimed by the Purchaser under this Article
exceeds five per cent (5%) of the Contract Price, the Purchaser’s right to liquidated damages
shall be limited to such amount equal to and not exceeding five (5) per cent of the Contract
Price as specified in Article 4.1 of this Contract.”

另一个船厂的争辩就是船东去根据造船合约的条文向还款担保的担保人(ABN Amro
Bank)取回预付了的船价,这与接受毁约并中断合约的行为不符,也等于其确认
(affirm)了造船合约的存在,所以再也不能索赔普通法下的损失。这看来是接近禁止
翻供的说法。

6.2 仲裁的决定

这些争议在 Neill 前大法官作为仲裁员判船厂败诉,作出了以下的结论:


“9.1. I can state my conclusions in relation to each of the three contracts as follows:
1. The contract was repudiated by the Yard.(船厂毁约)

2. The terms of the contract did not preclude Gearbulk ( 船 东 ) from relying on that
repudiation.(造船合约的条文并没有禁止船东去依赖该毁约,并可向船厂索赔损失)

3. The provisions in Article 10 did not apply to the repudiation of the contract by the Yard.
(第 10 条文并不适用在船厂毁约的情况)

4. By relying on the contractual provisions in Article 10 to recover instalments paid Gearbulk


did not affirm the contract.(船东依赖第 10 条文去取回预付的船价并不表示船东确认该
中断了的合约)

5. Neither did Gearbulk affirm the contract by any action taken or not taken before the letter
of termination.(船东也没有做任何事情去确认该中断了的合约)

6. Gearbulk is entitled to claim damages at common law for the repudiatory breach of
contract by the Yard.(船东有权索赔普通法下的船价损失)”。

6.3 英国法院的改变

但这一个裁决书被上诉去了英国法院而改变了裁决书的判法。在前一个争议,也就是在
造船合约第 10 条文下是否排除了船东索赔普通法下因毁约而产生的船价损失,这一点
高院与仲裁员的看法一致,就是船东在普通法下的权利(接受船厂的毁约并索赔船价
损失)并没有被该条文排除。但在第二个重要的争议,高院却认为船东去根据造船合约
条文取回预付的船价是一种确认该合约的行为。这里高院的 Burton 大法官是根据上诉
庭的一个先例名为 United Dominions Trust (Commercial) Ltd v Ennis (1968) 1 QB 54 。在
该先例,涉及租购协议(hire-purchase agreement),该合约被提供租购的公司根据第 8
条文中断,而且可以根据第 11 条文能够向租赁方得到一笔最低赔偿。但这一笔钱被上
诉庭判是惩罚性条文而无效。这导致了提供租购的公司作为一个替代的争议要求去根据
普通法索赔损失,而合约的中断就是因为租赁方的毁约。但上诉庭判是该合约已经被确
认,以下是 Denning 勋爵所说的如下:
“There remains the alternative claim for repudiation. It is said that Mr. Ennis repudiated the
contract. I very much doubt myself whether his letters and his conduct should be considered
as repudiation. He was simply asking for the agreement to be terminated. He was not
repudiating it. But even if it be treated as a repudiation, it is clear that the repudiation was
never accepted by the finance company. After receiving his letter, they treated the contract as
being still continuing. They claimed under the minimum payment clause, which is a thing
they could not possibly have done if there had been an acceptance of repudiation. By so
doing, they elected to treat it as continuing. … The county judge said they accepted the
repudiation in November 1963, when they amended their pleadings. That was far too late.
They had already evinced their intention to treat the agreement as continuing. I do not think
they can rely on the alleged repudiation.”。

6.4 毁约的接受或确认

6.4.1 毁约的定义

毁约(repudiation)是在 19 世纪英国法院发展起来的理论。这就是如果合约中其中一位
承诺方不准备与不愿意或没有能力,或者将不会,到了履约的时间去履行他的合约承
诺,而这个承诺是足够严重(sufficiently serious),并非是一些鸡毛蒜皮的小事,法律
就认为被承诺方(也就是无辜方)有一个权利去中断合约与索赔损失,根据的理论就
是毁约。而这种救济看来也在一些国际公约,例如 1980 年的《United Nation Convention
on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods》之 Article 49 (1)(b)如下:
“(1) The buyer may declare the contract avoided:

(b) in case of non-delivery, if the seller does not deliver the goods within the additional period
of time fixed by the buyer in accordance with paragraph (1) of article 47 or declares that he
will not deliver within the period so fixed.”

6.4.2 毁约的三种情况

毁约可以是有三种情况,如下:
(一)到了时间要去履行合约承诺,承诺方以行动或语言表明他不准备与不愿意履行。
这是可以来自几个原因,一个最常见的原因就是承诺方错误理解他自己的法律地位或
合约的解释,以为他这样做是正确的。著名的例子就是 The “Nanfri” (1979) 1 Lloyd’s
Rep. 201,船东在一个期租下拒绝去签发运费预付提单。船东是事先向律师拿了
法律意见,以为自己有权去这样做,但最后被英国贵族院与上诉庭判是完全错
误,并构成了实质的毁约。另一个也是常见的造成毁约的原因是承诺方把话讲得
过火,可能以为去吓唬吓唬对方,例如说“你不给钱我就不装货”,结果构成
了毁约并且被对方利用,例如在市场对他有利的情况下去中断租约。很多时候双
方有争议关于承诺方到底有否在行动或语言清楚地表明他不准备或不愿意履行。
承诺方通常会争辩说自己并没有这样去表达,是对方误解了。而对方就会坚持这
毁约的表达是清清楚楚。这里的测验是以被承诺方的角度去看,但要客观与合理
就是承诺方是否清楚表达了毁约的意图。举例说,承诺方以文书说明:“我考虑
不装货,除非你付钱”就有可能不是毁约,因为他只是在考虑。但这句话稍微有
一点改变为“我指示船长不装货,除非你付钱”情况就会不同了。

(二)还没有到时间要去履行合约承诺,承诺方提前告诉被承诺方他将不会履行。这也
通常被称为预期毁约(anticipatory breach),例子可以是好像 Hochster v. De la Tour
(1853) 2 E & B 678 的涉及了一个雇佣合约下,虽然还没开始上班,雇主已经告诉雇员
已经不需要他的服务了。航运的例子可以是船舶还没有开去装港或只是在半途,承租人
告 诉 船 东 船 舶 不 必 再 来 装 港 , 因 为 根 本 无 货 可 装 : The “Mihalis Angelos” (CA)
[1970] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 43。

(三)承诺方再没有能力去履约(inability to perform)。这一种毁约就是承诺方虽然没
有说他不准备与不愿意履行,但客观来看他再也没有这个能力。例如,像 Devlin 大法官
在 Universal Cargo Carriers Corporation v. Pedro Citati (1957) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 174 说:
“… suppose, for example, that a man promises to marry a woman on a future date … and …
before that date arrives he marries another … the aggrieved party may sue at once. One
reason alleged in support of such action … is that the defendant has, before the day, rendered
it impossible for him to perform … but this does not necessarily follow, for, prior to the day
… the first wife have died.”(即某人答应一个婚姻,但之后他另娶,如果当时去以“不
可能”去指控他毁约,仍是难说到底,因为原婚约届临前,他的新婚妻子可能突然死
亡)。

Devlin 大法官上述的说法也适用在笔者目前给的一个咨询,涉及了租约链,就是原船
东 A 期租给了二船东 B,而 B 又期租给了 C(也就是向笔者咨询的中国公司),C 再
期租给了 D。期间船舶开往装港,B 在当前金融/航运危机下破了产。由于 A 与 D 都属于
欧洲公司,而且大家熟悉,所以很快就直接达成了协议(细节内容无法知悉),船舶
继续开往原定的装港,好像什么都没有发生过。但 C 除了失去了他的利润外,还面对 D
向他索赔预付了的租金与交船燃油,理由是 C 的毁约,因为 C 无法去履行租约。但笔者
建议 C 去向 D 作出的抗辩是 C 本来可以去向原船东 A 作出建议就是去绕过破产的 B 达
成直接的租约关系,这就毫不影响 C 向 D 的履约。但由于 D 很快与 A 达成协议,这等
于是 D 的行为导致了 C 的无法履约。这一个争议还在持续,结果说不定。在这里一提纯
粹是让大家知道怎样去灵活适用这些理念。

这种毁约很难去证明,因为是要能够证明承诺方是全面与绝对不可能去履行他的承诺。
在 Universal Cargo Carriers Corporation v. Pedro Citati,船舶到了装港巴士拉,但根本没
有货物备妥可去装船,也没有发货人被指定,更谈不上有什么装货泊位可去挂靠。最后
船东等到销约期将过,就去把船舶转租并开离装港。这导致了双方互相指责对方毁约,
但根据该先例的事实认定,被判是船东证明了在他去转租的那一天,承租人是没有能
力去在巴士拉另找一票废钢的货物。到底这样的认定是否正确,笔者不知道有什么有关
的证据。但如果承租人真的可以去另找一票这样的货(他是否会去这样做是个未知数),
船 东 就 会 败 诉 。 另 在 上 述 介 绍 的 Stocznia Gdynia SA v Gearbulk Holdings Ltd (2008)
EWHC 944 (Comm),Neill 前大法官作为仲裁员认定船厂毁约,也应该是属于这个种类
的毁约,就是船厂再也没有能力去履约造船了。

6.4.3 “善意”对毁约的影响

毁约方会有很多情况是善意(bona fide)的,这会影响是否是毁约:Woodar Investment


Development Ltd v. Wimpey Construction UK Ltd (1980) 1 All ER 571。善意会是最影响一
种毁约,就是毁约承诺方错误理解其法律地位或者合约的解释。而善意的表现在毁约承
诺方向对方表示:“如果判决(或裁决)并不支持我的理解,我就愿意履约。”显然,
善意针对其他类别的毁约,例如是没有能力去履约,就无关了。所以,小心的毁约承诺
方会去在拒绝履行合约承诺的同时,去要求对方合作马上进行诉讼或仲裁,看看谁的
立场正确。这一来,如果对方不合理拒绝,有可能毁约承诺方虽然不应该拒绝履行,但
他错误理解合约的解释会 被视为不构成毁约 ,只是一个“ 诚实的误解”( honest
misapprehension)。

6.4.4 无辜方有选择权去接受承诺方的毁约或去确认合约

6.4.4.1 接受毁约

再进一步去探讨普通法在这方面的基本说法,这就是在合约一方以行动或者语言作出
毁约(repudiation 或 renunciation)的时候,无辜方就在传统的说法下有两个选择。这两
个选择是截然不同的,一个就是去接受(accept),这样做的话是去把他们之间的合约
中断。因为不去这样做的话该有关合约是不会因为一方的毁约而自动中断消失。在合约
中断后,毁约方也就是有了一个次要的责任,就是去赔偿给无辜方金钱上的损失。

在普通法,接受毁约就是选择中断合约,它唯一的要求就是无辜方以清楚无误
( unequivocal ) 与 不 可 改 变 的 文 字 或 行 为 告 诉 毁 约 方 他 去 中 断 合 约 : Heyman v.
Darwins Ltd (1942) AC 356;Lakshmijit v. Sherani (1974) AC 605。但肯定的是,沉默或
不行动的话就一般不能被理解为是接受毁约中断合约。

以文字来接受毁约应该是一个较好的做法,并且可以去保留书面证据。例如,一种简单
与常见的文字就是无辜方去告诉毁约方因为后者拒绝履行合约,所以合约中断与他保
留索赔的权利。Phillips 大法官在 The “Santa Clara” (1993) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 301 说:
“Acceptance of a repudiation comes closer to acceptance of a contractual offer, for what is
required is words or conduct which makes it plain that the innocent party is responding to the
repudiation by treating the contract as at an end.”

但以行动去接受毁约也是可以,其不好的地方就是会引起争议,被毁约方指称这接受
并非清楚无误与不可改变。毁约方在有些情况甚至可以说是不知道无辜方有这种行动,
故此不知道毁约被接受。此外,一天不去接受就有机会是毁约方会回心转意要求去履行
合约,因为合约并没有中断。这会导致正在行动中的无辜方有问题,例如无辜的卖方正
把买方拒绝接收的货物转卖,而且刚订下合约。但当时该货物的市场突然逆转上涨,毁
约方回心转意就会导致无辜方只有一票货物但被夹在两个合约中间。

针对行动去接受毁约,在 Holland v. Wiltshite (1954) 90 CLR 409 先例,案情涉及了房屋


买卖,但买方毁约没有去作出支付。卖方结果去再登出售房屋的广告,并最后转卖给了
其他人。法院判这是足够清楚的行动接受原来买方的毁约,说:
“… election to treat the contract as discharged by the purchasers’ breach was sufficiently
manifested by his proceeding to advertise the property for sale, and by his selling it.”

看来无辜方在对方毁约后不再继续履行他自己的合约承诺(non-performance)会是一
种接受毁约的行动。例如雇主去告诉雇员他明天开始不用上班,这会是在他们之间的雇
佣合约是毁约行为。结果雇员果然在第二天不上班并且不久后向雇主提出索赔,很明显
雇员不上班的不履行行动是一个清楚无误的接受雇主的毁约。

在 The “Santa Clara” (1996) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 225,案情涉及了一个 CIF 买卖,货物是一船


的丙烷,装港是在美国休斯敦,并依据装货日期( basis loading Houston)在 1991 年 3
月 1-7 日。到了 3 月 8 日,当时卖方所租的船舶“Santa Clara”仍在休斯敦继续装货,但
买方去以电文告诉卖方他拒绝接收货物,说:
“… It was a condition of the contract that delivery would be effected 1-7 March 1991…. We
are advised that the vessel is not likely to complete loading now until some time on 9 March –
well outside the agreed contractual period. In view of the breach of this condition we must
reject the cargo and repudiate the contract. We do however reserve our position to claim
damages in these circumstances.”
但这一份电文是到了 3 月 11 日的周一才被卖方看到,而船舶是在 3 月 9 日的周六已经
装完货并开往卸港。之后,双方的通信往来中,买方拒绝改变主意。最后卖方只能在 3
月 15 日把该船丙烷以 170 美元/吨(原合约价格为 400 美元/吨)转售给了其他人。显然,
当时丙烷市场大跌,而在过程中卖方从来没有以文书去接受买方的毁约。显然,卖方也
没有履行其他在买卖合约所要求的承诺,例如在装货后尽快去交出一套提单给买方等
等。

买方在 3 月 8 日的电文中拒绝接收丙烷,被判是一种预期毁约的行为。至于没有文书去
接受这一个毁约,贵族院判是卖方可以以不履行他的合约承诺来清楚告诉买方他接受
了后者的毁约。Steyn 勋爵是这样说:
“I would accept as established law the following propositions: (1) Where a party has
repudiated a contract the aggrieved party has an election to accept the repudiation or to affirm
the contract: Fercometal S.A.R.L. v. Mediterranean Shipping Co. S.A., [1988] 2 Lloyd’s Rep.
199. (2) An act of acceptance of a repudiation requires no particular form: a communication
does not have to be couched in the language of acceptance. It is sufficient that the
communication or conduct clearly and unequivocally conveys to the repudiating party that
that aggrieved party is treating the contract as at an end. (3) It is rightly conceded by Counsel
for the buyer that the aggrieved party need not personally, or by an agent, notify the
repudiating party of his election to treat the contract as at an end. It is sufficient that the fact
of the election comes to the repudiating party’s attention, e.g. notification by an unauthorized
broker or other intermediary may be sufficient …”

另一个有关接受毁约的原则是无辜方只要是明确对毁约方表达他是去选择去中断合约 ,
即使他所提出的理由不成立,也没有去提到毁约被接受,也不影响中断合约的正确性。
因为只要有毁约,无辜方就有权去中断合约。他对于理由的表达错误并不会影响其实质
上有这样的权利。在 Stoznia v. Latco (2002) Lloyd’s Rep. 436,船东毁约拒绝去支付船价,
因为船价市场下跌,但船厂去中断造船合约的理由是根据合约第 5 条文有关船价的分
期付款,包括支付。但该条文不适用在毁约的情况,第一审的 Thomas 大法官判这并不
影响船厂去中断合约的权利,他说:
“179. It is clear that no particular form or formality is required for the acceptance of a
repudiation. Although the letters referred to the termination under clause 5 of the contract,
they made it clear that the yard considered the contract at an end and neither party was under
an obligation of any further performance. If the yard had a right to terminate for repudiation,
the fact that they did not set that out does not in my view make any difference, as it is well
established that a party terminating a contract can rely on grounds other than those he gives.
The important matter is that the letters unequivocally stated that the contractual obligations
were at an end. I therefore conclude that there was an acceptance by the yard.”
在上诉庭,这一个原则也被接受。Rix 大法官说:
“32. It is established law that, where one party to a contract has repudiated it, the other may
validly accept that repudiation by bringing the contract to an end, even if he gives a wrong
reason for doing so or no reason at all.”

6.4.4.2 确认合约

第二个选择就是无辜方去确认(affirm),只要该合约仍是可以履行。这一来,毁约就
有可能根本没有发生过,正如 Asquith 大法官在说的一个没有被接受的毁约就好像
“ thing writ in water and of no value to any body: it confers no legal rights of any sort or
kind.”。或是,Sumption 大法官在 Safehaven v. Springbok (1996) 71 P & CR 59 所说的没
有被接受的毁约“等于是作废”(is spent)。毕竟,毁约方会有可能在无辜方的坚持下,
去改变主意而去履行他的合约承诺。总而言之,无辜方的这种确认做法等于是作出一个
选择让该合约继续有效。而“affirmation”在香港律政司出版的《英汉法律词典》第三册
上册中给与的解释是“肯定承认合约存在”。这一来,如果无辜方蒙受损失(例如是延
误),仍然可以去索赔损失,但这只是对方违约所带来的损失,而不是中断合约所带
来的损失。确认被视为弃权的一种,即无辜方放弃了他可以因为对方毁约而去中断合约
的权利,所以也有另一个名称为“选择弃权”(waiver by election)。

当然,如果毁约方不去改变主意去履行合约承诺,并且再度以文字或行动坚持他的毁
约,这就给了无辜方新的机会去接受。但这接受的并不是原先他放弃了行使权利的毁约,
而是另一个新的毁约或持续的毁约。这可以节录 Safehaven v. Springbok 先例中 Sumption
大法官所说如下:
“It does not follow from this analysis that the innocent party may in all cases change his
mind after affirming the contract. If, after he had affirmed it, the repudiating party’s conduct
suggested that he proposed to perform after all, then the previous party’s repudiation is spent.
It has no further legal significance. If on the other hand, the repudiating party persists in his
refusal to perform, the innocent party may later treat the contract as being at an end. The
correct analysis in this case is not that the innocent party is terminating on account of the
original repudiation and going back on his election to affirm. It is that he is treating the
contract as being at an end on account of the continuing repudiation reflected in the other
party’s behavior after the affirmation.”

由于确认合约与另一个选择的接受毁约是截然相反的做法与后果,所以被要求去作出
选择的无辜方是需要了解有关的事实与他的权利才是合理。这一点 Atkin 勋爵在 United
Australia Ltd v. Barclays Bank Ltd (1941) AC 1 说:
“… if a man is entitled to one of two inconsistent rights it is fitting that when with full
knowledge he has done an unequivocal act showing that he as chosen the one he cannot
pursue the other, which after the first choice is by reason of the inconsistency no longer his to
choose.”

无辜方除了要清楚知道对方的毁约的事实,他必须要知道他在法律上的权利可去选择
确认或接受。后一个要求与弃权的一般要求是一致,就是弃权的一方必须知道有关事实
与他有什么权利才谈得上去放弃。

有关无辜方必须知道所有有关的事实,先例是贵族院的 The “Kanchenjunga” (1990) 1


Lloyd’s Rep. 391。至于要知道他在法律上的权利,在 Peyman v. Lanjani (1985) Ch 457 的
先例,它去把这方面区分为法律默示地位(不论是普通法或是衡平法)与合约明示条
文,而无辜方知道有关的事实只针对后者的明示条文。所以如果毁约也涉及了法律默示
地位,就存在无辜方的了解(knowledge)也必须包括了了解这些法律上的权利。至于
怎样去证明无辜方有这方面的了解去作出一个确认合约,有说法是可以去推断,例如
无辜方曾经问过律师。这是 Colman 大法官在 Moore v. Hermes (2003) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 163
讲的如下:
“98. It is stated in authorities binding on this Court that a second requirement for there to be
a valid election is that the party said to have elected must have had full knowledge of the
various rights among which he can elect: see Evans v. Bartlam [1937] A.C. 473 at p. 479 and
Peyman v. Lanjani [1985] Ch 457.
99. The burden of proving both aspects of the state of knowledge of the party said to have
elected rests on the party alleging election. However, with regard to the electing party’s
knowledge of the legal rights among which he can elect, in the absence of evidence to the
contrary, such knowledge may be inferred from the fact that the party had legal advice: see
Peyman v. Lanjani, sup., at p. 487 per Lord Justice Stephenson. Lord Justice May agreed with
the judgment of Lord Justice Stephenson in general. So did Lord Justice Slade. Although both
gave full judgments, neither suggested that Lord Justice Stephenson’s observations as to the
basis of that inference were wrong.”

无辜方不论是选择去接受毁约还是去确认合约并告知或者以行动显示给对方,后果都
是不可逆转的。这表示无辜方如果确认了合约,原来的合约就等于一直没有被中断过,
无辜方也不能在后来改变主意想去接受对方较早时的毁约,因为该权利已经是被放弃
了。除非是,对方继续拒绝履行合约,这在无辜方确认合约后由于对方再度毁约给了其
新的机会可以去接受。

6.4.5 确认合约导致的可能后果

通常无辜方不肯接受毁约是因为他希望不要失去有关的合约,例如它很赚钱,或是市
场正在下跌。相反,如果相比市场能够去中断合约是十分有利的话,无辜方就肯定不会
放过这一个难得的机会去接受毁约了。反正,去确认合约会带来其他各种变数,例如是
船厂拒绝交船但船东去确认合约,做法上会是坚持船厂必须履行造船合约,甚至说明
不会接受毁约去中断造船合约。这一来,船厂稍后改变态度,不再拒绝交船。但随即发
生了政府的禁令或是其他不可抗力的严重事件,导致该船舶长期交不了(甚至更严重
会是令合约受阻),而期间航运市场逆转下挫。船东会是无奈,因为船厂在这种不可抗
力的事件下是在造船合约下免责的。会是事后诸葛亮去看,船东后悔没有在较早时接受
毁约,因为当时航运市场高涨,中断造船合约后可以去索赔船舶的差价会是比确认合
约而导致迟迟交不了船而等到航运市场逆转下挫才去接船强得多。

6.4.6 毁约除了接受或确认合约外有否其他选择

有疑问是在一方当事人毁约,无辜方除了接受或确认外,是否有第三个选择?看来,
除了无辜方会有一段合理时间去考虑并作出决定选择接受或确认外,不像有第三个选
择,这里可以去节录 Rix 大法官在 Stocznia Gdanska SA v Latvian Shipping Company
(No. 2) (2002) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 436 中所说的话,如下:
“In my judgement there is of course a middle ground between acceptance of repudiation and
affirmation of the contract, and that is the period when the innocent party is making up his
mind what to do. If he does nothing for too long, there may come a time when the law will
treat him as having affirmed. If he maintains the contract in being for the moment, while
reserving his right to treat it as repudiated if his contract partner persists in his repudiation,
then he has not yet elected. As long as the contract remains alive, the innocent party runs the
risk that a merely anticipatory repudiatory breach, a thing ‘writ in water’ until acceptance, can
be overtaken by another event which prejudices the innocent party’s rights under the contract
—such as frustration or even his own breach. He also runs the risk, if that is the right word,
that the party in repudiation will resume performance of the contract and thus end any
continuing right in the innocent party to elect to accept the former repudiation as terminating
the contract.”

6.4.7 这方面的权威说法

这方面有许多权威的说法,笔者去节录 Yukong Line v Rendsburg Investment (1996) 2


Lloyd’s Rep. 604 先例中 Moore-Bick 大法官的说法,如下:
“From that array of authorities, one can deduce the following principles which are
applicable to the present case and which were not in dispute:

(1) A renunciation of the contract by one party prior to the time for performance is not itself a
breach but it gives the other party, the injured party, the right to treat the contract as
discharged immediately. In other words, if a person says he will not perform, the law allows
the other to take him at his word and act accordingly.

(2) In such a case the injured party is not ordinarily bound to treat the contract as discharged;
the law gives him a choice. He may treat the contract as discharged or he may disregard the
repudiation and treat the contract as continuing in full effect, notwithstanding what has
occurred. He can, in other word, elect to affirm it.

(3) If the injured party elects to affirm the contract, both parties’ rights and obligations under
it remain completely unaffected; the renunciation is ‘writ in water’, to use the well-known
expression of Lord Justice Asquith in Howard v Pickford Tool Co. Ltd., [1951] 1 KB 417 at
p. 421.

(4) The choice placed before the injured party is between inconsistent rights, and once the
choice has been made and communicated to the other party to the contract, it is irrevocable.
Unlike estoppel, election dose not depend upon any change in position by the party to whom
it is communicated.

(5) Although the injured party is bound by his election once it has been made, the fact that he
has affirmed the contract does not of course preclude him from treating it as discharged on a
subsequent occasion if the other party again repudiates it.

(6) The injured party will not be treated as having elected to affirm the contract in face of the
renunciation unless it can be shown that he knew of the facts giving rise to his right to treat
the contract as discharged and of his right to choose between affirming the contract and
treating it as discharged.

(7) A binding election requires the injured party to communicate his choice to the other party
in clear and unequivocal terms. In particular, he will not be held bound by a qualified or
conditional decision.

(8) Election can be express or implied and will be implied where the injured party acts in a
way which is consistent only with a decision to keep the contract alive or where he exercises
rights which would only be available to him if the contract had been affirmed.”。

另 Ackner 勋爵在 The “Simona” (1988) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 199 这样说:


“When one party wrongly refuses to perform obligations, this will not automatically bring
the contract to an end. The innocent party has an option. He may either accept the wrongful
repudiation as determining the contract and sue for damages, or he may ignore or reject the
attempt to determine the contract and affirm its existence.”

6.4.8 确认合约后无辜方的履约

已经解释过,一去确认合约就表示有关的合约从来没有被中断。这表示毁约方需要去履
行外,无辜方也是要去这样做。而在有关合约中的权利或者好处,毁约方也可以去享有。
例如已经谈过,毁约方可以去依赖合约的免责条文,不可抗力条文,或普通法下的合
约受阻,等等。而如果在一个航次租约,船东拒绝接受承租人的毁约并坚持开往装港,
他就要肯定会在销约期之前抵达与备妥,否则就会给不想履约的承租人一个黄金机会
去根据销约期条文去合法地取消租约:The “Simona” (1988) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 199。

但这一个法律地位曾经一度不明朗,这是因为上诉庭在 Braithwaite v Foreign Hardwood


Co., (C.A.) (1905) 2 KB 543,曾经判无辜方即使是确认合约的存在,也无需去照该合约
的条文履行或不必对不履行负责。但这一个富有争议的争议的先例已经被贵族院在 The
“Simona”推翻,其中 Ackner 勋爵是这样说:
“I therefore conclude that the decision in Braithwaite [1905] 2 KB 543 is not an authority
for the proposition advanced by the appellants, alternatively if it is, then it is wrong. When A
wrongfully repudiates his contractual obligations in anticipation of the time for their
performance, he presents the innocent party B with two choices. He may either affirm the
contract by treating it as still in force or he may treat it as finally and conclusively discharged.
There is no third choice, as a sort of via media, to affirm the contract and yet to be absolved
from tendering further performance unless and until A gives reasonable notice that he is once
again able and willing to perform. Such a choice would negate the contract being kept alive
for the benefit of both parties and would deny the party who unsuccessfully sought to rescind,
the right to take advantage of any supervening circumstance which would justify him in
declining to complete.”

但会有一些比较少有的情况,无辜方自己不去履约会可以以其他的理由去解释,其中
一个主要的理由就是禁止翻供(estoppel)。例如航运市场上涨,船东拒绝履行一个长
期的租约,但承租人拒绝接受毁约。期间,下一期要预付的租金到期。承租人显然会对
要不要支付这笔钱有所犹豫。如果船东是作出了一些表述就是这笔租金你承租人支付了
我也会退还给你,这就给了承租人不必去履约的理由。

6.5 有关 Stocznia Gdynia SA v. Gearbulk Holdings Ltd 先例的质疑

在上述简单介绍了无辜方确认合约或不接受毁约的一些道理,现在回来去分析这一个
近期的先例会带来一些什么严重的后果。首先去重温,就是 Burton 大法官不同意裁决
书,认为船东(买方)去根据造船合约条文取回预付的船价是一种确认该合约的行为。
他在判决的第 44 段是这样说:
“The Refund Guarantee could only be enforced ‘in the event that the Purchaser ( 船
东)shall exercise its right to terminate this contract pursuant to any of the provisions hereof’,
and in accordance with the agreed terms, at Schedule E, arose ‘in certain circumstances in
accordance with the terms of the contract [whereby] the Purchaser shall become entitle to be
refunded…and that entitlement is to be secured by a bank guarantee.’ The guarantee, and the
Purchaser’s rights under it as against the solvent third party, ABN Amro Bank(提供换款担
保的银行), could only be assessed by the Purchaser by enforcing the terms of the contract,
which it did in each case after the termination notice and in accordance with its intention so to
do, as spelt out in that notice. By doing so, the Purchaser affirmed the contract and
elected against repudiation. It cannot therefore rely upon conduct, namely the sending of the
relevant letters, antedating that election/affirmation, as constituting an acceptance of
repudiation.”

另在判决的第 47 段,Burton 大法官说:


“… In this case, the conduct of the Purchaser was successful in achieving payment under the
guarantee, rather than being left to an uncertain claim against a possibly insolvent Yard. It
was upon Ennis (这应该是指 United Dominions Trust [Commercial] Ltd v Ennis [1968] 1
QB 54 先例) that Christopher Clarke J relied in paragraph 144, in the passage I have cited in
paragraph 43 above, in concluding that there may be a claim made on termination which is
inconsistent with acceptance of repudiation. This is just such a case.”

在笔者看来,第一个疑点就是还款担保通常是去保障船东根据造船合约下的一些过度
延误交船日期,船速/耗油量/载重量等方面的严重不足去中断合约的情况下去取回预付
了的船价,但没有去明确针对船厂毁约船东去接受并中断造船合约的情况。但在现实中,
如果船东去这样做,通常第一个想法就是去先把预付了的船价在还款担保取回。很难想
象,船东去这样做被认为是一个确认造船合约的行为。这一来,如果在这一个案例,船
东去向 ABN Amro Bank 取回预付了的船价,就构成了确认,并导致了造船合约继续存
在,就会带来一些笔者认为严重的后果,如:
(一)船东恐怕不一定理解他在普通法下去接受船厂毁约会是有这么严重的后果,就
是可能没有还款担保的保障,或者去要了这个保障就会带来被视为是确认了合约的危
险。

(二)船东如果是没有这一个保障,而且被进一步视为是确认造船合约,就会需要去
履行有关的造船合约。这表示他非但不能去向船厂取回已经预付了的船价,而且更要进
一步去支付船价(反正是照合约规定)。在该案例下,船厂面临破产,而 ABN Amro
Bank 的还款担保已经失效,船东恐怕不会去作出支付,这就会倒过头来船厂可以指称
船东毁约/违约了。
(三)一般的船东恐怕都会在这种情况下去这样做,不管是什么理由中断合约。在这个
案例也明显船东向船厂去要回预付的船价是不可能,因为船厂已经接近倒闭,所以去
向提供还款担保的 ABN Amro Bank 取回恐怕是处在这个处境的每一个船东都会去这样
做。把这样的行为视为是确认合约有一点说不通,因为它更加与接受毁约去中断造船合
约的决定一致。例如是说无辜方是必须知道他法律下有关去接受毁约或者确认合约的权
利,才会构成一个有效的确认。确认,不论是以行为或文字,必须是明确与不可反悔的,
等。

(四)在该先例船东是被视为是确认了造船合约,他就再也不能向船厂索赔船价的差
额了,因为这是属于普通法下的损失,造船合约内没有这样的规定。

(五)即使在确认了造船合约,而船舶继续延误下去会出现新的机会可让船东去中断
造船合约,比如是根据 SAJ 之 Article III (1)(d)下的新交船日期又过了。但问题是在这样
的情况下中断合约并不能让船东索赔船价的差额。原因是这样去中断合约不表示船厂毁
约,而只是船东行使一个合约的选择权。而即使船厂是违约而导致新的延误,本案例下
的造船合约,如其他的合约一样,有条文说明是船东如果因为延误交船中断合约,就
连议定赔偿也不能去索赔。在本案例的造船合约,有关条文是第 10.7 条:
“10.7 Effect of Termination
Upon termination of this Contract by the Purchaser in accordance with the provisions of
Article 10 or any other provision of this Contract expressly entitling the Purchaser to
terminate this Contract, the Seller shall forthwith repay to the Purchaser all sums previously
paid to the Seller under this Contract, together with interest accrued thereon calculated at the
rate of 1 month LIBOR per annum from the respective date(s) of payment of such sums until
date of refund plus the original cost (invoice value) of the Purchaser’s Furnished equipment if
any delivered to the Seller.

It is however further expressly understood and agreed upon by the Parties hereto that, if the
Purchaser terminates this Contract under this Article, the Purchaser shall not be entitled to any
liquidated damages under Article 10.1, 10.2, 10.3 or 10.4 hereof.”

至于案例中的船厂为什么出庭去争辩船东确认造船合约,而不干脆认命?由于报道不
完全,笔者只能去作出一些猜测。例如是船厂面对庞大索赔或其他的情况改变,希望去
履行合约而不想去中断。至于去履行会带来更严重的延误,船厂不在乎,因为可能已经
要支付的议定赔偿已经是封了顶(有关的船舶已经大大超过了约定的交船日期,并加
上最高允许的 150 天议定赔偿),变了船厂长期地延误下去也不会面对更大的索赔了。
反而是如果让船东去索赔普通法下的船价损失,这是没有限制的金额。此外,如果对船
厂的毁约已经被判是确认了该合约,就表示船东非要硬着头皮履行下去,除非船厂有
了新的毁约可让船东去接受。但船厂既然是改了口说船东确认合约,就恐怕不会有新的
毁约会很快出现。船厂甚至会在文书上向船东一直坚持说他一定会交船,只不过时间上
会拖得更久。

看来,要去改变这一个不令人满意的判例,除了希望败诉的船东上诉外,会是要在今
后的造船合约有关还款担保的条文中去明示扩大它的适用在任何的原因导致造船合约
的中断(不论是在合约下或者在普通法下),或更加去明示船东在不论什么原因去中
断合约后,通过还款担保取回预付船价并不构成确认合约。

You might also like