Me 03044

Công nghệ cơ khí Huỳnh Ngọc Hiệp
Chương 1
VẬT LIỆU KỸ THUẬT
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I. TÍNH CHẤT CỦA VẬT LIỆU
1.KHÁI NIỆM CHUNG

1.1.Tính chất vật lý
a. Khối lượng riêng: là khối lượng của 1 đơn vị thể tích của vật chất.
b. Tính nóng chảy: kim loại có tính chảy loãng khi bị đốt nóng và đông đặc
lại khi làm nguội. Nhiệt độ ứng với lúc kim loại chuyển từ thể đặc sang thể
lỏng hoàn toàn gọi là điểm nóng chảy. Điểm nóng chảy có ý nghĩa quan trọng
trong công nghệ đúc, hàn.
c. Tính dẫn nhiệt: là tính truyền nhiệt của kim loại khi bị đốt nóng hoặc bị
làm lạnh. Tính truyền nhiệt của kim loại giảm xuống khi nhiệt độ tăng và
ngược lại khi nhiệt độ giảm xuống.
d. Tính giãn nở: là tính chất thay đổi thể tích khi nhiệt độ của kim loại
thay đổi. Được đặc trưng bằng hệ số giãn nở.
e. Tính dẫn điện: là khả năng cho dòng điện đi qua của kim loại. So
sánh tính dẫn nhiệt và dẫn điện ta thấy kim loại nào có tính dẫn nhiệt tốt thì
tính dẫn điện cũng tốt và ngược lại.
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f.Từ tính: là khả năng bị từ hóa khi được đặt trong từ trường. Sắt, coban,
niken và hầu hết các hợp kim của chúng đều có tính nhiễm từ. Tính nhiễm từ
của thép và gang phụ thuộc vào thành phần và tổ chức bên trong của kim
loại.
1.2.Tính chất hóa học

Là độ bền của kim loại đối với những tác dụng hóa học của các chất khác
như: ôxy, nước, axit… mà không bị phá hủy. Tính năng hóa học của kim loại có
thể chia thành các loại sau:
a. Tính chịu ăn mòn: là độ bền của kim loại đối với sự ăn mòn của môi
trường xung quanh.
b. Tính chịu nhiệt: là độ bền của kim loại đối với sự ăn mòn của ôxy
trong không khí ở nhiệt độ cao.
c. Tính chịu acid: là độ bền của kim loại đối với sự ăn mòn của môi
trường acid.
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1.3.Tính chất công nghệ

Là khả năng thay đổi trạng thái của kim loại, hợp kim, tính công nghệ bao gồm
các tính chất sau:
a. Tính đúc: được đặc trưng bởi độ chảy loãng, độ co và thiên tích.
Độ chảy loãng biểu thị khả năng điền đầy khuôn của kim loại và hợp kim. Độ
chảy loãng càng cao thì tính đúc càng tốt.
Độ co càng lớn thì tính đúc càng kém.
b. Tính rèn: là khả năng biến dạng vĩnh cửu của kim loại khi chịu lực tác dụng
bên ngoài mà không bị phá hủy.
Thép có tính rèn cao khi được nung nóng ở nhiệt độ phù hợp. Gang không có tính
rèn vì giòn. Đồng, nhôm, chì có tính rèn tốt ngay cả ở trạng thái nguội.
c. Tính hàn: là khả năng tạo thành sự liên kết giữa các phần tử khi nung nóng
chỗ hàn đến trạng thái chảy hay dẻo.
d. Tính cắt gọt: là khả năng kim loại gia công dễ hay khó, được xác định bằng
tốc độ cắt gọt, lực cắt gọt và độ bóng bề mặt kim loại sau khi cắt gọt.
Một kim loại hay một hợp kim nào đó mặc dù có những tính chất rất quý nhưng tính
công nghệ kém thì cũng khó được sử dụng rộng rãi vì khó chế tạo thành sản phẩm.
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1.4.Tính chất cơ học
Là tính chất xác định khả năng vật liệu chống lại các tác dụng cơ
học khi có tác dụng của ngoại lực
1.5.Tính chất sử dụng

Là bao gồm một số đặc trưng tổng hợp của các tính chất trên, thể
hiện khả năng dử dụng vật liệu cho một nục đích cụ thể.
1.6.Tính chất bổ sung

Là các khả năng xử lý nhằm thay đổi cơ tính, cấu trúc… của vật liệu.
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Vật liệu kỹ thuật
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Các tính chất của vật liệu
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Kim loại nguyên chất và hợp kim
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2. CÁC ĐẶC TRƯNG CƠ TÍNH THÔNG THƯỜNG
2.1. Độ bền
Căn cứ vào tải trọng tác dụng lên vật liệu, người ta phân biệt độ
bền kéo ( do lực kéo), độ bền nén, độ bền uốn, độ bền xoắn.
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2.2 Độ dẻo
Là khả năng vật liệu thay đổi hình dạng, kích thước mà không bị phá huỷ
khi chịu lực tác động bên ngoài.
2.3 Độ dai va đập
Là khả năng vật liệu chịu được tải trọng va đập mà không bị phá huỷ.
2.4 Độ bền mỏi
Là khả năng vật liệu chống lại sự phá huỷ dưới tác dụng của lực thay đổi
theo chu kỳ.
2.5- Độ cứng bề mặt
Là khả năng vật liệu chống lại sự biến dạng dẻo cục bộ khi có một vật
khác cứng hơn tác dụng lên bề mặt của nó.
Thông qua độ cứng, ta có thể biết được đặc trưng tính chất làm việc của
các chi tiết máy:
- Khả năng chống mài mòn bề mặt.
- Khả năng cắt gọt khi gia công.
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2.6-Các phương pháp thử vật liệu

1.Thử kéo nén
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Tensile-test Specimen and Machine
P
Engineering Stess,  
Ao
l  lo
Engineering Strain, e 
lo

Modulus of Elasticity, E 
e
P
True stress,  =
A
 l 
True strain,  = ln 
lo 
Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test
specimen before and after pulling, showing
original and final gage lengths. (b) A tensile- 
test sequence showing different stages in the
elongation of the specimen.
2.Đo độ cứng
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3.Thử độ dai va đập
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II. GIẢN ĐỒ TRẠNG THÁI CỦA SẮT- CARBON (FE-C)

1. Định nghĩa
Là biểu đồ biểu thị trạng thái tổ chức của vật liệu trên hệ trục nhiệt độ và
thành phần hóa học ( được xác định theo phần trăm trọng lượng)
2. Công dụng của giản đồ trạng thái
- Cho biết cấu tạo bên trong của vật liệu với các thành phần xác định khác
nhau. Từ đó ta biết được cơ tính, biết cách sử dụng hợp lý vật liệu.
- Qua giản đồ trạng thái ta xác định được chế độ nhiệt cho các công nghệ:
nhiệt luyện, đúc, luyện kim, hàn…
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III. NHIỆT LUYỆN
1.KHÁI NIỆM
1.1. Định nghĩa

Nhiệt luyện là một quá trình bao gồm: nung nóng, giữ nhiệt, làm nguội với
các tốc độ khác nhau nhằm mục đích làm thay đổi tổ chức, do đó thay đổi
tính chất của vật liệu theo mong muốn.
Giản đồ trạng thái là cơ sở quan trọng để thực hiện các phương pháp nhiệt
luyện.
Quy trình nhiệt luyện tổng quát là quy trình biểu diễn 3 quá trình:
 Nung nóng tới nhiệt độ to nC
 Giữ nhiệt trong thời gian 
 Làm nguội với một tốc độ Vng
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1.2. Công dụng của nhiệt luyện

 Cải thiện tính công nghệ : ( Nhiệt luyện sơ bộ)
- Làm tăng tính gia công cắt gọt, cán, dập.. Nhằm tăng năng suất khi chế tạo
chi tiết máy.
- Sửa chữa các sai hỏng do các khâu gia công trước gây nên, không có lợi
cho các bước gia công tiếp theo.
 Sản phẩm cần làm việc ở điều kiện cần cơ tính cao : ( Nhiệt
luyện kết thúc)
Tôi là một ví dụ khi chế tạo chi tiết, nó sẽ nhận được các cơ tính thích hợp
để chi tiết làm việc lâu dài, nâng cao được tuổi thọ.
Đặc điểm của nhiệt luyện:
- Không nung nóng đến chảy lỏng hoặc chảy lỏng bộ phận, trong quá trình
nhiệt luyện kim loại vẫn ở trạng thái rắn.
- Trong quá trình nhiệt luyện hình dáng và kích thước của chi tiết máy không
thay đổi hoặc thay đổi không đáng kể.
- Nhiệt luyện chỉ làm thay đổi tổ chức tế vi bên trong, do đó dẫn đến thay đổi
cơ tính của chi tiết máy.
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1.3. Các phương pháp nhiệt luyện

1.3.1. Ủ
Là phương pháp nhiệt luyện bao gồm nung nóng thép đến một nhiệt độ nhất
định, giữ nhiệt tại đó một thời gian cần thiết, sau đó làm nguội cùng với lò
đến khi đạt nhiệt độ như bên ngoài.
Công dụng của ủ là làm giảm độ cứng trước khi gia công, khử ứng suất dư
của chi tiết.
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1.3.2. Thường hóa

Là phương pháp nhiệt luyện bao gồm nung nóng thép đến một nhiệt độ hoàn
toàn Austenite, giữ nhiệt tại đó một thời gian cần thiết, sau đó làm nguội
trong không khí tĩnh.
Sau khi thường hóa, chi tiết tăng độ cứng chút ít do kích thước hạt nhỏ
hơn và được làm nguội nhanh hơn.trước khi gia công, ngoài ra còn khử ứng
suất dư của chi tiết.
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1.3.3. Tôi
Là phương pháp nhiệt luyện bao gồm nung nóng thép đến nhiệt độ xuất
hiện Austenite (Fe) giữ nhiệt tại đó một thời gian cần thiết, sau đó làm
nguội nhanh thích hợp để Austenite chuyển biến thành Martensite (M).
- Đặc điểm của chuyển biến Martensite tôi Mt chỉ xảy ra trong nhiệt độ
tới hạn. Chuyển biến xảy ra không hoàn toàn nên còn một lượng
Austenite không chuyển biến hết: gọi là Austenite dư (Fe).
- Độ cứng Martensite phụ thuộc vào %C, thép có thành phần Carbon
càng cao thì sau khi tôi sẽ nhận được Martensite tôi (M ) có độ cứng
càng cao do mạng tinh thể của Fe bị xô lệch lớn. 23
1.3.4. Ram
Là phương pháp nhiệt luyện bao gồm nung nóng thép đã tôi đến dưới nhiệt
độ tới hạn A1 (11480C) giữ nhiệt tại đó một thời gian cần thiết để Austenite
dư và Martensite chuyển biến thành các tổ chức cân bằng hơn sau đó làm
nguội trong không khí.
Mục đích của ram: cơ tính ổn định, tăng tuổi thọ chi tiết, áp dụng cho các
loại thép khó tôi ở nhiệt độ cao ( thép gió, thép hợp kim cao…).
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Martensite
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Hardness of Tempered Martensite
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2. MỘT SỐ PHƯƠNG PHÁP TÔI VÀ RAM KHÁC

2.1. Tôi bề mặt
Phương pháp này áp dụng cho các chi tiết làm việc cần có độ cứng và tính
chống mài mòn cao ở bề mặt còn bên trong vẫn có độ dẻo dai cao để làm
việc trong điều kiện tải trọng động.
Nguyên lý chung của phương pháp tôi bề mặt là nung nóng nhanh bề
mặt đến nhiệt độ tôi mà trong lõi chưa đạt nhiệt độ tôi, sau đó làm nguội
nhanh để nhận được Martensite.
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2.2. Tôi trong 2 môi trường

Áp dụng cho sản phẩm có hình dáng phức tạp hoặc thép hợp kim cao để
hạn chế biến dạng khi làm nguội nhanh.
Chọn môi trường làm nguội thứ nhất để nhận được độ thấm tôi cao. Còn
môi trường làm nguội thứ hai có tốc độ chậm để tránh biến dạng chi tiết.
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3. CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP HÓA NHIỆT LUYỆN

3.1. Thấm Carbon
Là phương pháp hóa nhiệt luyện bằng cách nung nóng thép có thành phần
carbon thấp đến nhiệt độ cao, cho thêm vào bề mặt của thép nguyên tố
carbon làm thay đổi thành phần của lớp bề mặt đến giá trị bão hòa ( có thể
đạt 1÷1,2%) để có thể tôi bề mặt đạt độ cứng cao.
3.2. Thấm Ni-tơ
Là phương pháp hóa nhiệt luyện bằng cách nung nóng thép đến nhiệt độ
500÷6500C thấm bão hòa nguyên tố Ni tơ nhằm mục đích nâng cao độ
cứng bề mặt. Tính chịu mỏi hơn hẳn phương pháp thấm carbon.
Ni tơ được đưa vào thường là Cianua ( CN).
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Chương 2
PHƯƠNG PHÁP ĐÚC KIM LOẠI
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I. Đúc kim loại
1.1.Solidification of Pure Metals
(a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that the
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time
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Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
Development of a preferred
texture at a cool mold wall. Note
that only favorably oriented grains
grow away from the surface of the
Schematic illustration of three cast structures mold
of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure
metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c)
structure obtained by using nucleating agents.
Source: After G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L.
Walker, and A. Cibula 32
1.2. Alloy Solidification
Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the

solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites
33 in the mushy zone.
1.3.Solidification of Iron and Carbon Steels
(a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after
11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It
takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in
sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content
increases. Source: After H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini
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Basic Types of Cast Structures
Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b)
equizxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: Courtesy of D. Apelian
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Cast Structures
Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and
(b) plane front, two phase. Source: Courtesy of D. Apelian
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1.4.Fluid Flow and Solidification Time
p v2
Bernoulli’s theorem h    constant
g 2g
Mass continuity Q  A1v1  A2v2


A1 h
Sprue design  2
 A2 h1
vD
Reynolds number Re 
 
 Volume n
Chvorinov’s Rule Solidification time = C 
 Surface Area 
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
1.5. Casting Design and Fluidity Test
A test method for fluidity using a

Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated spiral mold. The fluidity index is
casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying the length of the solidified metal
molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during in the spiral passage. The
solidification. greater the length of the solidified
metal, the greater is its fluidity.
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1.6.Solidification Contraction or Expansion
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1.7. Common Casting Defects
Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or

eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring
procedures. Source: After J. Datsko. 40
1.8. Classification of Metal-casting processes:
+ Expendable mold (khuôn phá hủy):
 Sand (khuôn cát)
 Shell (khuôn vỏ mỏng)
 Plaster (khuôn thạch cao)
 Ceramic (khuôn sứ)
 Lost Foam (khuôn mẫu cháy)
 Investment (khuôn mẫu chảy)
+ Permanent mold (khuôn kim loại):
 Pressure (đúc áp lực)
 Die (đúc không áp lực)
 Centrifugal (đúc ly tâm)
 Squeeze (đúc ép)
Selection?
- Mỗi phương pháp có những tính chất, ứng dụng, giới hạn và giá thành riêng.
- Dựa vào :
 Độ phức tạp của hình dạng, khả năng của khuôn chứa, đôi khi chỉ làm một
chi tiết rất lớn.
 Những phương pháp khác không có tính kinh tế.
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Summary of Casting Processes
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Characteristics of Casting
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* Production Steps in Sand-Casting
Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.
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Sand Mold
Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.
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Pattern Plate
A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.
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Design for Ease of Removal from

Mold
Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold
47
Sand Cores
Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
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* Shell-Molding Process ( Khuôn vỏ mõng)
The shell-molding process, also called

49 dump-box technique.
* Sequence of Operations in Making a Ceramic Mold

( Khuôn bằng vật liệu sứ)
Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Source: Metals Handbook, Vol. 5, 8th ed.
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* Expandable-Pattern Casting Process
Schematic illustration of the expandable-pattern casting process, also known as

lost-foam or evaporative casting.
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* Vacuum-Casting ( khuôn dùng chân không)
Schematic illustration of the vacuum-castin process. Note that the mold has
a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the
molten metal. Source: After R. Blackburn.
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Hot-Chamber Die-Casting
( khuôn kim loại)
Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.
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Cold-Chamber Die-Casting
( khuôn kim loại có áp lực)
Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These

machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are
required to keep the two halves of the dies
54 closed under pressure.
* Centrifugal-Casting Process
( Đúc ly tâm)
(a) Schematic illustration of the centrifugal-casting process. Pipes, cylinder

liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process. (b) Side view of
the machine.
55
Semicentrifugal Casting and Casting by

Centrifuging
(a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes
can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The
molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the
molds by centrifugal force.
56
* Types of Melting Furnaces
Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible,

and (b) cupola.
57
II. Quá trình tạo hình chất dẻo
Characteristics of Forming and Shaping Processes for Plastics
and Composite Materials
Ép đùn
Ép phun
Tạo bọt
Nhựa mỏng
Khuôn quay
Gia nhiệt tạo hình
Khuôn nén
Trên nhiều khuôn
Đúc
Vật liệu composit
58
Forming and Shaping Processes for Plastics, Elastomers, and Composite
Materials
Quy trình sản xuất
Outline of forming and shaping processes for plastics, elastomers, and composite materials.
(TP = Thermoplastics; TS = Thermoset; E = Elastomer.)
59
* Extruder Schematic ( ép đùn)
Động cơ truyền
động qua hộp
giảm tốc cho vis
đùn, đẩy hạt
nhựa đã được
nung nóng đưa
vào khuôn ở cuối
của thiết bị.
(a) Schematic illustration of a typical screw extruder. (b) Geometry of an extruder screw.
Complex shapes can be extruded with relatively simple and inexpensive dies.
60
Extrusion Die Geometries
Common extrusion die geometries: (a) coat-hanger die for extruding sheet; (b) round die
for producing rods; and (c) dies for producing square cross-sections. Note the nonuniform
recovery of the part after it exits the die. Source: (a) Encyclopedia of Polymer Science
and Engineering (2nd ed.). Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
61
Extrusion of Tubes
a- Đùn ống
b- Đùn chai
Figure 19.4 Extrusion of tubes.

(a) Extrusion using a spider die
(see also Fig. 15.8) and
pressurized air. (b) Coextrusion
for producing a bottle.
62
Production of Plastic Film and Bags
Màn mỏng và túi
(b)
(a) Schematic illustration of the production of thin film and plastic bags from tube – first
produced by an extruder and then blown by air. (b) A blown-film operation. This process is
well developed, producing inexpensive and very large quantities of plastic film and shopping
bags. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher.
63
Melt-Spinning Process
Sợi
The melt-spinning process for

producing polymer fibers. The fibers
are then used in a variety of
applications, including fabrics and as
reinforcements for composite materials.
64
Injection Molding
(Ép phun)
Vis đùn có thêm
chuyển động tịnh
tiến đẩy nhựa lỏng
vào khuôn.
Schematic illustration of
injection molding with (a)
plunger and (b) reciprocating
rotating screw.
65
Công nghệ cơ khí Injection Molding Sequence Huỳnh Ngọc Hiệp
Trình tự tạo một sản phẩm
Sequence of operations in the injection molding of a part with a reciprocating screw. This
process is used widely for numerous consumer and commericial products, such as toys,
containers, knobs, and electrical equipment (see Fig. 19.9).
66
Types of Molds used in Injection
Molding
Types of molds used in injection molding: (a) two-plate mold; (b) three-plate mold; and (c)
hot-runner mold.
67
Injection-Molding Machine
A 2.2-MN (250-ton) injection molding machine. The tonnage is the force applied to
keep the dies closed during the injection of molten plastic into the mold cavities and
hold it there until the parts are cool and stiff enough to be removed from the die.
Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Plastics Machinery Division.
68
69
Chương 3
PHƯƠNG PHÁP RÈN & DẬP
70
I. Rèn kim loại
Rèn là phương pháp làm

thay đổi hình dạng bởi tác
động một lực vượt quá giới
hạn đàn hồi lên vật liệu. Là
phương pháp cổ điển nhất
đã được áp dụng.
(a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing-gear
components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, made by forging. (c) General view of a
445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press. Source: (a) Courtesy of the Mundial LLC. (b and c)
Courtesy of Wyman-Gordon Company.
71
Cấu trúc kim loại ở các phương
pháp gia công
Đúc Gia công cơ Rèn
Figure 14.2 Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain
flow. (a) Casting by the processes described in Chapter 11. (b) Machining form a blank,
described in Part IV of this book, and (c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and
limitations regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional
accuracy, surface finish, and the economics of production. Source: Courtesy of Forging
Industry Association.
72
Đặc điểm của phương pháp rèn
73
Upsetting with Barreling
 2r 
Forging force, F  Y f r 2 1 
 3h 

Figure 14.3 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform
deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note the
barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
Yf : ứng suất chảy của vật liệu

74
Rèn tự do trên một thanh vuông
Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an
anvil. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by barreling, as in Fig. 14.3c. (b) Reducing the
diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c)
The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
75
Rèn khuôn
Figure 14.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note
the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig.
14.7). (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die.
76
Rèn khuôn kín
Die inserts used in forging an automotive axle housing.
77
Forging a Rod, Fullering, and
Edging
(a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount
of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c) edging
operations to properly distribute the material when preshaping the blank for forging.
78
Lực khi rèn khuôn
F  kY f A

79
Cắt bavia sau khi rèn
Trimming flash from a forged part. Note that the thin material at the center is removed
by punching.
80
Rèn khuôn kín
Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and precision or
flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B.
Painter, and T. Altan.
81
The Coining
Process
(b)
(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were made by open-
die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a modern coining
operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior finish that can be
achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.
82
Chồn một đầu bulong
(a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets. (b)
Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
83
Sự di chuyển của cấu trúc vật
liệu khi rèn
A pierced round billet

showing grain-flow pattern
(see also Fig 14.12c). Source:
Courtesy of Ladish Co., Inc.
84
Rèn liên
tục
(a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process. (b) Forming internal profiles on a
tubular workpiece by swaging. (c) A die-closing swaging machine showing forming of a
stepped shaft. (d) Typical parts made by swaging. Source: Courtesy of J. Richard
Industries.
85
Swaging with and without a
Mandrel
(tóp)
(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; note the increase in wall thickness in
the die gap. (b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the
tube depends on the mandrel diameter. (c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes
produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling (internal spiral grooves) in
small gun barrels can be made by this process.
86
Nhiệt độ khi rèn nóng
87
Khiếm khuyết khi rèn
Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web
thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused by an
oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center flows past
the filled regions as the die closes.
88
Tốc độ của thiết bị rèn
89
Nguyên lý một số loại máy
Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a)

Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by a
crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (b) Knuckle-joint press. (c)
Screw press. (d) Hydraulic press.
90
Giá thành
Typical (cost-per-piece) in forging; note how the setup and the tooling costs-per-piece
decrease as the number of pieces forged increases if all pieces use the same die.
91
Costs of a Rod Made by Forging
and Casting
Relative unit costs of a
small connecting rod made
by various forging and
casting processes. Note
that, for large quantities,
forging is more economical.
Sand casting is the most
economical process for
fewer then about 20,000
pieces.
92
II. Gia công kim loại tấm
(a) (b)
Examples of sheet-metal parts. (a) Die-formed and cut stamped parts. (b) Parts
produced by spinning. Source: (a) Courtesy of Aphase II, Inc. (b) Courtesy of
Hialeah Metal Spinning, Inc.
Uốn là làm thay đổi hình dạng từ tấm phẳng ra hình dạng chi
tiết theo yêu cầu. 93
Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
94
Cắt bằng chày và cối
Punch force, F  0.7TLUTS

(a) Schematic illustration of shearing

with a punch and die, indicating some of
the process variables. Characteristic
features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the
slug. (Note: The scales of the two figures
are different.)
95
Shearing
(a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in
shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather
than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness
of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hot-
rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.
96
Die-Cutting Operations
(a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations
on sheet metal.
97
Conventional Versus Fine-Blanking
(a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-

blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking.
Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.
98
Cắt xả băng bằng dao quay.
Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.
99
Tailor-Welded Blanks
Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt-welding and

stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
100
Examples of Automotive
Components
Produced from Tailor-Welded
Blanks
Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive-body components. Source:

After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
101
The Shaving Process
Schematic illustrations of the shaving process. (a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b)
Shearing and shaving combined in one stroke.
102
Shear Angles
Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
103
Khuôn
liên hợp
Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound
die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the
hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (d)
Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is
attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
104
Characteristics of Metals Used in

Sheet-Forming
105
Cupping Test and Bulge-Test
(a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet metals. (b)
Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest left is
subjected to, basically, simple tension. The specimen farthest right is subjected to equal
biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of Inland Steel Company.
106
nghệ cơ khí and
CôngDeformation Huỳnh
Tearing in Sheet Metal During Ngọc Hiệp
Forming
The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during forming. The
major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates on the
forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: After S. P. Keeler.
107
Bending Terminology
Bending terminology. Note that the bend radius is

measured to the inner surface of the bent part.
108
Effect of Elongated Inclusions
(a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions stringers) on cracking as a

function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of
the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to an angle
of 90 degrees. Note also the narrowing of the top surface in the bend area (due
to Poisson effect).
109
Minimum Bend Radius
Relationship between R/T ratio and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals. Note that
sheet metal with 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself in a process like the
folding of a piece of paper without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.
110
Springback in Bending
Sự đàn hồi khi uốn
Ri RiY 3 RiY 

 4   3  1
Rf ET  ET 

Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending, and its bend
radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final bend angle to
be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).
111
Methods of Reducing or
Eliminating Springback
Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations.

Source: After V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.
112
Common Die-Bending Operations
Bending Force
kYLT 2
P
W
where
k = 0.3 for wiping die,
k = 0.7 for a U- die,
k = 1.3 for a V- die
Common die-bending operations showing the die-
opening dimension, W, used in calculating bending
forces.

113
Bending Operations
Examples of various bending operations.
114
Press Brake
(a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press brake. (f)
Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of Verson Allsteel Company.
115
Bead Forming
(a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) and (c) Bead forming with two dies in a press
brake.
116
Flanging Operations
Gấp mép Various flanging
operations. (a) Flanges
on a flat sheet. (b)
Dimpling. (c) The
piercing of sheet metal to
form a flange. In this
operation, a hole does
not have to be pre-
punched before the
punch descends. Note,
however, the rough
edges along the
circumference of the
flange. (d) The flanging
of a tube. Note the
thinning of the edges of
the flange.
117
Roll-Forming Process
Cán hình
(a) Schematic illustration of the roll-forming process. (b) Examples of roll-

formed cross-sections. Source: (b) Courtesy of Sharon Custom Metal
Forming, Inc.
118
Methods of Bending Tubes

uốn ống
Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels or filling of tubes with particulate materials
such as sand are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending. Tubes
also can be bent by a technique consisting if a stiff, helical tension spring slipped over the
tube. The clearance between the OD of the tube and the ID of the spring is small, thus
the tube cannot kick and the bend is uniform.
119
Tubular Parts
Làm phình ống
(a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made
by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular
blanks under internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to
120
produce a “T.” Source: After J. A. Schey.
Manufacturing of Bellows
Gấp nếp
Steps in manufacturing a bellows.
121
Stretch-Forming Process
Kéo dãn
Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft

122
can be made by this method. Source: Courtesy of Cyril Bath Co.
Can Manufacture
The metal-forming
processes involved in
manufacturing a two-piece
aluminum beverage can.
123
Deep-
Drawing D  
Fmax  DpT UTS  0.7
o

Dp  


(a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank.

The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process
variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated on
the figure are independent variables.
124
Normal and Average Anisotropy
Width strain 
Normal anisotropy, R   w
Thickness strain  t
R  2R45  R90
Average anisotropy, Ravg  0
4
Strains on a tensile-test
specimen removed form a
piece of sheet metal. These
strains are used in
determining the normal and
planar anisotropy of the
sheet metal.
125
Relationship between Average

Normal Anisotropy and the
Limiting Drawing Ratio
Maximum blank diameter Do
LDR  
Punch diameter Dp

The relationship between average normal

anisotropy and the limiting drawing ratio for
various sheet metals. Source: After M.
Atkinson.
126
Earing and Planar Anisotropy
R0  2R45  R90
Planar anisotropy, R 
2
Note: If R=0, no ears form.

 The height of ears increases as
 R increases.
Earing in a drawn steel cup caused by the

planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
127
Drawbeads
(a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during the drawing of a box-
shaped part while using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation
of circular grids in the flange in deep drawing.
128
Embossing with Two Dies
An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers, and designs

on sheet-metal parts can be produced by this process.
129
Aluminum Beverage Cans
(a)
(a) Aluminum beverage cans. Note the excellent surface finish. (b) Detail of
the can lid showing integral rivet and scored edges for the pop-top.
130
Bending and Embossing of Sheet
Metal
Examples of the bending and embossing of sheet metal with a metal punch and
with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Courtesy of Polyurethane
Products Corporation.
131
Hydroform Process
The hydroform (or fluid-forming) process. Note that in contrast to the ordinary deep-
drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The
cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.
132
Tube-
Hydroformin
g
(a) Schematic illustration of the tube-

hydrofroming process. (b) Example of tube-
hydroformed parts. Automotive exhaust and
structural components, bicycle frames, and
hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are
produced through tube hydroforming.
Source: Courtesy of Schuler GmBH.
(b)
133
Conventional Spinning
(a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types

of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.
134
Shear-Spinning and Tube-Spinning
(a) Schematic illustration of the shear-spinning process for making conical parts.
The mandrel can be shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b) and (c)
Schematic illustrations of the tube-spinning process
135
136
Chương 4
PHƯƠNG PHÁP GIA CÔNG BẰNG CẮT GỌT
137
I. Machining Processes Used to Produce Round Shapes:
Turning and Hole Making
Lathe Cutting
Operations
Miscellaneous cutting operations
that can be performed on a lathe.
Note that all parts are circular – a
property known as axisymmetry.
The tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are
described throughout this chapter.
138
Characteristics of Machining Processes and Typical Dimensional
Tolerances
139
Lathe
General view of a typical lathe, showing various components. Source: Courtesy of

Heidenreich & Harbeck.
140
Turning Operation
Schematic illustration of the basic turning operation, showing depth-of-cut, d; feed, f;

and spindle rotational speed, N in rev/min. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the
workpiece at the tool tip.
141
Designations for a Right-Hand
Cutting Tool
Designations for a right-hand cutting tool. Right-hand means the tool travels form right to left,
as shown in Fig. 23.3.
142
General Recommendations for Tool
Angles in Turning
143
Summary
of
Turning
Paramete
rs and
Formulas
144
Forces Acting on a Cutting Tool in
Turning
Forces acting on a cuttin tool in turning, Fc is the cutting force, Ft is the

thrust of feed force (in the direction of feed), and Fr is the radial force that
tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined.
145
Range of Applicable Cutting Speeds and Feeds for Tool Materials
The range of applicable cutting

speeds and feeds for a variety
of tool materials.
146
General Recommendations for Turning Operations
147
General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t.
148
General Recommendations for Turning Operations, con’t
149
General Recommendations for Cutting Fluids for Machining
150
Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for
Machine Tools
151
Collets
(a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The workpiece is placed
in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inwards by pulling
it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding of a
workpiece on a face plate. 152
Mandrels to Hold Workpieces for
Turning
Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels usually are
mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical and the end
faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the cylindrical
surfaces can be machined.
153
Turret Lathe
Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two turrets: square
and hexagonal (main).
154
Numerical Control Lathe and Turret
(a) A computer numerical-control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine.
These machines have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order
to take advantage of new cutting tools with enhanced properties. (b) A typical
turret equipped with ten tools, some of which are powered.
155
Parts Made on CNC Lathes
Typical parts made on CNC lathes.

156
Example 23.3: Machining of
Complex Shapes
Examples of more complex shapes that can be
produced on a CNC lathe.
157
Typical
Productio
n Rates
for
Various
Machining
Operation
158
Range of Surface
Roughnesses in
Machining Processes
The range of surface

roughnesses obtained in various
machining processes. Note the
wide range within each group,
especially in turning and boring.
159
Range of
Dimensiona
l Tolerances
in
Machining
Range of dimensional
tolerances obtained in various
as a
machining processes as a
function of workpiece size. Note
that there is an order os
Function of
magnitude difference between
small and large workpieces.
Workpiece
160
Size
Troubleshooting Guide for Turning
161
Cutting
Screw
Threads
(a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads with a
single-point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show
the direction of the feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses.
Note that in radial cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In flank cutting, the tool is fed inot the
piece along the right face of the thread. In incremental cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at
the center of the thread, then at its sides, and finally into the root. (c) A typical coated-carbide insert in the
process of cutting screw threads on a round shaft. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide insert.
Source: (c): Courtesy of Iscar Metals Inc.
162
Chasers and Die for Thread Cutting
(a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a lathe. (b) Circular chasers. (c) A solid
threading die.
163
Boring and Boring Mill
(a) Schematic illustration of a
steel boring bar with a carbide
insert. Note the passageway in
the bar for cutting fluid
application. (b) Schematic
illustration of a boring bar with
tungsten-alloy “inertia disks”
sealed in the bar to counteract
vibration and chatter during
boring. This system is effective
for boring bar length-to-diameter
ratios of up to 6.
Schematic illustration of a vertical boring mill.

Such a machine can accommodate workpiece
sizes as large as 2.5m (98 in.) in diameter.
164
Chisel-Point
Drill and
Crankshaft
Drill
Two common types of drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a
bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four
margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker
features also are available. (b) Crankshaft drills. These drills have good centering ability, and because
chips tend to break up easily, these drills are suitable for producing deep holes.
165
General Capabilities of Drilling
Various types of drills and drilling and

reaming operations.
166
Types of Drills
Various types of drills.
167
Gun Drill
(a) A gun drill showing various features. (b) Schematic illustration of the
gun-drilling operation. 168
Trepanning
(a) Trepanning tool. (b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter.
169
General Recommendations for
Speeds and Feeds in Drilling
170
Troubleshooting Guide for Drilling
171
Vertical Drill Press and Radial
Drilling Machine
(a) Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical drill press.

(b) A radial drilling machine. Source: (b) Courtesy of Willis Machinery and Tools.
172
Three-Axis Computer Numerical-
Control Drilling Machine
A three-axis computer numerical-control

drilling machine. The turret holds as many
as eight different tools, such as drills, taps,
and reamers.
173
Helical Reamer and Inserted-Blade
Adjustable Reamer
(a) Terminology for a helical reamer.

(b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
174
Tapping
(a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.
175
nghệ cơ khí
II.Công
Machining Processes Used to ProduceHuỳnh Ngọc Hiệp
Various
Shapes: Milling, Broaching, Sawing, and Filing; Gear
Manufacturing
Typical parts and shapes that can be produced with the

machining processes described176in this chapter.
Công nghệ cơ khí
Milling Cutters and Huỳnh Ngọc Hiệp
Milling Operations
Some basic types of milling cutters and milling operations. (a) Peripheral milling. (b)
Face milling. (c) End milling. (d) Ball-end mill with indexable coated-carbide inserts
machining a cavity in a die block. (e) Milling a sculptured surface with an end mill, using a
five-axis numerical control machine. Source: (d) Courtesy of Iscar. (e) Courtesy of The
Ingersoll Milling Machine Co. 177
Milling Operations
(a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling.

(b) lab-milling operation showing depth-of-cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth-of-cut, tc;
and workpiece speed, v.
(c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth-of-cut.
178
Face-Milling Operation
Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb
milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut,
w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
179
Summary of Peripheral Milling
Parameters and Formulas
180
Face-Milling Cutter with Indexable
Inserts
A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts.

Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
181
Effect of Insert Shape

on Feed Marks on a
Face-Milled Surface
Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface:
(a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of small radius
followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. (d) Feed marks due to
various insert shapes. 182
Face-Milling Cutter
Terminology for a face-milling cutter.
183
Effect of Lead Angle on
Undeformed Chip Thickness in
Face Milling
The effect of the lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note
that as the lead angle increases, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of
contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The edges of the insert must be sufficiently
large to accommodate the contact length increase.
184
Position of Cutter and Insert in
Face Milling
(a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as it first engages the workpiece in face
milling. (b) Insert positions towards the end of cut. (c) Examples of exit angles of
insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle)
positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page and rotates
clockwise.
185
Ball Nose End

Mills
Ball nose end mills. These cutters
are able to produce elaborate
contours and are often used in the
machining of dies and molds.
Source: Courtesy of Dijet, Inc.
186
Cutters
Cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting, and (d) slitting
with a milling cutter.
187
T-Slot Cutting and Shell Mill
(a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.
188
General Recommendations for Milling Operations
189
Troubleshooting Guide for Milling
Operations
190
Machined Surface Features in Face
Milling
Machined surface features in face milling. See also Fig. 24.6.
191
Edge Defects in Face Milling
Edge defects in face milling: (a) burr formation along workpiece edge, (b)
breakout along workpiece edge, and (c) how it can be avoided by
increasing the lead angle.
192
Column-and-Knee Type Milling
Machines
Schematic illustration of (a) a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee type milling

machine and (b) vertical-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine.
Source: After G. Boothroyd.
193
CNC Vertical-Spindle Milling
Machine
A computer numerical-control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling machine.

This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. The original
vertical-spindle milling machine iused in job shops is still referred to as a
“Bridgeport”, after its manufacturer in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Source:
Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines Dibision, Textron Inc.
194
Five-Axis Profile Milling Machine
Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three
principal linear and two angular movements of machine components.
195
Parts Made on a Planer

(Phương pháp bào)
Typical parts that can be made on a planer.
196
Broaching
(a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching.
Heavy lines indicate broached surfaces. (c) Vertical broaching machine. Source: (a)
and (b) Courtesy of General Broach and Engineering Company. (c) Courtesy of Ty
Miles, Inc.
197
Broach Geometry
(a) Cutting action of a broach showing various features. (b)

Terminology for a broach.
198
Chipbreaker Features on Broaches
Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach.
199
Pull-Types Internal Broach
Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for enlarging long holes.
200
Part with Internal Splines Made by
Broaching
Example of a part with internal splines produced by broaching.
201
Sawing Operations
Examples of various sawing operations.
202
Saw Teeth
(a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth sets on saw teeth staggered to
provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
(a) High-speed-steel teeth

welded on a steel blade.
(b) Carbide inserts brazed
to blade teeth.
203
Types of Burs
Types of burs used in burring operations.
204
Involute Spur Gear
Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.
205
Gear Generating with
Various Cutters
(a) Producing gear teeth on a

blank by form cutting. (b)
Schematic illustration of gear
generating with a pinion-shaped
gear cutter. (c) and (d) Gear
generating on a gear shaper
using a pinion-shaped cutter.
Note that the cutter reciprocates
vertically. (e) Gear generating
with rack-shaped cutter. Source:
(d) Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
206
Hobbing
(a) Schematic illustration of gear cutting with a hob. (b) Production of worm gear
through hobbing. Source: Courtesy of Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
207
Bevel Gears
(a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutter. (b) Cutting a helical
bevel gear. Source: Courtesy of Schafer Gear Works, Inc.
208
Finishing Gears by
Grinding
Finishing gears by
grinding: (a) form
grinding with shaped
grinding wheels; (b)
grinding by generating
with two wheels.
209
nghệ Manufacturing
CôngGear cơ khí Huỳnh
Cost as a Function of Gear Ngọc Hiệp
Quantity
Gear manufacturing cost as a function of gear quality. The numbers

along the vertical lines indicate tolerances.
210
Chương 5
Advanced Machining Processes
211
Advanced Machining Processes

Tham gia quá trình gia công cắt bỏ vật liệu bằng phương tiện cơ khí.
Tình huống mà các phương pháp gia công cắt gọt khác không đáp
ứng được :
 Vật liệu cứng và có độ bền cao
 Vật liệu là quá dễ vỡ
 Chi tiết có hình dạng phức tạp,
 Chi tiết có yêu cầu cao về dung sai và độ nhám bề mặt,
 Quá trình gia công cơ làm biến dạng chi tiết do nhiệt cắt,
212
Parts Made by Advanced
Machining Processes
(a)
(b)
Examples of parts produced by advanced machining processes. (a) Samples of parts

produced from waterjet cutting. (b) Turbine blade, produced by plunge EDM, in a
fixture to produce the holes by EDM. Source: (a) Courtesy of Omax Corporation. (b)
Courtesy of Hi-TEK Mfg., Inc.
213
General
Characteristics
of Advanced
Machining
Processes
214
Chemical Milling
(a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-to-
weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space-launch vehicles by the chemical
milling of aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates first
have been formed into shape by a process such as roll forming or stretch forming. The
design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost.
215
Chemical-Machining ( gia công hóa
học)
(a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process. Note that no forces or

machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by
chemical machining; note the undercut.
Gia công hóa học (CM) là quá trình dùng hóa chất tấn công và ăn mòn
kim loại, đá, và một số đồ gốm, nhằm loại bỏ một lượng nhỏ vật liệu trên
bề mặt chi tiết.
216
Surface
Roughness
and
Tolerances in
Machining
Surface roughness and tolerances obtained in various machining processes. Note the
wide range within each process (see also Fig. 23.13). Source: Machining Data Handbook,
3rd ed. Copyright © 1980. Used by permission217
of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
Parts Made by Chemical Blanking
Various parts made by chemical blanking. Note the fine detail.

Source: Courtesy of Buckbee-Mears, St. Paul.
218
Electrochemical Machining
giaĐiềucông điện hóa
ngược lại của mạ điện
Schematic illustration of the electrochemical machining process.
219
Parts Made by Electrochemical
Machining
Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of nickel
alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-
steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
220
Knee Implants
(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces)
with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b)
Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal implant. Source:
Courtesy of Biomet, Inc.
221
Electrochemical-Grinding Process
mài điện hóa
(a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin

slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
222
Electrical-Discharge Machining Process

Gia công bằng tia lửa điện
• Các nguyên tắc của gia công điện ăn mòn (EDM) (còn được gọi là gia công
phóng điện hoặc gia công tia lửa điện ăn mòn) được dựa trên sự ăn mòn
của kim loại bằng cách phóng tia lửa
223điện.
Stepped Cavities Produced by EDM
Process
Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The
workpiece moves in the two principle horizontal directions (x – y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these
cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical
cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
224
The Wire EDM Process

cắt dây EDM
Metal removal rate :
MRR  4 10 4 ITw1.23
where
I  current in amperes
Tw  melting temperature of workpiece, C
Dây cắt thường được làm bằngđồng thau, đồng, vonfram,môlipden;

kẽm hay đồng thau mạ và dây có lớp mạ (multicoated) được sử dụng.
Đường kính dây thường khoảng 0,30 mm cho gia công cắt thô và
0,20 mm cho gia công cắt tinh.
225
Wire EDM
(a) (b)
(a) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (b) A computer-controlled wire EDM machine.
Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
226
Laser-Beam
Machining
(LBM)
gia công
(a) Schematic illustration of the
laser-beam machining process.
bằng tia
(b) and (c) Examples of holes
produced in nonmetallic parts by
LBM. (d) Cutting sheet metal
lazer
with a laser beam. Source: (d)
Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc.
227
General Applications of Lasers in
Manufacturing
228
Electron-Beam Machining Process

gia công bằng chùm tia điện tử
Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process.

Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is
229
limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
Water-Jet
Cutting
Process
gia công bằng
tia nước
(a) Schematic illustration of the water-jet machining process. (b) A computer-controlled

water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic
parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. (Enlarged on next slide). Source:
Courtesy of Possis Corporation 230
Nonmetallic Parts Made by Water-
Jet Cutting
Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-jet cutting process.

Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation
231
Abrasive-Jet
Machining
Mài bằng tia
nước (b)
(a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts
produced through abrasive-jet machining, produced in 50-mm (2-in.) thick 304 stainless
steel. Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
232
Case Study: Stent Manufacture
The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRATM Detail of the 3-3-3 MULTI-LINK TETRATM

coronary stent system. pattern.
Evolution of the stent

surface. (a) MULTI-LINK
TETRATM after lasing. Note
that a metal slug is still
attached. (b) After removal
of slag. (c) After
electropolishing.
233
Rapid prototyping (RP)
Rapid prototyping (RP) is the application of AM/3DP
technology to make prototypes, models, and mock-
ups, all of them being physical parts but not products.
Công nghệ bồi đắp vật liệu (AM: Additive

Manufacturing) là một thuật ngữ chính thức để gọi công
nghệ tạo mẫu nhanh (trước đây) và công nghệ in 3D (hiện
nay).
Khi mới ra đời, công nghệ này được dùng trong các
ngành công nghiệp để tạo ra một cụm chi tiết hay một chi
tiết mẫu trước khi đưa vào sản xuất đại trà hoặc thương
mại hóa. Vì vậy, nó được gọi là công nghệ tạo mẫu nhanh.
234
Nguyên tắc cơ bản của phương pháp AM là “mô hình” được chế
tạo bằng cách thêm vật liệu theo từng lớp từ thấp lên cao, và
liên kết các lớp vật liệu với nhau, mỗi lớp là một lát cắt mỏng
của một “mô hình” từ dữ liệu CAD 3D. Về bản chất, mỗi lớp phải
có một bề dày nhất định và do đó “mô hình” tạo thành sẽ là một
kết quả xấp xỉ của các dữ liệu ban đầu.
235
236
 FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) được hiểu là phương
pháp tạo mô hình bằng cách rải sợi nhựa nóng chảy và
đắp theo từng lớp.
237
 SLA (Stereolithography) : dùng tia laser làm đông đặc
nhựa lỏng cảm quang trong thùng chứa.
238
 SLM: (Selective Laser Melting) sử dụng laser công suất cao
để làm nóng chảy hoàn toàn kim loại và kết hợp các hạt bột
kim loại lại với nhau thành một khối đồng chất.
239
 SLS: (Selective Laser Sintering) Dùng laser công suất cao để
làm nóng bột đến dưới nhiệt độ nóng chảy để thiêu kết
(sintering) và hợp nhất các hạt bột vật liệu lại với nhau.
240
Chương 6
Surface Roughness and Measurement;

Friction, Wear, and Lubrication
241
Surface Structure of Metals
Figure 6.1 Schematic illustration of a cross-section of the surface structure of

metals. The thickness of the individual layers depends on both processing
conditions and processing environment. Source: After E. Rabinowicz and B.
Bhushan.
242
Terminology and Symbols

Related to Surface Texture
Figure 6.2 (a) Standard terminology and

symbols used to describe surface finish.
The quantities are given in μin. (b)
Common surface lay symbols.
243
Surface-Roughness
Figure 6.3 Coordinates used for

surface-roughness measurement using
Eqs. (33.1) and (33.2).
244
Surface
Roughnes
s
Figure 6.4 (a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus
and guards against damage. (b) Path of the stylus in surface-roughness measurements
(broken line) compared to the actual roughness profile. Note that the profile of the stylus
path is smoother than that of the actual surface. (c) through (f) Typical surface profiles
produced by various machining and surface-finishing processes. Note the difference
between the vertical and horizontal scales.
245
Real Contact Area
Figure 6.5 Schematic illustration of the interface of two bodies in contact

showing real areas of contact at the asperities. In engineering surfaces, the
ratio of the apparent-to-real areas of contact can be as high as 4 to 5 orders
of magnitude.
246
Ring-Compression Test
Figure 6.6 Ring-compression test between flat dies. (a) Effect of lubrication on
type of ring-specimen barreling. (b) Test results: 1. original specimen and 2. to 4.
increasing friction. Source: After A. T. Male and M. G. Cockcroft.
247
Friction
Coefficient Chart
Figure 6.7 Chart to determine friction coefficient from a ring-compression test.

Reduction in height and change in internal diameter of the ring are measured; then μ is
read directly from this chart. For example, if the ring specimen is reduced in height by
40% and its internal diameter decreases by 10%, the coefficient of friction is 0.10.
248
Worn
Surfac
es
Figure 6.8 Changes in original (a) wire-brushed and (b) ground-surface profiles
after wear. Source: After E. Wild and K. J. Mack
249
Adhesive and Abrasive Wear
Figure 6.9 Schematic illustration of (a) two contracting asperities, (b)

adhesion between two asperities, and (c) the formation of a wear particle.
Figure 6.10 Schematic illustration of abrasive wear in sliding.

Longitudinal scratches on a surface usually indicate abrasive wear.
250
Types of Wear in Hot Forging Die
Figure 6.11 Types of wear observed in a single die used for

hot forging. Source: After T. A. Dean.
251
Công nghệ cơ khí
Lubrication TypesHuỳnh Ngọc Hiệp
Figure 6.12 Types of lubrication generally occurring in

metalworking operations. Source: After W. R. D. Wilson.
252
Machine-Tool Slideway
Figure 6.13 Cross-section of a machine-tool slideway. The width, depth. Angles,

and other dimensions all must be produced amd measured accurately for the
machine tool to function as expected.
253
Analog
and
Digital
Measuri
ng
Figure 35.2 (a) A vernier (analog) micrometer. (b) A digital micrometer with a range of 0 to
Devices
1 in. (0 to 25 mm) and a resolution of 50 μin. (1.25μm). It is generally easier to read
dimensions on this instrument compared to the analog micrometer. (c) Schematic
illustration showing the integration of digital gages with microprocessors for real-time data
acquisition for statistical process control. Source: (a) Courtesy of L.C. Starret Co. and (b)
Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.
254
Digital-Micrometer Depth Gage
Figure 6.14 A digital micrometer depth gage.

Source: Courtesy of Starret Co.
255
Dial Indicator Uses
Figure 6.15 Three uses of dial indicators: (a) roundess,

(b) depth, and (c) multiple-dimension gaging of a part.
256
Measuring Straightness
Figure 6.16 Measuring straightness manually with (a) a knife-edge rule

and (b) a dial indicator. Source: After F. T. Farago.
257
Measuring Flatness
Figure 6.17 (a) Interferometry method for measuring flatness using an optical flat. (b)
Fringes on a flat, inclined surface. An optical flat resting on a perfectly flat workpiece
surface will not split the light beam, and no fringes will be present. (c) Fringes on a
surface with two inclinations. Note: the greater the incline, the closer together are the
fringes. (d) Curved fringe patterns indicate curvatures on the workpiece surface.
258
Measuring Roundness
Figure 6.18 (a) Schematic illustration of out-of-roundess (exaggerated). Measuring

roundess using (b) a V-block and dial indicator, (c) a round part supported on
centers and rotated, and (d) circular tracing. Source: After F. T. Farago.
259
Measuring Gear-Tooth Thickness
and Profile
Figure 6.19 Measuring gear-tooth thickness and profile with (a) a

gear-tooth caliper and (b) pins or balls and a micrometer. Source:
Courtesy of American Gear Manufacturers Association.
260
Optical Contour Projector
Figure 6.20 A bench-model horizontal-beam contour projector with a 16-in.

diameter screen with 150-W tungsten halogen illumination. Source: Courtesy of
L. S. Starrett Company, Precision Optical Division.
261
Fixed Gages
Figure 6.21 (a) Plug gage for holes with GO and NOT GO on opposite ends. (b)
Plug gage with GO and NOT GO on one end. (c) Plain ring gages for gaging
round rods. Note the difference in knurled surfaces to identify the two gages. (d)
Snap gage with adjustable anvils.
262
Air Gages
(c)
Figure 6.22 (a) Schematic

illustration of the principle for an air
gage. (b) Three types of plugs
used for air gaging. The gage on
the right is an air snap gage. (c) A
conical head for air gaging; note the
small air holes on the conical
surface. Source: (b) Courtesy of
Mahr Federal Inc. (c) Courtesy of
Stotz Gaging Co.
(b)
263
Electronic Gage
Figure 6.23 An electronic gage for measuring bore diameter.

The measuring head is equipped with three carbide-tipped
steel pins for wear resistance. The LED display reads 29.158
mm. Source: Courtesy of TESA SA.
264
Electronic Gage Measuring Vertical
Length
Figure 6.24 An electronic vertical-length

measuring instrument with a resolution
of 1 μm (40 μin). Source: Courtesy of
TESA SA.
265
Laser Micrometers
Figure 6.25 (a) and (b) Two types of measurements made with a laser scan
micrometer. (c) Two types of laser micrometers. Note that the instrument in the front
scans the part (placed in the opening) in one dimension; the larger instrument scans
the part in two dimensions. Source: Courtesy of BETA LaserMike.
266
Coordinate-Measuring
Machine
(b) (c) (d)
Figure 6.26 (a) Schematic illustration of a coordinate-measuring machine. (b) A touch

signal probe. (c) Examples of laser probes. (d) A coordinate-measuring machine with a
complex part being measured. Source: (b) through (d) Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.
267
Coordinate-Measuring Machine for
Car Bodies
Figure 6.27- A large coordinate-measuring machine with two heads measuring

various dimensions on a car body. Source: Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.
268
Tolerance Control
Figure 6.28 Basic size, deviation, and tolerance

on a shaft, according to the ISO system.
269
Methods of Assigning Tolerances
Figure 6.29 Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft:

(a) bilateral tolerance, (b) unilateral tolerance, and (c) limit dimensions.
270
Dimensional
Tolerances as a
Function of Part
Size
Figure 6.30 Dimensional
tolerances as a function of
part size for various
manufacturing processes.
Note that because many
factors are involved, there
is a broad range for
tolerances.
271
Dimensional
Tolerance
Range and
Surface
Roughness in
Various
Processes
Figure 6.31 Dimensional tolerance range and surface roughness obtained in various
manufacturing processes. These tolerance apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimeinsion.
Source: After J. A. Schey.
272
Engineering
Drawing Symbols
Figure 6.32 Geometric characteristic
symbols to be indicated on engineering
drawings of parts to be manufactured.
Source: Courtesy of The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers.
273

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Công nghệ cơ khí Huỳnh Ngọc Hiệp

I. TÍNH CHẤT CỦA VẬT LIỆU

1.KHÁI NIỆM CHUNG

1.2.Tính chất hóa học

1.3.Tính chất công nghệ

1.4.Tính chất cơ học

1.5.Tính chất sử dụng

1.6.Tính chất bổ sung

Vật liệu kỹ thuật

Các tính chất của vật liệu

Kim loại nguyên chất và hợp kim

2. CÁC ĐẶC TRƯNG CƠ TÍNH THÔNG THƯỜNG

2.6-Các phương pháp thử vật liệu

Tensile-test Specimen and Machine

3.Thử độ dai va đập

II. GIẢN ĐỒ TRẠNG THÁI CỦA SẮT- CARBON (FE-C)

III. NHIỆT LUYỆN

1.1. Định nghĩa

1.2. Công dụng của nhiệt luyện

1.3. Các phương pháp nhiệt luyện

1.3.2. Thường hóa

Hardness of Tempered Martensite

2. MỘT SỐ PHƯƠNG PHÁP TÔI VÀ RAM KHÁC

2.2. Tôi trong 2 môi trường

3. CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP HÓA NHIỆT LUYỆN

PHƯƠNG PHÁP ĐÚC KIM LOẠI

Cast Structures of Solidified Metals

Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the

Basic Types of Cast Structures

1.4.Fluid Flow and Solidification Time

Mass continuity Q  A1v1  A2v2

A test method for fluidity using a

Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or

* Production Steps in Sand-Casting

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting.

Design for Ease of Removal from

Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold

The shell-molding process, also called

* Sequence of Operations in Making a Ceramic Mold

Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Schematic illustration of the expandable-pattern casting process, also known as

Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These

(a) Schematic illustration of the centrifugal-casting process. Pipes, cylinder

Semicentrifugal Casting and Casting by

Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible,

Figure 19.4 Extrusion of tubes.

The melt-spinning process for

PHƯƠNG PHÁP RÈN & DẬP

Rèn là phương pháp làm

Đúc Gia công cơ Rèn

Yf : ứng suất chảy của vật liệu

Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Die inserts used in forging an automotive axle housing.

A pierced round billet

Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a)

Cắt bằng chày và cối

Punch force, F  0.7TLUTS

(a) Schematic illustration of shearing

(a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-

Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.

Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt-welding and