week1

Technical Translation
‫الترجمة التقنية‬
• Introduction:

• Technical translation has traditionally been regarded as the poor cousin of “real” translation.

• ‫"لطالما اعتبرت الترجمة التقنية ابن عم الفقراء للترجمة "الحقيقية‬

• The work that has been done in this area has largely been restricted to terminological issues or technical
issues (e.g. translation memories or machine translation).

• )‫وقد اقتصر العمل الذي أنجز في هذا المجال إلى حد كبير على المسائل المصطلحية أو المسائل التقنية (مثل ذكريات الترجمة أو الترجمة اآللية‬.
• It has been estimated that technical translation accounts for some 90% of the world’s total translation
output each year
• ‫ من إجمالي إنتاج الترجمة في العالم كل عام‬٪90 ‫تشير التقديرات إلى أن الترجمة التقنية تمثل حوالي‬.

• The importance has been attached to the availability of technical information in a variety of languages due
to international focus of many companies as a result of legislation.
• ‫وقد أوليت أهمية لتوافر المعلومات التقنية بلغات متنوعة بسبب التركيز الدولي للعديد من الشركات نتيجة للتشريعات‬.

• Also, with the increase of international cooperation in scientific, technological and industrial activity,
technical translation has become more important.
 Some Misconceptions
• 1-Technical translation includes economics, law, business etc
• 2- Technical translation is all about terminology.
• 3- Style doesn’t matter in technical translation
• 4- Technical translation is not creative; it is simply a reproductive transfer process.
• 5- You need to be an expert in a highly specialized field
 1- Technical translation includes economics, law, business etc. fals
1- ‫تشمل الترجمة التقنية االقتصاد والقانون واألعمال وما إلى ذلك‬.
• In reality, “technical” means precisely that, something to do with technology and technological texts.
• ‫ وهو أمر يتعلق بالتكنولوجيا والنصوص التكنولوجية‬، ‫ تعني كلمة "تقنية" ذلك بالضبط‬، ‫في الواقع‬.

• In discussing technical translation, it is useful to make the distinction between specialized and technical translation.

• ‫ من المفيد التمييز بين الترجمة المتخصصة والتقنية‬،‫عند مناقشة الترجمة التقنية‬.

• For example, religion has a very specific terminology and very definite conventions, styles and document structures
but it is never regarded as “technical”.
• ‫ لكنه ال يعتبر أبدا "تقنيا‬،‫ للدين مصطلحات محددة جدا واتفاقيات وأساليب وهياكل وثائق محددة للغاية‬،‫"على سبيل المثال‬.

• Because a field or subject area has unique or specialized terminology does not make it technical.
• ‫ألن مجاال أو مجاال موضوعيا يحتوي على مصطلحات فريدة أو متخصصة ال يجعله تقنيا‬

• Newmark (1988) has claimed that terminology accounts for at most just 5-10% of the total content of technical
texts; yet there is a disproportionate amount of attention devoted to terminology and lexical issues in technical
translation.
• ‫ هناك قدر غير‬،‫ في المائة من إجمالي محتوى النصوص التقنية؛ ومع ذلك‬10-5 ‫) أن المصطلحات ال تمثل على األكثر سوى‬1988( ‫وقد ادعى نيومارك‬
‫متناسب من االهتمام المكرس للمصطلحات والقضايا المعجمية في الترجمة التقنية‬.
• According to Lee-Jahnke (1998:83-84), there are three essential things in order to learn how to deal with scientific and technical
texts:
‫ وفقا ل‬Lee-Jahnke (1998: 83-84) ، ‫هناك ثالثة أشياء أساسية من أجل تعلم كيفية التعامل مع النصوص العلمية والتقنية‬:

1- know the text structure in the different languages.

‫معرفة بنية النص باللغات المختلفة‬.

2- know the LSP for the area. (Language for Special Purposes)
‫ معرفة‬LSP )‫ (لغة ألغراض خاصة‬.‫للمنطقة‬

3- know the subject area.

2-Style doesn’t matter in technical translation most irritating and completely unfounded misconception because it implies that
technical translators do not have the same linguistic and writing skills

• Technical translation is a highly complex endeavor and style is one of the most important facets.

technical translation “is undoubtedly more restricted in range than aesthetic translation”

But in order to convey information in an appropriate and effective way, technical translators have to find novel and creative linguistic
solutions to ensure successful communication.

Pretending” means that the translator should have enough subject knowledge to know how to deal with the text or to be able to
acquire whatever additional information is needed.
 Technical translation is not only all about conveying specialized information.

• The essential areas of expertise for technical translators can be summarized as follows:
‫يمكن تلخيص مجاالت الخبرة األساسية للمترجمين التقنيين على النحو التالي‬:
• 1. Subject knowledge. ‫معرفة الموضوع‬
• 2. Writing and research skills. ‫مهارات الكتابة والبحث‬.
• 3. Knowledge of genres and text types ‫معرفة األنواع وأنواع النصوص‬
• 4. Pedagogical skills. ‫المهارات التربوية‬.

Not entirely true, technical translators are also responsible for ensuring that the information is presented in the correct form, that it is
complete and that the information can be used correctly and in an effective way.
‫ وأنها كاملة ويمكن استخدام المعلومات بشكل صحيح وبطريقة فعالة‬، ‫ المترجمون الفنيون مسؤولون أيضا عن ضمان تقديم المعلومات بالشكل الصحيح‬، ‫ليس صحيحا تماما‬.

• One of the greatest fallacies when discussing technical translation is to somehow combine it together with scientific translation, or to
use the two terms interchangeably.

• ‫ أو استخدام المصطلحين بالتبادل‬، ‫واحدة من أكبر المغالطات عند مناقشة الترجمة التقنية هي دمجها بطريقة أو بأخرى مع الترجمة العلمية‬.

• Technical translation and technical communication can be characterized at a basic level on the basis of:
• ‫يمكن وصف الترجمة التقنية واالتصال التقني على المستوى األساسي على أساس‬:

• 1-. subject matter ‫الموضوع‬

• 2-. type of language‫نوع اللغة‬
• 3-. purpose ‫ا‬
 The Aim of Technical Translation

• The aim of technical translation is to transmit technical information.

• * ‫الهدف من الترجمة التقنية هو نقل المعلومات التقنية‬.

- Although it is true that technical texts are utilitarian (Pinchuck 1977:18) and are intended to serve to clearly present information to
the target language readers, there is more to technical translation than simply transmitting information.
- - ‫( على الرغم من أنه صحيح أن النصوص التقنية نفعية‬Pinchuck 1977: 18) ‫ إال أن الترجمة التقنية أكثر‬، ‫وتهدف إلى تقديم المعلومات بوضوح إلى قراء اللغة المستهدفة‬
‫من مجرد نقل المعلومات‬.

- The challenge for technical communicators is to ensure that all of the relevant information is conveyed in such a way that the
readers can use the information easily, properly and effectively.
- - ‫ يتمثل التحدي الذي يواجه القائمين باالتصال التقني في ضمان نقل جميع المعلومات ذات الصلة بطريقة تمكن القراء من استخدام المعلومات بسهولة وبشكل صحيح وفعال‬.

- This aim is precisely the same as that of technical writing, which forms the basis for technical translation in that it supplies the raw
materials for translation activities.
- - ‫ التي تشكل األساس للترجمة التقنية من حيث أنها توفر المواد الخام ألنشطة الترجمة‬،‫هذا الهدف هو بالضبط نفس هدف الكتابة التقنية‬. .

- The purpose of technical translation is, therefore, to present new technical information to a new audience, not to reproduce the
source text, as such, or reflect its style or language

- Technical translation is a communicative service provided in response to a very definite demand for technical information which is
easily accessible.

- basic level, we can say that this communicative act involves the author, the translator and the reader. This is the standard way of
examining the translation
• However, the stakeholders in the technical translation process are not simply the author, translator and reader. This
goes further.
‫ هذا يذهب أبعد من ذلك‬.‫ فإن أصحاب المصلحة في عملية الترجمة التقنية ليسوا مجرد المؤلف والمترجم والقارئ‬،‫ومع ذلك‬.

• If we examine the practical circumstances surrounding the production of multilingual documentation, we can
propose a number of other parties:
• ‫ يمكننا اقتراح عدد من األطراف األخرى‬، ‫إذا درسنا الظروف العملية المحيطة بإنتاج وثائق متعددة اللغات‬:

1-Document Initiator: the person or entity responsible for the production of the original source language document.
1-‫ الشخص أو الكيان المسؤول عن إنتاج مستند اللغة المصدر األصلي‬:‫منشئ الوثيقة‬.

2- Writer/Text Producer: produce the documentation

‫ إنتاج الوثائق‬:‫ منتج النص‬/ ‫الكاتب‬
3- Translation Initiator: the person or entity responsible for starting the translation process.
3- ‫ الشخص أو الجهة المسؤولة عن بدء عملية الترجمة‬:‫مبادر الترجمة‬
4- Translator ‫مترجم‬
5- User ‫مستخدم‬
 week2
Technical Communication
• White (1996:4) defines technical writing as “communicating… specialized information
in any field (particularly industry), read by technicians, technical managers, owner-
operators of machines, and scientific researchers to perform a certain task”.
، )‫ معلومات متخصصة في أي مجال (وخاصة الصناعة‬... ‫) الكتابة الفنية بأنها "التواصل‬4 :1996( ‫يعرف وايت‬
‫" يقرأها الفنيون والمديرون الفنيون ومالكو اآلالت والباحثون العلميون ألداء مهمة معينة‬.

• What makes texts technical is their “utilitarian, specialized focus”).

• ‫( "ما يجعل النصوص تقنية هو "تركيزها النفعي المتخصص‬White

• Technical writing is a form of translation whereby the “abstract-theoretical” is

transformed into the “concrete-actual”.
• ‫"الكتابة التقنية هي شكل من أشكال الترجمة حيث يتم تحويل "النظرية المجردة" إلى "واقعية ملموسة‬.
Types of Technical Writing
‫أنواع الكتابة الفنية‬
• The National Writers’ Union (NWU) in the United States maintains that
there are at least three different types of writing encompassed by the
general term “technical writing” (1998). These areas are as follows:
• ‫( يؤكد االتحاد الوطني للكتاب‬NWU) ‫في الواليات المتحدة أن هناك ثالثة أنواع مختلفة على‬
‫ هذه المجاالت هي كما يلي‬.)1998( "‫األقل من الكتابة يشملها المصطلح العام "الكتابة التقنية‬:

1- Technology education ‫تعليم التكنولوجي‬

2- Traditional technical writing ‫الكتابة الفنية التقليدي‬
3- Technology marketing ‫التسويق التكنولوجي‬
 1- Technology education
• Technology education involves writing about technology for non-technical
audiences.
‫يتضمن تعليم التكنولوجيا الكتابة عن التكنولوجيا للجماهير غير التقنية‬
• The products of this type of writing include hardware and software manuals,
system administration guides, reports for lay readers, general interest articles,
impact statements etc.
• ، ‫ وتقارير القراء العاديين‬، ‫ وأدلة إدارة النظام‬، ‫تشمل منتجات هذا النوع من الكتابة أدلة األجهزة والبرامج‬
‫ إلخ‬، ‫ وبيانات التأثير‬، ‫ومقاالت المصلحة العامة‬.

• The NWU points out that writers in this area really only need as much technical
knowledge as a typical reader.

• ‫ يشير‬NWU ‫إلى أن الكتاب في هذا المجال يحتاجون فقط إلى الكثير من المعرفة التقنية مثل القارئ العادي‬.
2- Traditional technical writing

• Traditional technical writing involves writing for a technical audience.

‫تتضمن الكتابة الفنية التقليدية الكتابة للجمهور التقني‬.

• Writers in this area usually need a strong technical background to

produce the repair and maintenance manuals, scientific papers,
programming guides and technical specifications required.
• ‫عادة ما يحتاج الكتاب في هذا المجال إلى خلفية تقنية قوية إلنتاج أدلة اإلصالح والصيانة‬
‫واألوراق العلمية وأدلة البرمجة والمواصفات الفنية المطلوبة‬.
 3- Technology marketing
• Technology marketing is also known as Marcom, involves writing sales
and promotional materials and corporate communications materials for
technology companies.
‫ يعرف التسويق التكنولوجي أيضا باسم‬Marcom ، ‫ويتضمن كتابة المبيعات والمواد الترويجية‬
‫ومواد االتصاالت المؤسسية لشركات التكنولوجيا‬.

• In this area, writers generally only need as much technical background as

their audience in order to produce the marketing materials specifications
sheets, brochures, newsletters etc.
• ‫ يحتاج الكتاب عموما إلى خلفية تقنية بقدر ما يحتاجه جمهورهم من أجل إنتاج‬، ‫في هذا المجال‬
‫أوراق مواصفات المواد التسويقية والكتيبات والنشرات اإلخبارية وما إلى ذلك‬.
The Nature of Technical Documentation
‫طبيعة الوثائق الفنية‬
• Technical documentation always addresses specific readers. Therefore, technical documents are more
specific as regards the audience they are aimed at than most documents.
• ‫ فإن الوثائق التقنية أكثر تحديدا فيما يتعلق بالجمهور الذي تستهدفه من معظم الوثائق‬، ‫ لذلك‬.‫تخاطب الوثائق الفنية دائما قراء محددين‬.

• Technical documents are produced taking into:

• account the age profile, job, experience, knowledge, seniority, tasks, problems, aims and objectives.
• ‫يتم إنتاج الوثائق التقنية مع مراعاة الملف العمري والوظيفة والخبرة والمعرفة واألقدمية والمهام والمشاكل واألهداف والغايات‬.

• According to Markel technical documents help readers1- solve problems and thus, they are intended
to help readers2- learn or do something.
• ‫ فهي تهدف إلى مساعدة القراء على تعلم أو القيام بشيء ما‬، ‫ وبالتالي‬، ‫وفقا لوثائق ماركيل التقنية تساعد القراء على حل المشاكل‬.
• The way in which technical documentation is produced is also important, according to Markel, in
defining its nature. The very nature of the company, its culture, goals and organization, are reflected in
the types of documents that company produces.
• ‫ تنعكس طبيعة الشركة وثقافتها وأهدافها وتنظيمها‬.‫ فإن الطريقة التي يتم بها إنتاج الوثائق التقنية مهمة أيضا في تحديد طبيعتها‬،‫ووفقا لماركل‬
‫في أنواع المستندات التي تنتجها الشركة‬.

• Technical communication is a collaborative process involving technical writers, illustrators, editors,

subject matter experts, designers, illustrators, usability specialists and, of course, translators.
• ‫االتصال التقني هو عملية تعاونية تشمل الكتاب التقنيين والرسامين والمحررين وخبراء الموضوع والمصممين والرسامين والمتخصصين في‬
‫ وبالطبع المترجمين‬، ‫سهولة االستخدام‬.
‫تعريف‬

• Technical documents are also produced using high-end desktop publishing packages and are
disseminated via the web in formats such as PDF, HTML and Flash.

• Electronically distributed documentation can even contain animations.

• ‫ وتنتج الوثائق التقنية أيضا باستخدام حزم النشر المكتبي المتطورة وتنشر عبر شبكة اإلنترنت بأشكال مثل‬PDF ‫و‬HTML ‫و‬Flash. ‫يمكن أن‬
‫تحتوي الوثائق الموزعة إلكترونيا على رسوم متحركة‬.
• Another characteristic of technical documentation is the way it uses design
to improve the appearance and readability of documents.
• ‫ومن الخصائص األخرى للوثائق التقنية الطريقة التي تستخدم بها التصميم لتحسين مظهر الوثائق‬
‫وسهولة قراءتها‬.

• Technical documents will often contain a combination of text and graphics

to make the document more stimulating and to communicate and reinforce
potentially difficult concepts and processes.

• ‫غالبا ما تحتوي الوثائق التقنية على مزيج من النصوص والرسومات لجعل الوثيقة أكثر تحفيزا‬
‫وللتواصل وتعزيز المفاهيم والعمليات التي يحتمل أن تكون صعبة‬.
Technical publications can be categorized as follows:

• Procedural documents such as assembly instructions, instructions for operation etc.

• ‫المستندات اإلجرائية مثل تعليمات التجميع وتعليمات التشغيل وما إلى ذلك‬.
• Descriptive and explanatory documents such as descriptions of products and services.
• ‫الوثائق الوصفية والتفسيرية مثل أوصاف المنتجات والخدمات‬.

• Persuasive or evaluative documents such as research proposals or engineering projects.

• ‫ئق مقنعة أو تقييمية وثامثل المقترحات البحثية أو المشاريع الهندسية‬.

• Investigative documents such as reports which are intended to present new knowledge
etc.

• ‫وثائق التحقيق مثل التقارير التي تهدف إلى تقديم معارف جديدة وما إلى ذلك‬
 Typical Technical Documents
‫الوثائق الفنية النموذجية‬
The actual types of documents produced can vary according to the subject,
the nature of the product and the industry within which the company
operates.
‫يمكن أن تختلف األنواع الفعلية للمستندات المنتجة وفقا للموضوع وطبيعة المنتج والصناعة التي تعمل‬
‫فيها الشركة‬.

• Typical technical documents include proposals, reports, and instructions

• ‫تتضمن المستندات الفنية النموذجية المقترحات والتقارير والتعليمات‬
 week3
Understanding Users
 Usability

• Generally, usability means “ease of use”. ‫ تعني سهولة االستخدام "سهولة االستخدام‬، ‫"بشكل عام‬
• It is important to distinguish between usability and usefulness.
• ‫من المهم التمييز بين سهولة االستخدام والفائدة‬.
1- Usefulness refers to the potential uses users can find for something.
‫تشير الفائدة إلى االستخدامات المحتملة التي يمكن للمستخدمين العثور عليها لشيء ما‬
2- Usability refers to how well users can use it.
‫تشير سهولة االستخدام إلى مدى قدرة المستخدمين على استخدامها‬.
Dumas & Redish examine the relationship between usability and users:
• Usability means focusing on users
• People use products to be productive
• Users are busy
• Users decide how usable a product is

• Similar to computers, the human mind can be regarded as an information processing system

• Using computers as an illustrative model to examine the human mind. If we return to the idea of a computer, we can see on a
very basic level that:
• information is input into the computer
• the information is processed, and
• We can use the following components to examine the human system in comparison to computers.
• ‫يمكننا استخدام المكونات التالية لفحص النظام البشري مقارنة بأجهزة الكمبيوتر‬.
• Input/output
• Information input for humans takes place through the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Sight – The Visual Channel

• The way in which humans see relies on a highly complex system which functions in two stages: the physical reception of visual
stimuli and the processing of these stimuli
• ‫ االستقبال المادي للمحفزات البصرية ومعالجة هذه المحفزات‬:‫تعتمد الطريقة التي يرى بها البشر على نظام معقد للغاية يعمل على مرحلتين‬.

• Perhaps one of the most complex applications of visual processing, and the one most closely related to translation is the ability to
read‫ واألكثر ارتباطا بالترجمة هو القدرة على القراءة‬، ‫ربما يكون أحد أكثر تطبيقات المعالجة البصرية تعقيدا‬

• Memory
• memory is “a physical change in the neuronal structure of the brain. When information is added to our memory it creates new
neuronal pathways and connections.
• There are three types of memory:
1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-term Memory (STM)
3. Long-term Memory (LTM)
• These three types of memory work together, passing information between them to allow us to carry out cognitive processing.

.
Perception‫إدراك‬
• Perception is more that just seeing or hearing. Perception is a complex and active process which allows us to interpret
information.

• By interpreting the raw information provided by our sensory organs we prepare it for further processing in the
cognitive system.

Once the information has been processed, a response is produced. The brain sends the necessary impulses to the
appropriate part(s) of the body in order to affect this response.
‫ يرسل الدماغ النبضات الالزمة إلى الجزء (األجزاء) المناسب من الجسم من أجل التأثير على هذه االستجابة‬.‫ يتم إنتاج رد‬، ‫بمجرد معالجة المعلومات‬.

• Cognitive Conscious and Cognitive Unconscious

• Raskin (2000:11ff ) distinguishes between:
1- cognitive conscious: refers to information, tasks, etc. that we are conscious of, that we are currently using.
1- ‫ أي التي نستخدمها حاليا‬،‫ يشير إلى المعلومات والمهام وما إلى ذلك التي ندركها‬:‫الوعي المعرفي‬.

2- cognitive unconscious: refers to information which we are not consciously using or aware of at a given point in time
2- ‫ يشير إلى المعلومات التي ال نستخدمها أو ندركها بوعي في وقت معين‬:‫الالوعي المعرفي‬
Another way of looking at the difference between cognitive conscious and cognitive unconscious is that
when we access and process the information we are transferring it from our unconscious to our conscious.
This transfer of information can be willingly triggered by a stimulus, such as reading a sentence, or by an
act of volition.
• ‫ فإننا ننقلها من‬، ‫هناك طريقة أخرى للنظر إلى الفرق بين الوعي المعرفي والالوعي المعرفي وهي أنه عندما نصل إلى المعلومات ونعالجها‬
‫ أو عن طريق فعل إرادي‬، ‫ مثل قراءة جملة‬، ‫ يمكن أن يحدث هذا النقل للمعلومات عن طيب خاطر عن طريق حافز‬.‫الالوعي إلى وعينا‬.
• Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience
• Rote learning is not true learning and is not ideal because it is an arbitrary, verbatim and non-
substantive incorporation of new knowledge into a person’s cognitive structure
• Meaningful learning, on the other hand, is a “process in which new information is related to an existing
relevant aspect of an individual’s knowledge structure. This type of learning is the best type of learning
because it is a non-arbitrary, non-verbatim and substantive incorporation of new knowledge into a
person’s cognitive structure.

• There are, naturally, several stages involved in meaningful learning.

• Concept Learning: concepts are the first thing that will need to be acquired in order to learn new
information.
• Representational Learning: Representational learning is a type of meaningful learning where we learn a
word, sign or symbol that acts as a label for an object or event. An example of this is the way we learn
proper nouns.
• Propositional Learning: is the process of linking, integrating and associating concepts to provide richer
 Learning Processes
• In general, there are two main approaches to learning theory: behaviorist and cognitive.
• 1- Behaviorist learning theories focus on objective, quantifiable behavior.
• 2- Cognitive learning theories focus on mental acts such as conceiving, believing, expecting
etc.
• According to Coe (1996:34) we learn using a combination of behaviorist and cognitive
approaches. The components of learning include:
• 1- experience 2- schemes
• 3- habits 4- reinforcement
• 5- interference
• Reasoning & Problem-Solving
• in a sense, virtually all human activity is either problem-solving or originated in problem-solving.
• Reasoning: is a cognitive process whereby we reach a conclusion and then determine whether it is valid or invalid by applying
certain logical criteria.
• There are three types of reasoning: ‫المنطق‬:
• 1- Deductive‫استنتاجي‬
• 2- Inductive‫االستقرائي‬
• 3- Abductive‫اختطاف‬
 week4

Usability Engineering
 Raskin defines interfaces as “the way that you accomplish tasks with a product”.

Preece defines interfaces as “The user interface of a computer system is the medium through
which a user communicates with the computer.”

Ergonomics is the design of machines to take into account the physical variability of humans.
‫ هي تصميم اآلالت لتأخذ في االعتبار التباين المادي للبشر‬:‫بيئة العمل‬
Cognetics) cognitive engineering :(talking about is an ergonomics of the mind.
is a branch of ergonomics but the term ergonomics is used primarily to refer to the physical
aspects of human-orientated design.

(that computers are supposed to be tools which assist humans in doing something else)

The main challenge facing software manufacturers is to produce systems which people really
want, need and can use despite the complexity of the task being performed
• “”. For a system to be regarded as usable, it must be:
• ". ‫ يجب أن يكون‬، ‫لكي يعتبر النظام قابال لالستخدام‬:

• 1. effective ‫فعال‬

• 2. efficient ‫كفاءه‬

• 3. engaging ‫اشراك‬

• 4. error tolerant ‫متسامح مع الخطأ‬

• 5. easy to learn ‫سهل التعلم‬

 Understanding How We Read User Guides
‫فهم كيفية قراءتنا ألدلة المستخدم‬
• Before we can talk about the quality of user guides, it is essential to understand why and
how users read them.
• ‫ من الضروري أن نفهم لماذا وكيف يقرأها المستخدمون‬، ‫قبل أن نتمكن من التحدث عن جودة أدلة المستخدم‬.

• The primary purpose of user guides is to educate users. ‫مهم‬

• ‫الغرض األساسي من أدلة المستخدم هو تثقيف المستخدمين‬

• She identifies two primary types of reading strategy: reading to learn and reading to
perform actions
• ‫ القراءة للتعلم والقراءة لتنفيذ اإلجراءات‬:‫وهي تحدد نوعين أساسيين من استراتيجية القراءة‬
• Coe (1996) maintains that there are five goals of reading:

• Skimming involves reading for the “gist” of a text. This is a declarative goal and can be either sequential or
random in nature.
• ‫ هذا هدف تقريري ويمكن أن يكون إما متسلسال أو عشوائيا بطبيعته‬.‫يتضمن القشط القراءة من أجل "جوهر" النص‬.

• Scanning is another declarative method intended to find specific information.

• ‫المسح الضوئي هو طريقة تقريرية أخرى تهدف إلى العثور على معلومات محددة‬.

• Searching is a declarative method which is similar to scanning but in this case the reader’s attention is
focused on the meaning of specific information.
• ‫البحث هو طريقة تصريحية تشبه المسح الضوئي ولكن في هذه الحالة يتركز انتباه القارئ على معنى معلومات محددة‬.

• Receptive refers to reading to fully understand information in a text. It can be either declarative or
procedural and it can be either sequential or random.
• ‫ يمكن أن يكون إما تقريريا أو إجرائيا ويمكن أن يكون إما متسلسال أو‬.‫يشير التقبل إلى القراءة لفهم المعلومات الواردة في النص بشكل كامل‬
‫عشوائيا‬.

• Critical refers to reading for evaluation purposes. A sequential method that is either declarative or
procedural.
• ‫ طريقة متسلسلة إما تقريرية أو إجرائية‬.‫يشير النقد إلى القراءة ألغراض التقييم‬.
Practice for Ensuring Usability.
‫ممارسة لضمان سهولة االستخدام‬
** The following paraphrased list of Nielsen’s heuristics represents what are widely acknowledged to
be best practice for ensuring usability.
** ‫تمثل القائمة التالية المعاد صياغتها الستدالالت نيلسن ما يعترف به على نطاق واسع على أنه أفضل الممارسات لضمان سهولة‬
‫االستخدام‬.

• Use simple and natural language. ‫استخدام لغة بسيطة وطبيعية‬

• Say only what is necessary. ‫قل فقط ما هو ضروري‬.
• Present the information in a logical way. ‫تقديم المعلومات بطريقة منطقية‬.
• Speak the users’ language - use familiar words and concepts.
• ‫ استخدم الكلمات والمفاهيم المألوفة‬- ‫تحدث لغة المستخدمين‬.

• Minimize users’ memory load. ‫تقليل تحميل ذاكرة المستخدمين‬.

• Be consistent. ‫كن متسقا‬
• A definition:
Iconic Linkage (IL) refers to the use of isomorphic constructions to express what is,
essentially, the same information. So, where the same information is expressed more than
once in a text, the exact same textual formulation or construction is used.

, IL(Iconic Linkage) is the repetition or reuse of target language translations for source
language sentences which have the same meaning but different surface properties.

• Iconic Linkage presents the following benefits in the production of user guides:

• 1- Reduction of Short-Term Memory Load) Iconic linkage reduces the demands placed on
short-term memory by helping to chunk information into meaningful and manageable
units.
• 2- Problem-Solving
• 3- Reduction of Interference(Iconic Linkage reduces interference between tasks. )

• sentences which are semantically identical, but which are non-isomorphic are translated
 Week5
Assessing Usability
• -There are essentially two types of evaluation:………..

• Formative evaluation takes place during the development process in order to detect potential problems before the design
is actually implemented.
• ‫يتم إجراء التقييم التكويني أثناء عملية التطوير من أجل اكتشاف المشكالت المحتملة قبل تنفيذ التصميم بالفعل‬.

• Summative evaluation, in contrast, is carried out on the finished interface. The aim here is to determine the level of
usability of the interface so that judgements can be made as to the overall usability and quality of the interface (Preece
1994:103).

• ‫ والهدف هنا هو تحديد مستوى قابلية استخدام الواجهة بحيث يمكن إصدار أحكام بشأن قابلية‬.‫ يتم إجراء التقييم التجميعي على الواجهة النهائية‬، ‫في المقابل‬
‫( االستخدام والجودة الشاملة للواجهة‬Preece 1994: 103).

• Summative evaluation is used to ensure that “the final product is up to standard, not to shape the design and
development processes”

• ‫ وليس لتشكيل عمليات التصميم والتطوير‬، ‫( يستخدم التقييم التلخيصي للتأكد من أن "المنتج النهائي يرقى إلى المستوى القياسي‬Landauer
• 1997:204).

-The only true way of establishing whether the interface is indeed usable is to conduct some form of usability evaluation.
‫الطريقة الحقيقية الوحيدة لتحديد ما إذا كانت الواجهة قابلة لالستخدام بالفعل هي إجراء شكل من أشكال تقييم قابلية االستخدام‬.
• First, the term documentation as used by several authors proves problematic, not only
in terms of the aims of this book, but also in terms of what happens in an industrial
context.
• ‫ ولكن‬، ‫ ليس فقط من حيث أهداف هذا الكتاب‬، ‫ يثبت مصطلح التوثيق كما استخدمه العديد من المؤلفين إشكالية‬، ‫أوال‬
‫أيضا من حيث ما يحدث في السياق الصناعي‬.

• The failure to identify the differences and the similarities between hardcopy
documentation and online help compromises the approach.
• ‫إن الفشل في تحديد االختالفات وأوجه التشابه بين الوثائق المطبوعة وعبر اإلنترنت يساعد على تقويض هذا النهج‬.

• Online and print documentation cannot reasonably be assessed using a single

theoretical framework
• ‫ال يمكن تقييم الوثائق عبر اإلنترنت والوثائق المطبوعة بشكل معقول باستخدام إطار نظري واحد‬
• 2- Empirical evaluation as described by Faulkner (ibid.) includes expert evaluation or heuristic analysis,
observational evaluation, survey evaluation and cognitive walk-throughs (Hill 1995:120).
• 2- ‫يشمل التقييم التجريبي كما وصفه فوكنر ( المرجع نفسه) تقييم الخبراء أو التحليل اإلرشادي والتقييم القائم على المالحظة وتقييم المسح‬
‫واإلرشادات المعرفية‬
• Comparative experiment is one example of empirical evaluation. It involves assessing an interface and
comparing it with some other alternative interface or version of the interface
• ‫ وهو ينطوي على تقييم واجهة ومقارنتها مع بعض الواجهة البديلة األخرى أو إصدار‬.‫التجربة المقارنة هي أحد األمثلة على التقييم التجريبي‬
‫( الواجهة‬Downton 1991:331; Faulkner 1998:113).

• Quantitative data is numeric and is analysed using a range of statistical and mathematical methods.
• ‫البيانات الكمية رقمية ويتم تحليلها باستخدام مجموعة من األساليب اإلحصائية والرياضية‬.

• Qualitative data provides the detailed subjective data or opinions that give an insight into how users
actually perform tasks using the interface
• ‫توفر البيانات النوعية البيانات أو اآلراء الذاتية التفصيلية التي تعطي نظرة ثاقبة حول كيفية أداء المستخدمين للمهام فعليا باستخدام الواجهة‬

• 1- Analytical evaluation, according to Preece (1993:109), uses formal or semi-formal methods of

describing the interface in order to predict user performance. These methods include such strategies as
GOMS (goals, operators, methods and selection rules) and KAT (knowledge analysis of tasks).
• 1- ‫ وفقا ل‬، ‫ يستخدم التقييم التحليلي‬Preece (1993: 109) ، .‫طرقا رسمية أو شبه رسمية لوصف الواجهة من أجل التنبؤ بأداء المستخدم‬
‫ وتشمل هذه األساليب استراتيجيات مثل‬GOMS (‫ و )األهداف والمشغلين واألساليب وقواعد االختيار‬KAT (‫)تحليل المعرفة للمهام‬.
 Survey Methods‫طرق المسح‬

- There are two main types of survey technique: interviews and questionnaires.
- ‫ المقابالت واالستبيانات‬:‫هناك نوعان رئيسيان من تقنية المسح‬
- Interview process is a direct and structured way of gathering subjective information.
‫عملية المقابلة هي طريقة مباشرة ومنظمة لجمع المعلومات الذاتية‬.

- Interviews can generally take one of three forms:

- structured interviews(In a structured interview, the interviewer uses a fixed and predetermined series of questions
which are asked in strict order. ,
flexible interviews (have no set questions, only a number of set topics to guide the interviewer)
semi-structured interviews(is a hybrid technique which lies between structured and flexible interviews)
‫االستبيانات‬
Questionnaires are less flexible than interviews but they take less time to administer, can reach a
larger audience and the resulting data is easier to analyse
 Usability Evaluation Procedures
‫إجراءات تقييم قابلية االستخدام‬

1- Practical Usability Evaluation: ‫التقييم العملي لقابلية االستخدام‬:

The success or failure of an evaluation depends on a variety of preparations
being carried out.
‫يعتمد نجاح أو فشل التقييم على مجموعة متنوعة من االستعدادات‬
‫يجري تنفيذها‬.

2- Measuring Usability: ‫قياس قابلية االستخدام‬

The usability of an interface can be measured in absolute terms on the basis of predefined
performance criteria, or it can be compared against that of another interface.
‫ أو يمكن مقارنتها بواجهة أخرى‬، ‫يمكن قياس قابلية استخدام الواجهة بالقيمة المطلقة على أساس معايير أداء محددة مسبقا‬
 Week 6
Intern Translator
 Definition of the Intern Translator

- The intern translator is typically a newly recruited translator in the organization, whether fresh graduate
or had some working experience before joining the translation organization.
- ‫ سواء كان خريجا جديدا أو لديه بعض الخبرة العملية قبل االنضمام إلى‬، ‫عادة ما يكون المترجم المتدرب مترجما تم تعيينه حديثا في المنظمة‬
‫منظمة الترجمة‬.

- In this stage, the intern translator gets acquainted with the translation system in the organization, tries to
learn the basic rules, and operates in terms of particular, separate activities.
- ‫ ويعمل من حيث أنشطة‬، ‫ ويحاول تعلم القواعد األساسية‬، ‫ يتعرف المترجم المتدرب على نظام الترجمة في المنظمة‬، ‫في هذه المرحلة‬
‫خاصة ومنفصلة‬.

• The intern translator continues this stage two years more or less depending on several factors.
• ‫يستمر المترجم المتدرب في هذه المرحلة لمدة عامين أكثر أو أقل اعتمادا على عدة عوامل‬.

• The intern translator's actions in this stage are purely rational.

• ‫تصرفات المترجم المتدرب في هذه المرحلة عقالنية بحتة‬.

 1- The intern translatorAhaslist oflittle
very the specific
ability to identifyindicators
historical, geographical, social terms.
2- The intern translator has very little knowledge about specific translation system
3- The intern translator’ Ability to translate isolated words and phrases has been only from
known subject matter
4- There are noticeable mechanical convention errors such as punctuation, capitalization, and
paragraphing
5- The intern translator has very little ability to use software to assist in correction,
translation, terminology, layout, and documentary research
6- In this stage, there is a failure to detect problems and ambiguity in the source text
7- Consults are too much! The intern translator takes a long time, or he/she does not seek
help
• 8- Reading: there is an ability to understand simple prose, but he/she consistently
interprets it inaccurately.
• 11- Writing: there is a misunderstanding of text-type conventions in the source language
and target language, which affects the delivery of main purpose of the source text

• 12- Requirements of the translation brief are ignored

13- The intern translator has very little knowledge of professional translation practice
such as the organization’s business, types of clients
14- The intern translator has very little knowledge of the organization’s payment
terms and practices
15- The intern translator sends unclear messages whether verbally or through body
language
16- The intern translator tries to become known as a successful translator, but still not
known
17- There is little understanding of standards of translation practice in the
organization
18- The intern translator is not familiar with dealing with diversity.
21- The intern translator has basic understanding of legal requirements
19- The intern translator depends on others to plan and prioritize tasks.
22- The intern translator understands relevant health and safety issues.
23- The intern translator respects the confidentiality of information in the text, and
respects anonymity and sensitivity of names of characters mentioned in the texts
 Week7
Assistant Translator
 Definition of the Assistant Translator
‫تعريف المترجم المساعد‬
- While still the actions in this stage are rational, the assistant translator starts to be
able to “think outside” the concepts that were introduced in the previous stage and
connect them to each other.
- ‫ يبدأ المترجم المساعد في أن يكون قادرا على "التفكير‬، ‫في حين أن اإلجراءات في هذه المرحلة ال تزال عقالنية‬
‫خارج" المفاهيم التي تم تقديمها في المرحلة السابقة وربطها ببعضها البعض‬.
- The translator stays in this stage for a period of more or less three years 3.
- ‫يبقى المترجم في هذه المرحلة لمدة تزيد أو تقل عن ثالث سنوات‬.
- His or her behavior becomes less atomistic.
- ‫يصبح سلوكه أقل ذرية‬
- * Atomistic means the connection with the idea of understanding something by separating it into its different
parts
- * ‫الذرية تعني العالقة مع فكرة فهم شيء ما عن طريق فصله إلى أجزائه المختلفة‬
 A list of the Indicators

1- Moderate ability to identify historical, geographical, social terms(may have a lot of mistakes).
2- Some paraphrasing of culture-specific items; the result leads to confusion and misunderstandings for
the target reader.
3- The ability to translate sufficient vocabulary in simple straightforward texts, but there is a lot of
repetition.
4- Poor cohesion: It is not enough for reader’s comprehension. This will not enable the assistant
translator to understand the text.
5- The assistant translator occasionally needs revisions.
6- Basic use of monolingual and or bilingual dictionaries.
7- The assistant translator seeks feedback from relevant people to access various insights and accurate
understanding to various texts

8- The assistant translator can create and manage a database and files, but with lots of errors that
negatively reflect the essence of the work.
9- The assistant translator has difficulty in adapting and learning new tools
10- One of the challenges of his/her task in translation involves his/her little ability to detect problems
and ambiguity in the source text
11- The assistant translator experiences another challenge in Word and sentence level editing
12- Reading: Ability to draw inferences from prose in straightforward/high frequency linguistic structures.
13- Limited vocabulary and using using real-word cues to understand the text.

14-Writing: Limited familiarity with text-type conventions in the source language

and target language.

15- Little knowledge of organization-specific translation system including style and

principles.

16- Awareness of a translation brief, but translation strategies are insufficient to

meet the requirements.

17- Little novel performance that exceeds traditional routine.

18-Some flexibility in translation, but usually adheres to fixedness and literalness in

translation.

19- Little knowledge of professional translation practice such as the organization’s

business.

20- Understands messages through listening, reading, and considering; but

sometimes misunderstanding occurs.
 week8
The Associate Translator
‫المترجم المشارك‬
 The Duty of the Associate Translator.
‫واجب المترجم المساعد‬

- After around five years or more in the job, the translator will develop his skills to get to the
third stage; a stage that entitles a translator to be an associate translator based on translator
career path.
‫ سيقوم المترجم بتطوير مهاراته للوصول إلى المرحلة الثالثة ؛ مرحلة تخول‬، ‫بعد حوالي خمس سنوات أو أكثر في الوظيفة‬
‫المترجم أن يكون مترجما مشاركا بناء على المسار الوظيفي للمترجم‬.

- The translator in this stage feels more involved in social activities among co-workers and in
professional decision making.
- ‫يشعر المترجم في هذه المرحلة بمزيد من المشاركة في األنشطة االجتماعية بين زمالء العمل وفي اتخاذ القرارات المهنية‬
 The Characteristics of the Associate Translator
‫خصائص المترجم المشارك‬

1- The translator is competent and gains the ability to prioritize among various
situations of the task at hand.
2- The associate translator becomes aware of the responsibility of this specific
task of translation which in turn leads to a greater emotional involvement
 A list of the Indicators

1- Good ability to identify historical, geographical, social terms, and other linguistic features that convey socio-cultural impact; the text might
have some mistakes.

2- Certain awareness that a choice must be made between domestication or foreignization of the text; if the choice is corresponding to the
commissioner purpose, the translation outcomes have some mistakes

3-Good ability to translate culture-specific items by the process of paraphrasing; the result allows target reader to relate item to target culture.

4-Good range of vocabulary to translate texts that contain not only straightforward information, but also abstract language. In this stage, there
are some incidents of inconsistency and wrong word choice.

5- Sufficient use of dictionaries of all kinds.

6- Medium range of both morphologic and syntactic structures in the target language. Also, there are reasonable command of mechanical
conventions; meaning is not clear and confusing sometimes.

7- The associate translator uses some documentary sources to deal with stylistic aspects. He/she considers the reliability of documentary
sources. He/she is able to create interlinguistic correspondences and build parallel representations of part of a semantic field.

8- The associate translator can independently use a range of software to assist in correction of translation, and documentary research.

9- The associate translator has the ability to adapt to and learn new tools, particularly for the translation of multimedia and audiovisual
material.

10- The associate translator has good ability to detect some ambiguities and reference problems, faulty logic and discrepancies, errors of fact,
faulty text structure, and confusion in source text.
11- Solution planning is more form-oriented rather than communicative. The associate translator starts considering sense,
style and text-type, but still approaches problems word by word, sentence by sentence.

12- Problem solving is attempted by paraphrasing, using unrelated words when the concept is not lexicalized in the target
language; other strategies includes borrowing, calques, compensation, and appeal for help from field specialists.

13- In this stage, some comprehension of subject matter highly dependent on cultural and technical knowledge.

14- Reading: there is almost complete understanding of a variety of authentic prose material on unfamiliar subjects. Also,
some comprehension of subject matter is highly dependent on cultural and technical knowledge.

15- Writing: there is familiarity with text-type conventions in source language and target language. There is an awareness
of source text function.

16- Moderate range of translation strategies is noticeable to meet translation brief requirements. Furthermore, there is
novel performance that exceeds traditional routine
17- Flexible translation that sometimes violates literalness in translation exists
18- There are many fluent translation variants in this stage
19- There is good knowledge of organization-specific translation system including style and principles, however, he/she
fails to apply some of them in his or her translation successfully.

20- There is good knowledge of professional translation practice such as the organization’s business, types of clients and
their needs
21- The associate translator messages effectively whether verbally or through body
language. He/she receives messages effectively through listening, reading, and
considering.
22- The associate translator builds collaborative relationships with a range of
colleagues within own and adjacent departments and with stakeholders.
24- The associate translator supports the development of the reputations of less
experienced translators. He/she understands own behavior and impact on others
when working in teams
23- The associate translator is open to sharing information and collaborating in the
workplace including teamwork and co-translating.
25- The associate translator appreciates and works with diversity and difference in
working environment

26- The associate translator is confident of own skills and ideas in the face of strong
challenges.
 week9
The Translator
 The Characteristics of the Translator
‫خصائص المترجم‬
• Between the fifth and eighth year, the translator develops to the fourth stage in the
Dreyfus corresponding to the Translator rank in the translator career path.
• ‫ يتطور المترجم إلى المرحلة الرابعة في دريفوس المقابلة لرتبة المترجم في المسار‬، ‫بين السنة الخامسة والثامنة‬
‫الوظيفي للمترجم‬.

• The translator’s actions in this level is prevailed by intuition and personal experience,
which rest on the rules and concepts introduced in previous three stages.

• ‫ والتي تعتمد على القواعد والمفاهيم التي تم‬، ‫تسود تصرفات المترجم في هذا المستوى الحدس والخبرة الشخصية‬
‫إدخالها في المراحل الثالث السابقة‬.
 A list of the Indicators ‫قائمة بالمؤشرات‬
1- The translator has very good ability to identify, historical, geographical, social terms, and other linguistic features that convey
socio-cultural impact.
In addition, he/she has very good choice between domestication and foreignization of the text according to translation
commission or text purpose
Domestication brings the writer to the reader; the reader becomes familiar with the text. However, foreignization takes the
reader to the writer.

2- The translator is very good in translating culture-specific items by applying the process of globalization, involving replacing a
culture-specific item with one that is more neutral or general and accessible to a wide range of target readers.

3- Source language sentence structure has been modified to target language consistently throughout the translation. In this
stage, grammar is accurate throughout; errors are rare, difficult to spot, and never interfere with meaning.
4- in this stage, a good command of mechanical conventions is outstanding; meaning is not obscured. Also, there is a great
range of morphological and syntactic structures in the target language.
5- The translator has a very good and broad range of vocabulary to translate more abstract complicated texts; very good
knowledge of subject matter terminology, idioms, collocations, synonyms, and antonyms.
6- The translator makes revisions for newly recruited translators. There are varied range of cohesive devices and transition
words; occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of the text are loosely organized.
7- The translator knows exactly where to start the search using a range of specialist print and on-line resources. He/she finds
the information fast and rarely seeks feedback
8- The translator has very good dictionary skills to create interlinguistic correspondences and to build parallel representations
of part of a semantic field.
9- The translator uses a wide variety of documentary sources to deal with stylistic aspects. In addition, he/she has a very good
evaluation of the reliability of documentary sources
• 10- The translator is very good at effectively using and rapidly and integrating a range of software to assist
in correction and translation. He/she is very good at creating and managing a database and files as well.

• 11- The translator is very good at adapting to and learning new tools, particularly for the translation of
multimedia and audiovisual material

• 12- The translator has very good knowledge of the possibilities and limits of machine translation and
computer aided translation. Moreover, he/she has very good ability to detect most ambiguities and
reference problems

• 13- In this stage, problem solving is attempted by adding footnotes, endnotes, translator’s notes, and other
explicit explanations, word coinage and transposition.

• 14- Reading: in this stage, there is accurate comprehension of language pertinent to almost all text types
and genres. There is also an ability to draw on situational, verbal, cognitive, and socio-historical knowledge
to interact with source text and make sense of it.

• 15- Writing: knowledge of text-type conventions often results in accurate rendering of main and secondary
functions of source text. There is a shift in emphasis from source text participants (producer, sender,
recipient) to target text participants

• 16- There is good range of translation strategies to meet translation brief requirements. Also, there is a
novel performance that considerably exceeds traditional routine.

• 17- There are many fluent translation variants and/or adequate translation solutions that are used
spontaneously or even automatically there is flexible translation that violates literalness in translation.
18- The translator is very good at preparing and producing translations in different formats and for different
technical media

19- Very good knowledge of organization-specific translation system including style and principles; he/she
applies them in his or her translation successfully.

20- The translator has very good knowledge of professional translation practice such as the organization’s
business, types of clients and their needs

21- The translator has very good knowledge of payment terms and practices of the organization, and
consequences of not following them in this stage.
22- The translator constructs coherent arguments and articulates ideas clearly to a range of audiences,
formally and informally, through a variety of techniques.

23- In this stage, the translator develops confidence in others

24- The translator demonstrates standards of translation practice and encourages professional integrity in
others. Sets expectations and standard of conduct

25- The translator anticipates future directions and trends in translation, prepares for the unexpected.
He/she recognizes good ideas.
 Week 10
Expert Translator
‫المترجم الخبير‬
 The Description of the Expert Translator
‫وصف المترجم الخبير‬
• Around the ninth or tenth year, with daily deliberate practice, the translator
reaches the expert level. The expert is driven predominantly by intuition and
intuition is considered the main mode of operation.
‫ الخبير‬.‫ يصل المترجم إلى مستوى الخبراء‬، ‫ مع الممارسة اليومية المتعمدة‬، ‫حوالي السنة التاسعة أو العاشرة‬
‫مدفوع في الغالب بالحدس ويعتبر الحدس هو الطريقة الرئيسية للعمل‬.

• For example, things that might be problems for others are merely routine activities
for experts.
• ‫ األشياء التي قد تكون مشاكل لآلخرين هي مجرد أنشطة روتينية للخبراء‬، ‫على سبيل المثال‬
 A list of the Indicators
1- The expert translator has an excellent ability to identify historical, geographical, social terms, and linguistic features that
convey socio-cultural impact.
2- The expert translator has an excellent choice of using domestication or foreignization. Choice is related to questions of
ethics, target-cultural norms, expectations and needs of target culture readers.
3- The expert translator has an excellent replacement of culture-specific items with target language items that do not have
the same propositional meaning but have a similar impact on the target reader.

4- The expert translator has an excellent addition of information in the form of footnotes or glossaries to preserve original
culture-specific item which might lead to obscurity.
5- The expert translator has an excellent range of subject matter terminology.
6- The expert translator has an excellent and very broad range of vocabulary to translate highly specialized, abstract, and
complicated texts; impressive, rich in imagery; adheres to target language norms.
7- There is an extreme command of grammatically complex language. Also, an excessive range of morphological and
syntactic structures in the target language is noticeable

8- There is an extreme command of mechanical conventions; expressions of finer shades of meaning, such as feelings,
emotions, and attitudes conveyed through punctuation.
9- The expert translator supervises all translators’ work. In addition, there is a complete range of cohesive devices resulting
in fluent expression, ideas clearly stated and well organized, and logical sequencing.

10- The expert translator knows excellently how to identify information and documentation sources, dictionaries of all kinds,
 11- The expert translator has an exceptional knowledge of how to effectively and rapidly use and integrate all
kind of software to assist in correction, translation, terminology, layout, and documentary research.
12- The expert translator has an exceptional ability to create and manage a database and files.
13- The expert translator has an exceptional ability to prepare and produce translations in different formats and
for different technical media

14- The expert translator excellently adapts to and learns new tools, particularly for the translation of
multimedia and audiovisual material.
15- Reading: there is a comprehension of extremely complicated or abstract prose. In addition, the expert
translator has a broad ability to understand the nuances and subtleties of texts by activating all extra-linguistic
knowledge of context.

16- Writing: mastery of text-type conventions resulting in a communicative text in the target culture containing
the intentions of the source text

17- The expert translator has an excellent understanding of the possibilities and limits of machine translation
and computer aided translation.
18- The expert translator has an exceptional ability to detect all ambiguities and reference problems and
confusion in source text.
19- The expert translator excellently applies organization-specific translation style and principles by knowing
them by heart
20- The expert translator has an excellent understanding and fulfilment of the translation project specifications.
He/she acts as reviewer for external projects.
21- The expert translator manages and negotiates within organization’s relationships. He/she recruits, trains,
and builds sustainable teams; develops staff and facilitates creating relationships.

22- The expert translator collaborates with key figures and/or teams locally and internationally. He/she builds
collaborative relationships with a range of external organizations and bodies; negotiates at national and
international level.

23- The expert translator continuously seeks ways to improve own performance and that of less experienced
translators

25- The expert translator plans, balances and responds effectively and appropriately to change and the
unexpected

24- The expert translator has established time management skills, advises others and acts as role model.
He/she manages multiple or complex projects

26- The expert translator influences environment; he/she has long-term strategic vision.
27- The expert translator has an extreme knowledge and thorough understanding of the acts and standards
related to professional translation.
 week11
Translation Ethics &
Morals
translation should be seen as an activity with ethical implications and translators as
its potential ethical agents, seeing that they play a central role in the cultural
systems
Translation is not merely seen as a linguistic exercise, but as an action grounded in
ethical principles and framed in a certain ideological and political sphere.

translations can, in a very pragmatic sense, affect the lives of the people who might
depend on them.
There is a large body of research on the theme of social responsibility in relation to
business and professional settings, such as banking, human resources (HR), law or
management.
The theme of social responsibility emerged as a strong common concern across
diverse contributions on interpreting, translation and other forms of cross-cultural
communication.

Some translation studies focus on the linked concepts of social responsibility and
ethics.
Research suggests that it makes sense to focus on social responsibility in professional
contexts because it is associated with wide-reaching positive impact.

The results of a large-scale empirical study indicated that ‘professions should develop
ethical standards to encourage social responsibility, since these actions are associated
with enhanced employee ethical attitudes’
Valentine and Fleischman 2008, 657).
how the concept of social responsibility intersects with other perspectives and
scholarship on ethics in Translation and Interpreting Studies>?
(Answers)
Recent scholarship that explores the relation between translation and development
studies translation and ecology or translation and migration (reflects new thinking
about the role of translation in human understanding, communication and survival.

The nature and scope of global communication needs have been pressing translators
and interpreters into service on an unprecedented scale and in ways that often require
highly reactive approaches to practice.
 This comes as a double-edged sword for the profession that challenges the ethical landscape.
The sidelining of human input in institutional interactions in favour of expedient technology assisted
translation solutions generates new professional and disciplinary imperatives to inform public
understanding of the ethical bases of interlingual and intercultural mediation.
The whole communicative situation is brought to bear on decision making, particularly in relation to
dialogue interpreting

The concept of an ethics of service, promoted through the notion of translation as a commissive act
(Tymoczko 2000; Chesterman 2001), has influenced a considerable amount of scholarship in the
intervening period.

problem of normative authority and the difficulty some professionals encounter in moving beyond the
idea of the translator and her/his ‘text’ as the central ethical question.

Drugan reports on experimental training in how to work effectively with interpreters and translators,
delivered to social workers and advanced social work students who were about to undertake their first
work placement.

Drugan argues that social responsibility means ‘extending our concern’ to actors who are often
neglected.
• Another issue is that McDonough Dolmaya examines translation flows and language
policies in crowdsourced translation platforms and revisits the relation between
contested notions of minority and majority languages

• Harding and Ralarala also take up the issue of minority and majority languages in
the context of police officers interpreting for civilian complainants in South African
police stations.

• Gallai explores interlingual communication in police investigative interviews from a

relevance-theoretical perspective, drawing examples from a corpus of authentic
interpreter- mediated interviews.
• He shows how pragmatic interference on the part of the interpreter can disempower
the interviewee and impact on the effectiveness of the Enhanced Cognitive Interview.

• Theoretical and methodological perspectives, provided examples of how translation

practice may be rearticulated as a form of social responsibility help enhance our
understanding of what translators and interpreters do to promote social and