Lyalko - Philosophy & Political Science

Lyalko S.V.
Philosophy and Political Science
Part I. General Philosophy Overview

Part II.Political Science:Inside Out
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Від автора-упорядника
У зв’язку з підвищенням інтересу до інтенсифікації навчання
англійської мови у вузах вдосконалюються не тільки методичні
засоби, але й лексико-фразеологічний матеріал профілюючої
дисципліни, над яким мають працювати студенти.
Як відомо, основним компонентом змісту навчання іноземній мові є
як набуті знання, так і навички, що їх формують неодноразовим
повторенням та закріпленням у спеціалізованих вправах. Для
утворення довготривалих та надійних навичок, що спонукатимуть
учнів до активної мовної діяльності, необхідна наявність ефективної і
неординарної системи вправ. Автор цього посібника намагається це
зробити у сферах філософії та політології – галузях, які посідають
зараз одне з найперших місць у бурхливому сьогоденні суспільно-
політичних наук і мають суто практичне значення для розбудови
нашої молодої української держави.
Книга складається з двох частин, кожна з яких охоплює десять
уроків-секцій, що містять у собі комплекс вправ з різноманітними
видами робіт. Кожен з юнітів включає завдання з лексико-
фразеологічними та синонімо-антонімічними характеристиками
специфічних термінів філософії та політичних наук, представлених
у формі поширеного тлумачного словника з обов’язковим українсько-
англійським зворотнім перекладом.
Систематизовані вправи, спрямовані на закріплення лексичного
матеріалу з філософії та політології, поступово ускладнені
відповідно до лексико - граматичної насиченості текстів.
Посібник має акцентовану комунікативну спрямованість, бо
практично кожен текст, що є композиційно-пов’язаний, може бути
представлений у формі діалогу (розмови). Чітка дозованість вправ
та послідовний внутрішньо-мотивований вплив на виклик-
спонукання адекватної реакції у студентів призведе до розвитку
навичок усного та писемного мовлення.
До праці включена велика добірка біографій видатних персоналій
(виключно тих, які представлені в даному підручнику) і чималий
довідник філософських та політологічних понять та термінів, який
може бути використаний викладачами англійської мови як в
аудиторній, так і у позалекційній (самостійній) роботі зі студентами
для реферування. Посібник надасть необхідну допомогу студентам у
їх професійній підготовці, сприятиме розширенню словникового
запасу з англійської мови, розвитку мислення.
Робота призначена для студентів філософських факультетів
вищих навчальних закладів України.
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CONTENTS
PART I .
UNIT I. Preface. Philosophy as a Concept....................................................5
UNIT II. The Importance of Philosophy...........................................................6
UNIT III. The Branches of Philosophy.............................................................8
UNIT IV. Epistemology and Others...............................................................10
UNIT V. Logic, Ethics, Aesthetics & Others..................................................12
UNIT VI. Philosophy and Other Fields..........................................................15
UNIT VII. Oriental philosophy.......................................................................18
UNIT VIII. The History of Western Philosophy. Ancient philosophy.............20
UNIT IX. Medieval Philosophy......................................................................25
UNIT X. Modern Philosophy.........................................................................30
Problematic Revision Questions To The Whole Textual Material.................37
Terms Used in Philosophy............................................................................37
Biographies in Chronological Order. (for UNITS VII – X)..............................43
Topics for Revision.......................................................................................96
List Of Proper Names...................................................................................97
Cue Cards.....................................................................................................99
Additional Resourses..................................................................................105
PART II
UNIT I. Preface. Political Science...............................................................106
UNIT II. Early History..................................................................................110
UNIT III. Political Theory.............................................................................114
UNIT IV. Fields of Political Science............................................................121
UNIT V. The development of Political Science...........................................128
UNIT VI. Government and its elements......................................................136
UNIT VII. The scope of government...........................................................142
UNIT VIII. Who governs?............................................................................147
UNIT IX. Public relations.............................................................................153
UNIT X. Diplomacy.....................................................................................160
Biographies (in the order of the Units)........................................................169
Some notions used in Political Science......................................................179
(Government and Political Terms)
Additional Resourses................................................................................. 243
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GENERAL PHILOSOPHY OVERVIEW
PART I
Unit I
Assignments:
1. Listen to the text and give the gist of the text in writing.
2. Read and translate the text.
Preface
Philosophy is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of existence
and reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what
is of basic value and importance in life. It also examines the relationships
between humanity and nature and between the individual and society. Philosophy
arises out of wonder, curiosity, and the desire to know and understand.
Philosophy is thus a form of inquiry--a process of analysis, criticism,
interpretation, and speculation.
The term philosophy cannot be defined precisely because the subject is so
complex and so controversial. Different philosophers have different views on nature,
methods, and range of philosophy. The term philosophy itself comes from the Greek
‘philosophia’, which means love of wisdom. In that sense, wisdom is the active use of
intelligence, not something passive that a person simply possesses.
The first known Western philosophers lived in the ancient Greek world during the
early 500's B.C. These early philosophers tried to discover the basic make-up of
things and the nature of the world and of reality. For answers to questions about such
subjects, people had largely relied on magic, superstition, religion, tradition, or
authority. But the Greek philosophers considered those sources of knowledge
unreliable. Instead, they sought answers by thinking and by studying nature.
Philosophy has also had a long history in some non-Western cultures,
especially in China and India. But until about 200 years ago, there was little
interchange between those philosophies and Western philosophy, chiefly
because of difficulties of travel and communication. As a result, Western
philosophy generally developed independently of Eastern philosophy.
3.Interpret the following in English:

a) inquiry b) basic c) controversial d) intelligence
e) superstition f) authority g) nature h) chiefly
4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:
little interchange; to rely on magic; basic make-up; to arise out of wonder; to
define precisely; a form of inquiry; controversial; mysteries of existence;
speculation; superstition; independently.
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5. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases .Use
them in sentences of your own and situations from the text:
 форма дослідження
 походити з чогось
 покладатися на щось
 шукати відповіді
 труднощі спілкування
 забобони
 суперечливий
6. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (4 points).
7. Answer the following questions:

a) What does philosophy deal with?
b) Can the term philosophy be defined precisely ?
c) What sources of knowledge did the Greek philosophers consider unreliable?
d) Was there any interchange between Oriental and Western philosophies?
Why did it happen ?
e) Were the first known philosophers Greeks or Romans ?
8. Look through the text and write out the key philosophical terms.
Give their definitions .
9. Retell the text : a) in detail b) in brief .
10. Write an annotation of the text.
11. Write 5 questions covering the basic points of the text .
Unit II
Assignments:
The Importance of Philosophy

Philosophic thought is an inescapable part of human existence. Almost
everyone has been puzzled from time to time by such essentially philosophic
questions as "What does life mean?" "Did I have any existence before I was
born?" and "Is there life after death?" Most people also have some kind of
philosophy in the sense of a personal outlook on life. Even a person who claims
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that considering philosophic questions is a waste of time is expressing what is
important, worthwhile, or valuable.
A rejection of all philosophy is in itself philosophy.
By studying philosophy, people can clarify what they believe, and they can be
stimulated to think about ultimate questions. A person can study philosophers of
the past to discover why they thought as they did and what value their thoughts
may have in one's own life. There are people who simply enjoy reading the great
philosophers, especially those who were also great writers.
Philosophy has had enormous influence on our everyday lives. The very
language we speak uses classifications derived from philosophy. For example,
the classifications of noun and verb involve the philosophic idea that there is a
difference between things and actions. If we ask what the difference is, we are
starting a philosophic inquiry.
Every institution of society is based on philosophic ideas, whether that
institution is the law, government, religion, the family, marriage, industry,
business, or education. Philosophic differences have led to the overthrow of
governments, drastic changes in laws, and the transformation of entire economic
systems. Such changes have occurred because the people involved held certain
beliefs about what is important, true, real, and significant and about how life
should be ordered.
Systems of education follow a society's philosophic ideas about what children
should be taught and for what purposes. Democratic societies stress that people
learn to think and make choices for themselves. Nondemocratic societies
discourage such activities and want their citizens to surrender their own interests
to those of the state. The values and skills taught by the educational system of a
society thus reflect the society's philosophic ideas of what is important.

a) Inescapable b) to puzzle c) outlook d) purpose
e) enormous f) essentially philosophic questions
g) the overthrow of government
4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

a personal outlook; worthwhile; ultimate questions; to clarify; entire ;
to derive from philosophy; the overthrow of governments; institution;
drastic changes in laws; to occur; to stress; the values and skills .
a) цінності та навички
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b) рішучі (корінні) зміни
c) установа (заклад)
d) притримуватись певних поглядів
e) зважати (не підтримувати)
f) відмовитись від чогось на чиюсь користь
g) корисний (результативний , чогось вартий)
h) стверджувати
i) марна трата часу
7.Answer the following questions:
a) What philosophic questions are people usually puzzled by ?
b) Do you agree with the point of view that a rejection of all philosophy is in
itself philosophy ?
c) For what reasons can a person study philosophers of the past ?
d) Can you give any examples of enormous influence of philosophy on our
everyday lives ?
e) What have philosophic differences led to ?
f) Why have such changes occurred ?
g) What approaches to education are there in different societies?
Unit III
Assignments:
The Branches of Philosophy

Philosophic inquiry can be made into any subject because philosophy deals
with everything in the world and all of knowledge. But traditionally, and for
purposes of study, philosophy is divided into five branches, each organized
around certain distinctive questions. The branches are (1) metaphysics, (2)
epistemology, (3) logic, (4) ethics, and (5) aesthetics. In addition, the philosophy
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of language has become so important during the 1900's that it is often considered another
branch of philosophy.
Metaphysics is the study of the fundamental nature of reality and existence and of the
essences of things. Metaphysics is itself often divided into two areas--ontology and
cosmology. Ontology is the study of being. Cosmology is the study of the physical
universe, or the cosmos, taken as a whole. Cosmology is also the name of the branch of
science that studies the organization, history, and future of the universe.
Metaphysics deals with such questions as "What is real?" "What is the
distinction between appearance and reality?" "What are the most general
principles and concepts by which our experiences can be interpreted and
understood?" and "Do we possess free will or are our actions determined by
causes over which we have no control?"
Philosophers have developed a number of theories in metaphysics. These
theories include materialism, idealism, mechanism, and teleology.
Materialism maintains that only matter has real existence and that feelings,
thoughts, and other mental phenomena are produced by the activity of matter.
Idealism states that every material thing is an idea or a form of an idea. In
idealism, mental phenomena are what is fundamentally important and real.
Mechanism maintains that all happenings result from purely mechanical forces,
not from purpose, and that it makes no sense to speak of the universe itself as
having a purpose. Teleology, on the other hand, states that the universe and
everything in it exists and occurs for some purpose.
a) for purposes of study b) branches c) distinctive d) essences of things
e) being f) distinction g) mental phenomena h) purely mechanical forces
4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :
fundamental nature of reality; to take as a whole; the universe;
appearance and reality; determined by causes; to possess free will ;
the activity of matter; to result; to state; to occur for some purpose .
a) мати вільне волевиявлення
b) суто механістичні сили
c) розумове (психічне ) явище
d) матеріальний (об'єктивно-реальний) всесвіт
e) відбуватися як наслідок чогось
f) брати в цілому
g) бути визначеним (обумовленим ) причинами
h) сутності речей
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a) What branches is philosophy traditionally divided into ?
b) What differs ontology from cosmology ?
c) What does metaphysics deal with ?
d) How many theories are included into metaphysics ? Enumerate them .
e) How do materialism and idealism consider mental phenomena ?
f) What ’s the main contradiction between mechanism and teleology ?
Unit IV
Assignments:
Epistemology aims to determine the nature, basis, and extent of knowledge.

It explores the various ways of knowing, the nature of truth, and the relationships
between knowledge and belief.
Epistemology asks such questions as "What are the features of genuine
knowledge as distinct from what appears to be knowledge?" "What is truth, and
how can we know what is true and what is false?" and "Are there different kinds of
knowledge, with different grounds and characteristics?"
Philosophers often distinguish between two kinds of knowledge, a priori and
empirical. We arrive at a priori knowledge by thinking, without independent appeal
to experience. For example, we know that there are 60 seconds in a minute by
learning the meanings of the terms.
In the same way, we know that there are 60 minutes in an hour. From these
facts, we can deduce that there are 3,600 seconds in an hour, and we arrive at
this conclusion by the operation of thought alone. We acquire empirical
knowledge from observation and experience.
For example, we know from observation how many keys are on a typewriter
and from experience which key will print what letter.
The nature of truth has baffled people since ancient times, partly because
people so often use the term true for ideas they find congenial and want to
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believe, and also because people so often disagree about which ideas are true.
Philosophers have attempted to define criteria for distinguishing between truth
and error. But they disagree about what truth means and how to arrive at true
ideas.
The correspondence theory holds that an idea is true if it corresponds to the
facts or reality. The pragmatic theory maintains that an idea is true if it works or
settles the problem it deals with.
The coherence theory states that truth is a matter of degree and that an idea is
true to the extent to which it coheres (fits together) with other ideas that one holds.
Skepticism claims that knowledge is impossible to attain and that truth is unknowable.
a) to determine the extent of knowledge
b) b) the features of genuine knowledge
c) c) different grounds
d) d) a priori and empirical e) observation

to arrive at a conclusion; to baffle; congenial; to define criteria;
to deduce; since ancient times; to acquire empirical knowledge;
to correspond to the facts; a matter of degree; to cohere; to attain;
to settle the problem
a) прийти до висновку
b) із стародавніх часів
c) визначити взірцеві норми (критерії)
d) бентежити (вводити в оману)
e) апріорно (до досвіду)
f) незалежне звернення до досвіду
g) бути у відповідності до фактів
h) теорія когерентності
i) межі знань
j) вирішити проблему
k) характерні ознаки справжніх знань

a) How do philosophers distinguish two kinds of knowledge ?
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b) What theories try to define criteria for distinguishing between truth and error?
c) What does epistemology explore ?
d) How do we acquire empirical knowledge ?
e) Name the theory which substantiates direct dependence on the correctness
of the idea on its applying to practice and real solution of the problem ?
Unit V
Assignments:
Logic is the study of the principles and methods of reasoning.

It explores how we distinguish between good (or sound) reasoning and bad (or
unsound) reasoning. An instance of reasoning is called an argument or an inference. An
argument consists of a set of statements called premises together with a statement called
the conclusion, which is supposed to be supported by or derived from the premises. A
good argument provides support for its conclusion, and a bad argument does not. Two
basic types of reasoning are called deductive and inductive.
A good deductive argument is said to be valid--that is, the conclusion
necessarily follows from the premises. A deductive argument whose conclusion
does not follow necessarily from the premises is said to be invalid. The argument
"All human beings are mortal, all Greeks are human beings, therefore all Greeks
are mortal" is a valid deductive argument. But the argument "All human beings
are mortal, all Greeks are mortal, therefore all Greeks are human beings" is
invalid, even though the conclusion is true. On that line of reasoning, one could
argue that all dogs, which are also mortal, are human beings.
Deductive reasoning is used to explore the necessary consequences of
certain assumptions. Inductive reasoning is used to establish matters of fact and
the laws of nature and does not aim at being deductively valid. One who reasons
that all squirrels like nuts, on the basis that all squirrels so far observed like nuts,
is reasoning inductively. The conclusion could be false, even though the premise
is true. Nevertheless, the premise provides considerable support for the
conclusion.
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Ethics concerns human conduct, character, and values. It studies the nature
of right and wrong and the distinction between good and evil. Ethics explores the
nature of justice and of a just society, and also one's obligations to oneself, to
others, and to society.
Ethics asks such questions as "What makes right actions right and wrong
actions wrong?" "What is good and what is bad?" and "What are the proper
values of life?" Problems arise in ethics because we often have difficulty knowing
exactly what is the right thing to do. In many cases, our obligations conflict or are
vague. In addition, people often disagree about whether a particular action or
principle is morally right or wrong.
A view called relativism maintains that what is right or wrong depends on the
particular culture concerned. What is right in one society may be wrong in another,
this view argues, and so no basic standards exist by which a culture may be judged
right or wrong. Objectivism claims that there are objective standards of right and
wrong which can be discovered and which apply to everyone. Subjectivism states
that all moral standards are subjective matters of taste or opinion.
Aesthetics deals with the creation and principles of art and beauty. It also
studies our thoughts, feelings, and attitudes when we see, hear, or read
something beautiful. Something beautiful may be a work of art, such as a
painting, symphony, or poem, or it may be a sunset or other natural phenomenon.
In addition, aesthetics investigates the experience of engaging in such activities
as painting, dancing, acting, and playing.
Aesthetics is sometimes identified with the philosophy of art, which deals with the
nature of art, the process of artistic creation, the nature of the aesthetic experience,
and the principles of criticism. But aesthetics has wider application. It involves both
works of art created by human beings and the beauty found in nature.
Aesthetics relates to ethics and political philosophy when we ask questions
about what role art and beauty should play in society and in the life of the
individual. Such questions include "How can people's taste in the arts be
improved?" "How should the arts be taught in the schools?" and "Do governments
have the right to restrict artistic expression?"
The philosophy of language has become especially important in recent
times. Some philosophers claim that all philosophic questions arise out of
linguistic problems. Others claim that all philosophic questions are really
questions about language. One key question is "What is language?" But there are
also questions about the relationships between language and thought and
between language and the world, as well as questions about the nature of
meaning and of definition.
The question has been raised whether there can be a logically perfect
language that would reflect in its categories the essential characteristics of the
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world. This question raises questions about the adequacy of ordinary language as
a philosophic tool. All such questions belong to the philosophy of language, which
has essential connections with other branches of philosophy.
a) reasoning b) inference c) argument d) premise e) to derive from
f) consequences of certain assumptions g) a just society h) particular
i) to judge j) our attitude k) engaging l) the process of artistic creation
m) to restrict artistic expression n) to arise out of linguistic problems
mortal; to provide considerable support for the conclusion; justice;
to establish matters of fact; the proper values; vague obligations;
morally wrong; squirrel; to investigate; to be identified with;
the nature of meaning and definition; the adequacy; essential
connections; to reflect; a philosophic tool; logically perfect
a) логічне міркування
b) наслідки певних припущень
c) забезпечити вагому підтримку (вагомі підстави) для висновку
d) справжні цінності
e) непевні зобов’язання
f) хибний з точки зору морально-етичних засад
g) суб’єктивний фактор
h) природні явища
i) ангажованість (активна участь; зацікавленість )
j) художня творчість
k) обмежувати художній вияв
l) виходити з лінгвістичних проблем
m) логічно досконалий
a) What is an instance of reasoning called?
b) What is conclusion?
c) What are the two basic types of reasoning?
d) Give examples of valid\ invalid deductive arguments.
e) In what way is inductive reasoning used?
f) What areas does ethics study?
g) What idea does relativism maintain?
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h) What branch is sometimes identified with the philosophy of art?
i) When do we relate aesthetics to ethics and political philosophy?
j) Why has the philosophy of language become especially important in recent times?
k) Can a logically perfect language as a philosophic tool be created?
l) How does objectivism differ from subjectivism?
Give their definitions.
9. Retell the text: a) in detail b) in brief.
11. Write 5 questions covering the basic points of the text.
Unit VI
Assignments:
Philosophy and Other Fields
One peculiarity of philosophy is that the question "What is philosophy?" is
itself a question of philosophy. But the question "What is art?" is not a question of
art. The question is philosophic. The same is true of such questions as "What is
history?" and "What is law?" Each is a question of philosophy. Such questions are
basic to the philosophy of education, the philosophy of history, the philosophy of
law, and other "philosophy of" fields. Each of these fields attempts to determine
the foundations, fundamental categories, and methods of a particular institution or
area of study. A strong relationship therefore exists between philosophy and other
fields of human activity. This relationship can be seen by examining two fields: (1)
philosophy and science and (2) philosophy and religion.
Philosophy and science. Science studies natural phenomena and the
phenomena of society. It does not study itself. When science does reflect on
itself, it becomes the philosophy of science and examines a number of
philosophic questions. These questions include "What is science?" "What is
scientific method?" "Does scientific truth provide us with the truth about the
universe and reality?" and "What is the value of science?"
Philosophy has given birth to several major fields of scientific study. Until the
1700's, no distinction was made between science and philosophy. For example,
physics was called natural philosophy. Psychology was part of what was
called moral philosophy. In the early 1800's, sociology and linguistics
separated from philosophy and became distinct areas of study. Logic has always
been considered a branch of philosophy. However, logic has now developed to
the point where it is also a branch of mathematics, which is a basic science.
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Philosophy and science differ in many respects. For example, science has
attained definite and tested knowledge of many matters and has thus resolved
disagreement about those matters. Philosophy has not. As a result, controversy
has always been characteristic of philosophy. Science and philosophy do share
one significant goal. Both seek to discover the truth--to answer questions, solve
problems, and satisfy curiosity. In the process, both science and philosophy
provoke further questions and problems, with each solution bringing more
questions and problems.
Philosophy and religion. Historically, philosophy originated in religious
questions. These questions concerned the nature and purpose of life and death
and the relationship of humanity to superhuman powers or a divine creator. Every
society has some form of religion. Most people acquire their religion from their
society as they acquire their language. Philosophy inquires into the essence of
things, and inquiry into the essence of religion is a philosophic inquiry.
Religious ideas generated some of the earliest philosophic speculations about the
nature of life and the universe. The speculations often centered on the idea of a
supernatural or superpowerful being who created the universe and who governs it
according to unchangeable laws and gives it purpose. Western philosophic tradition
has paid much attention to the possibility of demonstrating the existence of God.
The chief goal of some philosophers is not understanding and knowledge.
Instead, they try to help people endure the pain, anxiety, and suffering of earthly
existence. Such philosophers attempting to make philosophic reflection on the
nature and purpose of life perform the function of religion.
a) peculiarity
b) human activity
c)reflect
d)natural phenomena
e)distinction
f)to attain knowledge
g)significant goal
h)to concern
i)the essence of things
j)to generate speculations
k)to govern
l)earthly existence
m)pain, anxiety, and suffering
n)to perform
4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations: to
determine the foundations; a particular institution; to give birth (to); natural
philosophy; basic science; in many respects; controversy; to discover the truth; to
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originate; a divine creator; a supernatural or superpowerful being; purpose; to pay
much attention (to); to endure
a) визначити базис
b) різниця (відмінність)
c) провідна дисципліна
d) у багатьох відношеннях
e) розв’язати протиріччя
f) полеміка (розходження в думках)
g) брати початок (походити)
h) набувати (оволодівати)
i) породжувати роздуми
j) приділяти велику увагу
k) земне буття
a) What relationship exists between philosophy and other fields of human activity?
b) Is the question "What is art?" a question of art?
c) How is philosophy related to science?
d) When was a certain distinction between philosophy and science made ?
e) What was physics called?
f) What fields separated from philosophy in the early 1800's?
g) Is logic a branch of philosophy or mathematics?
h) How do philosophy and science differ?
i) What did philosophy historically originate in?
j) What did religious ideas generate?
k) What has Western philosophic tradition paid much attention to?
l) How can the chief goal of some philosophers be formulated?
Give their definitions.
9. Retell the text: a) in detail b) in brief .
17
Unit VII
Assignments:
Oriental Philosophy
There are two main traditions in Oriental philosophy, Chinese and Indian.
Both philosophies are basically religious and ethical in origin and character. They
are removed from any interest in science. Traditionally, Chinese philosophy has
been largely practical, humanistic, and social in its aims. It developed as a means
of bringing about improvements in society and politics. Traditionally, philosophy
in India has been chiefly mystical rather than political. It has been dominated by
reliance on certain sacred texts, called Vedas, which are considered inspired and
true and therefore subject only for commentary and not for criticism. Much of
Indian philosophy has emphasized withdrawal from everyday life into the life of
the spirit. Chinese philosophy typically called for efforts to participate in the life of
the state in order to improve worldly conditions.
Chinese philosophy as we know it started in the 500's B.C. with the philosopher
Confucius. His philosophy, called Confucianism, was the official philosophy of
China for centuries, though it was reinterpreted by different generations.
Confucianism aimed to help people live better and more rewarding lives by
discipline and by instruction in the proper goals of life. Candidates for government
positions had to pass examinations on Confucian thought, and Confucianism
formed the basis for government decisions. No other civilization has placed such
emphasis on philosophy. Other philosophic traditions in China were Taoism,
Mohism, and realism. Beginning in the 1100's, a movement known as Neo-
Confucianism incorporated elements of all these doctrines.
We do not know exactly when Indian philosophy began. In India, philosophic
thought was intermingled with religion, and most Indian philosophic thought has been
religious in character and aim. Philosophic commentaries on sacred texts emerge
during the 500's B.C. The Indian word for these studies is darshana, which means
vision or seeing. It corresponds to what the ancient Greeks called philosophia.
In India, as in China, people conceived of philosophy as a way of life, not as a
mere intellectual activity. The main aim of Indian philosophy was freedom from
the suffering and tension caused by the body and the senses and by attachment
to worldly things. The main philosophies developed in India were Hinduism and
Buddhism, which were also religions. Yet some Indian philosophers did develop
a complex system of logic and carried on investigations in epistemology. Some
18
Indian philosophic ideas have been influential in the West. One such idea is
reincarnation, the belief that the human soul is successively reborn in new bodies.
a) basically religious and ethical b) a means с) aim d) improvement e) reliance
f) to emphasize withdrawal from everyday life g) in order to h) to reinterpret i)
to reward j) to pass examination k) emphasis l) to intermingle m) to emerge n)
to correspond (to) o) to conceive
in origin; to bring about; sacred texts; inspired and true books;
to call for efforts; to participate in; proper goals of life; candidates for
government positions; to incorporate elements of all doctrines; mere;
to cause; attachment; reincarnation
5.Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases:
a) за походженням
b) викликати (бути причиною)
c) поліпшення (вдосконалення)
d) основа
e) священні книги
f) наголошувати на відході з повсякденного життя
g) закликати зробити зусилля
h) брати участь у чомусь
i) винагороджувати
j) претенденти на урядові посади
k) з’єднати (об’єднати) елементи всіх доктрин
l) бути змішаним (переплетеним) з чимось
m) виникати (з’являтися)
n) зрозуміти (збагнути)
o) звільнення від страждань та напруги
p) спричиняти
q) приєднання до чогось
a) What are the similar characteristic features of Chinese and Indian philosophies ?
b) What differs Indian philosophy from Chinese one ?
c) What do we call Confucianism ? [kqn'fju:SqnIz(q)m]
d) How can we characterize the unique role of philosophy in the development
of the Chinese state ?
e) Enumerate other philosophic traditions in China
f) What is “ darshana” ?
19
g) What is the main aim of Indian philosophy ?
h) Name the main philosophies developed in India
i) How did Indian philosophic ideas influence Western philosophy ?
Unit VIII
Assignments:
The History of Western Philosophy

The history of Western philosophy is commonly divided into three periods--
ancient, medieval, and modern. The period of ancient philosophy extended
from about 600 B.C. to about the A.D. 400's. Medieval philosophy lasted from
the 400's to the 1600's.
Modern philosophy covers the period from the 1600's to the present.
Ancient philosophy
Ancient philosophy was almost entirely Greek. The greatest philosophers of the
ancient world were three Greeks of the 400's and 300's B.C.--Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. Their philosophy influenced all later Western culture. Our ideas in the fields
of metaphysics, science, logic, and ethics originated from their thought. A number of
distinctive schools of philosophy also flourished in ancient Greece.
The pre-Socratics were the first Greek philosophers. Their name comes from
the fact that most of them lived before the birth of Socrates, which was about 469
B.C. The pre-Socratic philosophers were mainly interested in the nature and
source of the universe and the nature of reality. They wanted to identify the
fundamental substance that they thought underlay all phenomena, and in terms of
which all phenomena could be explained.
Unlike most other people of their time, the pre-Socratic philosophers did not
believe that gods or supernatural forces caused natural events. Instead, they
sought a natural explanation for natural phenomena. The philosophers saw the
universe as a set of connected and unified phenomena for which thought could
find an explanation. They gave many different and conflicting answers to basic
20
philosophic questions. However, the importance of the pre-Socratics lies not in
the truth of their answers but in the fact that they examined the questions in the
first place. They had no philosophic tradition to work from, but their ideas provided
a tradition for all later philosophers. Socrates left no writings, though he was
constantly engaged in philosophic discussion. Our knowledge of his ideas and
methods comes mainly from dialogues written by his disciple [dI'saIpl] Plato. In
most of the dialogues, Socrates appears as the main character, who leads and
develops the process of inquiry.
Socrates lived in Athens ['xTqnz] and taught in the streets, market place, and
gymnasiums. [dZIm'neI|zIqmz] He taught by a question-and-answer method.
Socrates tried to get a definition or precise view of some abstract idea, such as
knowledge, virtue, justice, or wisdom. He would use close, sharp questioning,
constantly asking "What do you mean?" and "How do you know?" This procedure,
called the Socratic method, became the model for philosophic methods that
emphasize debate and discussion.
Socrates wanted to replace vague opinions with clear ideas. He often questioned
important Athenians [q'Ti:nIqnz] and exposed their empty claims to knowledge and
wisdom. This practice made him many enemies, and he was put to death as a danger
to the state. He thus became a symbol of the philosopher who pursued an argument
wherever it led to arrive at the truth, no matter what the cost.
Plato believed that we cannot gain knowledge of things through our senses
because the objects of sense perception are fleeting and constantly changing.
Plato stated that we can have genuine knowledge only of changeless things, such
as truth, beauty, and goodness, which are known by the mind. He called such
things ideas or forms.
Plato taught that only ideas are real and that all other things only reflect ideas.
This view became known as idealism. According to Plato, the most important
idea is the idea of good. Knowledge of good is the object of all inquiry, a goal to
which all other things are subordinate. Plato stated that the best life is one of
contemplation of eternal truths. However, he believed people who have attained
this state must return to the world of everyday life and use their skills and
knowledge to serve humanity. Plato also believed that the soul is immortal and
that only the body perishes at death. His ideas contributed to views about the
body, soul, and eternal things later developed in Christian theology.
Aristotle, Plato's greatest pupil, wrote about almost every known subject of his
day. He invented the idea of a science and of separate sciences, each having distinct
principles and dealing with different subject matter. He wrote on such topics as
physics, astronomy, psychology, biology, physiology, and anatomy. Aristotle also
investigated what he called "first philosophy", later known as metaphysics.
21
Aristotle created the earliest philosophic system. In his philosophy, all branches of
inquiry and knowledge are parts of some overall system and connected by the same
concepts and principles. Aristotle believed that all things in nature have some
purpose. According to his philosophy , the nature of each thing is determined by its
purpose, and all things seek to fulfill their natures by carrying out these purposes.
Aristotle's basic method of inquiry consisted of starting from what we know or
think we know and then asking how, what, and why. In his metaphysics, he
developed the idea of a first cause, which was not itself caused by anything, as
the ultimate explanation of existence. Christian theologians [TIq'lqVdZ(q)n] later
adopted this idea as a basic argument for the existence of God. Aristotle taught
that everyone aims at some good. He said that happiness does not lie in pleasure
but in virtuous activity. ['vE:tSVqs] By virtuous activity, he meant behaving
according to a mean between extremes. For example, courage is the mean
between the extremes of cowardice ['kaVqdIs] and foolhardiness. The highest
happiness of all, Aristotle believed, was the contemplative use of the mind.
Stoic philosophy and Epicureanism were the two main schools of Greek
philosophy that emerged after the death of Aristotle in 322 B.C. Both schools
taught that the purpose of knowing is to enable a person to lead the best and
most contented life. Stoic philosophy was founded by Zeno of Citium. He taught
that people should spend their lives trying to cultivate virtue, the greatest
good.The Stoics believed in strict determinism--the idea that all things are fated to
be. Therefore, they said, a wise and virtuous person accepts and makes the best
of what cannot be changed. Stoicism spread to Rome. There, the chief Stoics
included the statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero, the emperor Marcus Aurelius,
and the teacher Epictetus.
Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus. Epicurus based his philosophy on
hedonism--the idea that the only good in life is pleasure. However, Epicurus
taught that not all pleasures are good. The only good pleasures are calm and
moderate ones because extreme pleasures could lead to pain. The highest
pleasures, Epicurus said, are physical health and peace of mind, two kinds of
freedom from pain.
Skepticism was a school of philosophy founded by Pyrrho of Elis about the
same time that Stoic philosophy and Epicureanism flourished. Pyrrho taught that
we can know nothing. Our senses, he said, deceive us and provide no accurate
knowledge of the way things are. Thus, all claims to knowledge are false.
Because we can know nothing, in this view, we should treat all things with
indifference and make no judgments.
Neoplatonism was a revived version of some of Plato's ideas as adapted by
Plotinus, a philosopher who may have been born in Egypt in the A.D. 200's.
Neoplatonism tried to guide the individual toward a unity--a oneness--with God,
22
which is a state of blessedness. Plotinus believed that the human soul yearns for
reunion with God, which it can achieve only in mystical experience. Neoplatonism
provided the bridge between Greek philosophy and early Christian philosophy. It
inspired the idea that important truths can be learned only through faith and God's
influence, not by reason.
a) ancient and medieval b) to underlie ["Andq'laI] (underlay; underlain)
c) in terms d) a set of connected and unified phenomena e) to provide
a tradition f) to lead and develop g) a question-and-answer method
h) vague opinions i) to expose empty claims j) sense perception
k) to gain genuine knowledge l) contemplation of eternal truths
m) disciple n) to investigate o) overall system p) to be determined by
q) virtuous activity r) mean s) courage t) contemplative use of the mind
to flourish; to identify the fundamental substance; to cause natural
events; to be engaged in philosophic discussion; virtue; to pursue
an argument; to fleet; to serve humanity; to perish at death; to fulfill ;
to carry out the purpose; first cause; ultimate explanation of existence ;
cowardice and foolhardiness; to enable a person to do smth; strict
determinism; to be fated; calm and moderate pleasures; accurate
knowledge; a revived version; a unity--a oneness--with God;
blessedness ['blesIdnIs]( eudaemonia ["ju:dI'mqVnIq] , felicity );
to yearn [jE:n] ( to long , to crave ); mystical experience;
a) повністю (цілком)
b) процвітати (розквітати)
c) визначити докорінну субстанцію (сутність)
d) лежати в основі
e) бути причиною природних явищ
f) низка (сукупність) пов’язаних та об’єднаних природних явищ
g) бути залученим до чогось
h) започаткувати спадкоємність традиції
i) вдосконалювати ( плекати ) доброчесність
j) виявити пусті амбіції
k) шукати докази
l) чуттєве сприйняття
m) відбуватися швидко
n) розмірковування про вічні істини
23
o) канути у вічність по смерті
p) послідовник (учень , спадкоємець)
q) загальна система
r) бути визначеним ( обумовленим )
s) досягти результату ( здійснити намір)
t) найдосконаліше пояснення існування
u) доброчесна діяльність
v) середина
w) боягузтво та безрозсудна хоробрість
x) надати можливість людині робити щось
y) бути передумовленим ( приреченим )
z) сприймати речі індиферентно
a) Who are considered to be the greatest philosophers of the ancient world ?
b) What can the first Greek philosophers be generally called ?
c) When was Socrates born ?
d) What are the merits and importance of the pre-Socratics ?
e) Who is the main character of Socrates’ dialogues ?
f) Who left us a written version of his dialogues ?
g) What is the Socratic method ?
h) What things can we have genuine knowledge of as Plato said ?
i) How did Plato define the object of all inquiry ?
j) Did Plato deem the soul mortal ?
k) Enumerate the merits of Aristotle in philosophy
l) What did Aristotle's basic method of inquiry consist of ?
m)What school of philosophy taught people to cultivate virtue, the greatest good?
n) Define the place of hedonism in Epicurus’ philosophy
o) Was Epicurus adherent to the extreme pleasures ?
p) Whom was scepticism founded by?
q) What is the main idea of scepticism?
r) What did neoplatonism provide?
s) What was Plotinus?
8. Look through the text and write out the key philosophical terms. Give their
definitions.
24
Unit IX
Assignments:
Medieval Philosophy.
During the Middle Ages, Western philosophy developed more as a part of
Christian theology than as an independent branch of inquiry.
The philosophy of Greece and Rome survived only in its influence on religious thought.
Saint Augustine (354-430) was the greatest philosopher of the early Middle
Ages. In a book entitled The City of God (early 400's), Augustine interpreted
human history as a conflict between faithful Christians living in the city of God and
pagans and heretics living in the city of the world. Augustine wrote that the people
of the city of God would gain eternal salvation, but the people in the city of the
world would receive eternal punishment. The book weakened the belief in the
pagan religion of Rome and helped further the spread of Christianity.
A system of thought called scholasticism dominated medieval philosophy
from about the 1100's to the 1400's.
The term scholasticism refers to the method of philosophic investigation used
by teachers of philosophy and theology in the newly developing universities of
western Europe. The teachers were called scholastics. The scholastic method
consisted in precise analysis of concepts with subtle distinctions between different
senses of these concepts. The scholastics used deductive reasoning from
principles established by their method to provide solutions to problems.
Scholasticism was basically generated by the translation of Aristotle's works
into Latin, the language of the medieval Christian church. These works presented
medieval thinkers with the problem of reconciling Aristotle's great body of
philosophic thought with the Bible and Christian doctrine. Scholasticism was a
philosophical system that emphasized the use of reason in exploring questions of
philosophy and theology. The scholastics particularly tried to prove the truth of
Christian doctrine. They also tried to reconcile contradictory viewpoints in
Christian theology.Scholasticism had its greatest influence from the 1000's to the
1400's, especially during the 1200's. Most scholastics taught in the schools and
universities of western Europe.
The scholastic method. The scholastics developed an extremely formal and
sophisticated procedure of investigating philosophical and theological questions.
The method they developed became known as the disputed question. The
disputed question started with a problem stated by the teacher. The students then
listed the arguments for and against a certain solution to the problem. Next, the
students took a position on the problem. Finally, they dealt, one by one, with the
25
arguments on all sides of the problem. Using this method, the teacher and
students tried to reach a balanced solution.
Scholastics analyzed philosophical and theological questions in books called
books of sentences. A book of sentences contained quotations or summaries of
dogma compiled from the Bible, from works by early Christian writers, and--less
often--from the works of other medieval writers. If the quotations or summaries
conflicted, the compiler tried to reconcile the conflicts by his own commentaries
based on reason.
The Four Books of Sentences (mid-1100's) by Peter Lombard became the
standard theological textbook.
Scholasticism trained its followers to consider every side of a question logically
and rationally. It also trained them to state their arguments briefly and clearly.
However, critics claimed that scholasticism relied so much on formal systems that it
became artificial and inflexible. Critics also complained that the scholastic method led
to the assumption that every problem could be solved by reasoning.
History. Scholasticism originated during the 1000's in schools operated by
cathedrals and monasteries. The writings on logic by the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle had an important early influence on scholasticism. Aristotle
had used logic to try to prove the existence of God. His approach attracted many
scholastics, especially Peter Abelard.
Scholasticism reached its high point during the 1200's in western European
universities. Many works by Aristotle that had been unknown to medieval
philosophers were translated into Latin. For the first time, scholars could study a
complete body of philosophy based on experience and reason alone. Until the
translations of Aristotle's works, medieval philosophy had been based largely on
the Bible and on writings by early Christian theologians. The scholastics tried to
reconcile Aristotle's philosophy with Christianity. They also applied his philosophy
to theological problems.
The major scholastics of the 1200's included Saint Albertus Magnus,
Alexander of Hales, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Saint
Bonaventure, and Robert Grosseteste.
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225?-1274), the most famous scholastic, developed a
philosophy that claimed to lead through reason alone to basic truths about God and the
soul. But Aquinas believed that human beings need divine revelation to fill out and
expand such knowledge. His philosophy combined Aristotle's thought with theology, and
it eventually became the official philosophy of the Roman Catholic Church.
The great contributions of the scholastics to philosophy included major
development of the philosophy of language. The scholastics studied how
features of language can affect our understanding of the world. They also
emphasized the importance of logic to philosophic inquiry.
26
In the 1300's, the scholastics John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham
rejected Aquinas' emphasis on reason. They believed that God's actions and
purposes are unpredictable and must be learned through revelation.
John Duns Scotus (1266-1308), was one of the greatest theologians and
philosophers of the Middle Ages. His ideas on God, knowledge, salvation, and the
nature of being influenced many thinkers of the late Middle Ages.
He was born in Duns, Scotland, and entered the Franciscan religious order as
a youth. His most important work was the Opus Oxoniense (Oxford Work). The
book grew out of lectures Duns Scotus presented at Oxford University on The
Four Books of Sentences, an influential medieval theological book by Peter
Lombard. Duns Scotus also produced commentaries on Aristotle's ideas on logic
and wrote Quaestiones quodlibetales (Various Disputations), which examines a
variety of controversial philosophical and theological questions.
Duns Scotus also became known for his defense of the doctrine of the
Immaculate Conception. According to this doctrine, the Virgin Mary was
conceived free of original sin. His defense contributed to its recognition, centuries
later, as an official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church.
William of Ockham (1284-1347), also spelled Occam, was an English
philosopher and theologian. He was the most influential scholastic thinker of the
1300's. His attitudes toward knowledge, logic, and scientific inquiry played a
major part in the transition from medieval to modern thought. Ockham believed
that the primary form of knowledge came from experience gained through the
senses. He based scientific knowledge on such experience and on self-evident
truths--and on logical propositions resulting from those two sources.
In his writings, Ockham stressed the Aristotelian principle that "entities must
not be multiplied beyond what is necessary". This principle became known as
Ockham's Razor. In philosophy, according to Ockham's Razor, a problem should
be stated in its basic and simplest terms. In science, the simplest theory that fits
the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected.
Ockham was born in southern England. He joined the Franciscans and
eventually became prominent in that religious order. Ockham studied at Oxford
University and then taught theology. In 1324, Pope John XXII called him to
Avignon, France, to answer charges of heresy (teaching false doctrine). Ockham
remained there four years. In 1328, he fled to the protection of Louis of Bavaria,
an enemy of the Pope.
Not once have literature and cinema referred to Ockham’s personality. In 1986
a famous film “ The Name of the Rose” directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud was
released . That was a screen version of the novel by Umberto Eco, a professor of
semiotics at the University of Bologna, who combined his interest in signs with a
concern for historical accuracy in Il nome della rosa (1980); this murder mystery,
27
set in a medieval monastery, achieved international best-sellerdom. The main
character of this book a monk-franciscan William Baskerville had the similar
features with the prominent philosopher of the Middle Ages .
Protestant universities also adopted many scholastic methods. But in the
1600's, scholasticism gradually lost its influence in many universities. Some of its
features were revived by Pope Leo XIII in 1879. Many modern Roman Catholic
thinkers reflect the influence of scholasticism.

a) faithful Christians b) pagans and heretics c) to weaken the belief
d) the spread of Christianity e) sense (meaning) f) solution
g) reconciling h) to reconcile contradictory viewpoints i) to state
j) a balanced solution. k) quotation l) artificial and inflexible
m) to apply to n) to fill out and expand o) unpredictable action
p) to be conceived free of original sin q) self-evident truths
r) to multiply entities s) to answer charges of heresy t) to flee
4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

to gain eternal salvation; to receive eternal punishment; precise analysis
subtle distinctions; body of philosophic thought; sophisticated
procedure; to take a position on smth; to rely on smth; assumption;
divine revelation; Immaculate Conception; variety [vq'raIqtI];
the transition from medieval to modern thought; proposition
 віддані християни
 язичники та єретики
 дістати вічне спасіння
 отримати вічну кару
 точний ( кропіткий ) аналіз
 ледь вловимі розбіжності
 сукупність філософських поглядів
 примирення ( приведення у відповідність , узгодження )
 витончена ( ускладнена ) методика
 формулювати ( стверджувати )
 визначати відношення до чогось
 складати ( компілювати)
 штучний та негнучкий
 скаржитись
28
 поширити
 непередбачуваний
 непорочне зачаття
 бути визнаним вільним від первинного гріху
 сприяти чомусь
 робити внесок ( сприяти )
 примножувати сутності
 бути у відповідності до фактів
 тримати відповідь за звинувачення у єресі
 рятуватись втечею
 поступово втрачати
a) How did Augustine interpret human history?
b) What does the term scholasticism refer to?
c) What does the scholastic method deal with ?
d) Under what name did scholastic method become known ?
e) What book did scholastics usually quote ?
f) What did compilers do if the Bible and Aristotle's works conflict each other?
g) What is Peter Lombard famous for?
h) How can positive and negative moments of scholasticism be defined?
i) How did Aristotle try to prove the existence of God?
j) Why did christian theologians use Aristotle's philosophy?
k) What are the major scholastics of the XIIth century?
l) Whose philosophy eventually became the official philosophy of the Roman
Catholic Church?
m) Who rejected Aquinas' emphasis on reason?
n) Who elaborated on the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception?
o) Whose attitudes made a contribution to the transition from medieval to
modern thought?
p) What does the term Ockham's Razor mean?
q) Who was the prototype of the main character in The Name of the Rose?
r) How did scholasticism further influence the religions?
8. Give all possible English equivalents of the following words.
Make use of the lexical material of the previous texts: стверджувати;
розрізняти; сприяти; методика; отримувати; дослідження; шукати; мета;
припущення; провідний; основа; щастя , блаженство; прагнути щось зробити;
бути залученим (до).
9. Look through the text and write out the key philosophical terms. Give their definitions .
29
Unit X
Assignments:
Modern Philosophy
A great cultural movement in Europe called the Renaissance overlapped the
end of the Middle Ages and formed a transition between medieval and modern
philosophy. The Renaissance began in Italy and lasted from about 1300 to about
1600. It was a time of intellectual reawakening stemming from the rediscovery of
ancient Greek and Roman culture. During the Renaissance, major advances
occurred in such sciences as astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Scholars
called humanists stressed the importance of human beings and the study of
classical literature as a guide to understanding life. Emphasis on science and on
humanism led to changes in the aims and techniques of philosophic inquiry.
Scholasticism declined, and philosophy was freed of its ties to medieval theology.
One of the earliest philosophers to support the scientific method was Francis
Bacon of England. Most historians consider Bacon and Rene Descartes of
France to be the founders of modern philosophy. Bacon wrote two influential
works, The Advancement of Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620). He
stated that knowledge was power and that knowledge could be obtained only by
the inductive method of investigation. Bacon imagined a new world of culture and
leisure that could be gained by inquiry into the laws and processes of nature. In
describing this world, he anticipated the effects of advances in science,
engineering, and technology.
Rationalism was a philosophic outlook that arose in the 1600's. The basic
idea of rationalism is that reason is superior to experience as a source of
knowledge and that the validity of sense perception must be proved from more
certain principles. The rationalists tried to determine the nature of the world and of
reality by deduction from premises themselves established as certain a priori.
They also stressed the importance of mathematical procedures. The leading
rationalists were Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.
Descartes was a mathematician as well as a philosopher. He invented
analytic geometry. Descartes's basic idea was to establish a secure foundation for
the sciences, a foundation of the sort he had found for mathematics. He was thus
much concerned with the foundations of knowledge, and he started philosophy on
30
its persistent consideration of epistemological problems. Descartes was a
mechanist--that is, he regarded all physical phenomena as connected
mechanically by laws of cause and effect. Descartes's philosophy generated the
problem of how mind and matter are related.
Spinoza constructed a system of philosophy on the model of geometry. He
attempted to derive philosophic conclusions from a few central axioms (supposedly
self-evident truths) and definitions. Spinoza did not view God as some superhuman
being who created the universe. He identified God with the universe. Spinoza was
also a mechanist, regarding everything in the universe as determined. Spinoza's main
aim was ethical. He wanted to show how people could be free, could lead reasonable
and thus satisfying lives, in a deterministic world.
Leibniz believed that the actual world is only one of many possible worlds. He
tried to show how the actual world is the best of all possible worlds in an effort to
justify the ways of God to humanity. Thus, he attempted to solve the problem of
how a perfect and all-powerful God could have created a world filled with so much
suffering and evil. Leibniz and Sir Isaac Newton, an English scientist,
independently developed calculus. Leibniz' work in mathematics anticipated the
development of symbolic logic--the use of mathematical symbols and operations
to solve problems in logic.
Empiricism emphasizes the importance of experience and sense perception
as the source and basis of knowledge. The first great empiricist was John Locke
of England in the 1600's. George Berkeley of Ireland and David Hume of
Scotland further developed empiricism in the 1700's.
Locke tried to determine the origin, extent, and certainty of human knowledge
in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). Locke argued that there
are no innate ideas--that is, ideas people are born with. He believed that when a
person is born, the mind is like a blank piece of paper. Experience is therefore the
source of all ideas and all knowledge.
Berkeley dealt with the question "If whatever a human being knows is only an
idea, how can one be sure that there is anything in the world corresponding to
that idea?" Berkeley answered that "to be is to be perceived". No object exists, he
said, unless it is perceived by some mind. Material objects are ideas in the mind
and have no independent existence.
Hume extended the theories of Locke and Berkeley to a consistent skepticism
about almost everything. He maintained that everything in the mind consists of
impressions and ideas, with ideas coming from impressions. Every idea can be traced
to and tested by some earlier impression. According to Hume, we must be able to
determine from what impression we derived an idea for that idea to have meaning. An
apparent idea that cannot be traced to an impression must be meaningless. Hume
also raised the question of how we can know that the future will be like the past--that
31
the laws of nature will continue to operate as they have. He claimed that we can only
know that events have followed certain patterns in the past. We cannot therefore be
certain that events will continue to follow those patterns.
The Age of Reason was a period of great intellectual activity that began in
the 1600's and lasted until the late 1700's. The period is also called the
Enlightenment. Philosophers of the Age of Reason stressed the use of reason,
as opposed to the reliance on authority and scriptural revelation.
For them, reason provided means of attaining the truth about the world and of
ordering human society to assure human well-being. The leading philosophers
included Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. They also included Jean
Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, and other members of a group of
French philosophers.
Locke's philosophic ideas were characteristic of the Age of Reason. Locke
sought to determine the limits of human understanding and to discover what can
be known within those limits that will serve as a guide to life and conduct. He tried
to show that people should live by the principles of toleration, liberty, and natural
rights. His Two Treatises of Government (1690) provided the philosophic base for
the Revolutionary War in America and the French Revolution in the late 1700's.
The philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a great German philosopher of the late
1700's, became the foundation for nearly all later developments in philosophy.
Kant's philosophy is called critical philosophy or transcendental philosophy.
Kant was stimulated by the skeptical philosophy of Hume to try to bring about a
synthesis of rationalism and empiricism. In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant
tried to provide a critical account of the powers and limits of human reason, to
determine what is knowable and what is unknowable. Kant concluded that reason can
provide knowledge only of things as they appear to us, never of things as they are in
themselves. Kant believed that the mind plays an active role in knowing and is not a
mere recorder of facts presented by the senses. The mind does this through basic
categories or forms of understanding, which are independent of experience and
without which our experience would not make sense. Through such categories and
the operations of the mind, working on sense experience, we can have knowledge,
but only of things that can be experienced.
Kant criticized the traditional arguments for the existence of God. He argued
that they are all in error because they make claims that go beyond the possibility
of experience and thus go beyond the powers of human reason. In his Critique of
Practical Reason (1788), Kant argued that practical reason (reason applied to
practice) can show us how we ought to act and also provides a practical reason
for believing in God, though not a proof that God exists.
Philosophy in the 1800's
32
Kant's philosophy stimulated various systems of thought in the 1800's, such
as those of G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx of Germany. Hegel developed a theory
of historical change called dialectic, in which the conflict of opposites results in
the creation of a new unity and then its opposite. Hegel's theory was transformed
by Marx into dialectical materialism. Marx believed that only material things are
real. He stated that all ideas are built on an economic base. He believed that the
dialectic of conflict between capitalists and industrial workers will lead to the
establishment of communism, which he called socialism, as an economic and
political system.
Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, was an atheist who proclaimed
in Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-1885) that "God is dead."
Nietzsche meant that the idea of God had lost the power to motivate and
discipline large masses of people. He believed that people would have to look to
some other idea to guide their lives. Nietzsche predicted the evolution of the
superman, who would be beyond the weakness of human beings and beyond the
merely human appeals to morality.
He regarded such appeals as appeals to weakness, not strength. He felt that all
behavior is based on the will to power--the desire of people to control others and their own
passions. The superman would develop a new kind of perfection and excellence through
the capacity to realize the will to power through strength, rather than weakness.
The dominant philosophy in England during the 1800's was utilitarianism,
developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The utilitarians maintained
that the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people is the test of right
and wrong. They argued that all existing social institutions, especially law and
government, must be transformed to satisfy the test of greatest happiness. In The
Subjection of Women (1869), Mill wrote that the legal subordination of women to
men ought to be replaced by "a principle of perfect equality". That idea was
revolutionary in Mill's time.
Philosophy in the 1900's has seen five main movements predominate. Two of
these movements, existentialism and phenomenology, have had their greatest
influence in the countries on the mainland of western Europe. The three other
movements, pragmatism, logical positivism, and philosophical analysis, have
been influential chiefly in the United States and Great Britain.
Existentialism became influential in the mid-1900's. World War II (1939-1945)
gave rise to widespread feelings of despair and of separation from the established
order. These feelings led to the idea that people have to create their own values in a
world in which traditional values no longer govern. Existentialism insists that choices
have to be made arbitrarily by individuals, who thus create themselves, because there
are no objective standards to determine choice. The most famous of the existentialist
philosophers is the French author Jean-Paul Sartre.
33
Phenomenology was developed by the German philosopher Edmund
Husserl. Husserl conceived the task of phenomenology, hence the task of
philosophy, as describing phenomena--the objects of experience--accurately and
independently of all assumptions derived from science. He thought that this
activity would provide philosophic knowledge of reality.
Pragmatism, represented in the 1900's by William James and John Dewey
of the United States, maintains knowledge is subordinate to action. The meaning
and truth of ideas are determined by their relation to practice.
Logical positivism, developed in Vienna, Austria, in the 1920's, believes
philosophy should analyze the logic of the language of science. It regards science
as the only source of knowledge and claims metaphysics is meaningless. It bases
this claim on the principle of verifiability, by which a statement is meaningful only
if it can be verified by sense experience.
Logical positivism, based on modern developments in logic and an empiricism
like Hume’s, was the joint result of English thinkers like Russell and an Austrian
group called the Vienna circle, whose most influential member, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, had been a student of Russell’s at Cambridge. The English and
Austrian positivists and linguistic philosophers challenged any form of
metaphysical thinking and insisted that something could be said to be true if (and
only if) it could be verified by logical or scientific procedures. No metaphysical
claim, they insisted, could meet this test.
Philosophical analysis generally tries to solve philosophic problems through
analysis of language or concepts.Some versions of this philosophy attempt to
show that traditional philosophic problems dissolve--that is, disappear--on proper
analysis of the terms in which they are expressed. Other versions use linguistic
analysis to throw light on, not dissolve, traditional philosophic problems. The most
influential philosophers practicing philosophic analysis have been Bertrand
Russell of England and Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was born in Austria but
studied and taught in England.

a)to overlap b)to stem from c) major advances occur d)to be freed of ties e) to
anticipate the effects f) the validity of sense perception g) laws of cause and effect
h)supposedly [sq'pqVzIdlI] i) suffering and evil j) calculus ['kxlkjVlqs] k)extent l) innate
ideas m)to trace n) certain patterns o) to assure human well-being p) to bring about a
synthesis of rationalism and empiricism q)to experience r)to predict s) a new kind of
perfection and excellence t) capacity(ability,faculty) u) feelings of despair and of separation
v) traditional values no longer govern w) the principle of verifiability ["verIfaIq'bIlItI]
renaissance [rI'neIs(q)ns]; intellectual reawakening; to stress; the advancement of
34
learning; a new world of culture and leisure ;premise; a secure foundation; persistent
consideration; to derive; to justify the ways of God to humanity; to be perceived; a
consistent skepticism; an apparent idea; scriptural ['skrIptS(q)rql] revelation ;the
principles of toleration; a critical account; atheist ['eITIIst]; to motivate and discipline
['dIsIplIn]; the subjection of smb; arbitrarily ['Q:bItrqrIlI]; to challenge any form of
metaphysical thinking
 частково збігатись(перекривати)
 походити (виникати)
 робити наголос
 звільнитися від зв’язків (тягаря)
 поширення освіти
 передчувати (передбачати) наслідки
 світогляд
 дійсність (чинність,обгрунтованість) чуттєвого сприйняття
 передумова
 надійний базис(основа)
 постійна(наполеглива) увага
 дослідити походження
 приблизно(ймовірно)
 страждання та лихо
 числення
 межі(обсяг)
 природжені ідеї (цебто такі , що не можуть бути віднайдені у досвіді)
 бути усвідомленим
 послідовний(логічно виважений) скептицизм
 простежувати
 певні моделі(схеми)
 доба Просвітництва(Просвіти)
 біблейське откровення
 академічний трактат(монографія)
 стимулювати
 критична оцінка(розмірковування)
 випробувати досвідом
 мотивувати
 здібність, природжена можливість, хист, схильність
 залежність від когось
 почуття відчаю та відокремленості
35
 довільно (випадково, свавільно)
 можливість здійснення контролю
 заперечувати(піддавати сумніву)

1.What did the humanists put emphasis on ?
2.How did the Renaissance influence the Middle Ages ?
3.Who are considered to be the founders of modern philosophy ?
4.What is Francis Bacon famous for ?
5.What is the basic idea of rationalism ?
6.What did Descartes invent ?
7.Was Gottfried Leibniz a rationalist ?
8.How did Descartes regard all physical phenomena ?
9.What was Spinoza's main aim ?
10.Characterize Leibniz' work in mathematics and philosophy.
11.What is symbolic logic ?
12.What is Locke’s outlook about inborn ideas ?
13.How did Berkeley estimate material objects ?
14.What idea is thought to be meaningless according to Hume ?
15.Define characteristic features of the Enlightenment.
16.Whose philosophic ideas were characteristic of the Age of Reason ?
17.What subdivision of things did Kant make ?
18.Does pure reason differ from practical reason ?
19.What’s the role of the mind according to Kant’s points of view ?
20.Whose theory did Marx transform ?
21.What idea did Nietzsche proclaim ?
22.What did utilitarians insist on ?
23.Name the cause of existentialism appearance ?
24.What movements predominated in philosophy in the 19th century ?
25.What place has logical positivism allocated for language ?
26.What is said to be true as logical positivism proclaims ?
27.What unites logical positivism and philosophical analysis ?
8. Give all possible English equivalents (synonyms) of the following words. Make
use of the lexical material of the previous texts: відбуватись; виникати; світогляд;
відкривати; піклуватися; розглядати; приблизно (ймовірно); досліджувати;
розмірковувати межі; прогнозувати (пророчити); здібність (можливість);
заперечити (піддавати сумніву)
36
(compiled from World Book™ Millennium Encyclopedia. IBM. 1999. All rights
reserved.)
Problematic Revision Questions

To The Whole Textual Material
Who are considered the cofounders of modern philosophy?
How do mechanism and teleology differ?
Who were the scholastics?
Which branch of philosophy concerns human knowledge?
What is a priori knowledge? Empirical knowledge?
How did traditional Chinese and Indian philosophy differ?
What were the main philosophic movements in the 1900's?
How do a society's philosophic ideas influence education?
In Friedrich Nietzsche's thought, who was the superman?
What is the Socratic method?
Terms Used in Philosophy

Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that studies art and beauty.
Albigenses, ["xlbI'dZensi:z] religious sect of France (12th–13th cent.), whose
beliefs were similar in many ways to manichaeism. They were Christian heretics
who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter was evil
and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and enthusiastic, they
persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a papal legate led Innocent III
to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade, which was soon redirected toward
political ends. In 1233 the Inquisition was formed to halt Albigensianism, and
slowly over 100 years the movement died.
Baptism 1.A religious sacrament marked by the symbolic use of water and
resulting in admission of the recipient into the community of Christians.2.A
ceremony, a trial, or an experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a
name.3. A submergence in Spirit or purification by Spirit.
37
Conceptualism 1. The doctrine, intermediate between nominalism and
realism, that universals exist only within the mind and have no external or
substantial reality. 2. A school of abstract art or an artistic doctrine that is
concerned with the intellectual engagement of the viewer through conveyance of
an idea and negation of the importance of the art object itself.
Cosmology is the study of the physical universe.
Determinism is the doctrine that all events have causes and occur by necessity.
Dialectic in the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel is a process of change brought
about by the conflict of opposites. This conflict creates a new unity, called a
synthesis. The synthesis, in turn, comes into conflict with its opposite.
Dialectical materialism, official philosophy of Communism, based on the works
of Karl Marx and his followers. A reversal of Hegel's dialectical Idealism, it holds that
everything is material and that human beings create social life solely in response to
economic needs. Thus all aspects of society are considered to reflect the economic
structure, and classes in society are determined by their relationship to the means of
production. Growth, change, and development take place through a naturally
occurring “struggle of opposites,” a process that individuals cannot influence.
Application of these principles to the study of history and sociology is called historical
materialism, an approach having many non-Communist advocates.
Dominicans, Roman Catholic religious order, officially named the Order of
Preachers (O.P.). Founded (1216) by St. Dominic, the order preached against the
heresy of the Albigenses and produced many eminent theologians, notably St.
Thomas Aquinas. Members are accepted not into a specific house, but into the
whole order, and wear a white habit with a black mantle (worn when preaching).
There is a contemplative order of nuns and a widespread third order, including
many teachers.
Donatism a rigorist, schismatic Christian sect, strongly opposed by Saint
Augustine, that arose in North Africa in the fourth century A.D. and believed in
sanctity as requisite for church membership and administration of all sacraments.
Dualism in philosophy and theology, system that explains all phenomena in
terms of two distinct and irreducible principles, e.g., ideas and matter (as in Plato,
Aristotle, and modern metaphysics) or mind and matter (as in psychology). In
theology the term refers to a concept of opposing principles, e.g., good and evil.
See also Monism.
Empiricism is the view that experience is the source and test of knowledge.
Enlightenment, term for the rationalist, liberal, humanitarian, and scientific
trend of 18th-cent. Western thought; the period is also sometimes known as the
Age of Reason. The enormous scientific and intellectual advancements made in
the 17th cent. by the empiricism of Francis Bacon and Locke, as well as by
Descartes, Spinoza, and others, fostered the belief in natural law and universal
38
order, promoted a scientific approach to political and social issues, and gave rise
to a sense of human progress and belief in the state as its rational instrument.
Epicureanism is the belief that pleasure should be the goal of human activity but
that true pleasure depends on self-control, moderation, and honorable behavior.
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, basis, and
extent of knowledge.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies human conduct and the nature
of right and wrong.
Eucharist ['ju:kqrIst] 1.a. A sacrament and the central act of worship in many
Christian churches, which was instituted at the Last Supper and in which bread
and wine are consecrated and consumed in remembrance of Jesus's death;
Communion. b. The consecrated elements of this rite; Communion.2.Christian
Science. Spiritual communion with God.
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation
of the individual experience in a hostile or indifferent universe, regards human
existence as unexplainable, and stresses freedom of choice and responsibility for
the consequences of one's acts.
Functionalism 1.The doctrine that the function of an object should determine
its design and materials.2.A doctrine stressing purpose, practicality, and utility.
Franciscans, members of several Roman Catholic religious orders following
the rule (approved 1223) of St. Francis of Assisi (Italy).
The son of a wealthy merchant, he underwent a conversion at age 22 and
became markedly devout and ascetic. In 1209 he began to preach and was given
permission by Pope Innocent III to form an order of friars. The friars traveled about
Italy and soon began preaching in foreign countries, including (1219–20) the Holy
Land. In 1221 Francis gave up command of the order, and in 1224 he became the
first known person to receive the stigmata (wounds corresponding to those of the
crucified Jesus). Francis exemplified humility, love of poverty, and joyous religious
fervor; he is also associated with a simple love of nature and humanity and is often
depicted preaching to birds. Franciscans are educators and missionaries.
Hedonism is the belief that the pleasure is the highest good.
Historical materialism is a major tenet in the Marxist theory of history that
regards material economic forces as the base on which sociopolitical institutions
and ideas are built.
Humanism is a philosophy that stresses the importance of human beings and
their nature and place in the universe.
Idealism is the belief that fundamental reality is made up of minds and ideas,
not of material objects. Idealists believe that the existence of objects depends on
minds and ideas.
39
Inquisition , tribunal of the Roman Catholic Church formed to suppress
heresy. In 1233 Pope Gregory IX established the papal Inquisition to combat the
heresy of the Albigenses.
Logic is the branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of reasoning.
Logical positivism, also known as scientific empiricism, modern school of
philosophy that in the 1920s attempted to introduce the methodology and precision of
mathematics to the study of philosophy, much as had been done in symbolic logic
Manichaeism (Manichaeanism) ['mxnIki:Iz(q)m] 1.The syncretic, dualistic
religious philosophy taught by the Persian prophet Manes, combining elements of
Zoroastrian, Christian, and Gnostic thought and opposed by the imperial Roman
government, Neo-Platonist philosophers, and orthodox Christians. 2.A dualistic
philosophy dividing the world between good and evil principles or regarding
matter as intrinsically evil and mind as intrinsically good.
Materialism is a belief that only matter has real existence and that mental
phenomena are produced by the activity of matter.
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that seeks to understand the nature
of being and reality.
Monism 1.The view in metaphysics that reality is a unified whole and that all
existing things can be ascribed to or described by a single concept or
system.2.The doctrine that mind and matter are formed, or reducible to, the same
ultimate substance or principle of being. In metaphysics, term applied from the
18th cent. to any theory that explains phenomena by one unifying principle or as
the manifestation of a single substance, variously identified as spirit or mind (e.g.,
Hegel), energy, or an all-pervasive deity (e.g., Spinoza). The opposites of monism
are pluralism, the explanation of the universe in terms of many principles or
substances, and dualism.
Nominalism is the doctrine holding that abstract concepts, general terms, or
universals have no objective reference but exist only as names; theory holding
that universal words (nomina) or concepts have no objective reality outside the
mind, and that only individual things and events exist objectively. The theory,
contrasted to Platonic idealism and, in the Middle Ages, to realism, is appropriate
to materialism and empiricism.
Parsimony is unusual or excessive frugality; extreme economy or stinginess.
Adoption of the simplest assumption in the formulation of a theory or in the
interpretation of data, especially in accordance with the rule of Ockham's razor.
Pelagianism – the theological doctrine propounded by Pelagius, a British
monk, and condemned as heresy by the Roman Catholic Church in A.D. 416. It
denied original sin and affirmed the ability of human beings to be righteous by the
exercise of free will.
40
Phenomenology, modern school of philosophy founded by Edmund Husserl,
who attempted to develop a philosophical method devoid of presuppositions by
focusing purely on phenomena and elucidating their meaning through intuition.
Anything that cannot be perceived, and thus is not immediately given to the
consciousness, is excluded. The influence of phenomenology was strong,
especially on existentialism.
Pluralism 1. The condition of being plural. 2. A condition of society in which
numerous distinct ethnic, religious, or cultural groups coexist within one nation. 3.
Ecclesiastical. The holding by one person of two or more positions or offices,
especially two or more ecclesiastical benefices, at the same time. 4. Philosophy
a. The doctrine that reality is composed of many ultimate substances. b. The
belief that no single explanatory system or view of reality can account for all the
phenomena of life.
Positivism – a system of thought opposed to metaphysics and maintaining that
the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena experienced. Its basic
tenets are contained in the works of Francis Bacon, George Berkeley, and Hume.
Pragmatism is a philosophy that tests the truth and value of ideas by their
practical consequences.
Protestantism, form of Christian faith and practice that originated with the
principles of the Reformation. The term, used in many senses, applies to
Christians not belonging to the Roman Catholic Church or to an Orthodox Eastern
church. Two distinct branches of Protestantism grew out of the Reformation. The
evangelical churches of Scandinavia and Germany were followers of Martin
Luther, and the reformed churches in other countries were followers of John
Calvin and Huldreich Zwingli. A third major branch, episcopacy, developed in
England, but since the Oxford Movement in the 19th cent. many Anglicans reject
the term because they tend to agree with Roman Catholicism on most doctrinal
points except the primacy of the pope.
Psychology, the study of human behavior, focusing on such questions as
individual perceptions of the world and self, recall of events and ideas, problem
solving, use of language and other mental tasks,group interaction, adjustment to
social and physical environment, and the normal and abnormal development of
these processes from infancy to old age. The two most widely used techniques
for studying behavior are observations of the behavior of animals and humans
and experimental studies of the effects of environmental changes on behavior.
Rationalism is the theory that knowledge can be derived from reason by
itself, independent of the senses.
Realism is the doctrine that things exist in and of themselves,independent of
ideas that people may have about them. In medieval philosophy, realism was the
position that universals or general concepts have existence independent of both
41
the human mind and individual objects. It is a position directly opposite to
nominalism. In epistemology, realism represents the theory that individual things
exist independently of the mind's perception of them, as opposed to idealism,
which holds that reality exists only in the mind.
Sacrament 1.A visible form of invisible grace, especially: a. In the Eastern,
Roman Catholic, and some other Western Christian churches, any of the
traditional seven rites that were instituted by Jesus and recorded in the New
Testament and that confer sanctifying grace. b. In most other Western Christian
churches, the two rites, Baptism and the Eucharist, that were instituted by Jesus
to confer sanctifying grace. 2. a. The Eucharist. b. The consecrated elements of
the Eucharist, especially the bread or host.
Scholasticism 1.The dominant western Christian theological and philosophical
school of the Middle Ages, based on the authority of the Latin Fathers and of Aristotle
and his commentators. 2.Close adherence to the methods, traditions, and teachings of a
sect or school. 3.Scholarly conservatism or pedantry.
Skepticism is a philosophy that claims we can never have real knowledge of
anything.
Social contract, agreement by which human beings are said to have abandoned
the “state of nature” in order to form the society in which they now live. Hobbes,
Locke, and Rousseau each developed differing versions of the social contract, but all
agreed that certain freedoms had been surrendered for society's protection and that
the government has definite responsibilities to its citizens.
Stoicism, school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium c.300 B.C.
Influenced by Socratic ideals and by the thought of Heraclitus, Aristotle, and
Plato, the Stoics held that all reality is material but is shaped by a universal
working force (God) that pervades everything. Only by putting aside passion,
unjust thoughts, and indulgence, and by performing one's duty with the right
disposition can a person live consistently with nature and thus achieve true
freedom. The school was especially well received in the Roman world; Cicero,
Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius were all Stoics.
Syllogism, in logic, a mode of argument that forms the core of the body of
Western logical thought, consisting of a sequence of three propositions such that
the first two imply the conclusion. Aristotle's formulations of syllogistic logic held
sway in the Western world for over 2,000 years.
Symbolic logic – a treatment of formal logic in which a system of symbols is
used to represent quantities and relationships. Also called mathematical logic.
Utilitarianism is the belief that human conduct should be based on what
produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
42
Voluntarism 1.The use of or reliance on voluntary action to maintain an
institution, carry out a policy, or achieve an end.2.A theory or doctrine that
regards the will as the fundamental principle of the individual or of the universe.
BIOGRAPHIES IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. (UNITS VII –

X)
MATERIAL FOR RENDERING AND DISCUSSION
I. Study the texts and retell them.
II. Render biographies in Ukrainian.
III. Put all types of questions to each text.
Confucius (551-479 B.C.) was the most influential and respected philosopher
in Chinese history. From about 100 B.C. to the revolution of 1911, the ideas of
Confucius served as the single strongest influence on Chinese society. These
ideas, which are called Confucianism, stress the need to develop moral character
and responsibility.
Chinese governments made Confucius' teachings the official state philosophy.
Millions of people in China--and in such nearby countries as Japan, Korea, and
Vietnam--honored Confucius in much the same way as other peoples honor
founders of religions.
Confucius was born in the duchy of Lu, in what is now Shandong Province,
China. His real name was Kong Qiu. The name Confucius is a Latin form of the
title Kongfuzi, which means Great Master Kong. Confucius' parents died when he
was a child. He failed in an attempt to become an adviser to a wise ruler.
Confucius had wanted the position so he could put into practice his ideas for
reforming society. Confucius received some minor official appointments, but at his
death he was largely unknown in China. His disciples spread his teachings.
No book definitely written by Confucius exists. His disciples recorded his
conversations and sayings in a book called The Analects.
Confucianism is a philosophy based on the ideas of the Chinese philosopher
Confucius. It originated about 500 B.C. From the 100's B.C. to the A.D. 1900's,
Confucianism was the most important single force in Chinese life. It influenced Chinese
education, government, and personal behavior and the individual's duty to society.
Many people consider Confucianism a religion. But Confucianism has no
clergy and does not teach the worship of a God or gods or the existence of a life
43
after death. Confucianism can more accurately be considered a guide to morality
and good government.
Early Confucianism. Confucius was born about 551 B.C. At that time,
constant warfare raged among the many states that made up China. Rapid
political change altered the structure of Chinese society, and large numbers of
people no longer respected the established standards of social behavior.
Confucius feared that this threat to orderly social life would lead to the destruction
of civilization.
Confucius believed his society could be saved if it emphasized sincerity in
personal and public conduct. The key to orderly social life was the gentleman.
Confucius defined a gentleman not as a person of noble birth, but as one of good
moral character. A gentleman was truly reverent in worship and sincerely
respected his father and his ruler. He was expected to think for himself, guided by
definite rules of conduct. Confucius included many of these rules in sayings. For
example, Confucius taught a version of the golden rule--"What you do not wish for
yourself, do not do to others". A gentleman also studied constantly and practiced
self-examination. He took, as Confucius said, "as much trouble to discover what
was right as lesser men take to discover what will pay."
Confucius believed that when gentlemen were rulers, their moral example would
inspire those beneath them to lead good lives. Virtuous behavior by rulers, he declared,
had a greater effect in governing than did laws and codes of punishment.
When Confucius died about 479 B.C., he was largely unknown. His followers
spread his ideas. The most important early Confucian philosophers were Mencius
(390-305 B.C.) and Xunzi (mid-200's B.C.). Mencius believed people were born
good. He stressed the need to preserve "the natural compassion of the heart" that
makes people human. Mencius emphasized the past as an ideal age and a model
for examining present problems. In contrast, Xunzi believed people could be good
and live together peacefully only if their minds were shaped by education and
clear rules of conduct.
By about 200 B.C., the first large, unified Chinese empire had begun. The
rulers approved of Confucianism's emphasis on public service and respect for
authority. In 124 B.C., the government established the Imperial University to
educate future government officials in Confucian ideals. The university based its
teachings on five books of Confucian thought called the Five Classics. Mastery of
the Classics became proof of moral fitness and the chief sign of a gentleman.
Later Confucianism. The early Confucianists concerned themselves primarily
with the needs of society. However, ideas from Taoism and other philosophies helped
shift the emphasis to additional areas of human experience. For example, a person's
ability to live in harmony with nature was a minor issue to Confucius. But it became an
important theme in Confucian thought during the 200's and 100's B.C.
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From about A.D. 200 to 600, interest in Confucianism declined in China. Many
Chinese turned instead to Buddhism and Taoism. These religions dealt with
problems that the teachings of Confucianism largely ignored, such as the
meaning of suffering and death.
A revival of interest in Confucius' philosophy began in the 600's. By the 700's,
candidates for government jobs had to take a civil service examination based on
Confucian ideas. The examination carried out Confucius' belief that an enduring
state must be built on the merit of its rulers' advisers.
Zhu Xi (1130-1200) became a leader of a movement called Neo-
Confucianism. Zhu developed a branch of Neo-Confucianism called the rational
wing. It emphasized study and investigation of Li, the pattern behind human and
natural relationships. Scholars led by Wang Yangming (1472-1529) developed
the intuitional wing of Neo-Confucianism. They sought enlightenment by a
combination of meditation and moral action.
Confucianism continued to actively influence Chinese life until it came into
conflict with European ideas, especially Communism, in the 1900's. For many
years, the Chinese Communist government opposed Confucianism because the
philosophy encouraged people to look to the past rather than to the future.
However, official opposition ended in 1977.
Socrates (about 470-399 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher and teacher.
Socrates was one of the most original, influential, and controversial figures in
ancient Greek philosophy and in the history of Western thought.
Before Socrates, Greek philosophy focused on the nature and origin of the
universe. He redirected philosophy toward a consideration of moral problems and
how people should best live their lives. Socrates urged his fellow Greeks to
consider as the most important things in life the moral character of their souls and
the search for knowledge of moral ideas like justice. He was credited with saying
"the unexamined life is not worth living." Socrates's teachings, combined with his
noble life and calm acceptance of death, have made him the model of what it is to
be a philosopher.
The Socratic problem. Because Socrates wrote nothing, our only knowledge
of his ideas comes from other Greek writers. The most important sources are the
dialogues written by one of his followers, Plato. Also important are the writings of
the historian Xenophon; the comedy Clouds, by the playwright Aristophanes; and
writings of Plato's pupil Aristotle. The difficulty of determining the character and
beliefs of Socrates based on these sources is referred to as "the Socratic
problem". The most common understanding of Socrates comes from Plato's
dialogues, which communicate the force of Socrates's intellect and character.
Plato's Apology of Socrates is regarded as a reliable representation of Socrates's
defense of his life at his trial.
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Socrates's life. Socrates was born near Athens, and spent most of his life in
Athens. His wife, Xanthippe, was supposedly ill-tempered. They had three sons.
Socrates spent most of his time in conversations with a wide range of Athenians,
but mostly with young men. Plato distinguished Socrates from the professional
teachers of the day, who were called Sophists. Plato emphasized that Socrates
did not accept money from his listeners. As a result, Socrates was very poor.
Socrates was famous for his self-control and also for his indifference to physical
comfort. Supposedly, he once stood in one spot for a day and night puzzling over
a philosophical problem.
Many Athenians were annoyed by Socrates's constant examination of their
moral assumptions. Plato showed Socrates engaging leading Athenian citizens in
conversation. They entered the conversations believing that they knew the nature
of such virtues as piety or courage. But Socrates soon showed them that their
beliefs were contradictory or confused. He also criticized some assumptions of
the Athenian democratic system. Hostility arose in Athens toward Socrates. At the
age of 70, Socrates was brought to trial and charged with "not believing in the
gods the state believes in, and introducing different new divine powers; and also
for corrupting the young". Socrates was convicted and sentenced to death. He
could have escaped from prison, but he felt morally obligated to follow the court's
decision, even if it was unjust. His arguments for his action are recorded in Plato's
Crito. Plato's Phaedo describes Socrates's calm in the face of death and his
drinking of the poison, hemlock, which the Athenians used for the death penalty.
Although Socrates's conviction was unjust, there was some truth to the
charges against him. Socrates apparently observed the religious rites of Athens
and believed in divine power. But Plato's Euthyphro indicates that Socrates would
not accept stories that showed the gods acting immorally. Socrates also claimed
to have received a "divine sign" that kept him from committing immoral actions.
Also, his repeated demonstration of the weak reasoning behind most people's
moral beliefs could be seen as teaching the young to reject the morals accepted
by society. In fact, Socrates's ultimate goal was to encourage people to devote
their lives to considering how to live morally.
The Socratic method. As a philosopher, Socrates is more important for his
philosophical methods than for any specific doctrine. The dialogue form was probably
invented by Plato to portray the Socratic method or dialectic. The method consisted of
asking questions like "What is courage?" of people who were confident of the answer.
Socrates, claiming ignorance of the answers to the questions, would gradually show
the people's beliefs to be contradictory. Socrates did not answer his questions, though
much could be learned from the course of the discussion.
Socrates was the first philosopher to make a clear distinction between body
and soul and to place higher value on the soul. His examination of such moral
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ideas as piety and courage represent an important first attempt to arrive at
universal definitions of terms. He believed that a person must have a knowledge
of moral ideas to act morally.
Plato, (427-347 B.C.), was a philosopher and educator of ancient Greece. He was
one of the most important thinkers and writers in the history of Western culture.
Plato's life
Plato was born in Athens. His family was one of the oldest and most
distinguished in the city. His mother, Perictione, was related to the great Athenian
lawmaker Solon. His father, Ariston, died when Plato was a child. Perictione
married her uncle, Pyrilampes, and Plato was raised in his house. Pyrilampes had
been a close friend and supporter of Pericles, the statesman who brilliantly led
Athens in the mid-400's B.C.
As a young man, Plato wanted to become a politician. In 404 B.C., a group of
wealthy men, including two of Plato's relatives--his cousin Critias and his uncle
Charmides--established themselves as dictators in Athens. They invited Plato to
join them. However, Plato refused the offer because he was disgusted by the
group's cruel and unethical practices. In 403 B.C., the Athenians deposed the
dictators and established a democracy. Plato reconsidered entering politics. But
he was again repelled when his friend, the philosopher Socrates, was brought to
trial and sentenced to death in 399 B.C. Deeply disillusioned, Plato left Athens
and traveled for a number of years.
In 387 B.C., Plato returned to Athens and founded a school of philosophy and
science that became known as the Academy. The school stood in a grove of trees
that, according to legend, was once owned by a Greek hero named Academus.
Some scholars consider the Academy to have been the first university. Such
subjects as astronomy, biological sciences, mathematics, and political science
were investigated there. Except for two trips to the city of Syracuse in Sicily in the
360's B.C., Plato lived in Athens and headed the Academy for the rest of his life.
His most distinguished pupil at the Academy was the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Plato's writings
The dialogues. Plato wrote in a literary form called the dialogue. A dialogue is
a conversation between two or more people. Plato's dialogues are actually
dramas that are primarily concerned with the presentation, criticism, and conflict
of philosophical ideas. The characters in his dialogues discuss philosophical
problems and often argue the opposing sides of an issue. Plato achieved a
dramatic quality through the interaction of the personalities and views of his
characters. These dramas of ideas have much literary merit. Many scholars
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consider Plato the greatest prose writer in the Greek language--and one of the
greatest in any language.
Plato's better-known dialogues include The Apology, Cratylus, Crito, Euthyphro,
Gorgias, The Laws, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Protagoras, The
Republic, The Sophist, The Symposium, Theaetetus, and Timaeus. A complete
edition of Plato's works, collected in ancient times, consists of 36 works--35 dialogues
and a group of letters. Scholars today generally agree that about 30 of the dialogues
and several of the letters were actually written by Plato. Scholars have also
determined to a great extent the order in which the dialogues were written. Thus,
Plato's development as a writer and thinker can be traced.
The early dialogues are dominated by Socrates, who appears as a major
figure in each. These dialogues include Charmides, Euthyphro, Ion, and Laches.
In these dialogues, Socrates questions people who claim to know or understand
something about which Socrates claims to be ignorant. Typically, Socrates shows
that the other people do not know what they claim to know. Socrates does not
provide answers to the questions. He shows only that the answers proposed by
the other characters are inadequate. Most scholars consider these so-called
Socratic dialogues to be fairly accurate portrayals of the actual philosophic style
and views of Socrates. See SOCRATES (The Socratic method).
The later dialogues. In the later dialogues, Plato uses the character of Socrates
merely as his spokesman. These dialogues include The Republic, The Sophist, and
Theaetetus. In these works, Socrates criticizes the views of others and presents
complex philosophical theories. Thus, the later dialogues offer more complete and
positive answers to questions being considered than do the early dialogues. But they
lack much of the dramatic and literary quality of the earlier writings.
Plato's philosophy
The theory of forms. Many of Plato's dialogues try to identify the nature or
essence of some philosophically important notion by defining it. The Euthyphro
revolves around a discussion and debate of the question, "What is piety?" The
central question of The Republic is, "What is justice?" The Theaetetus tries to
define knowledge. The Charmides is concerned with moderation, and the Laches
discusses valor. Plato denied that a notion, such as piety (reverence), could be
defined simply by offering examples of it. Plato required a definition of a notion to
express what is true of, and common to, all instances of that notion.
Plato was interested in how we can apply a single word or concept to many
different things. For example, how can the word table be used for all the individual
objects that are tables? Plato answered that various things can be called by the
same name because they have something in common. He called this common
factor the thing's form or idea.
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According to Plato, the real nature of any individual thing depends on the form
in which it "participates". For example, a certain object is a triangle because it
participates in the form of triangularity. A particular table is what it is because it
participates in the form of the table.
Plato insisted that the forms differ greatly from the ordinary things that we see
around us. Ordinary things change, but their forms do not. A particular triangle
may be altered in size or shape, but the form of triangularity can never change. In
addition, individual things only imperfectly approximate their forms, which remain
unattainable models of perfection. Circular objects or beautiful objects are never
perfectly circular or perfectly beautiful. The only perfectly circular thing is the form
of circularity itself, and the only perfectly beautiful thing is the form of beauty.
Plato concluded that these unchanging and perfect forms cannot be part of the
everyday world, which is changing and imperfect. Forms exist neither in space nor
time. They can be known only by the intellect, not by the senses. Because of their
stability and perfection, the forms have greater reality than ordinary objects observed
by the senses. Thus, true knowledge is the knowledge of forms. These central
doctrines of Plato's philosophy are called his theory of forms or theory of ideas.
Ethics. Plato based his ethical theory on the proposition that all people desire
happiness. Of course, people sometimes act in ways that do not produce
happiness. But they do this only because they do not know what actions will
produce happiness. Plato further claimed that happiness is the natural
consequence of a healthy state of the soul. Because moral virtue makes up the
health of the soul, all people should desire to be virtuous. Plato said that people
sometimes do not seek to be virtuous, but only because they do not realize that
virtue produces happiness.
Thus, for Plato, the basic problem of ethics is a problem of knowledge. If a
person knows that moral virtue leads to happiness, he or she naturally acts
virtuously. Plato differed from many Christian philosophers who have tended to
view the basic problem of ethics as a problem of the will. These philosophers
argue that often people know what is morally right, but face their greatest problem
in willing to do it.
Plato argued that it is worse to commit an injustice than to suffer one, because
immoral behavior is the symptom of a diseased soul. It is also worse for a person
who commits an injustice to go unpunished than to be punished, because
punishment helps cure this most serious of all diseases.
Psychology and politics. Plato's political philosophy, like his ethics, was
based on his theory of the human soul. He argued that the soul is divided into
three parts: (1) the rational part, or intellect; (2) the spirited part, or will; and (3)
appetite or desire. Plato argued that we know the soul has these parts because
they occasionally conflict with each other. For example, a person may desire
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something but fight this desire with the power of the will. In a properly functioning
soul, the intellect--the highest part--should control the appetite--the lowest part--
with the aid of the will.
Plato described the ideal state or society in The Republic. Plato wrote that,
like the soul, this state or society has three parts or classes: (1) the philosopher
kings, who govern the society; (2) the guardians, who keep order and defend the
society; and (3) the ordinary citizens, farmers, merchants, and craftworkers who
provide the society's material needs. The philosopher kings represent the
intellect, the guardians represent the will, and the ordinary citizens represent the
appetites. Plato's ideal society resembles a well-functioning soul because the
philosopher kings control the citizens with the aid of the guardians.
Immortality of the soul. Plato believed that though the body dies and
disintegrates, the soul continues to live forever. After the death of the body, the
soul migrates to what Plato called the realm of the pure forms. There, it exists
without a body, contemplating the forms. After a time, the soul is reincarnated in
another body and returns to the world. But the reincarnated soul retains a dim
recollection of the realm of forms and yearns for it. Plato argued that people fall in
love because they recognize in the beauty of their beloved the ideal form of
beauty that they dimly remember and seek.
In the Meno, Plato has Socrates teach an ignorant slave boy a truth of
geometry by simply asking a series of questions. Because the boy learns this
truth without being given any information, Plato concluded that learning consists
of recalling what the soul experienced in the realm of the forms.
Art. Plato was critical of art and artists. He urged strict censorship of the arts
because of their influence on molding people's characters. Using his theory of
forms, Plato compared artists unfavorably with craftworkers. He declared that a
table made by a carpenter is an imperfect copy of the ideal form of a table. A
painting of a table is thus a copy of a copy--and twice removed from the reality of
the ideal form.
Plato claimed that artists and poets cannot usually explain their works. Since
artists do not even seem to know what their own works mean, Plato concluded
that they do not create because they possess some special knowledge. Rather,
he believed that artists create because they are seized by irrational inspiration, a
sort of "divine madness".
Plato's place in Western thought
After Plato died, his nephew Speusippus took over the leadership of the
Academy. The school operated until A.D. 529. That year, the Byzantine Emperor
Justinian I closed all the schools of philosophy in Athens because he felt they
taught paganism. However, Plato's influence was not confined to the Academy.
Plato's philosophy deeply influenced Philo, an important Jewish philosopher who
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lived in Alexandria shortly after the birth of Christ. During the A.D. 200's in Rome,
Plotinus developed a philosophy based on Plato's thought. This new version of
Plato's philosophy, known as Neoplatonism, had great influence on Christianity
during the Middle Ages.
Plato dominated Christian philosophy during the early Middle Ages through
the writings of such philosophers as Boethius and Saint Augustine. During the
1200's, Aristotle replaced Plato as the greatest philosophical influence on the
Christian world. A revival of interest in Plato developed during the Renaissance.
During the 1400's, the Medici family, famous patrons of the arts, established a
Platonic Academy in Florence as a center for the study of Plato's philosophy. In
the mid-1600's, an important group of English philosophers at Cambridge
University became known as the Cambridge Platonists. They used the teachings
of Plato and the Neoplatonists to try to harmonize reason with religion.
Aristotle, (384-322 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, educator, and scientist, was
one of the greatest and most influential thinkers in Western culture. Aristotle was
probably the most scholarly and learned of the classical or ancient Greek
philosophers. He familiarized himself with the entire development of Greek
thought preceding him. In his own writings, Aristotle considered, summarized,
criticized, and further developed all the intellectual tradition that he had inherited.
Aristotle and his teacher Plato are usually considered to be the most important
ancient Greek philosophers.
Aristotle's life
Aristotle was born in Stagira, a small town in northern Greece. His father,
Nichomachus, was the personal physician of Amyntas II, the king of nearby
Macedonia. Amyntas was the father of Philip of Macedonia and the grandfather of
Alexander the Great. Aristotle's parents died when he was a boy, and he was
then raised by a guardian named Proxenus.
When Aristotle was about 18 years old, he entered Plato's school in Athens,
known as the Academy. He remained there for about 20 years. Plato recognized
Aristotle as the Academy's brightest and most learned student, and called him the
"intelligence of the school" and the "reader."
When Plato died in 347 B.C., Aristotle left the Academy to join a group of
Plato's disciples living with Hermeias, a former student at the Academy. Hermeias
had become ruler of the towns of Atarneus and Assos in Asia Minor. Aristotle
stayed with Hermeias for about three years and married the ruler's adopted
daughter, Pithias.
In 343 or 342 B.C., Philip II, king of Macedonia, invited Aristotle to supervise
the education of his young son Alexander. Alexander later conquered all of
Greece, overthrew the Persian Empire, and became known as Alexander the
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Great. Alexander studied under Aristotle until 336 B.C., when the youth became
ruler of Macedonia after his father was assassinated.
About 334 B.C., Aristotle returned to Athens and founded a school called the
Lyceum. Aristotle's school, his philosophy, and his followers were called
peripatetic, taken from the Greek word meaning walking around, because
Aristotle taught while walking with his students.
Soon after Alexander died in 323 B.C., Aristotle was charged with impiety
(lack of reverence for the gods) by the Athenians. They probably resented his
friendship with Alexander, the man who had conquered them. Aristotle had not
forgotten the fate of the philosopher Socrates, condemned to death on a similar
charge by the Athenians in 399 B.C. He fled to the city of Chalcis so the
Athenians would not, as he said, "sin twice against philosophy." He died in
Chalcis a year later.
Aristotle's writings
Aristotle's writings are usually divided into three groups: (1) popular writings,
(2) memoranda, and (3) treatises.
The popular writings were mostly dialogues modeled on Plato's dialogues and
produced while Aristotle was still at Plato's Academy. These works were intended
for a general audience outside the school, rather than for philosophers at the
school. For this reason, Aristotle referred to them as his exoteric writings (exo-
means outside in Greek). These writings have not survived, but the works of later
writers include many references to them and quotations from them.
The memoranda were largely collections of research materials and historical
records. Prepared by Aristotle and his students, they were intended as sources of
information for scholars. With few exceptions, the memoranda, like the popular
writings, were lost.
The treatises make up nearly all of Aristotle's surviving writings. They were probably
written for use either as lecture notes or as textbooks at the Lyceum. Unlike the popular
works, the treatises were intended only for students in the school. Thus, the treatises are
called Aristotle's esoteric works (eso- means inside in Greek).
Aristotle's philosophy
Logic. Aristotle's works on logic are collectively called the Organon, which
means instrument, because they investigate thought, which is the instrument of
knowledge. The Organon includes The Categories, The Prior and Posterior
Analytics, The Topics, and On Interpretation. Aristotle was the first philosopher to
analyze the process whereby certain propositions can be logically inferred to be
true from the fact that certain other propositions are true. He believed that this
process of logical inference was based on a form of argument he called the
syllogism. In a syllogism, a proposition is argued or logically inferred to be true
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from the fact that two other propositions are true. For example, from the facts that
(1) all people are mortal and (2) Socrates is a person, it can be logically argued
that (3) Socrates is mortal. The syllogism continued to play an important role in
later philosophy.
Philosophy of nature. For Aristotle, the most striking aspect of nature was
change. He even defined the philosophy of nature in his Physics as the study of
things that change. Aristotle argued that to understand change, a distinction must
be made between the form and matter of a thing. For example, a sculpture might
have the form of a human being, and bronze as its matter. Aristotle believed that
change essentially consists of the same matter acquiring new form. In our
example, change occurs if the bronze sculpture is molded into a new form.
To better understand change, Aristotle studied its causes. He distinguished four
kinds of causes: (1) material, (2) efficient, (3) formal, and (4) final. The material cause
of the sculpture is the material of which it is made. Its efficient cause is the activity of
the sculptor who made it. Its formal cause is the form in which the bronze is molded.
Its final cause is the plan or design in the sculptor's mind.
Aristotle studied movement as a kind of change and wrote about the movement of
the heavenly bodies in On the Heavens. In On Coming-to-be and Passing-away, he
investigated the changes that occur when something seems to be created or destroyed.
Aristotle's philosophy of nature includes psychology and biology. In On the
Soul, he investigated the various functions of the soul and the relationship
between the soul and the body. Aristotle was the world's first great biologist. He
gathered vast amounts of information about the variety, structure, and behavior of
animals and plants. Aristotle analyzed the parts of living organisms teleologically,
that is, in terms of the purposes they serve.
Metaphysics. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle tried to develop a science of things
that never change and investigate the most general and basic principles of reality
and knowledge. Since the most important of these unchanging things is God,
Aristotle sometimes called this science theology, the study of God. He also called
this branch of his philosophy first philosophy, because of its fundamental
importance. Aristotle himself never used the name metaphysics, which literally
means after the physics. This name was given to the work centuries later simply
because it followed the Physics in the written edition of Aristotle's works. But the
word metaphysics has now come to mean any philosophic study of the basic
principles of reality and knowledge.
Ethics and politics. For Aristotle, ethics and politics both study practical
knowledge, that is, knowledge that enables people to act properly and live happily.
Aristotle's works on this subject include the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics.
Aristotle argued that the goal of human beings is happiness, and that we
achieve happiness when we fulfill our function. Therefore, it is necessary to
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determine what our function is. The function of a thing is what it alone can do, or
what it can do best. For example, the function of the eye is to see, and the
function of a knife is to cut. Aristotle declared that a human being is "the rational
animal" whose function is to reason. Thus, according to Aristotle, a happy life for
human beings is a life governed by reason.
Aristotle believed that a person who has difficulty behaving ethically is morally
imperfect. His ideal person practices behaving reasonably and properly until he or
she can do so naturally and without effort. Aristotle believed that moral virtue is a
matter of avoiding extremes in behavior and finding instead the mean between
the extremes. For example, the virtue of courage is the mean between the vices
of cowardice at one extreme and foolhardiness at the other. Similarly, the virtue of
generosity is the mean between stinginess and wastefulness.
Literary criticism. Aristotle's Poetics has probably been the single most
influential work in all literary criticism. The Poetics examines the nature of
tragedy, and takes as its prime example Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus Rex.
Aristotle believed that tragedy affects the spectator by arousing the emotions of
pity and fear, and then purifying and cleansing the spectator of these emotions.
He called this process of purifying and cleansing catharsis.
Aristotle's place in Western thought
After Aristotle's death, his philosophy continued to be taught at the Peripatetic
school by a long line of successors. One of these philosophers, Critolaus, went to
Rome in 155 B.C. and gave the Romans their first contact with Greek philosophy.
About 50 B.C., Andronicus of Rhodes edited Aristotle's works. This edition
stimulated much scholarly analysis of Aristotle's philosophy, particularly in
Alexandria. From about A.D. 500 to 1100, knowledge of his philosophy was
almost completely lost in the West. During this period, it was preserved by Arab
and Syrian scholars who reintroduced it to the Christian culture of Western
Europe in the 1100's and 1200's.
Aristotle enjoyed tremendous prestige during this time. To some leading
Christian, Jewish, and Arab scholars of the Middle Ages, his writings seemed to
contain the sum total of human knowledge. Saint Thomas Aquinas, one of the
most influential philosophers of the Middle Ages, considered Aristotle "the
philosopher". Dante Alighieri, perhaps the greatest poet of the Middle Ages,
called Aristotle the "master of those who know".
Aristotle's authority has declined since the Middle Ages, but many
philosophers of the modern period owe much to him. The extent of Aristotle's
influence is difficult to judge, because many of his ideas have been absorbed into
the language of science and philosophy.
Zeno of Citium, (335-265 B.C.), was the founder of Stoic philosophy in
Athens. He was born in Citium on the island of Cyprus. It is reported that he was
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originally a merchant, but was shipwrecked and lost all his property traveling to
Athens in 314 B.C. He stayed there and took up the study of philosophy, meeting
his students on a stoa (porch), from which the name stoic came
He went to Athens and was impressed both by the Cynics and by the
Megarian logicians. He advocated a life that "followed reason"--that was free from
passion, dignified, and self-respecting. His ethical doctrine was very austere:
either one was a good person (a Stoic sage) in every way or, if there were any
shortcomings, one was totally without virtue. Zeno taught that the human soul
was not complex but was truly only reason (logos); the rest--ambition, fear,
appetite--ought to be eliminated and was not in any way part of the self.
Zeno taught that it is foolish to try to shape circumstances to our desires. The
world process is not like a blindly running machine. Instead, a divine intelligence
guides and governs it, and directs all things ultimately toward what is good. Wise
people will "follow nature" and fit their desires to the pattern of events. They will
find happiness in freedom from desire, from fear of evil, and in knowing that they
are in tune with the divine purpose directing all things. The Stoic philosophy
spread to Rome and flourished there for several centuries after the birth of Christ.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, (106-43 B.C.), was a great Roman orator and
statesman. His written orations and philosophical and religious essays made him
one of the most influential authors in Latin literature. In his writings, Cicero
translated ideas and technical terms into Latin that had previously existed only in
Greek. Cicero so improved Latin that it served as the international language of
intellectual communication for centuries.
His life. Cicero was born of middle-class parents in Arpinum, Italy. He studied
philosophy, rhetoric, and Greek and Latin literature in Rome, Athens, and Rhodes.
Cicero gained fame in 70 B.C., when he successfully prosecuted Gaius
Verres, a corrupt former governor of Sicily. Cicero's victory in this trial earned him
the approval of the Roman aristocracy. With the support of the aristocracy, Cicero
attained the position of consul, Rome's highest elected political office, in 63 B.C.
The First Triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey, and Marcus Licinius
Crassus banished Cicero from Rome in 58 B.C. because he opposed their rule.
Cicero was allowed to return to Rome in 57 B.C. The Second Triumvirate of
Octavian (later the Emperor Augustus), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark
Antony would not tolerate Cicero's opposition. They had him killed.
His works. Cicero composed more than 100 orations. They are known for
their precise choice of words; attention to grammatical structures; and skillful use
of descriptions, narration, and prose rhythms. Two series of orations reflect
Cicero's support for the republican form of government. In 63 B.C., he delivered
four speeches against a Roman named Catiline who plotted to overthrow the
Roman government. These speeches led to the defeat and death of Catiline and
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his followers. In 44 and 43 B.C., Cicero composed 14 speeches called the
Philippics. In them, he attacked Mark Antony because he believed Antony
intended to rule Rome with absolute power.
Cicero composed two major works on oratory, Brutus and De Oratore. He
described the advantages of a serene old age in De Senectute, and he analyzed
friendship in De Amicitia. Cicero examined ethical behavior in De Finibus and the
nature of the gods in De Natura Deorum. Cicero discussed the attainment of
happiness in Tusculan Disputations and one's duties in life in De Officiis. The
influence of the Greek philosopher Plato appears in a book on law called De
Legibus and a study of various forms of government called De Republica. Cicero
was also an active letter writer. His correspondence reveals his informal side.
Cicero's letters also provide valuable accounts of Roman life.
Marcus Aurelius, (A.D. 121-180), was a Roman emperor and philosopher.
He became a follower of Stoicism, a school of philosophy that originated in
Greece about 300 B.C. Marcus wrote a series of thoughts that were collected and
published as Meditations. This work is an intimate self-portrait and a classic of
Stoic philosophy.
Marcus was born in Rome to a noble family. Before Antoninus Pius became
emperor in A.D. 138, he adopted Marcus and Lucius Verus. Marcus became
emperor in 161 and named Lucius co-emperor. Marcus and Lucius ruled jointly
until Lucius' death in 169. During much of Marcus' reign, the Roman Empire
suffered from epidemics, revolts, and frequent wars along its frontiers. Marcus
turned to Stoic philosophy for personal comfort.
Marcus accepted the Stoic belief that the world is ruled by a benevolent
universal force. He was inspired by the Stoic belief in the harmony of natural and
moral law that represented the divine spirit present in all things. Marcus believed
that the soul did not survive after death, but instead was reabsorbed into the
universe. He saw this reabsorption as a reason to accept death calmly. Marcus
hated selfishness and taught himself to ignore or forgive offenses. Perhaps his
noblest quality was his sense of responsibility to humanity and his belief that all
people are citizens of the universe and should live for each other.
Epictetus, (A.D. 50-138), was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He taught that we
should not demand that events happen as we want. We should instead want them
to happen as they do.
His Manual and Discourses, as recorded and edited by his pupil Arrian, stress his
opinion that philosophy is a way of life rather than an art of using words. He held that
since the events of the world are all determined by providence and thus beyond our
control, individuals must try to accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately.
Epictetus also argued, however, that individuals are totally responsible for their deeds
and must learn how to judge their actions by rigorous daily self-examination. The
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"wise man" will recognize that he has a duty toward society and his fellow humans, for
all humans are alike and entitled to basic rights.
A wise, divine Providence governs all things, so that what seem to be calamities
are really parts of a divine plan that orders everything for the best. Epictetus thought
that only foolish people are upset by events they cannot control. The true Stoic can
face even death and all so-called misfortunes with perfect calm.
Epictetus was born in Asia Minor, and was a slave in his youth. He became free,
and lived and taught in Rome until A.D. 89, when the Emperor Domitian expelled the
philosophers. Epictetus spent the rest of his life teaching in Nicopolis, Greece.
Epicurus, (342?-270 B.C.), was a Greek philosopher. His views on pleasure,
freedom, and friendship had a great influence in the Greco-Roman world. The
word epicurean comes from his name.
Epicurus believed that the human mind was disturbed by two main anxieties: fear
of deities (gods and goddesses) and fear of death. He believed both fears were based
on mistaken beliefs and could be overcome by the study of physics. According to
Epicurus, physics proves that the movements of the heavens and meteorological
phenomena are caused by the motions of atoms, not by deities. He said deities
should not be feared because they are not concerned with human affairs.
Epicurus said that death should not be feared because good and evil lie in
sensation, and death ends sensation. According to Epicurus, the soul is
composed of atoms and these atoms disperse at death. Freed from anxieties over
death, a person can live the good life by seeking moderate pleasures and
avoiding pain. The modern term epicurean suggests excessive bodily pleasures,
but Epicurus taught that pleasure can best be gained by living in accordance with
prudence, moderation, courage, and justice, and by making friends.
Epicurus was born on the island of Samos. Except for three letters that
summarize his teachings, his philosophy has been reconstructed from fragments
of his many works and the poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius.
Pyrrho of Elis, (361-270 B.C.), was the founder of Skepticism. Skepticism
was a philosophical movement of ancient Greece. Pyrrho, from whom Pyrrhonism
takes its name, believed that tranquillity and happiness result from the realization
that all perceptions and judgments are relative and that genuine knowledge is the
unattainable. Pyrrho left no writings, but a pupil preserved some of his teachings.
He traveled widely and learned many different philosophic viewpoints, each one
claiming to be the truth. Because not all viewpoints could be right, Pyrrho decided
to suspend judgment about truth, right, and wrong. Custom and convention, he
felt, were the only guides to what is just or unjust. Even our senses tell us only
how things appear, not what they really are. Pyrrho was born at Elis, Greece.
Plotinus, (205-270), was the founder of a school of Greek philosophy known as
Neoplatonism. He developed Neoplatonism from the philosophy of Plato. Plotinus
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said that the material world is unreal, politics trivial, the body a temporary prison for
the soul, and life a journey through a landscape of illusion. Reality lay "yonder" in a
solitary perfect being, The One, the source of all truth, goodness, and beauty. He said
pure souls may hope to "return" there. Sometimes this return occurred as a mystical
vision. Plotinus believed he had experienced such a vision.
Plotinus developed an interpretation of Plato's philosophy that changed the
position of the Platonic Academy from one of skepticism into a new religious view.
He agreed with the skeptics that knowledge is required in order to grasp the
Platonic forms that are "beyond" the physical heavens. He argued, however, that
humans do have knowledge and concluded that in order to acquire it souls must
somehow journey to this "transcelestial" place to see the forms there.
The system of Plotinus has as its highest form "the One", an indefinable
ultimate principle. By an overflow (emanation) from itself, the One creates a
second order, Reason and the Forms; this level, in its turn, generates the level of
Soul. The final level, that of matter, is dark and unreal, and the goal of the human
soul is to escape that level and return to the One. The return becomes possible
through ascetic moral training and the contemplation of beauty; if these are
practiced purely, one can reestablish the connection of the Soul with Reason and
ultimately, through a mystical experience (which Plotinus described variously as
"ecstasy," "self-surrender," and "flight yonder, of the alone to the Alone"), arrive at
knowledge of, and therefore unification with, the One.
The doctrines of Plotinus, which rejected the despairing materialism and
compulsive search for luxury of the Roman Empire, became the official position of
the Platonic Academy and exercised strong influence on both Christian theology
and Islamic thought.
Plotinus may have been born in Egypt. He joined a military campaign to the East
to try to learn more about Indian philosophy. Plotinus spent the last years of his life
teaching in Rome. He disliked writing but dictated 54 lectures in six 9-lecture sets
called the Enneads. His pessimism reflects only one side of Plato's philosophy--that in
which philosophy is seen as a consolation or as an escape from the world. But this
was the side most appealing to Romans of Plotinus's time.
Augustine, Saint (354-430), was one of the greatest leaders of the early
Christian church. His writings had a strong influence on medieval religious
thought. Augustine's ideas also appeared in the teachings of John Calvin, Martin
Luther, and other Protestant reformers. He influenced such philosophers as
Immanuel Kant and Blaise Pascal.
His life. Augustine was born in Tagaste, a city near what is now Constantine,
Algeria. His name in Latin was Aurelius Augustinus. His mother, Saint Monica, was a
devout Christian. His father was a pagan. As a young man, Augustine pursued worldly
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success and was attracted to several non-Christian movements. He described his
early life and spiritual struggles in Confessions, one of the first great autobiographies.
In the early 380's, Augustine taught rhetoric in Carthage and Rome and then
in Milan, Italy. Some friends in Milan encouraged him to read the works of the
Greek philosophers called neoplatonists. These writings and the sermons of Saint
Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, helped him overcome the intellectual obstacles to
accepting Christianity. In 386, Augustine decided to devote himself to the faith,
and Ambrose baptized him the next year.
Soon afterward, Augustine returned to Tagaste, where he organized a
community of believers. In 391, he traveled to nearby Hippo. The Christian
congregation there persuaded him to stay. He was ordained as a priest in Hippo
in 391. From 396 until his death, he served as bishop of Hippo.
His beliefs can be divided into three main groups: (1) God and the soul, (2) sin
and grace, and (3) the church and the sacraments.
God and the soul. Augustine's study of neoplatonism convinced him that God is
present in the soul of every human being. He believed that people should direct their
attention to God and not be distracted by the cares and pleasures of the world.
Sin and grace. Augustine preached that people could not change their sinful
ways unless helped by the grace of God. He believed that God chooses only
certain individuals to receive His grace. This belief forms part of a doctrine called
predestination or election.
The church and the sacraments. Augustine believed that people could not
receive God's grace unless they belonged to the church and received the
sacraments. A group of clergymen in northern Africa said grace could not be
given unless the clergy itself was perfect. But Augustine declared that God could
by-pass human weaknesses through the sacraments. Augustine's book The City
of God presents the history of humanity as a struggle between people who
depend on God and those who rely on themselves.
Lombard, Peter (1095-1160), was a medieval theologian who wrote an
important theological textbook, The Four Books of Sentences. Composed
between 1148 and 1158, the Sentences served as the fundamental textbook for
beginners in theology for more than 350 years. It is basically an orderly
compilation of Christian doctrine based on Scripture and the teachings of the
Fathers of the Church. The contents follow the articles of the Creed: book 1 is on
the Trinity; book 2 is on creation and sin; book 3 is on the Incarnation and the
virtues; and book 4 is on the sacraments and the Four Last Things. The
Sentences met with opposition from more traditional theologians; thus, Walter of
Saint-Victor regarded Peter as one of the four "pests of France" responsible for
creating scholasticism.
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In the Sentences, Lombard presented past and current opinions on theological
problems in a systematic way. He compiled these opinions from a number of leading
church authorities, especially Saint Augustine. Lombard also summarized the church's
position and wrote his own views on the issues. For centuries, students of theology
were required to comment on the Sentences. Some of these commentaries were the
major works of leading medieval theologians and philosophers, including Saint
Bonaventure, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham.
Lombard was born near Novara, Italy, and studied in Bologna. About 1134, he
went to Paris and taught in the cathedral school of Notre Dame. Lombard quickly
gained fame as a theologian and author. In 1159, he was appointed bishop of Paris.
Abelard, Peter (1079-1142), was one of the leading philosophers and
theologians of the Middle Ages. But he is probably best known for his love affair
with Heloise, a gifted young Frenchwoman.
Abelard was born near Nantes, France. His father, a nobleman, planned a
military career for him, but Abelard became a scholar. From 1113 to 1118, he
taught theology in Paris. There, Abelard founded a school that, along with two
others, developed into the University of Paris.
In 1113, Abelard became the tutor of Heloise, the niece of an official of the
Cathedral of Notre Dame. A love affair developed between Abelard and the girl, and
she became pregnant. Soon after the birth of their baby in 1118, Heloise and Abelard
were secretly married. Fulbert, Heloise's uncle, learned of the love affair and marriage
and was outraged. In anger, Fulbert hired several men who broke into Abelard's
house and castrated him. Soon after the attack, Abelard and Heloise separated.
Abelard became a monk, and Heloise joined an order of nuns. The fame of their tragic
love affair resulted largely from the many letters they exchanged.
Abelard's major contributions to medieval thought were in the areas of logic
and theology. He urged the use of logic in order to understand and defend
Christianity. Abelard compiled a book called Sic et Non (Yes and No). It consisted
of the conflicting views of theological authorities on various religious problems
and principles. The work became an influential textbook in the medieval
philosophical system called scholasticism . Abelard also wrote an important book
on ethics and The Story of My Misfortunes, a revealing autobiography.
In the philosophical controversy over universals, Abelard rejected both the
extreme realism of William of Champeaux and the crude nominalism of Roscellin.
While denying that universals are real things, he asserted that they are more than
mere words since they express factors common to individual, real things; thus,
universals are tools of logic, the basis for logical predication. This position is
essentially Aristotelian, although Abelard had only limited access to the works of
Aristotle through the translations of Boethius. Abelard's moderate realism in
philosophy, his development of the dialectical method of argument, his familiarity with
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the Bible and many of the Church Fathers, and his intellectual brilliance--rather than
any systematic presentation of Christian theology aided by reason--make him one of
the important, although much neglected, pioneers of scholasticism.
Albertus Magnus, Saint (1206-1280), was a German-born Christian
theologian, philosopher, and scientist. His importance lies in his awareness of the
difference between theology and philosophy and between revealed truth and
experimental science. He believed that different areas of knowledge follow
different sets of laws and require different methods of investigation.
Albertus was advanced for his time in his knowledge of the sciences. He wrote
about many scientific subjects, including astronomy, chemistry, geography, and
physiology, using his own scientific observations. He devoted much of his time to
popularizing the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Albertus
wrote a large number of commentaries on Aristotle's philosophy. These writings
influenced Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albertus's most famous pupil, and other
theologians known as scholastics
Albertus Magnus was born into a noble family in Lauingen, near Ulm. He
attended the University of Padua in Italy, where he joined the Dominican religious
order in 1223. He studied and taught at a number of European universities but
spent most of his time in Cologne, Germany. Albertus served as a high-ranking
Dominican official in Germany, as a bishop, and as a representative of the pope.
His feast day is November 15. Albertus is the patron saint of students of the
natural sciences.
Alexander of Hales, (1186 - 1245), known as Doctor Irrefragabilis was an
English scholastic philosopher and theologian. He began his formal training in
arts, philosophy, and theology at the University of Paris when he was 15 years old
and became in 1220) the first to lecture as a master on the Sentences of Peter
Lombard. After a long and illustrious career, he became a Franciscan friar in 1236
at the age of 50. With him came the right to a chair of theology at the University of
Paris, the first and only chair the Franciscans held. Under him the Franciscan
John of la Rochelle became master and probably assembled the Summa Fratris
Alexandri, which influenced the formation of a Franciscan school, notably through
St. Bonaventure. Alexander of Hales introduced Aristotelian principles into
Christian theological discussion.
Aquinas, Saint Thomas (1225-1274), was one of the greatest medieval
philosophers and theologians. Through the centuries, he has influenced
Christian--especially Roman Catholic--thought.
His life. Thomas was born of a noble family in Roccasecca, Italy, near
Cassino. He attended the University of Naples from 1239 until 1244, when he
joined the Dominican order. He was ordained a priest in 1250. From 1245 to
1252, he studied philosophy and theology under the German theologian Saint
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Albertus Magnus. In 1256, Thomas was named professor of theology at the
University of Paris. There, he became famous because he developed his
intellectual talents in the service of the Christian faith.
In 1258, Thomas began to write the Summa contra Gentiles. In this work, he
tried to convince non-Christians that the doctrines of Christianity were not
contrary to reason. From 1259 to 1268, Thomas wrote commentaries on many
writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In 1265, he began to write his
most famous work, Summa Theologica, in which he tried to systematically explain
Christian theology. But Thomas had a mystical experience in 1273 that caused
him to stop writing. He said that all he had written seemed like straw compared
with what he had seen in this experience. Thomas' feast day is January 28.
His thought. Thomas combined Aristotle's teachings with Christian doctrine.
For example, Thomas argued that no conflict exists between reason and faith.
Philosophy is based on reason, he declared, and theology comes from faith in
divine revelation, yet both come from God. So Thomas believed that any
differences between divine revelation and the conclusions of philosophy result
from faulty reasoning. He also maintained that reason can support faith. Thomas
accepted--on faith--the idea that God exists. However, he formulated five proofs
of His existence to support such a belief.
According to Thomas, all people desire happiness, but they can satisfy this desire
only through direct communion with God. He believed that God gives grace to help
human beings overcome the influence of sin and achieve this communion. Thomas
taught that the sacraments are important in communicating God's grace to people.
Thomas believed that governments have a moral responsibility to serve
people and to help them lead virtuous lives. He declared that governments must
not violate what he considered human rights--life, education, religion, and
reproduction. Thomas also taught that--to be just--laws passed by human beings
must not contradict divine law.
Bacon, Roger (1214-1292), was an English philosopher and scientist. He
ranks as one of the leading figures in the development of science during the
Middle Ages. Bacon became known as a founder of experimental science and
one of the early researchers in the study of optics, the branch of physics that
studies light. He helped lay the foundation for the revolution in science that
occurred in Europe in the 1500's and 1600's.
His life. Bacon was born in the county of Somerset and studied liberal arts
and philosophy at Oxford University. He left Oxford during the 1230's and began
to teach at the University of Paris. About 1247, he gave up teaching because of ill
health and returned to Oxford. He spent the next 10 years in the intensive study
of mathematics, technology, and especially optics.
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About 1257, Bacon joined the Franciscan religious order. He returned to Paris to urge
educational reform within the church and to devote himself to discovering and spreading a
system of all knowledge. At about this time, however, a dispute within the Franciscan order
resulted in the introduction of censorship. Bacon's superiors allowed him to continue
writing, but they prohibited him from publicizing his work.
At the request of Pope Clement IV, Bacon compiled a summary of his system
of knowledge. He sent the summary, called the Opus maius (Longer Work), to the
pope in 1267. It became Bacon's most significant work.
During the 1270's, Bacon wrote on astronomy, mathematics, and physics. In
1278, the church criticized some of his writings, and he was imprisoned in a Paris
convent until 1292. Shortly before his death, Bacon finished his Compendium of
Theological Studies. In it, he denounced what he considered the evils of the
Christian world.
His work. Bacon's major achievements came in science, but he also wrote on
philosophy and theology. These works show the influence of the Greek
philosopher Aristotle, the Christian theologian Saint Augustine, and the Arab
philosopher Avicenna.
In the Opus maius, Bacon urged the study of languages, especially Arabic,
Greek, and Hebrew. He believed such study would enable scholars to improve
their interpretation of the Bible and to discover more about Arabic and Greek
scientific knowledge. Bacon considered mathematics the key to any scientific
investigation, especially in astronomy.
Bacon demonstrated the usefulness and interdependence of mathematics and
scientific experiments in optics, his primary field of study. He used the inductive
method to study the formation of rainbows . Bacon also described the exact
anatomy of the eye and the optic nerves.
Bonaventure, Saint (1221-1274), was an important medieval theologian and
religious leader. In 1257, he became minister general of the Franciscan religious
order. Bonaventure restored unity among disagreeing friars within the order. He
supported the Franciscan ideal of poverty, but he also defended the possession
of books and buildings for the pursuit of learning. Bonaventure believed the friars
should study and teach in universities. He wrote many influential religious works
and a biography of Saint Francis of Assisi, the Franciscans' founder.
He was known as the Seraphic Doctor. Though Italian (Tuscan) by birth, he
studied philosophy and arts in Paris (1236-42). After he became a Franciscan in
1243, he studied theology under Alexander of Hales and taught at the University
of Paris until Feb. 2, 1257, when he was elected minister general of his order.
Although he was well acquainted with the philosophy of Aristotle, he feared its
use in Christian theology and preferred the more traditional philosophy of Saint
Augustine, often opposed to the Aristotelian synthesis of Saint Thomas Aquinas.
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He successfully defended the rights of Mendicant orders to teach at the
University of Paris, and he was mainly responsible for the Augustinian orientation
of the Franciscans. He set forth his essentially Augustinian and mystical theory of
Christian knowledge in his short Itinerary of the Mind into God (1259) and
Retracing the Arts to Theology (1255-56). Created cardinal bishop of Albano by
Gregory X on May 28, 1273, he played a prominent role at the Council of Lyons
(1274), but resigned as minister general on account of illness.
Bonaventure was born in Bagnorea, near Viterbo, Italy. His family name was
Fidanza. Bonaventure studied and taught at the University of Paris during the
mid-1200's. Bonaventure was named cardinal bishop of Albano in 1273. He was
canonized (declared a saint) in 1482 and named a Doctor of the Church in 1588.
Bonaventure's feast day is July 15.
Grosseteste, Robert (1175-1253), was an English scholar, teacher, and
bishop. He wrote many works on theology, optics, mathematics, and astronomy.
The first chancellor of the University of Oxford, he was appointed bishop of
Lincoln in 1235. As bishop, he was a reformer and especially opposed the
appointment of Italians to English ecclesiastical positions. His struggles to
preserve the independence of the English church brought him into fierce conflict
with both Henry III of England and Pope Innocent IV.
Grosseteste's commentaries on and translations of Aristotle influenced the
development of scholasticism during the Middle Ages.
Thus he is sometimes called the founder of the modern scientific method. His
scholarly reputation was such that his name was forged to at least 65 spurious
works. Grosseteste combined the churchman’s active life with his scholarly
pursuits. He deposed many abbots and priors for neglecting to provide adequate
staff for the churches in their care, attended the First Council of Lyons (1245), and
campaigned against the ecclesiastical corruption of the day.
He thought of light as the root of all knowledge and believed that
understanding the laws controlling light would uncover all the laws of nature. His
most famous pupil was Roger Bacon. As Bishop of Lincoln, Grosseteste was a
zealous reformer and an able administrator. He defended the freedom of the
Roman Catholic Church against royal interference. He was born in the county of
Suffolk, and studied at Oxford.
For 50 years after his death he was venerated in his diocese as a saint. Some
historians see in his outspoken criticism of ecclesiastical abuses a foreshadowing
of the Reformation.
John Duns Scotus (1266–1308), Scottish theologian and philosopher,
founder of a school of Scholasticism known as Scotism.
Born in Duns, Duns Scotus entered the Franciscan order and studied at the
universities of Oxford and Paris. He later lectured at both universities on the
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Sentences, the basic theological textbook by the Italian theologian Peter
Lombard. In 1303 he was exiled from Paris for refusing to support Philip IV, king
of France, in his quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII over the taxation of church
property. After a brief exile Duns Scotus returned to Paris, and he lectured there
until 1307. Toward the end of that year he was sent to Cologne, where he
lectured until his death on Nov. 8, 1308, in Cologne. His most important writings
are two sets of Commentaries on the Sentences and the treatises Quodlibetic
Questions, Questions on Metaphysics, and On the First Principle. Because
of his intricate and skillful method of analysis, especially in his defense of the
doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, he is known as Doctor Subtilis (Lat., "the
Subtle Doctor").
In his system of philosophy Duns Scotus closely analyzed the concepts of
causality and possibility in an attempt to set up a rigorous proof for the existence
of God, the primary and infinite being. He held, however, that in order to know the
truth in all its fullness and to fulfill one’s eternal destiny, a person must not only
make use of the insights afforded by natural knowledge or philosophy but must
also be taught by divine revelation. Revelation supplements and perfects natural
knowledge, and, in consequence, no contradiction can exist between them.
For Duns Scotus, theology and philosophy were distinct and separate
disciplines; they were, however, complementary, because theology uses
philosophy as a tool. In his view, the primary concern of theology is God,
considered from the standpoint of his own nature, whereas philosophy properly
treats of God only insofar as he is the first cause of things. With regard to the
nature of theology as a science, however, Duns Scotus departed sharply from his
Dominican forerunner, Thomas Aquinas. Whereas Aquinas defined theology as
primarily a speculative discipline, Duns Scotus saw theology as primarily a
practical science, concerned with theoretical issues only insofar as they are
ordered toward the goal of saving souls through revelation. He argued that
through faith a person may know with absolute certainty that the human soul is
incorruptible and immortal; reason plausibly may argue the existence of such
qualities of the soul, but it cannot strictly prove that they exist.
Like Aquinas, Scotus was a realist in philosophy, but he differed from Aquinas
on certain basic issues. A major point of difference concerned their views of
perception. Duns Scotus held that a direct, intuitive grasp of particular things is
obtained both through the intellect and the senses. Aquinas maintained that
intellect did not directly know the singularity of material things but only the
universal natures that are abstracted from sense perceptions.
Duns Scotus held that universals as such do not exist apart from the human
mind, but that each separate or "singular" thing possesses a formally distinct
nature that it shares in common with other things of the same kind. This fact, he
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taught, provides the objective basis of our knowledge of essential truths.
Following the Franciscan tradition established by the Italian theologian St.
Bonaventure, Duns Scotus stressed human freedom and the primacy of human
will and acts of love over the intellect.
He avoided an arbitrary or voluntarist view of God’s acts, although he pointed
out that the actual existence of things depends on a free decision made by God,
and he argued that moral obligations depend on God’s will. That will, he taught, is
absolutely free and not shaped or determined by particular motives. God
commands an action not, as Aquinas asserts, because he sees it to be good; he
makes it good by commanding it.
Duns Scotus was one of the most profound and subtle of the medieval
theologians and philosophers known as Schoolmen. For many centuries after his
death his followers, called Scotists, engaged in controversy with the adherents of
Aquinas, who were called Thomists. In the 20th century the influence of Scotist
philosophy was still strong within the church. Duns Scotus was a staunch
supporter of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, which Pope Pius IX
defined as a dogma of the Roman Catholic church in 1854.
William of Occam, or Ockham, (1285-1349), ranks among the most
important philosopher-theologians of the Middle Ages; known as Doctor
Invincibilis (Lat., "unconquerable doctor") and Venerabilis Inceptor (Lat., "worthy
initiator"), English philosopher and Scholastic theologian, who is considered the
greatest exponent of the nominalist school, the leading rival of the Thomist and
Scotist schools.
After joining the Franciscans, Occam studied at Oxford, where he
encountered the thought of John Duns Scotus and where, from about 1319 to
1320, he wrote a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard. In 1324 he
was called to the papal court at Avignon to answer a charge of heresy in a trial
that dragged on without a formal conclusion. In 1328, Occam and Michael
Cesena, the Franciscan minister-general, fled Avignon.
Although under a ban of excommunication, they were welcomed by the pope's
enemy, Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV, to whom Occam is reputed to have said:
"Defend me with your sword and I will defend you with my pen." At the Munich court of
Louis, Occam wrote all his important political works, including those on papal power
and the state. It is believed that he died in Munich, a victim of plague.
Occam has been called the greatest logician of the Middle Ages; using his logical
faculty, he elaborated a theology that remained influential for centuries. In his
Commentary on the Sentences and in other early works such as Quodlibeta septem
(Seven Miscellaneous Questions) and Summa totius logicae (Sum of All Logic)
Occam adopted a nominalist (see nominalism) solution to the problem of universals.
He maintained that all existing things are individuals and that universality exists only in
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concepts or names. It followed that (1) God, unhampered by any universal essences,
was free to create every individual unconnected with every other and (2) subsequent
causal connections among such individuals were not necessary.
Occam accepted the Aristotelian dictum that science is demonstration based
on certain, secure premises. He rejected the Thomistic view that theology is a
proper science and therefore rejected rational demonstrations of God's existence,
of divine attributes, and of the immortality of the soul.
Against the philosophical explanations of others, he used a principle
sometimes called Occam's razor: "A plurality (of reasons) should not be posited
without necessity". Ockham formulated the most radically nominalistic criticism of
the Scholastic belief in intangible, invisible things such as forms, essences, and
universals. He maintained that such abstract entities are merely second intentions
of words, that is, references of words to other words rather than to actual things.
His famous rule (also called ‘law of parsimony’), that one should not assume the
existence of more things than are logically necessary, became a fundamental
principle of modern science and philosophy.
In law and ethics, Occam's nominalist views led him to voluntarism and
emphasis on the divine command. He concluded that the ultimate source of value
and obligation lay not in any "natures" of things but in the free will of God. He
regarded the rightness or wrongness of human acts as a function of their being
commanded or forbidden by divine authority.
Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), was an English philosopher, essayist, jurist, and
statesman. He was one of the earliest and most influential supporters of empirical
(experimental) science and helped develop the scientific method of solving problems.
Bacon's principal philosophical writings are The Advancement of Learning
(1605) and Novum Organum (New Instrument, 1620). These were the only books
that he completed of a planned six-part project called Instauratio Magna (Great
Renewal). He intended this work to be a survey of all learning to his time. Bacon
wanted Great Renewal to lay a new foundation upon which the whole structure of
all knowledge could be soundly built. He also wrote witty and original essays.
His life. Bacon was born in London, the son of an important councilor to
Queen Elizabeth I. In 1584, he was elected to Parliament. Bacon held several
government positions, notably lord chancellor. In 1621, Bacon was convicted of
taking bribes and imprisoned briefly. Later evidence indicated he was not
influenced by bribery. But he withdrew from public life and devoted the last five
years of his life to study and writing.
His philosophy. Bacon believed all previous claims to knowledge, particularly
of medieval science, were doubtful because they were based on poor logic. He
believed the mind makes hasty generalizations, which prevent the attainment of
knowledge. But he also believed that the mind could discover truths that would
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enable humanity to conquer disease, poverty, and war by gaining power over
nature. To discover truths, the human mind must rid itself of four prejudices.
Bacon called these prejudices Idols of the Mind.
The first Idol (of the Tribe) is the tendency of general human perception to
generalize too quickly. Bacon claimed that uncritical perception cannot be trusted.
The second Idol (of the Cave) is the tendency of people to base a knowledge of
things on individual experiences, education, and tastes. People fail to realize how
variable and untrustworthy these factors can be as a basis for claims to
knowledge. The third Idol (of the Market Place) results from the dependence on
language to communicate. Because words are often imprecise, they may be
misinterpreted. The fourth Idol (of the Theater) is the influence of previous
philosophies and laws of reasoning that are merely products of imagination.
Bacon believed the mind could attain truth if it followed the inductive method
of investigation. He developed four steps of doing so: (1) listing all known cases in
which a phenomenon occurs; (2) listing similar cases where the phenomenon
does not occur; (3) listing the cases in which the phenomenon occurs in differing
degrees; and (4) examination of the three lists. These steps would lead to the
cause of a phenomenon.
Bacon suggested the use of preliminary hypotheses (assumptions) to aid
scientific investigation. His treatment of hypothesis is still a subject of study.
Bacon also wrote an unfinished romance called New Atlantis (published in 1627,
after his death). The book describes an imaginary island where the inhabitants
dedicate themselves to the study of science.
Descartes, Rene, (1596-1650), was a French philosopher, mathematician,
and scientist. He is often called the father of modern philosophy. Descartes
invented analytic geometry and developed a detailed account of the physical
universe in terms of matter and motion. He was a pioneer in the attempt to
formulate simple, universal laws of motion that govern all physical change.
Descartes wrote three major works. The first was Discourse on the Method of
Rightly Conducting One's Reason, and Seeking Truth in the Sciences (1637),
commonly known as the Discourse on Method. The others were Meditations on
First Philosophy (1641), perhaps his most important work, and Principles of
Philosophy (1644). His philosophy became known as Cartesianism.
His life. Descartes was born at La Haye, near Chatellerault, and was educated
at a Jesuit college. He served in the armies of two countries and traveled widely.
Money from an inheritance and from patrons enabled him to devote most of his
life to study. From 1628 to 1649, Descartes led a quiet, scholarly life in the
Netherlands and produced most of his philosophical writings. Late in 1649, he
accepted an invitation from Queen Christina to visit Sweden. He became ill there
and died in February 1650.
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His philosophy. Descartes is called a dualist because he claimed that the
world consists of two basic substances--matter and spirit. Matter is the physical
universe, of which our bodies are a part. The human mind, or spirit, interacts with
the body but can, in principle, exist without it.
Descartes believed that matter could be understood through certain simple
concepts he borrowed from geometry, together with his laws of motion. In Descartes's
view, the whole world--including its laws and even the truths of mathematics--was
created by God, on whose power everything depends. Descartes thought of God as
resembling the human mind in that both God and the mind think but have no physical
being. But he believed God is unlike the mind in that God is infinite and does not
depend for His existence on some other creator.
In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes first considered the strongest
reasons that might be used to show that he could never be certain of anything.
These so-called "skeptical" arguments included the idea that perhaps he might be
dreaming, so that nothing he seemed to perceive would be real. In another
argument, Descartes reflected that perhaps God or some evil spirit was
constantly tricking his mind, causing him to believe what was false. Descartes
then responded to these arguments. He began with the observation that even if
he were dreaming, or constantly deceived, he could at least be certain that he
had thoughts, and therefore existed as a thinking being. This, he wrote, was a
"clear and distinct" perception of the mind. Nothing could make him doubt it. In
another work, Descartes introduced the famous Latin phrase cogito ergo sum,
which means I think, therefore I am.
Descartes then argued that he could also clearly and distinctly perceive that
an infinitely powerful and good God exists. This God would not allow Descartes to
be deceived in his clearest perceptions. Through this conception of God,
Descartes sought to establish that the physical world exists with the properties the
philosopher assumed in his physics. He continued to hold, however, that sensory
appearances are often misleading.
Spinoza, Baruch, (1632-1677), was a Dutch philosopher. He was also called
Benedict, the Latin form of Baruch.
Spinoza was born in Amsterdam of Jewish parents. He early acquired the
reputation of a freethinker and was excommunicated by the Jewish community in
1656. He then lived in several towns in the Netherlands, earning a living as a lens
grinder. Throughout his career, Spinoza was a strong supporter of religious and
political liberalism. He prized his independence, rejecting offers of a pension from
King Louis XIV of France and of a university professorship in Germany. Although
he was respected by many, Spinoza was controversial because of his unorthodox
views on religion, philosophy, and politics.
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Spinoza's philosophy was strongly influenced by the French philosopher Rene
Descartes. Spinoza accepted Descartes's view that thought and matter are the
basic categories of reality. The physical world is nothing but bits of matter moving
and interacting according to general causal laws. However, in his masterpiece,
The Ethics (published shortly after his death), Spinoza developed Descartes's
ideas in radically unconventional ways. Spinoza stated that "God or Nature" is the
only substance. Thought and matter are God's infinite attributes, and all finite
things (such as human minds and bodies) are only modes or states of the
attributes of God. Spinoza allowed no exceptions to causality, denying free will to
humanity and God. He maintained, however, that freedom of mind can be
obtained by rational understanding of our place in nature and our subjection to its
laws--particularly the laws of the passions.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, (1646-1716), was a German philosopher,
mathematician, and scholar. He and Sir Isaac Newton independently developed
the theory of the differential and integral calculus . Leibniz also developed the
binary numeration system and invented a calculating machine. He believed the
truths of arithmetic could be derived from purely logical principles.
Leibniz developed a complex philosophical system. He believed that the
ultimate elements of reality are indivisible, mindlike substances called monads.
He identified the changing states of monads as "perceptions". But Leibniz thought
only those monads that are true minds--divine, angelic, human, or animal--could
perceive consciously. Leibniz said monads are "windowless"--that is, their states
are generated from within the monad itself rather than being caused from without.
Although monads do not interact causally with each other, Leibniz believed that
God created the world in such a way that the perceptions of any monad are
"harmonized" with all others. In this and other ways, the world that God has chosen to
create is the "best of all possible worlds." God can conceive of other worlds that would
be better than this world in some ways. However, such other worlds would necessarily
be worse in other ways. Material objects are not ultimate realities. They are only
"appearances" arising from the perceptions of monads.
Leibniz was born in Leipzig. He traveled extensively in Europe on various
diplomatic missions for German rulers. He died in Hanover, where he spent much
of his later life.
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), an English scientist, astronomer, and
mathematician, invented a new kind of mathematics, discovered the secrets of
light and color, and showed how the universe is held together. He is sometimes
described as "one of the greatest names in the history of human thought"
because of his great contributions to mathematics, physics, and astronomy.
Newton discovered how the universe is held together through his theory of gravitation.
He discovered the secrets of light and color. He invented a branch of mathematics,
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calculus, also invented independently by Gottfried Leibniz, a German mathematician .
Newton made these three discoveries within 18 months from 1665 to 1667.
The theories of motion and gravitation. Newton said the concept of a
universal force came to him while he was alone in the country. He had been
forced to flee there because of the outbreak of plague in the city of Cambridge.
During this time, Newton suddenly realized that one and the same force pulls an
object to earth and keeps the moon in its orbit. He found that the force of
universal gravitation makes every pair of bodies in the universe attract each other.
The force depends on (1) the amount of matter in the bodies being attracted and
(2) the distance between the bodies. The force by which the earth attracts or pulls
a large rock is greater than the pull on a small pebble because the rock contains
more matter. The earth's pull is called the weight of the body. With this theory,
Newton explained why a rock weighs more than a pebble.
He also proved that many types of motion are due to one kind of force. He
showed that the gravitational force of the sun keeps the planets in their orbits, just
as the gravitational force of the earth attracts the moon. The falling of objects on
earth seems different from the motion of the moon because the objects fall
straight down to the earth, while the moon moves approximately in a circle around
the earth. Newton showed that the moon falls just like an object on earth. If the
moon did not fall constantly toward the earth, it would move in a straight line and
fly off at a tangent to its orbit. Newton calculated how much the moon falls in each
second and found the distance is 1/3600 of the distance an object on earth falls in
a second. The moon is 60 times as far from the earth's center as such an object.
Consequently, the force of the earth on an object 60 times as far away as another
object is 1/3600.
The Principia. Newton concluded his first investigations on gravity and motion
in 1665 and 1666. Nothing was heard of them for nearly 20 years. His original
theory had been based on an inaccurate measurement of the earth's radius, and
Newton realized differences between the theory and the facts. Although he later
learned the true value of the earth's size, he was not led to complete his
investigation or to produce a book for publication.
One day in 1684, Edmond Halley, an English astronomer, Robert Hooke, an
English scientist, and Christopher Wren, the architect, were discussing what law
of force produced the visible motion of the planets around the sun. They could not
solve this problem. Halley went to Cambridge to ask Newton about it. He found
Newton in possession of complete proof of the law of gravity. Halley persuaded
Newton to publish his findings. Halley paid all the expenses, corrected the proofs,
and laid aside his own work to publish Newton's discoveries. Newton's
discoveries on the laws of motion and theories of gravitation were published in
1687 in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of
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Natural Philosophy). This work, usually called Principia or Principia Mathematica,
is considered one of the greatest single contributions in the history of science. It
includes Newton's laws of motion and theory of gravitation. It was the first book to
contain a unified system of scientific principles explaining what happens on earth
and in the heavens.
Light and color. Newton's discoveries in optics were equally spectacular. He
published the results of his experiments and studies in Opticks (1704).
Newton's discoveries explained why bodies appear to be colored. The discoveries
also laid the foundation for the science of spectrum analysis. This science allows us to
determine the chemical composition, temperature, and even the speed of such hot,
glowing bodies as a distant star or an object heated in a laboratory.
Newton discovered that sunlight is a mixture of light of all colors. He passed a
beam of sunlight through a glass prism and studied the colors that were
produced. A green sweater illuminated by sunlight looks green because it largely
reflects the green light in the sun and absorbs most of the other colors. If the
green sweater were lighted by a red light or any color light not containing green, it
would not appear green.
The study of light led Newton to consider constructing a new type of telescope
in which a reflecting mirror was used instead of a combination of lenses. Newton's
first reflecting telescope was 6 inches (15 centimeters)long, and, through it,
Newton saw the satellites of Jupiter.
Early life. Newton was born at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, on Dec. 25, 1642. He
attended Grantham grammar school. As a boy, he was more interested in making
mechanical devices than in studying. His youthful inventions included a small windmill
that could grind wheat and corn, a water clock run by the force of dropping water, and
a sundial. He left school when he was 14 to help his widowed mother manage her
farm. But he spent so much time reading, he was sent back to school.
He entered Trinity College, Cambridge University, in 1661. He showed no
exceptional ability during his college career and graduated in 1665 without any
particular distinction. He returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity College in 1667.
Newton became professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1669. He lectured
once a week on arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, optics, or other mathematical
subjects. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1672.
Public life. Newton became active in public life after the publication of
Principia. He became the Cambridge University member of Parliament in 1689
and held his seat until Parliament dissolved the following year. He became
warden of the mint in 1696. He was appointed master of the mint in 1699, a
position he held until his death.
In 1699, he also became a member of the Royal Society council and an
associate of the French Academy. He was elected to Parliament again from the
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university in 1701. He left Cambridge and settled permanently in London in 1701.
He became president of the Royal Society in 1703 and was reelected annually
until his death. Queen Anne knighted Newton in 1705. He died in 1727 and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Personal characteristics. Newton did not enjoy the scientific arguments that
arose from his discoveries. Many new scientific theories are opposed violently
when they are first announced, and Newton's did not escape criticism. He was so
sensitive to such criticism that his friends had to plead with him to publish his
most valuable discoveries.
Newton was a bachelor who spent only part of his time studying mathematics,
physics, and astronomy. He was also a student of alchemy and made many
alchemical experiments. He also spent a great deal of his time on questions of
theology and Biblical chronology.
As a professor, he was very absent-minded. He showed great generosity to his
nephews and nieces and to publishers and scientists who helped him in his work.
He was modest in his character. He said of himself shortly before his death, "I
do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been
only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then
finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean
of truth lay all undiscovered before me".
Albert Einstein, the German-born American physicist, rejected Newton's explanation
of universal gravitation but not the fact of its operation. He said that his own work would
have been impossible without Newton's discoveries. He also said that the concepts
Newton developed "are even today still guiding our thinking in physics."
Locke, John (1632-1704), was an English philosopher. His writings have
influenced political science and philosophy. Locke's book Two Treatises of
Government (1690) strongly influenced Thomas Jefferson in the writing of the
Declaration of Independence.
His life. Locke was born in Wrington in Somerset County. He attended Oxford
University. In 1666, he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, who later became the first
Earl of Shaftesbury. The two men became close friends. In 1679, the earl became
involved in plots against the king, and suspicion also fell on Locke. The
philosopher decided to leave England. In 1683, he moved to the Netherlands,
where he met Prince William and Princess Mary of Orange. William and Mary
became the rulers of England in 1689, and Locke returned to England as a court
favorite. Until his death, he wrote widely on such subjects as educational reform,
freedom of the press, and religious tolerance.
His philosophy. Locke's major work was An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1690). It describes his theory of how the mind functions in
learning about the world. Locke argued against the doctrine of innate ideas, which
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stated that ideas were part of the mind at birth and not learned or acquired later
from outside sources. Locke claimed that all ideas were placed in the mind by
experience. He declared that there were two kinds of experience, outer and inner.
Outer experience was acquired through the senses of sight, taste, hearing, smell,
and touch, which provide information about the external world. Inner experience
was acquired by thinking about the mental processes involved in sifting these
data, which furnished information about the mind.
Locke believed that the universe contained three kinds of things--minds,
various types of bodies, and God. Bodies had two kinds of properties. One kind
was mathematically measurable, such as length and weight, and existed in the
bodies themselves. The second kind was qualitative, such as sound and color.
These properties were not in the bodies themselves but were simply powers that
bodies had to produce ideas of colors and sounds in the mind.
According to Locke, a good life was a life of pleasure. Pleasure and pain were
simple ideas that accompanied nearly all human experiences. Ethical action involved
determining which act in a given situation would produce the greatest pleasure--and
then performing that act. Locke also believed that God had established divine law. This
law could be discovered by reason, and to disobey it was morally wrong. Locke thought
that divine law and the pleasure principle were compatible.
Locke believed that people by nature had certain rights and duties. These
rights included liberty, life, and ownership of property. By liberty, Locke meant
political equality. The task of any state was to protect people's rights. States
inconvenience people in various ways. Therefore, the justification for a state's
existence had to be found in its ability to protect human rights better than
individuals could on their own. Locke declared that if a government did not
adequately protect the rights of its citizens, they had the right to find other rulers.
Berkeley, George (1685-1753), was an Anglican bishop and philosopher. He
tried to reconcile the science of his day with Christianity.
Berkeley argued that physical things, such as tables and trees, consist entirely of
the ideas or sensations we have of them. In his view, an apple is nothing but its color,
shape, texture, weight, taste, and other qualities, all of which we experience through
our senses. He argued that the qualities or ideas that we experience exist only in our
minds. They change as the person perceiving them changes. For example, the same
lukewarm water seems warm to a cold hand and cool to a warm hand. Thus, it
seemed to Berkeley, the qualities we perceive are really ideas that depend upon the
mind perceiving them and have no independent existence.
Other philosophers had believed that a physical thing also consists of matter.
Matter is the stuff in which the various qualities are supposed to exist. Matter
supposedly exists outside of and independent of the mind. But because we never
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have any direct experience of matter, Berkeley claimed that we have no good
reason to think it exists.
If, as Berkeley argued, the entire physical world consists only of ideas, then
the world exists only in the minds that perceive it. However, because we believe
that physical things continue to exist when we are not observing them, we must
assume that there exists a mind that observes all physical things all the time. It is
only the constant observation by such a mind that keeps things in existence when
we are not observing them. This universally present and observant mind is God.
Because Berkeley believed that things are entirely composed of ideas, he is a
representative of philosophical idealism. Because his view of the world is
restricted to what we learn in our direct experience of it, he also represents
philosophical empiricism. Berkeley was born in County Kilkenny, Ireland.
Hume, David (1711-1776), a Scottish philosopher, was one of the most
important figures in the history of philosophy. His thought marks the culmination
of the British philosophical movement of the 1700's known as empiricism. The
empiricists tried to show that all human thought and knowledge is based on the
direct experience of the world through the senses. In order to show this, Hume
and the other empiricists had to analyze the workings of the human mind.
Hume's thought. Hume distinguished between impressions and ideas.
Impressions are made on the mind when we directly experience anything. Ideas do
not arise directly from experience, but are formed from previous impressions. For
example, one's idea of a table or of a triangle is based on previous impressions and
experiences of those things. We can form ideas of things we have never
experienced, but only by combining previous experiences in new ways.
Hume applied this theory to philosophical questions, especially questions
about the limits of knowledge. He maintained that since ideas must be based on
experience, ideas without such basis lack a proper foundation. Hume argued that
a number of ideas central to traditional philosophy are problematic in this way.
These include the ideas of substance, the self, and causality.
The idea of substance is the idea of the stuff or matter of a thing, as opposed
to its qualities. These qualities (for example, color, shape, smell, or taste) are
considered to be qualities of something--that is, of the substance or matter. But
we can experience only the qualities, and we never can experience the substance
itself. Thus, the idea of substance has no meaning.
The idea of the self is the idea of something in a person that remains identical
through time. I have the idea that I remain the same person despite the changes
that occur in me. But, since I cannot locate in myself an element that is always
present and never changes, the idea of such a self has no basis in experience.
The idea of causality is the idea that two events are connected in such a way
that one causes the other. For example, it seems that one billiard ball rolling into
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another causes the second ball to move. Hume pointed out that, in such cases,
we perceive only that events like the cause are regularly followed by events like
the effect. The rolling of one ball into another is regularly followed by the second
ball starting to move. But we never observe anything that actually connects the
two events. But causes are supposed to connect events. Thus, the idea of
causality, like the ideas of substance and self, has no basis in experience.
Hume argued that there are only two kinds of things about which we can know
anything: matters of fact and relations of ideas. Statements about matters of fact
are really descriptions of our experience of the world and ourselves. Statements
about relations of ideas concern the truths of logic and mathematics and the
definitions of words and ideas. They are supposedly discoverable by the
operations of reason alone without reliance on sense experience. For example,
we need not take a survey of bachelors to know that bachelors must be
unmarried and male. This truth is discoverable solely on examination of the ideas
involved. According to Hume, any statement is worthless that neither makes clear
the meanings of ideas nor tells us anything about experience. Hume believed
there were many such statements in traditional philosophy and theology. His aim
was to expose long-accepted but unsound ideas.
In ethics, Hume argued that it is impossible to conclude from how things and
people are anything about how they should be. He also believed that our basic
choices are determined, not by reason, but by desires and passions that use
reason as a tool to attain their goals. In religion, Hume criticized the argument that
the world resembles a large and complex artifact--that is, something made by
design and intention. Thus, it seems natural to conclude that it must have been
made by a being capable of such a grand achievement, who could only be God.
But Hume objected that it could have come into existence without any conscious
plan or effort on the part of a God.
Hume's life. Hume was born and educated in Edinburgh. His first major work
was A Treatise of Human Nature (1739). His other works include An Enquiry
concerning Human Understanding (1748), An Enquiry concerning the Principles
of Morals (1751), Dialogues concerning Natural Religion (1779), an influential
history of Great Britain, and many essays.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712-1778), was a French philosopher. He was
the most important writer of the Age of Reason, a period of European history that
extended from the late 1600's to the late 1700's. Rousseau's philosophy helped
shape the political events that led to the French Revolution. His works have
influenced education, literature, and politics.
Early life. Rousseau was born in Geneva, in what is now Switzerland. The
Rousseau family was of French Protestant origin and had been living in Geneva
for nearly 200 years. Rousseau's mother died as a result of giving birth to him,
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leaving the infant to be raised by his quarrelsome father. As the result of a fight in
1722, Rousseau's father was forced to flee Geneva. The boy's uncle then took
responsibility for his upbringing.
In 1728, Rousseau ran away from Geneva and began a life of wandering,
trying and failing at many jobs. He was continually attracted to music. For years,
Rousseau was undecided between careers in literature or music.
Shortly after leaving Geneva, at the age of 15, Rousseau met Louise de
Warens, a well-to-do widow. Under her influence, Rousseau joined the Roman
Catholic Church. Although he was 12 or 13 years younger than Madame de
Warens, Rousseau settled down with her near Chambery in the Duchy of Savoy.
He described the happiness of their relationship in his famous autobiography,
Confessions (written 1765 or 1766-1770, published in 1782, 1788). However, the
relationship did not last and Rousseau eventually left in 1740.
In 1741 or 1742, Rousseau was in Paris seeking fame and fortune and hoping
to establish himself in a musical career. His hope lay in a new system of musical
notation that he had invented. He presented the project to the Academy of
Sciences, but it aroused little interest.
In Paris, Rousseau became friends with the philosophes, a group of famous
writers and philosophers of the time. He gained the patronage of well-known
financiers. Through their sponsorship, he served in Venice as secretary to the
French ambassador in 1743 and 1744.
The turning point in Rousseau's life came in 1749, when he read about a
contest sponsored by the Academy of Dijon. The academy was offering a prize
for the best essay on the question: Whether the revival of activity in the sciences
and arts was contributing to moral purification. As he read about the contest,
Rousseau realized the course his life would take. He would oppose the existing
social structure, spending the rest of his life indicating new directions for social
development. Rousseau submitted an essay to the academy. His "Discourse on
the Sciences and the Arts" (1750 or 1751) attacked the arts and sciences for
corrupting humanity. He won the prize and the fame he had so long desired.
Later life. When Rousseau converted to Catholicism, he lost his citizenship in
Geneva. To regain his citizenship, he reconverted to Protestantism in 1754. In
1757, he quarreled with the philosophes, feeling they were persecuting him.
Rousseau's last works are marked by emotional distress and guilt. They reflect
his attempt to overcome a deep sense of inadequacy and to find an identity in a
world that seemed to have rejected him.
In three Dialogues, also called Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques (written
1772-1776, published 1782), Rousseau tried to answer charges by his critics and
those he believed were persecuting him. His final work was the beautiful and
serene Reveries of the Solitary Stroller (written 1776-1778, published 1782).
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Rousseau also wrote poetry and plays in both verse and prose. His musical works
include many essays on music, an influential opera called The Village Soothsayer
(1752), a highly respected Dictionary of Music (1767), and a collection of folk
songs entitled The Consolation of My Life's Miseries (1781). In addition, he wrote
on botany, an interest he cherished, especially during the last years of his life.
His ideas. Rousseau criticized society in several essays. For example, in
"Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality" (1755), he attacked
society and private property as causes of inequality and oppression. The New
Heloise (1761) is both a romantic novel and a work that strongly criticizes the
false codes of morality Rousseau saw in society. In The Social Contract (1762), a
landmark in the history of political science, Rousseau gave his views concerning
government and the rights of citizens. In the novel Emile (1762), Rousseau stated
that children should be taught with patience and understanding. Rousseau
recommended that the teacher appeal to the child's interests, and discouraged
strict discipline and tiresome lessons. However, he also felt that children's
thoughts and behavior should be controlled.
Rousseau believed that people are not social beings by nature. He stated that
people, living in a natural condition, isolated and without language, are kind and
without motive or impulse to hurt one another. However, once they live together in
society, people become evil. Society corrupts individuals by bringing out their
inclination toward aggression and selfishness.
Rousseau did not advise people to return to a natural condition. He thought
that people could come closest to the advantages of that condition in a simple
agricultural society in which desires could be limited, sexual and egotistical drives
controlled, and energies directed toward community life. In his writings, he
outlined institutions he believed were necessary to establish a democracy in
which all citizens would participate.
Rousseau believed that laws should express the general will of the people.
Any kind of government could be considered legitimate, provided that social
organization was by common consent. According to Rousseau, all forms of
government would eventually tend to decline. The degeneration could be
restrained only through the control of moral standards and the elimination of
special interest groups. Robespierre and other leaders of the French Revolution
were influenced by Rousseau's ideas on the state. Also, many Socialists and
some Communists have found inspiration in Rousseau's ideas.
His literary influence. Rousseau foreshadowed Romanticism, a movement
that dominated the arts from the late 1700's to the mid-1800's. In both his writings
and his personal life, Rousseau exemplified the spirit of Romanticism by valuing
feeling more than reason, impulse and spontaneity more than self-discipline.
Rousseau introduced true and passionate love to the French novel, popularized
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descriptions of nature, and created a lyrical and eloquent prose style. His
Confessions created a fashion for intimate autobiographies.
Voltaire, (1694-1778), was the pen name of Francois Marie Arouet, a French
author and philosopher. Voltaire's clear style, sparkling wit, keen intelligence, and
strong sense of justice made him one of France's most famous writers.
Candide (1759), Voltaire's best-known work, is a brilliant philosophical tale
that has been translated into more than 100 languages. On the surface, the work
describes the adventures of an inexperienced young man as he wanders around
the world. Philosophically, Candide is recognized as a complex inquiry into the
nature of good and evil.
Voltaire, the son of a lawyer, was born in Paris. He received an excellent
education at a Jesuit school. He showed little inclination to study law, and his
schooling ended at the age of 16. He soon joined a group of sophisticated
aristocrats who had little reverence for anything except wit, pleasure, and literary
talent. Paris society sought Voltaire's company because of his cleverness, his
remarkable ability to write verses, and his gift for making people laugh.
There are several theories about the origin of Voltaire's pen name, which he adopted in
1718. The most widely accepted one is that Voltaire comes from an imperfect
arrangement of the letters making up the French equivalent of Arouet the Younger.
Imprisonment and early success. In 1717, Voltaire was imprisoned in the
Bastille for satirical verses that he may or may not have written ridiculing the
government. During his 11 months in prison, he finished his tragedy Oedipe. The
success of the play in 1718 made Voltaire the greatest French playwright of his
time. He maintained this reputation--with more than 50 plays--for the rest of his
life. While in prison, Voltaire also worked on La Henriade, an epic poem about
King Henry IV. This poem, written in the style of the Aeneid by the Roman poet
Virgil, was published in 1723.
Voltaire became independently wealthy in his early 30's through an
inheritance and wise investments. He was also a celebrity who had three plays
performed in 1725 to help celebrate the wedding of King Louis XV. Royal
pensions and other honors followed. But all this success ended abruptly in 1726
when the Chevalier de Rohan, a powerful young nobleman, scornfully asked:
"What is your name anyway? Monsieur de Voltaire or Monsieur Arouet?" His
question implied that Voltaire was claiming to be a nobleman while he was in fact
of common origin. Voltaire supposedly replied that whatever his name was, he
was bringing it honor, which was more than Rohan could say for himself. This
answer cost Voltaire a beating by Rohan's men. Challenged to a duel by Voltaire,
Rohan had him thrown into the Bastille again. A few days later, Voltaire was
allowed to choose between continued imprisonment and exile.
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Exile and return to France. Voltaire chose exile. From 1726 to 1729, he lived
in England, for him a land of political and religious freedom. There, he met the
writers Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift and was attracted to the ideas of the
philosopher John Locke and the scientist Sir Isaac Newton. It has been said that
Voltaire went into exile a poet and came back a philosopher.
Voltaire returned to France in 1729, and published several works. The most
important ones were History of Charles XII (1731) and his best-known play, Zaire
(1732). In 1733, his Letters Concerning the English Nation appeared in England.
This book appeared in France the next year in an unauthorized edition called
Philosophical Letters. Voltaire's praise of English customs, institutions, and style
of thought was an indirect criticism of their French counterparts. French
authorities condemned the book, and Voltaire fled from Paris.
Voltaire found a home with the Marquise du Chatelet, one of the most cultured
and intelligent women of the day. From 1734 to 1749, he lived in her chateau at
Cirey in Lorraine. During this period, he wrote several plays, an essay on
metaphysics, two works on Sir Isaac Newton, and some poetry. He also wrote
two notable philosophical tales. One of them, Zadig (1747), explores the problem
of human destiny. The other, Micromegas, was started at Cirey and was
published in 1752. In it, Voltaire used giant visitors from a distant star and from
the planet Saturn to discuss the relative insignificance of human pretensions in
answering religious questions. In this work, Voltaire also encouraged the use of
human reason for the development of science.
Later years. Following Mme. du Chatelet's death in 1749, Voltaire accepted
the invitation of Frederick the Great to settle in Berlin. After three years of living
under the social and intellectual tyranny of the "Philosopher King," as Voltaire
called him, Voltaire settled in Switzerland. He lived near Geneva in a chateau that
he named Les Delices (The Delights). It is now the Voltaire Institute and Museum.
A severe earthquake in Portugal in 1755 inspired Voltaire to write an important
philosophical poem, The Lisbon Disaster. This work was published with his Poem
on Natural Law in 1756.
In 1759, Voltaire purchased an estate called Ferney on the French-Swiss border.
He lived there until just before his death. In an effort to correct the wrongs he saw in
the world, Voltaire produced a constant flow of books, plays, pamphlets, and letters.
Ferney soon became the intellectual capital of Europe. There Voltaire wrote Candide,
added to his Philosophical Dictionary, and completed his Universal History, also called
Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations (1759-1766). He fought religious
intolerance and aided victims of religious persecution. His rallying cry was "ecrasez
l'infame" ("Crush the evil thing"), referring to religious superstition.
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Voltaire returned to Paris at the age of 83 and was enthusiastically received.
There he saw his last play, Irene (1778), warmly applauded. But the excitement of
the trip was too much for him, and he died in Paris.
The Roman Catholic Church, because of much criticism by Voltaire, refused to
allow him to be buried in church ground. However, his body was finally taken to
an abbey in Champagne. In 1791, Voltaire's remains were transferred to the
Pantheon in Paris, where many of France's greatest are buried.
Diderot, Denis, (1713-1784), was a major French philosopher of an
intellectual movement called the Age of Reason. His work included fiction, drama,
art and literary criticism, and satire. Diderot was also a brilliant conversationalist.
He spent much of his life compiling, editing, and writing the French Encyclopedia,
a reference work that reflected revolutionary political views and antireligious
sentiment. Diderot's major philosophical works are Thoughts on the Interpretation
of Nature (1754) and d'Alembert's Dream (1769). Today, Diderot is increasingly
appreciated for his major literary writings, especially the novels The Nun (1760)
and Jacques the Fatalist (1773) and the satirical dialogue Rameau's Nephew
(written 1762-1764).
Diderot strongly supported experimental methods in philosophy and science. He
believed that nature was in a state of constant change and no permanently adequate
interpretation of it was possible. Diderot was also a philosophical materialist, believing
that thought developed from the movements and changes of matter. His views on this
subject were vague, as were his religious opinions. At one time, he was an atheist. At
another time, Diderot was a deist, believing that God existed independently of the world
and had no interest in it. But he later suggested that all of nature was God. Diderot was
born in Langres, near Chaumont.
Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), was an important German philosopher. His
work was influential because he established the main lines for philosophical
developments since his day.
In his chief work, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant discussed the nature
and limits of human knowledge. This question became important to him because
of Scottish philosopher David Hume's theories. Before Hume, most philosophers
assumed that our past experience could provide knowledge about matters that go
beyond our experience. But Hume argued that we cannot be certain of anything
beyond our experience. For example, the law of universal gravitation states that a
force of attraction acts between all objects. But our experience is restricted to only
a few objects that we have observed. We cannot be certain that the force
operates on objects beyond our experience .
Kant's ideas. Kant believed that we cannot justify claims beyond our actual
experience as long as we continue to think of the mind and its objects as separate
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things. He held instead that the mind is actively involved in the objects it
experiences. That is, it organizes experience into categories, or forms of
understanding. All things capable of being experienced are also arranged in these
categories. Kant believed that we can have knowledge of what we have not yet
experienced as well as what we have already experienced. But he limited this
knowledge to possible experience.
Kant's conclusions meant having to abandon any claim to know things as they
are in themselves, things in which the mind is not involved. But he did not deny
the existence of things in themselves, which he called noumena. Some
philosophers regarded this refusal to claim absolute knowledge as too serious a
limitation on a system of philosophy. Other philosophers argued that we have an
intuitive, nonrational knowledge of things.
Kant also wrote on theology and ethics. He argued that the existence of God
cannot be proved or disproved by the use of reason. According to Kant, reason is
restricted to ideas of possible experience, and the idea of God transcends all possible
experience. Yet Kant held that faith could be rational because we cannot think of the
world as orderly or justify our morality without supposing the existence of God.
In ethics, Kant tried to show (1) that doing one's duty consisted in following
only those principles that one would accept as applying equally to all, and (2) that
even assuming that scientists can predict what we are going to do, the predictions
do not conflict with our use of free will. Therefore, the predictions of scientists
have no bearing on our duty to live morally. Kant's chief work on ethics is the
Critique of Practical Reason (1788).
His life. Kant was born and lived in Konigsberg, in East Prussia (now
Kaliningrad in Russia). He taught near Konigsberg from 1746 to 1755, and then at
Konigsberg University until his death nearly 50 years later.
Hegel, G. W. F. (1770-1831), was one of the most influential German
philosophers. Hegel argued that in order to understand any aspect of human
culture, we must retrace and understand its history.
Hegel's emphasis on the importance of historical understanding has greatly
promoted the development of the historical study of philosophy, art, religion,
science, and politics. The historical approach to human culture inspired by Hegel
eventually spread far beyond the borders of Germany.
Hegel's dialectic. Hegel developed a theory of history that became known as
his dialectic. Hegel believed that all historical developments have three basic
characteristics. First, they follow a course that is necessary--that is, they could not
have happened in any other way. To understand a historical development in any
area of human thought or activity, we must see why it necessarily happened as it
did. Second, each historical development represents not only change but
progress. Third, Hegel argued that one phase of any historical development tends
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to be confronted and replaced by its opposite. This opposite, in turn, tends to be
replaced by a phase that is somehow a resolution of the two opposed phases.
These three phases of a typical dialectical development have often been called
thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. But Hegel did not use those terms.
Hegel applied his dialectic to all areas of human life. For example, he argued
that the attempt to achieve satisfaction through the external pursuit of power and
property tends to be rejected in favor of the attempt to achieve an inner state of
harmony and tranquility. This opposition between external activity and an inner
nonactive state of mind can be resolved by having one's external activity emerge
from a harmonious inner state.
Hegel also argued, in a political example, that a period marked by the
concentration of political power in one person tends to be followed by a period of
widely distributed power. This opposition might be resolved by a period in which
there is both some distribution and some concentration of power. Thus, an
absolute monarchy might be replaced by an absolute democracy and, in turn, by
a representative form of government.
Hegel's writings. In most of his writings, Hegel tried to demonstrate the
presence of dialectical developments. In his first published book, Phenomenology
of Spirit (1807), he dealt with the development of "forms of consciousness."
These forms of consciousness include a rich and bewildering variety of states of
mind, views of the world, ethical positions, religious outlooks, types of physical
activity, and forms of social organization. Hegel tried to demonstrate how they
progressed in what he claimed was a necessary and historical sequence that
moved through contradiction and resolution to ever greater levels of maturity.
In his second book, Science of Logic (1812-1816), Hegel tried to show the
same sort of dialectic in the development of philosophical theories about reality.
His Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817) contains his philosophic
system in a condensed form. It has three sections: a shorter version of his book
on logic, a "Philosophy of Nature," and a "Philosophy of Spirit." His last book,
Philosophy of Right (1821), analyzes the dialectical development of social,
ethical, and legal systems. After Hegel's death, his students published his lectures
on the philosophy of history, religion, and art and on the history of philosophy.
They reconstructed the lectures mainly from their notes.
Life. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in Stuttgart. He attended the
University of Tubingen, near Stuttgart. His university teaching career began in
1801 in Jena. He was professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin from
1818 until his death.
Marx, Karl (1818-1883), was a German philosopher, social scientist, and
professional revolutionary. Few writers have had such a great and lasting
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influence on the world. Marx was the chief founder of two of the most powerful
mass movements in history--democratic socialism and revolutionary communism.
Marx was sometimes ignored or misunderstood, even by his followers. Yet
many of the social sciences--especially sociology--have been influenced by his
theories. Many important social scientists of the late 1800's and the 1900's can be
fully understood only by realizing how much they were reacting to Marx's beliefs.
The life of Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx was born and raised in Trier, in what was then Prussia. His
father was a lawyer. Marx showed intellectual promise in school and went to the
University of Bonn in 1835 to study law. The next year, he transferred to the
University of Berlin. There he became much more interested in philosophy, a
highly political subject in Prussia, where citizens were not permitted to participate
directly in public affairs. Marx joined a group of radical leftist students and
professors whose philosophic views implied strong criticism of the severe way in
which Prussia was governed.
In 1841, Marx obtained his doctorate in philosophy from the university in Jena.
He tried to get a teaching position but failed because of his opposition to the
Prussian government. He became a free-lance journalist and helped create and
manage several radical journals. After his marriage in 1843, he and his wife
moved to Paris. There they met Friedrich Engels, a young German radical, who
became Marx's best friend and worked with him on several articles and books.
Marx lived in Brussels, Belgium, from 1845 to 1848, when he returned to
Germany. He edited the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which was published in
Cologne during the German revolution of 1848. This journal made Marx known
throughout Germany as a spokesman for radical democratic reform. After the
collapse of the 1848 revolution, Marx fled from Prussia. He spent the rest of his
life as a political exile in London.
Marx led a hand-to-mouth existence because he was too proud--or too much
a professional revolutionary--to work for a living. He did write some articles for
newspapers. His most regular job of this kind was that of political reporter for the
New York Tribune. But generally, Marx, his wife, and their six children survived
only because Engels sent them money. In 1864, Marx founded The International
Workingmen's Association, an organization dedicated to improving the life of the
working classes and preparing for a socialist revolution.
Marx suffered from frequent illnesses, many of which may have been
psychological. Even when physically healthy, he suffered from long periods of apathy
and depression and could not work. Marx was learned and sophisticated, but he was
often opinionated and arrogant. He had many admirers but few friends. Except for
Engels, he lost most of his friends--and many of them became his enemies.
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Marx's writings
Most of Marx's writings have been preserved. They include not only his books,
but also most of his correspondence and the notes of his speeches.
Philosophic essays. Some of Marx's philosophic essays were published during
his lifetime, but others were not discovered until the 1900's. Marx wrote some of them
alone and some with Engels. The essays range from one of about 15 sentences to a
700-page book, The German Ideology (1845-1846), written with Engels.
Marx wrote his essays between 1842 and 1847. They spell out the philosophic
foundations of his radicalism. The chief themes in the essays include Marx's bitter
view that economic forces were increasingly oppressing human beings and his
belief that political action is a necessary part of philosophy. The essays also show
the influence of the philosophy of history developed by the German philosopher
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
The Communist Manifesto was a pamphlet written jointly with Engels on the
eve of the German revolution of 1848. Its full title is the Manifesto of the
Communist Party. The manifesto is a brief but forceful presentation of the authors'
political and historical theories. It is the only work they produced that can be
considered a systematic statement of the theories that became known as
Marxism. The Communist Manifesto considers history to be a series of conflicts
between classes. It predicts that the ruling middle class will be overthrown by the
working class. The result of this revolution, according to Marx and Engels, will be
a classless society in which the chief means of production are publicly owned.
Das Kapital (Capital) was Marx's major work. He spent about 30 years writing
it. The first volume appeared in 1867. Engels edited the second and third volumes
from Marx's manuscripts. Both of these volumes were published after Marx's
death. The fourth volume exists only as a mass of scattered notes.
In Das Kapital, Marx described the free enterprise system as he saw it. He
considered it the most efficient, dynamic economic system ever devised. But he also
regarded it as afflicted with flaws that would destroy it through increasingly severe
periods of inflation and depression. The most serious flaw in the free enterprise
system, according to Marx, is that it accumulates more and more wealth but becomes
less and less capable of using this wealth wisely. As a result, Marx saw the
accumulation of riches being accompanied by the rapid spread of human misery.
Other writings. Marx and Engels also wrote what today might be called
political columns. They discussed all sorts of events in and influences on national
and international affairs--personalities, overthrowing of governments, cabinet
changes, parliamentary debates, wars, and workers' uprisings.
Marx also wrote about the practical problems of leading an international
revolutionary movement. The major source of these comments is his
correspondence with Engels and other friends.
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Marx's theories
Marx's doctrine is sometimes called dialectical materialism, and part of it is
referred to as historical materialism. These terms were taken from Hegel's
philosophy of history. Marx never used them, but Engels did and so have most
later Marxists. The concepts of dialectical and historical materialism are difficult
and obscure and may be unnecessary for an understanding of Marx's theories.
Marx's writings cover more than 40 years. His interests shifted and he often changed
his mind. But his philosophy remained surprisingly consistent--and very complex. Aside
from the brief Communist Manifesto, he never presented his ideas systematically.
Production and society. The basis of Marxism is the conviction that
socialism is inevitable. Marx believed that the free enterprise system, or
capitalism, was doomed and that socialism was the only alternative.
Marx discussed capitalism within a broad historical perspective that covered the
history of the human race. He believed that the individual, not God, is the highest
being. People have made themselves what they are by their own labor. They use their
intelligence and creative talent to dominate the world by a process called production.
Through production, people make the goods they need to live. The means of
production include natural resources, factories, machinery, and labor.
The process of production, according to Marx, is a collective effort, not an
individual one. Organized societies are the principal creative agents in human
history, and historical progress requires increasingly developed societies for
production. Such developed societies are achieved by continual refinement of
production methods and of the division of labor. By the division of labor, Marx
meant that each person specializes in one job, resulting in the development of
two classes of people--the rulers and the workers. The ruling class owns the
means of production. The working class consists of the nonowners, who are
exploited (treated unfairly) by the owners.
The class struggle. Marx believed there was a strain in all societies because the
social organization never kept pace with the development of the means of production.
An even greater strain developed from the division of people into two classes.
According to Marx, all history is a struggle between the ruling and working
classes, and all societies have been torn by this conflict. Past societies tried to
keep the exploited class under control by using elaborate political organizations,
laws, customs, traditions, ideologies, religions, and rituals. Marx argued that
personality, beliefs, and activities are shaped by these institutions. By recognizing
these forces, he reasoned, people will be able to overcome them through
revolutionary action.
Marx believed that private ownership of the chief means of production was the
heart of the class system. For people to be truly free, he declared, the means of
production must be publicly owned--by the community as a whole. With the
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resulting general economic and social equality, all people would have an
opportunity to follow their own desires and to use their leisure time creatively.
Unfair institutions and customs would disappear. All these events, said Marx, will
take place when the proletariat (working class) revolts against the bourgeoisie
(owners of the means of production).
Political strategy. It is not clear what strategy Marx might have proposed to
achieve the revolution he favored. An idea of this strategy can come only from his
speeches, articles, letters, and political activities. As a guideline for practical
politics, Marxism is vague. Marx's followers have quarreled bitterly among
themselves over different interpretations and policies.
Marx today
Today, Marx is studied as both a revolutionary and an economist. People
realize his importance as a pioneer in the social sciences. Marx has often been
attacked because he rebelled against all established societies, because he was
an arrogant writer who scorned his critics, and because of his radical views.
As the founder of the Communist movement, Marx is regarded by
Communists as one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Many Communists believe
his writings are the source of all important truths in social science and philosophy.
They believe a person cannot be an intelligent student of society, history,
economics, philosophy, and many other fields without studying Marx or his
principal disciples.
Scholars in the Western world were slow to recognize the importance of Marx.
For many years, few Americans bothered to study his writings. But today, in a
variety of fields, it has become essential to have some knowledge of Marx. One of
these fields is economics. Although his methods of analyzing capitalism are
considered old-fashioned, many scholars recognize the brilliance of this analysis.
Many people consider his criticism of capitalism and his view of what humanity
has made of the world as timely today as they were 100 years ago. Even the
analysis that Marx made of the business cycle is studied as one of the many
explanations of inflation and depression.
In sociology, Marx's work is also regarded with respect. Without his
contributions, sociology would not have developed into what it is today. Marx did
pioneering work in many areas with which sociology deals. He wrote on social
classes, on the relationship between the economy and the state, and on the
principles that underlie a political or economic system.
Some people still turn to Marx for an explanation of current social, economic, and
political evils. But most of them are unlikely to agree with his view of the ease with
which workers will overthrow the class system and establish a Communist society.
Nietzsche, Friedrich, (1844-1900), was a German philosopher and classical scholar.
He deeply influenced many philosophers, artists, and psychologists of the 1900's.
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Classical scholarship. Nietzsche's first book was The Birth of Tragedy
(1872). It presented a new theory of the origins of classical Greek culture.
Nietzsche believed that Greek culture could best be understood as resulting from
a conflict between two basic human drives, the Apollonian and the Dionysian. The
Apollonian was represented by Apollo, the god of the sun. The Dionysian was
represented by Dionysus, the god of wine and intoxication.
The Apollonian is a drive to create clarity and order. It is a desire for a world in
which everything possesses a clear identity and can be distinguished from other
things. The Apollonian tendency finds expression in the visual arts, where each
form stands out clearly from other forms. Nietzsche argued that, in reality, the
world lacks any clear distinctions, that it is confused, chaotic, and cruel. The
Apollonian drive tries to redeem the horrors of the real world by giving it the
illusion of order and beauty, thus making it tolerable.
The Dionysian is a drive that tries to rip apart Apollonian illusions and reveal
the reality that lies behind them. This revelation takes place only in special states
of ecstasy or religious frenzy induced by drinking, wild music, and sexual license.
Nietzsche and religion. Nietzsche was a severe critic of religion, especially
Christianity. In Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883 to 1885), he proclaimed that "God
is dead." This was his dramatic way of saying that most people no longer believed
in God. Thus, religion could no longer serve as the foundation for moral values.
Nietzsche believed that the time had come to examine traditional values
critically. In Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and The Genealogy of Morals (1887),
he examined the origins of our moral systems. He argued that the warriors who
dominated earlier societies had defined their own strength as "good" and the
weakness of the common people they dominated as "bad." Nietzsche called this
"master morality" because it represented the values of the masters.
Later, the priests and common people, who wanted to take power, defined
their own weakness and humility as "good." They called the aggressive strength
of the warriors "evil." Nietzsche identified these values, which he called "slave
morality," with the values of the Judeo-Christian tradition that dominates Western
culture. He criticized these values as being expressions of the fear and
resentment of the weak against the strong.
Psychological ideas. Nietzsche's major psychological theory states that all
human behavior is inspired by a "will to power." He wanted to disprove and
replace a common prevalent psychological theory that was known as hedonism.
Hedonism holds that human behavior is inspired by a desire to experience
pleasure and avoid pain. Nietzsche argued that people are frequently willing to
increase their pain, strain, or tension to accomplish tasks that allow them to feel
power, competence, or strength.
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Nietzsche did not mean that people wanted only to dominate each other, nor that
they were only interested in physical or political power. He wrote that we also want to
gain power over our unruly drives and instincts. He thought that the self-control exhibited
by artists and people who practice self-denial for religious reasons was actually a higher
form of power than the physical bullying of the weak by the strong.
Nietzsce's ideal was the overman (or superman), a passionate individual who
learns to control his or her passions and use them in a creative manner. This
superior human being channels the energy of instinctual drives into higher, more
creative, and less objectionable forms. Nietzsche believed that such "sublimation"
of energy is far more valuable than the suppression of the instincts urged by
Christianity and other religions.
His life. Nietzsche was born in Rocken, Saxony, near present-day Leipzig,
Germany. He was a professor of classics at the University of Basel in Switzerland
from 1868 to 1878, when he retired because of poor health. He then devoted
himself to writing. In 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental breakdown from which he
never recovered. Nietzsche is often wrongly considered a racist, anti-Semite, and
forerunner of Nazism. These charges are largely the result of distortions of his
ideas by his sister, Elisabeth, and by Nazi propagandists after his death.
Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832), an English philosopher, founded the
philosophy known as utilitarianism. He thought that ideas, institutions, and actions
should be judged on the basis of their utility (usefulness).
Bentham defined utility as the ability to produce happiness. He advocated the
production of the greatest possible amount of happiness in and for society.
Bentham thought of happiness and good in terms of pleasure. He believed that
(1) pleasure can be exactly measured, (2) individuals care only about increasing
their own pleasure and decreasing their pain, and (3) a person should always do
what will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Bentham
set up a number of principles for measuring pleasure. He also sought an
opportunity to organize a country's laws and institutions in such a way that they
would place the general good above each person's individual pleasure.
His criticisms brought about many needed reforms. For example, in Britain the
law courts were reformed because they had not promoted the good of all.
Bentham's writings include Fragment on Government (1776) and Introduction
to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789). He was born in London.
Bentham graduated from Queen's College, Oxford, in 1763.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) became the leader of the utilitarian movement.
Mill was one of the most advanced thinkers of his time. He tried to help the
English working people by promoting measures leading to a more equal division
of profits. He favored a cooperative system of agriculture and increased rights for
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women. He served as editor of the Westminster Review from 1835 to 1840 and
wrote many articles on economics.
His greatest philosophical work, System of Logic (1843), ranks with Aristotle's
work in that field. Mill applied economic principles to social conditions in Principles
of Political Economy (1848). His other works include Utilitarianism (1863), On
Liberty (1859), The Subjection of Women (1869), and Autobiography (1873).
Mill was born in London and was educated by his father. By the age of 14, he
had mastered Latin, classical literature, logic, political economy, history, and
mathematics. He entered the East India Company as a clerk at 17. Like his father,
he became director of the company. Mill was elected to Parliament in 1865.
Mill was the family name of three British writers--father, son, and the son's
wife. They won distinction in philosophy, history, psychology, and economics.
James Mill (1773-1836) established his reputation as a writer with the
publication of A History of British India (1817). This work was partly responsible
for changes in the Indian government. It also won him a job with the East India
Company in 1819. He headed the company from 1830 until his death.
In 1808, Mill met Jeremy Bentham, a political economist called the father of
utilitarianism. The utilitarians believed that the greatest happiness of the greatest
number should be the sole purpose of all public action. Mill adopted the utilitarian
philosophy and became Bentham's ardent disciple and the editor of St. James's
Chronicle.
His writings helped clarify the philosophical and psychological basis of
utilitarianism. Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829) is a study of
psychology. He wrote Elements of Political Economy (1821) for his son, and it
became the first textbook of English economics.
In Fragment on Mackintosh (1835), he states his views of utility as the basis of morals.
Mill was born in Scotland and graduated from Edinburgh University, where he
studied for the ministry. He became a Presbyterian minister in 1798 but left the
ministry in 1802 to become a journalist.
Harriet Taylor Mill (1807-1858) was the wife of John Stuart Mill and helped
him write many of his works. She called for increased rights for women and
workers and greatly influenced Mill's writings in these areas.
Many of John Stuart Mill's writings probably originated from discussions with
Harriet. She helped him write Principles of Political Economy. Some scholars also
consider her the coauthor of On Liberty, The Subjection of Women, and
Autobiography, all of which were published after her death. But only the essay
"Enfranchisement of Women" bears her name. It appears in her husband's
Discussions and Dissertations, a four-volume work published from 1859 to 1875.
In the introduction to On Liberty, he calls Harriet "the inspirer, and in part the
author, of all that is best in my writings."
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She was born Harriet Hardy in Walworth, near Durham, England. In 1826, she
married John Taylor, a merchant. Harriet met John Stuart Mill about 1830, and
they became close friends. Taylor died in 1849, and she married Mill in 1851.
Sartre, Jean-Paul, (1905-1980), was a French existentialist philosopher who
expressed his ideas in novels, plays, and short stories, as well as in theoretical works.
The bare existence of things, especially his own existence, fascinated and
horrified Sartre, because there seems to be no reason why anything should exist.
In his first novel, Nausea (1938), he described the horror and mystery which a
man experiences when he considers the unexplainable fact of a thing's existence.
In his chief philosophical work, Being and Nothingness (1943), Sartre investigated
the nature and forms of existence or being. He claimed that human existence, which
he called "being-for-itself," is radically different from the existence of such inanimate
objects as tables, which he called "being-in-itself." Sartre said that only human
existence is conscious of itself and of other things. He argued that inanimate objects
simply are what they are; however, people are whatever they choose to be. Sartre
said that a person is not a coward, for example, in the same simple way that a table is
only a table. A person is a coward only by choice. Sartre said that a person, unlike a
table, has no fixed character or "essence" that has been assigned. Primarily, people
"exist" as beings who must choose their own character or "essence." Thus, in his
essay Existentialism and Humanism (1946), he defined existentialism as the doctrine
that, for humankind, "existence precedes essence".
Sartre believed that people are completely free, but are afraid to recognize
this freedom and to accept full responsibility for their behavior, which such
freedom implies. Thus, people tend to deceive themselves about their true
situation. Throughout his philosophical and literary works, Sartre examined and
analyzed the varied and subtle forms of self-deception.
Sartre criticized Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of human behavior and
offered his own "existential psychoanalysis". Sartre said the ultimate motive for all
human behavior is the desire to achieve perfect self-sufficiency by becoming the
cause of one's own existence. However, he argued that this goal is self-contradictory
and impossible to attain. Therefore, he considered all human activity ultimately futile.
As Sartre said: "Man is a useless passion." He identified this idea of perfectly self-
sufficient beings who are the cause of their own existence as the traditional idea of
God. According to Sartre, each of us wants to become God, and God cannot possibly
exist. In the Critique of Dialectical Reason (1964), Sartre presented his political and
sociological theories, which he considered to be a form of Marxism.
Sartre's plays include The Flies (1943), No Exit (1944), Dirty Hands (1948),
and The Condemned of Altona (1959). He wrote The Roads of Freedom, a
sequence of novels including The Age of Reason (1945), The Reprieve (1945),
and Troubled Sleep (1949). He applied his psychoanalytic theories in his
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biographies, Baudelaire (1947), Saint Genet (1953), and Flaubert (1971). Words
(1963) is an autobiographical account of his youth.
Sartre was born in Paris where he studied at the Ecole Normale Superieure.
During World War II (1939-1945), he fought in the French Army and was active in
the French resistance movement. Sartre founded the monthly review Les Temps
Modernes in 1945 and served as its editor. In 1964, Sartre was awarded the
Nobel Prize for literature. However, he refused to accept the award.
Edmund Husserl, (1859–1938) a German philosopher not usually considered
an existentialist but the founder of his own movement, phenomenology, was
nevertheless one of the greatest influences on existentialism.
Phenomenology was developed in the early 1900's. Husserl wanted to
understand how consciousness works in order to better understand human
experience. Consciousness refers to the power of the mind to be aware of acts,
sensations, and emotions. Husserl believed that everything we know about reality
derives from our consciousness.
For phenomenologists, experience has two parts. The first part consists of
objects of consciousness (the things of which one is conscious). Objects of
consciousness, which include material objects, ideas, and wishes, are called
phenomena. The second part of experience consists of acts of consciousness,
such as perceiving, believing, thinking, and desiring. Phenomenologists believe
that all acts of consciousness are related to objects of consciousness and thus
must also be considered phenomena. This relationship is called intentionality.
The phenomenological method starts with the theory that people normally
make certain assumptions about their experiences. They consider the things they
have been taught, and remember past experiences. Such presuppositions limit
their experiencing of phenomena. Phenomenologists realize that it is impossible
to entirely eliminate these presuppositions from the mind. Instead, they try to
expand their experiencing of phenomena by dealing with the presuppositions
critically. One critical method involves fantasy variations. The philosopher varies
the presuppositions, imagining how the experience would be perceived under
varying circumstances. The features of the experience that remain constant
despite the variations are considered its essence.
Husserl has had many followers. They include the French psychologist
Maurice Merleau-Ponty and the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. Both men
argued that phenomenology should not be limited to an analysis of
consciousness. Instead, they used the phenomenological method to analyze
human existence in general. The method has also been successfully applied to
specific fields, such as anthropology, law psychiatry, psychology, religion, and
sociology.
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James, William (1842-1910), became the most widely read American
philosopher of the 1900's. With Charles S. Peirce and John Dewey, he led a
philosophical movement called pragmatism .
Early career. James, the brother of the novelist Henry James, was born in
New York City. As a medical student at Harvard University, he studied anatomy
and physiology under the naturalist Louis Agassiz. Later, James's interests turned
to psychology and the relationship among experience, thinking, and conduct. His
The Principles of Psychology (1890) is considered a classic.
Neither physiology nor psychology could satisfy James's interest in the human
condition. He was basically a philosopher who believed in the supreme
importance of ideas. His own experiences had forced him to raise philosophical
questions. James struggled to find his life's work. Depression over his inability to
reach a decision led him to the verge of despair. He finally became convinced that
people could devote their lives to finding new answers to such ancient questions
as: Can human effort change the course of events? Does God exist? What
difference would His existence make to people? What is the good life? How does
a person's conviction about what is good affect his or her actions?
His beliefs. James tried to answer philosophical questions in pragmatic
terms. He believed that every difference in thinking must make a difference to
someone, somewhere. If two theories differ, the difference becomes clear when
we know (1) how they differ over what the facts are, and (2) the difference in our
behavior if we believe that one or the other is true.
One person may claim that people are free and can make real choices.
Another may claim that people are not free because all human decisions and
actions are determined by factors beyond their control. These claims cannot both
be true. Therefore, according to James, we must find a way to decide between
them because our conduct depends on which we adopt. James proposed that we
approach such questions by tracing the consequences of each viewpoint. If we
are free, we can make decisions. We are responsible for our actions. We can
regret some of our actions and can say that the world would be better if such
actions had not been carried out. If we are not free, we do not choose our actions.
We are not responsible for our actions, and it makes no sense to speak about
something happening differently from the way it did happen.
James did not claim to have solved difficult philosophical problems for all time.
He tried to put them into a form that would make it easier for people to solve the
problems for themselves. All people, James believed, must make up their own
minds on issues of human life and destiny that cannot be settled on scientific
grounds. James wrote a famous essay called "The Will to Believe" (1896). It
states that if we believe in the possibility of some future event taking place, this
belief increases our power to help make the event happen when the time comes
93
for action. James's other works include Varieties of Religious Experience (1902),
Pragmatism (1907), and The Meaning of Truth (1909).
Dewey, John (1859-1952), was an American philosopher and educator. He
helped lead a philosophical movement called pragmatism.
Dewey was strongly influenced by the then-new science of psychology and by
the theory of evolution proposed by the English scientist Charles R. Darwin.
Dewey came to regard intelligence as a power that people use when they face a
conflict or challenge. He believed that people live by custom and habit. In most
situations, it is sufficient to think and act as we have done in the past, but some
physical and social situations present problems calling for new responses.
According to Dewey, we cannot solve such problems by habitual action and
thought. We must use intelligence as an instrument for overcoming any obstacles.
Dewey's philosophy is thus called instrumentalism.
Dewey believed that knowledge is a means of controlling the environment,
hopefully to improve the quality of human life. He wrote widely on art, democracy,
education, philosophy, and science. In his writings, Dewey always focused on the
same problem--how to close the gap between thought and action. Dewey's
interpretation of science shows how thought and action are united. He considered
science as a method for inquiring into the behavior of things. The results of such
inquiry are the joint products of thought and activity. Dewey regarded activity as
conducting experiments under controlled situations and thought as those theories
that guide our experiments.
In every area of life, Dewey called for experimenting and trying out new
methods. As an educator, he opposed the traditional method of learning by
memory under the authority of teachers. He believed that education should not be
concerned only with the mind. Students should develop manual skills. Learning
must be related to the interests of students and connected with current problems.
Dewey declared that education must include a student's physical and moral well-
being as well as intellectual development.
In Art as Experience (1934), Dewey connected works of art with the
experiences of everyday life. He wrote that daily experience can be glorious,
joyous, sad, tedious, terrifying, and tragic. These, he said, are the qualities that
architects, composers, painters, and writers seek to capture and express in their
works. Dewey regarded education as incomplete if it ignores these experiences.
Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont. He had a distinguished teaching
career at several universities, especially at Columbia University from 1904 until
his retirement in 1930. Dewey's works include Democracy and Education (1916),
Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920), and Experience and Nature (1925).
Russell, Bertrand (1872-1970), was a British philosopher and mathematician.
Russell ranks among the greatest philosophers of the 1900's. He has also been
94
called the most important logician (expert in logic) since the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle.
Russell made his most important contributions in formal logic and the theory of
knowledge. However, his influence extends far beyond these fields. Russell
developed a prose style of extraordinary clarity, wit, and passion. He received the
1950 Nobel Prize for literature.
Russell became an influential and controversial figure on social, political, and
educational issues. He was an outspoken pacifist and advocated extremely liberal
attitudes toward sex, marriage, and methods of education. Russell was a critic of
World War I (1914-1918). He was imprisoned in 1918 for statements considered
harmful to British-American relations, and again in 1961 for "incitement to civil
disobedience" in a campaign for nuclear disarmament.
Russell made his major contributions to philosophy and mathematics in the
early 1900's. He wanted to derive all of mathematics from logic, thus putting it on
a sure foundation. Russell collaborated with the English mathematician and
philosopher Alfred North Whitehead on the monumental three-volume Principia
Mathematica (1910-1913). This work attempts to show that all pure mathematics
follows from premises that are strictly logical and uses only those concepts that
can be defined in purely logical terms. Although Russell's ideas have been refined
and corrected by later mathematicians, all modern work in logic and the
foundations of mathematics begins with his ideas.
Russell made important contributions to the history of philosophy in such
books as A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz (1900) and A History of
Western Philosophy (1945). He expressed his social and political ideas in a
number of works, including German Social Democracy (1896), Roads to Freedom
(1918), Power (1938), and Authority and the Individual (1949). Russell also
influenced morality and education in essays and such books as Why I Am Not a
Christian (1927), Marriage and Morals (1929), and The Conquest of Happiness
(1930). Russell wrote many accounts of his life, including a three-volume
autobiography (1967 to 1969).
Russell was born near Trellek, Wales, north of Chepstow. His full name was
Bertrand Arthur William Russell. He was a member of an old and noble family. In
1931, he inherited the family title and became Earl Russell.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, (1889-1951), was one of the most important
philosophers of the 1900's. His ideas greatly influenced two philosophical
movements, called logical positivism and linguistic analysis.
In his later work, Wittgenstein suggested that most philosophical problems
result because philosophers think most words are names. For example,
philosophers have asked, "What is time?" and they have been puzzled because
they could not find any thing named time. Wittgenstein said this is the wrong way
95
to find out what time is. What is necessary is to determine how the word time is
used in ordinary language. In the sentence, "It is time to go home," we know what
time means, and so its meaning is not a problem. In general, the meaning of a
term is determined by public standards of judgment, so a necessarily "private
language" is impossible. Wittgenstein claimed that this way of viewing language
"dissolves" many traditional problems of philosophy. His approach to language
has greatly influenced scholars in many fields.
Wittgenstein was born in Vienna, Austria. He studied at Cambridge University
in England and later taught there. He gained recognition for his books Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus (1921) and Philosophical Investigations (published in 1953,
after his death).
IV. Give a brief talk on one of the following topics:

1. Confucianism as a system of ethical principles for the management of society.
2. Socrates and his question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of
achieving self-knowledge.
3. Plato’s dialogues and his intention to show the rational relationship between
the soul, the state, and the cosmos.
4. Aristotle's work is the basis of medieval scholasticism.
5. Zeno of Citium and his strict ethical doctrine.
6. Cicero, the greatest Roman orator, a stoical philosopher. His mastery of Latin prose.
7. Marcus Aurelius- Roman emperor and philosopher. His spiritual reflections on stoicism.
8. Epictetus and his doctrine of brotherhood.
9. Epicurus and his code of social conduct.
10.An ancient Greek school of skepticism of Pyrrho of Elis .
11. Plotinus – the founder of neoplatonism.
12. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity. His polemics against
Manichaeism, Donatism, and Pelagianism.
13. Peter Lombard and his influence on official Catholic doctrine concerning
the sacraments.
14.Abelard’s system of logic that could be applied to the truths of faith.
15. St.Albertus Magnus and his attempt to reconcile Aristotelianism with
Christian thought.
16. Alexander of Hales – the only franciscan who held a chair of theology at
the University of Paris.
17. Thomas Aquinas - the founder of the system declared (1879) by Pope Leo
XIII the official Catholic philosophy.
18. Roger Bacon, English friar, scientist, and philosopher .
19.Saint Bonaventure. His writings reconcile Aristotle's learning with
Augustinian Christianity.
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20. Robert Grosseteste, English prelate, a founder of the Oxford Franciscan school.
21.John Duns Scotus, Scottish scholastic philosopher.
22.William of Ockham, English scholastic philosopher who rejected the reality
of universal concepts.
23.Francis Bacon, a theory of scientific knowledge based on observation and
experiment that came to be known as the inductive method.
24.Rene Descartes, who is regarded as the bridge between scholasticism and
all philosophy that followed him.
25.Baruch Spinoza, whose controversial pantheistic doctrine advocated an
intellectual love of God.
26. Leibniz G.W.; the metaphysical theory that we live in “the best of all possible worlds”.
27.Sir Isaac Newton- natural philosopher (physicist), considered by many the
greatest scientist of all time.
28.John Locke, founder of British empiricism.
29.George Berkeley's subjective idealism.
30.David Hume who carried the empiricism of Locke and Berkeley to the
logical extreme of radical skepticism.
31.J.J.Rousseau and the theory of the ‘natural man’.
32. Voltaire and the French Enlightenment.
33. Denis Diderot was enormously influential in shaping the rationalist thought
of the 18th century.
34. Immanuel Kant, his system of ethics based on the categorical imperative.
35.Hegel and his supposition that truth is reached by a continuing dialectic.
36.Karl Marx, German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary.
37.Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, an individualistic moralist rather than a
systematic philosopher.
38.Jeremy Bentham, who systematically analyzed law and legislation, thereby
laying the foundations of utilitarianism.
39.John Stuart Mill and his interpretations of empiricism and utilitarianism.
40.Jean-Paul Sartre, a leading exponent of existentialism.
41.Edmund Husserl, founder of phenomenology.
42.William James - a founder of pragmatism and the psychological movement
of functionalism.
43.John Dewey, american philosopher and educator .
44.Bertrand Russell and his profound influence on the development of
symbolic logic, logical positivism,and the set theory of mathematics.
45.Ludwig Wittgenstein and his contribution to the philosophy of language.
List Of Proper Names
1. Confucius [ kqn`fju:Sjqs ]
97
2. Socrates [`sOkrqti:z ]
3. Plato [`pleitou ]
4. Aristotle [`xristOtl ]
5. Zeno of Citium [`zi:nou ]
6. Cicero Marcus Tullius [`sisqrou `mQ:kqs ]
7. Marcus Aurelius [`ma:kqs O:`ri:ljqs ]
8. Epictetus [ epik`ti:tqs ]
9. Epicurus [ epi`kjuqrqs ]
10. Pyrrho of Elis [`pirq(`pirhq) qv ì:lis ]
11. Plotinus [ plO`tainqs]
12. Saint Augustine [ sint O:`gAstin (seint)]
13. Peter Lombard [`pi:tq `lOmbqd]
14. Peter Abelard [`pi:tq `xbqlQ:d]
15. Saint Albertus Magnus [ sqnt xl`bq:tqs `mxgnqs]
16. Alexander of Hales [ xlig`zxndq qv heilz]
17. Saint Thomas Aquinas [seint `tOmqs q`kwainqs]
18. Roger Bacon [`rOdZq `beikqn]
19. Saint Bonaventure [seint `bOnqvenCq]
20. Robert Grosseteste [`rObqt `groustest]
21. John Duns Scotus [GOn dAnz `skOtqs]
22. William of Ockham [`wiljqm qv Òkqm]
23. Francis Bacon [`fra:nsis `beikqn]
24. René Descartes [ re`nei dei`kQ:t]
25. Baruch Spinoza [`bFqrqk(bq`ru:k) spi`nouzq]
26. Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm [`libniz (`laibniz)]
27. Sir Isaac Newton [ sq: àizqk `nju:tn]
28. John Locke [ GOn lOk]
29. George Berkeley [ GO:G `bQ:kli(`bq:kli)]
30. David Hume [`deivid hju:m]
31. Rousseau Jean-Jacques [`ru:sou Gi:n GQ:k]
32. Voltaire [`vOltFq (vOltF:r)]
33. Denis Diderot [`denis `di:dqrou]
34. Immanuel Kant [ i`mxnjuql kxnt]
35. Hegel [`heigl (`hq:gql)]
36. Karl Marx [ kQ:l mQ:ks]
37. Nietzsche Friedrich [`ni:Cq]
38. Bentham Jeremy [`benTqm `Gerqmi]
39. John Stuart Mill [ GOn stjuqt mil]
40. Sartre Jean-Paul [ `sQ:trq Gi:n pO:l]
41. Husserl Edmund [`hQ:sql èdmqnd]
98
42. William James [`wiljqm `Geimz]
43. John Dewey [ GOn `dju(:)i]
44. Bertrand Russell ['bE:trqnd `rAsl]
45. Ludwig Wittgenstein [`lAdwig `witgqnStain]
Cue Cards
1. Confucianism .Traditional Chinese ethics with its practical social precepts
challenged by the supernatural religious systems. Confucianism was a system of
ethical principles for the management of society, based on the practice of jen–
sympathy or “human-heartedness” – as shown in one's relations with others and
demonstrated through adherence to li, a combination of etiquette and ritual. A
person who wishes to be properly treated when in a subordinate role must,
according to the Confucian Golden Rule, treat his own inferiors with propriety.
2. Socrates and his question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of
achieving self-knowledge. Using a method now known as the Socratic dialogue,
or dialectic, he drew forth knowledge from his students by pursuing a series of
questions and examining the implications of their answers. Socrates equated
virtue with the knowledge of one's true self, holding that no one knowingly does
wrong. He looked upon the soul as the seat of both waking consciousness and
moral character, and held the universe to be purposively mind-ordered.
3. Plato’s dialogues and his intention to show the rational relationship between
the soul, the state, and the cosmos. Plato regarded the rational soul as immortal, and
he believed in a world soul and a Demiurge ['di:mIE:dZ, 'demIE:dZ], the creator of the
physical world. Virtue consists in the harmony of the human soul with the universe of
Ideas, which assure order, intelligence, and pattern to a world in constant flux.
Supreme among them is the Idea of the Good, analogous to the sun in the physical
world. Only the philosopher, who understands the harmony of all parts of the universe
with the Idea of the Good, is capable of ruling the just state.
4. Aristotle:theory follows empirical observation and logic,based on the
syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. In contrast to the Platonic
belief that a concrete reality partakes of a form but does not embody it, the
Aristotelian system holds that, with the exception of the Prime Mover (God), form
has no separate existence but is immanent in matter. Aristotle's work – the basis
of medieval scholasticism.
5. Zeno of Citium and his strict ethical doctrine. Greek philosopher who
founded the Stoic school, teaching that virtue is necessarily good and that objects
of desire are morally ambiguous. Moral obligation, self-control, and living in
harmony with nature were some of the principles with which Zeno was chiefly
concerned. He was publicly honored for his upright manner of living.
6. Cicero – greatest Roman orator, a stoical philosopher. His mastery of Latin
prose.In his writings Cicero created a rich prose style that has influenced all the
99
literary languages of Europe. Nearly all of his philosophical works were borrowed
from Greek sources and, apart from their intrinsic merit, are valuable in preserving
much of Greek philosophy that might otherwise have remained unknown.
7. Marcus Aurelius – Roman emperor and philosopher. His spiritual
reflections, the Meditations, are considered a classic work of stoicism. Throughout
his reign he engaged in defensive wars on the northern and eastern frontiers of
the empire. In his domestic policy Marcus Aurelius was a champion of the poor.
8. Epictetus – Stoic philosopher, whose stoicism taught that the true good is
within oneself and is not dependent on external things, and he emphasized the
doctrine of brotherhood. Epictetus asserted that humans are limited and irrational
beings, but that the universe, ruled by God through pure reason, is perfect.
Because human beings can neither know nor control their destiny, they must
cease striving for the attainment of worldly ends & calmly accept their
powerlessness before fate. He believed that one should act in life as one would at
a banquet, by taking a polite portion of all that is offered.
9. Epicurus: pleasure as the only good and the end of all morality, but a
genuine life of pleasure must be a life of prudence, honor, and justice. He also
prescribed a code of social conduct that advocated honesty, prudence, and
justice in dealing with others (because such conduct would save the individual
from society's retribution, or pain).
10.An ancient Greek school of skepticism of Pyrrho of Elis . He taught that
the real nature of things can never be truly comprehended, and hence objective
knowledge is impossible to attain. He held that the correct attitude for the
philosopher is imperturbability and complete suspension of judgment.
11.Plotinus – the founder of neoplatonism. Plotinus taught a doctrine of
emanation. This doctrine supposes a transmission of powers from the Absolute
Being through a series of agencies, the last of which is matter. The object of life is
to escape the material world of the senses. Therefore people should abandon all
earthly interests for those of intellectual meditation. Plotinus taught that by
purification people can gradually lift themselves to a complete and ecstatic union
with the Absolute Being.
12. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity was immense, and theologians,
both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as the founder of theology. His
polemics against Manichaeism, Donatism, and Pelagianism are well known, and his
autobiographical Confessions is a classic of Christian mysticism. On the Trinity
systematized Christian doctrine, and The City of God, his monumental defense of
Christianity against paganism, is famous for its Christian view of history.
13. Peter Lombard and his influence on official Catholic doctrine. His work is
a systematic compilation of the teachings of the Fathers of the Church and
100
opinions of earlier theologians. It is especially important for its clarification of the
theology of the sacraments.
14.Following Plato in theology, Peter Abelard espoused the method of Aristotle's
dialectic, holding that the system of logic could be applied to the truths of faith. His
view of universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. Thomas Aquinas. He asserted
that truth must be attained by carefully weighing all sides of any issue.His concept of
ethics maintains that an act is to be judged by the intention of the doer.
15.St.Albertus Magnus. A dominican, he attempted to reconcile
Aristotelianism with Christian thought. Albert was a key figure in the assimilation
of Aristotelian philosophy into medieval Scholasticism and the revival of natural
science that it inspired. He attempted to reconcile Aristotelianism and Christian
teachings, maintaining that human reason could not contradict revelation butt
defending the philosopher's right to investigate divine mysteries.
16.Alexander of Hales – the only franciscan who held a chair of theology at
the University of Paris. Alexander introduced Aristotelian principles into Christian
theological discussion.
17.Thomas Aquinas - the founder of the system declared (1879) by Pope
Leo XIII the official Catholic philosophy. Unlike the Platonists, to whom truth was
a matter of faith, St. Thomas held that faith and reason constitute two harmonious
realms; theology and science cannot contradict each other. Likewise, there can
be no conflict between philosophy and theology. In his universe, everything is
arranged in ascending order to God, the only necessary, self-sufficient being. St.
Thomas succeeded in synthesizing the naturalistic philosophy of Aristotle and
Christian belief, perhaps the greatest achievement of medieval philosophy.
18. Roger Bacon, English friar, scientist, and philosopher whose Opus Majus
(1267) argued that Christian studies should encompass the sciences. ‘Argument
is conclusive but it does not remove doubt, so that the mind may rest in the sure
knowledge of the truth, unless it finds it by the method of experiment. For if any
man who never saw fire proved by satisfactory arguments that fire burns his
hearer’s mind would never be satisfied, nor would he avoid the fire until he put his
hand in it that he might learn by experiment what argument taught.’
19. Saint Bonaventure. His writings reconcile Aristotle's learning with
Augustinian Christianity.He taught that the goal of all the arts and sciences is the
direct contemplation of God. His Journey of the Mind to God (1259) reflects his
concern with the way in which the soul recognizes and unites with God.
20. Robert Grosseteste, English prelate. A founder of the Oxford Franciscan
school, he made Oxford a center of learning. His writings include treatises on the
sciences, pastoral works, and poems. His studies of Aristotle were the basis for
the scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus.
101
21.John Duns Scotus, Scottish scholastic philosopher. A Franciscan, he
adapted Aristotelian thought to Christian theology and founded the school of
scholasticism known as Scotism, which opposed the Thomism of the followers of
Thomas Aquinas. Duns Scotus denied that individuality comes from matter. He
argued that God's possible existence must be demonstrable from sense experience.
22. William of Ockham, English scholastic philosopher who rejected the
reality of universal concepts. Occam's teachings mark an important break with
previous medieval philosophy. Adhering to the position of nominalism, he rejected
the Aristotelian realism of St. Thomas Aquinas, specifically denying the existence
of universals except in people's minds and language. He disputed the self-
evidence of the Aristotelian final cause and of the existence of God, denying the
competence of reason in matters of faith. This led him to hold that logic can be
studied outside the province of metaphysics, a position that proved important in
the development of scientific enquiry. In logic, Occam is remembered for his use
of the principle of parsimony, formulated as “Occam's razor,” which enjoined
economy in explanation with the axiom “It is vain to do with more what can be
done with less.”
23. Francis Bacon proposed a theory of scientific knowledge based on
observation and experiment that came to be known as the inductive method. His
major contribution to philosophy was his application of induction, the approach used
by modern science, rather than the a priori method of medieval scholasticism.
24. Rene Descartes, often called the father of modern philosophy, he is
regarded as the bridge between scholasticism and all philosophy that followed
him. Intending to extend mathematical method to all areas of human knowledge,
Descartes discarded the authoritarian systems of the scholastic philosophers and
began with universal doubt. Only one thing cannot be doubted: doubt itself.
Therefore, the doubter must exist. This is the kernel of his famous assertion
Cogito, ergo sum [I think, therefore I am]. From this certainty Descartes expanded
knowledge, step by step, to admit the existence of God (as the first cause) and
the reality of the physical world, which he held to be mechanistic and entirely
divorced from the mind; the only connection between the two is the intervention of
God. This is almost complete dualism.
25. Baruch Spinoza, whose controversial pantheistic doctrine advocated an
intellectual love of God. Spinoza shared with Descartes an intensely mathematical
appreciation of the universe: truth, like geometry, follows from first principles, and is
accessible to the logical mind. Unlike Descartes, however, he regarded mind and body
(or ideas and the physical universe) as merely different aspects of a single substance,
which he called alternately God and Nature, God being Nature in its fullness.
26. Leibniz G.W. proposed the metaphysical theory that we live in “the best of
all possible worlds”. In Leibniz's philosophy, the universe is composed of
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countless conscious centers of spiritual force or energy, known as monads. The
universe that these monads constitute is the harmonious result of a divine plan.
Humans, however, with their limited vision, cannot accept such evils as disease
and death as part of a universal harmony.
27.Sir Isaac Newton- natural philosopher (physicist), considered by many the
greatest scientist of all time. Newton is probably best known for this discovery, which
explains that all objects in space and on earth are affected by the force called gravity
28.John Locke, founder of British empiricism. Locke's empiricism emphasizes the
importance of the senses in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive speculation or
deduction. He also believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state.
29.George Berkeley's subjective idealism holds that there is no existence of
matter independent of perception; the observing mind of God makes possible the
continued apparent existence of material objects.
30. David Hume carried the empiricism of Locke and Berkeley to the logical extreme
of radical skepticism. He rejected the validity of the possibility of certain knowledge, finding
in the mind nothing but a series of sensations, and held that cause-and-effect in the natural
world derives solely from the conjunction of two impressions.
31.J.J.Rousseau and the theory of the ‘natural man’. French philosopher, social
and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the
Age of Enlightenment. He introduced a new style of extreme emotional expression,
concern with intense personal experience, and exploration of the conflicts between
moral and sensual values. Rousseau's writings also affected 20th-century
psychological literature, psychoanalytic theory, and philosophy.
32.Voltaire and the French Enlightenment. Essentially, he rejected everything
irrational and incomprehensible and called upon his contemporaries to act against
intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. His morality was founded on a belief in
freedom of thought and respect for all individuals, and he maintained that
literature should be useful and concerned with the problems of the day.
33. Denis Diderot was enormously influential in shaping the rationalist
thought of the 18th century.As an editor, he used the Encyclopedia as a powerful
propaganda weapon against ecclesiastical authority and the superstition,
conservatism, and semifeudal social forms of the time.
34.Immanuel Kant, who argued that reason is the means by which the
phenomena of experience are translated into understanding. He put forward his
system of ethics based on the categorical imperative. Kant's philosophical
position is usually known as transcendentalism. He regarded the objects of the
material world as fundamentally unknowable; they serve merely as the raw
material from which sensations are formed. Objects of themselves have no
existence, and space and time exist only as part of the mind, as “intuitions” by
which perceptions are measured and judged.
103
35.Hegel and his supposition that truth is reached by a continuing dialectic.
According to Hegel, a thesis (idea) contains incompleteness that reveals an
antithesis (opposition), which is a conflicting idea. As a result of the conflict a third
point of view arises, a synthesis, which overcomes the conflict by reconciling at a
higher level the truth contained in both the thesis and antithesis. This synthesis
becomes a new thesis that generates another antithesis, giving rise to a new
synthesis. In this way intellectual or historical development progresses.
36. Karl Marx, German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary. His works
explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory
economic forces, form the basis of all communist theory, and have had a
profound influence on the social sciences.
37.Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, an individualistic moralist rather than a
systematic philosopher, he passionately rejected the 'slave morality’ of
Christianity for a new, heroic morality that would affirm life. Leading this new
society would be a breed of supermen whose will to power would set them off
from the herd of inferior humanity.
38.Jeremy Bentham,who systematically analyzed law and legislation,thereby
laying the foundations of utilitarianism. Bentham worked on a thorough reform of
the legal system and on a general theory of law and morality, publishing short
works on aspects of his thought. He claimed that one could scientifically ascertain
what was morally justifiable by applying the principle of utility. Actions were right if
they tended to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
39. John Stuart Mill and his interpretations of empiricism and utilitarianism.
He advocated economic policies consistent with individual liberty, and he
emphasized that liberty is threatened by both social and political tyranny. He is
probably most famous for his essay “On Liberty” (1859). Politically and socially,
Mill was considered a radical because he supported such measures as public
ownership of natural resources, equality for women, compulsory education, and
birth control.
40. Jean-Paul Sartre, – a leading exponent of existentialism. His writings
examine the individual as a responsible but lonely being, adrift in a meaningless
universe with a terrifying freedom to choose. In his major philosophic work, Being
and Nothingness (1943), Sartre conceived of humans as beings who create their
own world by rebelling against authority and by accepting personal responsibility
for their actions.
41.Edmund Husserl, founder of phenomenology. Husserl offered a
descriptive study of consciousness for the purpose of discovering the laws by
which experiences are had, whether of the objective world or of pure imagination.
He concluded that consciousness has no life apart from the objects it considers.
He had a major influence on the existentialists.
104
42.William James – a founder of pragmatism and the psychological
movement of functionalism. In philosophy, James maintained that the meaning of
ideas is found only in terms of their possible consequences. He held that most
metaphysical theories are meaningless, because they entail no testable
predictions and do not deal with problems that arise in experience.
43.John Dewey, american philosopher and educator who was a leading
exponent of philosophical pragmatism and rejected traditional methods of
teaching by rote (a memorizing process using routine or repetition, often without
full attention or comprehension: e.g.learn by rote) in favor of a broad-based
system of practical experience.
44.Bertrand Russell and his profound influence on the development of symbolic
logic, logical positivism, and the set theory of mathematics. He believed that objects
perceived by the senses have an inherent reality independent of the mind.
45.Ludwig Wittgenstein. His work greatly influenced what has come to be
called ordinary-language philosophy, which maintains that all philosophical
problems arise from the illusions created by the ambiguities of language.
Additional resources
1.World Book™ Millennium Encyclopedia. IBM. 1999.
2.The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia .Columbia University Press. 1991.
3.The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 1992.
4.Поліщук Н.П., Лісовий В.С. Англо-український філософський словник. –
К., 1996.
5.Jones, Daniel. Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary. – M,1963
6.Blackburn, Simon. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, 1994.
7.Edwards, Paul, ed. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 8 vols. 1967, Reprint.
Macmillan, 1972.
8.McLeish, Kenneth, ed. Key Ideas in Human Thought.Facts on File,1993.
9.Parkinson, G. H. R., ed. The Handbook of Western Philosophy. Macmillan, 1988.
10.The Encarta Desk Encyclopedia.Microsoft Corporation.1998
11.Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.1998
12.Simon & Shuster’s New Millenium Encyclopedia.1999
13.Encyclopaedia Britannica.1999
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POLITICAL SCIENCE: INSIDE OUT
PART II
To my daughter Valentine
With love and devotion
Lyalko Sergiy Vadimovich
Unit I
Assignments:
PREFACE
POLITICAL SCIENCE is the study of the processes, principles, and structure
of government and of political institutions; politics.
Political Science, academic discipline, focusing on the systematic study of
government. It covers the origins of political regimes; their structures, functions,
and institutions; the ways in which governments discover and deal with
socioeconomic problems; and the interactions of groups and individuals that
establish, maintain, and change governments.
Political science is the systematic study of political life. Political scientists
seek answers to such questions as "What reasons justify the actions of
government?" and "Whose interests are served by governments?" They study
various forms of government as well as political parties, pressure groups,
elections, international relations, and public administration. All these are activities
of individuals and groups and involve basic human relationships. Political science
deals with such fundamental values as equality, freedom, justice, and power.
Political science is closely related to economics, history, law, philosophy, and
sociology. Economics deals with the control of all material resources, including
goods and services, which affects the political power structure within a nation and
among groups of nations. History provides much of the raw material with which
the political scientist works. Law, especially public law, supplies a framework of
formal ideas for the political scientist.
Philosophy relates political science to the other sciences. Sociology
provides understanding of the social developments that affect political life. The
study of political science has increased greatly with the growth and spread of
democracy during modern times. In every democratic country, political science is
essential in the processes of government. The political scientist studies these
processes and the operations of government agencies and departments. The
work of political scientists provides a factual basis for criticism and reform--
106
probably the most important elements of democratic government. Many political
scientists participate in government programs as advisers. They also act as
consultants to legislators and other public officials. In addition, political scientists
develop useful materials for the education of young people. Without that kind of
training for future citizens, a democratic society could not prosper.

a) government ['gAv(q)nmqnt] (уряд) = The agency or apparatus through which
an individual or a body that governs exercises authority and performs its functions.
b) various ['ve(q)rIqs] (різний) = 1.a. Of diverse kinds: for various reasons. b.
Unlike; different. 2.Being more than one; several. 3. Many-sided; versatile: a
person of various skills.Having a variegated nature or appearance. Being an
individual or separate member of a class or group: The various reports all agreed.
6. Archaic. Changeable; variable. Several different individuals.
Usage Note: Various is sometimes used as a pronoun, as in He spoke to various of
the members. It is not clear why this usage should be regarded as an error, since it is
supported by analogy to the uses of quantifiers such as few, many, and several.
c) science ['saIqns] (наука) = 1.a. The observation, identification, description,
experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation f phenomena. b. Such
activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena. c. Such activities applied to an
object of inquiry or study. Methodological activity, discipline, or study.
d) raw material [rO: mq'tI(q)rIql] (необроблений, сирий матеріал =
Unprocessed material of any kind: These data are the raw material for the analysis.
e) essential [I'senS(q)l] (істотний, суттєвий) = Basic or indispensable;
necessary: essential ingredients.
f) probably ['prPbqblI] (можливо) = Most likely; presumably.
g) reform [rI'fO:m] (реформа, поліпшення) = 1. A change for the better; an
improvement. 2. Correction of evils, abuses, or errors. 3. Action to improve social
or economic conditions without radical or revolutionary change.
h) training ['treInIN] (навчання; підготовка; освіта) = 1.The process or
routine of one who trains. 2. The state of being trained.
Synonyms: teaching, discipline, drill, exercise
i) citizen ['sItIz(q)n] (громадянин) = 1. A person owing loyalty to and entitled by
birth or naturalization to the protection of a state or nation. 2. A resident of a city or
town, especially one entitled to vote and enjoy other privileges there. 3. A civilian. 4. A
native, inhabitant, or denizen of a particular place: "We have learned to be citizens of
the world, members of the human community" (Franklin D. Roosevelt).
j) prosper ['prPspq] (процвітати) = To be fortunate or successful, especially in
terms of one's finances; thrive (To make steady progress) = flourish.
107
to focus on smth ;
the interactions of groups and individuals ;
to seek answers to such questions;
pressure groups;
to deal with smth.;
to relate ;
to supply a framework ;
to affect political life ;
to provide a factual basis for smth ;
to participate in smth ;
to develop useful materials .
a) впливати на політичне життя ;
b) розробляти корисні матеріали ;
c) охоплювати(вивчати) походження(витоки) чогось ;
d) взаємодія груп та індивідів ;
e) зосереджуватись на чомусь ;
f) групи тиску ;
g) брати участь у чомусь ;
h) забезпечувати(формувати) структуру ;
i) громадське право ;
j) забезпечувати реальну основу для чогось ;
k) радники ;
l) процвітати ;
m) поширення демократії ;
n) виправдовувати ;
o) законодавець .
5. Read the following statements and decide which of them are true (T) or false (F):
a) Economics deals with goods and services ;
b) Political scientists never participate in government programs ;
c) Governments don't deal with socioeconomic problems ;
d) Political scientists provide a factual basis for state reform ;
e) Political science is the sporadic study of political life ;
f) A democratic society could not prosper without the control of all material resources ;
g) Political activities don't involve basic human relationships.
6. Choose the correct word(s).
108
a) Political science deals with/at such fundamental values as equality,
freedom, justice, and power.
b) Political science is/were essential in the processes of government.
c) Many political scientists participate in/at government programs as advisers.
d) That work provides/ have been providing a factual basis for reform.
e) History provides many / much of the raw material.
f) They developing / develop useful materials.
7. Match each word in the left-hand column with the best meaning in the right-
hand column. Place the letter of the best definition in the space provided.
____1)Philosophy a) provides understanding of the social
developments.
____2)Political Science b) supplies a framework of formal ideas for the
political scientist.
____3)Economics c) provides much of the raw material with
which the political scientist works.
____4)Sociology d) relates political science to the other
sciences.
____5)History e) probably the most important elements of
democratic government.
____6)Law f) academic discipline, focusing on the systematic
study of government.
____7)Criticism/Reform g) deals with the control of all material
resources, including goods & services.

9. Recompose the chain of the 3 components (ternary ['tE:nqrI]):
"synonyms – antonyms – synonyms" correspondingly.
Note ! : synonym ['sInqnIm]– is a word that is an equivalent of another
word. The verbs type and keyboard are synonyms. antonym ['xntqnIm] – is a
word having a meaning opposite to that of another word: The word wet is an
antonym of the word dry.
Synonym Antonym Synonym
a)prosper incredible presumably
b)justify restriction expansion
c)to focus indispensable excuse
d)spread blame optional
e)essential concentrate decline
f)probably similar distract
g)various different flourish
109
a) How can we characterize the unique role of political science in the
development of the state ?
b) What is the purpose of political science ?
c) What differs sociology from political science ?
d) What are the most important elements of democratic government?
e) Define the place of political science among other disciplines.
f) What couldn’t a democratic society prosper without ?
g) Why has the study of political science increased greatly during modern times?
h) How do you realize the role of advisers in government programs ?
Unit II
Assignments:
Early History
Most scholars would agree that 4th-century BC Greek philosopher Aristotle
was the earliest forerunner of the political scientist. His study of types of regimes
in his Politics has remained a major influence on the discipline. Over the
centuries, other classics of the field were written by Greek philosopher Plato,
Roman statesman Cicero, Italian statesman Niccolo Machiavelli, British
philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, French writer Jean Jacques
Rousseau, and German philosophers Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx. Almost all of
these authors dealt with the possibility that a society could provide the conditions
for a good life for all its people.
Development in the United States
Political science emerged in the United States as a separate field of study in
the late 19th century. The new breed of political scientists, often college
professors, insisted that a genuine understanding of governments could be
gained only through study of the actual process of politics, using careful methods
to observe, gather, organize, and explain the facts.
Many political scientists believed that if they developed explanatory
[Ik'splxnqt(q)rI] theories, the study of government and politics could become as
much a scientific endeavor as the established laboratory sciences. These
scholars joined researchers in the fields of sociology and psychology.
From sociologists they borrowed statistical methods of collecting and
analyzing data on people's political behavior. From psychologists they took
definitions, propositions, and concepts to help in understanding why human
beings act in certain ways.
Contemporary Political Science
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The scientific approach finally began to dominate the field after the mid-20th
century. Political scientists polished their skills in applying the methods of social
science, including public opinion surveys, content analysis, statistical techniques, and
other means of collecting and systematically analyzing political data. Some political
scientists developed sophisticated models of human activity to guide their research,
frequently drawing on computer technology for concepts as well as hardware.
Others created a burgeoning subfield of policy analysis, which they promoted
as an independent discipline. It calls for the mastery of scientific methods to
enable policy analysts to judge what alternatives would and would not work in
coping with public problems.
2.Interpret the following in English (on your own):
a) forerunner ['fO:"rAnq] (передвісник) one that precedes, as in time; a
predecessor.= pioneer, precursor
b) regime [reI'Zi:m] 1. A form of government(in power); administration: 2. A
prevailing social system or pattern;the period during which a particular
administration or system prevails.
с) influence ['InflVqns] 1. A power affecting a person, thing, or course of
events, especially one that operates without any direct or apparent effort: 2.
Power to sway or affect based on prestige, wealth, ability, or position:She used
her parent's influence to get the job.
d) statesman ['steItsmqn] (державний діяч, політичний діяч) 1. A man who is
a leader in national or international affairs. 2. A male political leader regarded as a
disinterested promoter (безкорисливий фундатор) of the public good. 3. A man
who is a respected leader in a given field.
e) condition [kqn'dIS(q)n] (умова, стан) 1.A mode or state of being 2.Existing
circumstances: Conditions in the office made concentration impossible.
f) to borrow ['bPrqV] (позичати) 1.To obtain or receive (something) on loan
with the promise or understanding of returning it or its equivalent. 2.To adopt or
use as one's own: I borrowed your good idea.
g) genuine ['dZenjVIn] (істинний, справжній) 1.Actually possessing the
alleged or apparent attribute or character: genuine leather. 2. authentic. 3.a.
Honestly felt or experienced: genuine devotion. b.Actual; real:a genuine
dilemma.4. Free from hypocrisy or dishonesty; sincere.
h) survey ['sE:veI] (огляд) 1. A detailed inspection or investigation.
2. A general or comprehensive view.
i) to burgeon ['bE:dZ(q)n] (швидко зростати та розвиватися )=To begin to
grow or blossom. Usage Note: Burgeon has gained greater acceptance in recent
years in its use to mean not just "to put forth buds" but more generally "to grow
and flourish". In 1969 only 49 percent of the Usage Panel accepted the phrase
the burgeoning population of Queens; in our most recent survey 74 percent
111
accepted the same phrase. However, it should be noted that in this use burgeon
is more acceptable when it takes the form of the present participle. Only 29
percent of the current Panel accepts the sentence News programs are less
expensive to produce than entertainment series, and the public's appetite for
them has burgeoned.
major influence;
to provide the conditions;
to emerge;
a separate field;
careful methods;
a scientific endeavor;
new breed;
to polish one’s skills;
content analysis;
sophisticated models;
to cope with public problems.
4. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words nd phrases. Use
a) найперший передвісник ;
b) великий(значний, провідний) вплив ;
c) державний(політичний) діяч ;
d) забезпечувати умови ;
e) з'являтися (виникати) ;
f) нова генерація ;
g) окрема сфера діяльності ;
h) справжне (істинне) розуміння ;
i) пояснювальні методи(теорії) ;
j) наукові зусилля (спроби) ;
k) пропозиція (судження) ;
l) люди (людські істоти) ;
m) науковий підхід ;
n) вдосконалювати майстерність ;
o) опит громадської думки ;
p) змістовний аналіз ;
q) засоби ;
r) сучасні зразки (поглиблені моделі) ;
s) вести дослідження ;
t) просувати комп'ютерні технології ;
112
u) апаратне забезпечення ;
v) швидко зростаюча підгалузь ;
w) справлятись з проблемами ;
x) сприяти (просувати) .
a) Greek philosopher Cicero was the earliest forerunner of the political scientist;
b) Political science emerged in the United States as a separate field of
study in the late 15th century;
c) From psychologists political scientists took definitions, propositions, and
concepts to help in understanding of human beings behaviour;
d) Political scientists never applied the methods of social science, including
public opinion surveys;
e) The scientific approach finally began to dominate the field after the 18th century;
f) Political scientists created policy analysis, which they promoted as an
independent discipline.
6. Choose the correct word(s).
a) His study will have been remained/ has remained a major influence on
the discipline.
b) A society could provide/provides the conditions for a well/good life for
all its people.
c) These scholars joined researchers in the fields of /out sociology and
psychology.
d) Some political scientists developed sophisticating /sophisticated
models of human activity.
e) It are called / calls for the mastery of scientific methods to enable policy
analysts to judge the process.
7. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter of the definition on the
line.
____1)Italian statesman a) finally began to dominate the field after
the mid-20th century.
____2)French writer b) Niccolo Machiavelli
____3)From sociologists c) they took definitions, propositions, and
concepts to help in understanding why
human beings act in certain ways.
____4)From psychologists d) they borrowed statistical methods
____5)Scientific approach e) Jean Jacques Rousseau
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9. Match up the pairs of synonyms correspondingly.
Synonym Synonym
a)forerunner blossom
b)burgeon precursor
c)genuine masterhood
d)condition overview
e)skill sincere
f)emerge to manage
g)field the new generation
h)approach appliances
i)to cope to ensure
j)to provide appear
k)means method
l)survey terms
m)the new breed area
a) What is Aristotle famous for?
b) What persons can we refer to the classics of the political science?
c) When did political science emerge in the USA as a separate field of tudy?
d) What did the new breed of political scientists borrow from sociologists?
e) How did many political scientists interpret the study of the field?
f) What did political scientists borrow from psychologists?
g) What methods did political scientists apply in polishing their skills?
h) What subfield of political science was promoted as an independent discipline?
Unit III
Assignments:
1.Read and translate the text.
Political Theory
Political Theory, subdivision of political science, traditionally concerned with
the body of ideas expressed by political philosophers. Political theory largely
addresses the nature and justification of political obligation and authority and the
goals of political action.
The State. Throughout history a central concern of political theorists has been the
notion of the state. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato presented a theory of the
state in his discourse The Republic, which attempted to reconcile moral theory and
political practice. Plato presented an idea of a community where property would be
114
owned in common and an aristocracy of philosopher-kings would rule. His doctrines
have been distorted to assert the supremacy of the state over the individual.
Fourth-century BC Greek philosopher Aristotle is generally regarded as the
founder of the scientific approach to political theory. His Politics combined an
empirical investigation of facts and a critical inquiry into their ideal possibilities.
Church and State. In the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century AD) political
writing dealt largely with the struggle for supremacy between the Roman Catholic
church and the Holy Roman Empire. Italian philosopher Saint Thomas Aquinas
defended the role of the church in his Summa Theologica (1265-1273), while Italian
poet Dante Alighieri argued in his 14th-century treatise, On Monarchy, for a united
Christendom under emperor and pope. In The Prince (1532), Italian statesman
Niccolo Machiavelli transcended the traditional church-state debate by evaluating the
problems and possibilities of governments seeking to maintain power.
The Social Contract In his work Leviathan (1651), English philosopher
Thomas Hobbes argued that the sovereign's power should be unlimited, because
the state originated in a so-called social contract, whereby individuals accept a
common superior power to provide protection and make possible the satisfaction
of certain human desires. English philosopher John Locke argued in the 17th
century that sovereignty resided in the people, and that governments could be
legitimately overthrown if they failed to meet their obligations to the people.
Marxism and Other Forms of Totalitarianism German philosopher Karl Marx
argued that the abolition of property, and therefore of class exploitation, would
enable individuals to contribute according to their abilities and take according to
their needs. The state, according to Marx, would eventually disappear. In the 20th
century Marxism was subject to conflicting interpretations. It served as the official
ideology of several totalitarian states and inspired many revolutionary and
nationalist movements.
2. Study the following phrases. Recall the sentences in which they are used in
the text. Use them when retelling the unit.
a) to concern [kqn'sE:n] (стосуватися, торкатися, мати відношення) =
1.To have to do with or relate to: an article that concerns the plight of homeless
people. 2.To be of interest or importance to: This problem concerns all of us.
3.To engage the attention of; involve: We concerned ourselves with
accomplishing the task at hand. 4.To cause anxiety or uneasiness in: The firm's
weak financial posture is starting to concern its stockholders.
b) justification ["dZAstIfI'keIS(q)n] (виправдання, правомірність,
підтвердження) a. A formal defense; vindication. b. An explanation or
excuse:"The consequence of those measures will be the best apology for my
conduct" (Daniel Defoe).
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с) goal [gqVl] (ціль, мета) = The purpose toward which an endeavor [In'devq]
is directed; an objective [qb'dZektIv], aim, target.
d) concern (відношення, інтерес, турбота)= 1.A matter that relates to or
affects one. See synonyms at affair. 2.Regard for or interest in someone or
something. 3.A troubled or anxious state of mind arising from solicitude
(дбайливість) or interest.
e) notion ['nqVS(q)n] (поняття) = 1. A belief or opinion. 2. A mental image or
representation; an idea or conception.
f) discourse ['dIskO:s] (лекція, трактат) = 1.Verbal expression in speech or
writing. 2.Verbal exchange; conversation. 3.A formal, lengthy discussion of a
subject, either written or spoken. 4.Archaic. The process or power of reasoning.
g) to attempt [q'tempt] (намагатися;робити спробу) a. To make an effort;
endeavor: I attempted to read the entire novel at one sitting. b. To try to perform,
make, or achieve: We attempted the difficult maneuver without assistance.
h) to reconcile ['rekqnsaIl] (примиряти; узгоджувати). 1.To reestablish a
close relationship between. 2.To settle or resolve. 3.To bring (oneself) to accept:
He finally reconciled himself to thе change in management. 4.To make
compatible or consistent: reconcile my way of thinking with yours.
i) property ['prPpqtI] (власність) = a. Something owned; a possession. b. A
piece of real estate: my country property. c. Possessions considered as a group.
Usage Note ! Property, any object or right that can be owned. Ownership involves
possession. Ownership in modern societies implies the right to use and dispose of
property and it implies governmental protection of such rights. Property is usually obtained
by purchase, inheritance, or gift. Ownership may be public or private. Public ownership is
by the government. Private ownership is by an individual, a group of individuals, a
corporation, or some other form of organization. Property is categorized in two types: real
and personal. Real property is the land and anything firmly attached to it, such as buildings
and the minerals beneath the surface. Personal property can be divided into tangible
['txndZqb(q)l] (відчутний, матеріальний, дотиковий) and intangible property. Tangible
property exists physically. Intangible personal property has no physical existence but can
be legally owned; an example is patent rights.The concept of private property has been
challenged by political philosophies such as communism and socialism. According to
Communist doctrine, real property and most personal property should be publicly owned–
that is, the state should own the means of industrial production and all wealth-generating
personal property. Socialist societies do not generally hold that all property must be owned
by the state.
j) supremacy [sjH'premqsI] (верховенство) = 1.The quality or condition of
being supreme. 2.Supreme power or authority.
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k) to transcend [trxn'send] (виходити за межі)= 1.To pass beyond the limits
of: emotions that transcend understanding. 2.To be greater than, as in intensity or
power; surpass; excel: love that transcends infatuation (захоплення).
l) to reside in smth/smb [rI'zaId] (перебувати, бути властивим,належати,
знаходитись) = 1.To live in a place permanently or for an extended period. 2. To
be inherently present; exist: the potential energy that resides in flowing water.
m) abolition ["xbq'lIS(q)n] (скасування) = 1. The act of doing away with or the
state of being done away with; annulment. 2. Abolishment of slavery.
n) to contribute [kqn'trIbju:t] (сприяти, робити внесок) = 1. To give
or supply in common with others; give to a common fund or for a common
purpose. 2. To help bring about a result; act as a factor: Exercise contributes to
better health. 3.To make a contribution: contributes to several charities.
o) to inspire [In'spaIq] (надихати) = 1. To affect, guide, or arouse by divine
influence. 2. To fill with enlivening or exalting emotion: hymns that inspire the
congregation; an artist who was inspired by Impressionism. 3. a. To stimulate to
action; motivate: a sales force that was inspired by the prospect of a bonus. b. To
affect or touch: The falling leaves inspired her with sadness.4. To draw forth; elicit
or arouse: a teacher who inspired admiration and respect. 5. To be the cause or
source of; bring about: an invention that inspired many imitations. 6. To draw in
(air) by inhaling. 7. Archaic. a. To breathe on. b. To breathe life into.
p) to assert [q'sE:t] (заявляти, стверджувати) = 1.To state or express
positively; affirm: asserted his innocence. 2.To defend or maintain (one's rights,
for example). 3.To put (oneself) forward boldly or forcefully in an effort to make an
opinion known, for example: I had to assert myself in the meeting in order to
ensure acquisition of the new book.
Synonyms: asseverate (свідчити категорично), declare (оголошувати),
affirm (підтверджувати), aver (твердити), avow(відверто визнавати і
виправдовувати). These verbs all mean to make a positive statement. To assert
is to state one's opinion confidently but often without proof to support it: "I have
endeavored to assert nothing but what I had good authority for" (William Sewel).
Asseverate connotes sober (стриманий, розсудливий, тверезий) sincerity of
assertion: "The taxpayer also asseverates that his return from Greece proves
conclusively that his intentions were and are honorable" (Daily Report for
Executives). Declare has the approximate force of assert but may suggest
formality of statement and authority in the speaker: Congress declared that it
would reduce the budget deficit. Affirm and aver stress the speaker's confidence
in the validity of the statement: Scientists cannot affirm the existence of life on
other planets. She averred that solitude was necessary for creative work. Avow
implies frank and open acknowledgment or admission: "thinks the book succeeds
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in achieving its avowed purpose: to explain how the Court's current role evolved
through history" (Tony Mauro).
q) whereby [weq'baI] (за допомогою чого; у відповідності до чого) = In
accordance with which; by or through which.

to be traditionally concerned with the body of ideas ;
community ;
political obligation ;
to distort ;
to assert the supremacy of the state over the individual ;
to regard ;
an empirical investigation of facts ;
to evaluate the problems ;
seeking to maintain power ;
human desires ;
to be legitimately overthrown ;
sovereignty ;
to fail to do something ;
the abolition of property ;
according to one’s abilities ;
eventually disappear ;
several totalitarian states ;
to argue .
a) зрештою зникнути ;
b) скинути на законних підставах ;
c) звертатися головним чином ;
d) політичне зобов'язання;
e) головна турбота (інтерес);
f) намагатись примирити;
g) володіти власністю;
h) спотворити доктрину;
i) вважати(сь);
j) стверджувати верховенство держави;
k) дослідження фактів, що базується на досвіді;
l) бути неспроможним виконати свої зобов'язання перед кимось;
m) класова експлуатація;
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n) тема для суперечливих тлумачень(інтерпретацій);
o) скасування власності;
p) брати за потребами;
q) об'єднане християнство;
r) переконувати .
a) John Locke called for legitimate overthrowing of the governments.
b) Political theory largely addresses the nature of the goals of political action.
c) Karl Marx argued that the state would eventually disappear.
d) Totalitarian states don’t exist any more in our time .
e) Thomas Aquinas defended the theory of evolution based on natural
selection in his Summa Theologica.
f) Throughout history a central concern of political theorists has been the
notion of the sociolinguistics.
g) Plato presented a theory of the state in his discourse Leviathan
[lI'vaIqT(q)n] .
h) Aristotle argued in his 14th-century treatise, On Monarchy, for a united
Christendom under emperor and pope.
6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in the correct form; largely; property;
to evaluate; can; to inspire; to be regarded; according to Marx; to distort; to
seek; subject .
a) Plato presented an idea of a community where …….……..would be
owned in common and an aristocracy of philosopher-kings would rule.
b) Aristotle …… generally …………. as the founder of the scientific
approach to political theory.
c) He transcended the traditional church-state debate by …………….. the
problems and possibilities of governments …………. to maintain power.
d) John Locke argued that governments ……………. legitimately
overthrown if they failed to meet their obligations to the people.
e) It …………………. many revolutionary and nationalist movements.
f) The state ………………………………..would eventually disappear.
g) Political writing dealt ………….. with the struggle for supremacy between
the Roman Catholic church and the Holy Roman Empire.
h) His doctrines …………………… to assert the supremacy of the state
over the individual.
i) In the 20th century Marxism was……… to conflicting interpretations.
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line.
____1)Thomas Hobbes a)the founder of the scientific approach to political theory.
____2)Thomas Aquinas b)defended the role of the church in his Summa
Theologica.
____3)Aristotle c)argued that the sovereign's power should be
unlimited.
____4)John Locke d)argued in the 17th century that sovereignty
resided in the people.
____5)Dante Alighieri e)argued that the abolition of property, would
enable individuals to contribute according to
their abilities and take according to their needs.
____6)Karl Marx f)argued in his 14th-century treatise, for a united
Christendom under emperor and Pope.
9. Recompose the chain of the 3 components (ternary ['tE:nqrI]):

"synonyms – antonyms – synonyms" correspondingly.
1)to regard to deny to retain
2)to assert to neglect to stimulate
3)to disappear to discourage to falsify
4)to inspire to hamper to affirm
5)to reconcile to verify to bring together
6)justification accusation to suppose
7)to distort to quarrel to vanish
8)to maintain to emerge vindication
a) How did Karl Marx try to prove his theory about class exploitation ?
b) What does political theory largely address ?
c) Who is generally regarded as the founder of the scientific approach to
political theory ?
d) What is Niccolo Machiavelli famous for ?
e) Whose role did Thomas Aquinas defend in his Summa Theologica ?
f) Whom did John Locke make responsible for non-observance of
obligation before the people ?
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g) Who would rule in the Plato’s imaginary community ?
Unit IV
Assignments:
Fields Of Political Science
In the United States, political science is generally divided into six main fields:
(1) political theory and philosophy, (2) comparative government, (3)
international relations, (4) American government and politics, (5) public
administration, and (6) political behavior.
Political theory and philosophy are usually dealt with historically. Most
political scientists believe that the history of political thought forms the basis of all
political studies. They consider the reading of great books on political theory and
philosophy to be essential for a broad education in politics. The writers of these
works include Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas,
Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke,
Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Karl Marx.
The classic political and philosophical works help political scientists explore and
understand many issues of empirical politics (politics based on experience). With
this understanding, political scientists can establish generalizations based on
verified facts. These generalizations concern such subjects as how power is won
or lost and the problems of representative government.
Comparative government. An understanding of political reality may be
achieved by comparing the political institutions and practices of two or more
countries. Some scholars in comparative government specialize by studying the
countries of a particular area of the world.
International relations include diplomacy, international law, and international
organization. Since 1945, much emphasis has been placed on the study of the
United Nations. Vital forces in the modern world, including imperialism and
nationalism, are also important subjects of international relations. In addition, this
field of political science deals with defense policies and with problems connected
with peace and war. The effects of economic pressures on international relations
are studied as well.
American government and politics is a field of political science only in the United
States. In Canada, the study of Canadian government and politics would take its place.
Political scientists generally give special attention to their own country's government.
The U.S. government has a federal system. Study of the American government deals
with national, state, and local government and politics. American political scientists have
made notable progress in arriving at realistic understandings of Congress, the
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presidency, and the Supreme Court. They have also studied federal government
agencies, large corporations, interest groups, the mass media, and other centers of
economic and social power. Political scientists have gained important insight into how
these groups influence national decision making.
Public administration is actually part of comparative government and of
American government and politics. It is separated from those fields because of
the range and complications of modern administrative activities. Public
administration deals with such tasks of public officials as accounting, budgets,
and personnel management. Public officials often work closely with political
scientists who are experts in administration. These experts study the departments
of the federal, state, and local governments. They analyze how the organization
and internal politics of these departments aid or hinder putting political decisions
and programs into effect.
Political behavior is the field that explores the way people respond to certain
political conditions or influences. For example, the political scientist may take note
of how many voters favor a candidate who looks good on television. Behavioral
studies are a recent trend in political science. They have been influenced by
developments in such behavioral sciences as anthropology, psychology, and
sociology. Political scientists have developed ways to study certain key behavior
patterns in politics. Studies have been made in communications, propaganda,
voting behavior, and other activities.
a) comparative [kqm'pxrqtIv] (порівняльний) = 1. Relating to, based on, or
involving comparison. 2. Estimated by comparison; relative: a comparative
newcomer. 3. Grammar. Of, relating to, or being the intermediate degree of
comparison of adjectives, as better, sweeter, or more wonderful, or adverbs, as
more softly. 4. Linguistics. a. Of or relating to the synchronic typological
comparison of languages. b. Of or relating to the comparison of languages
descended from a common ancestor: comparative historical linguistics.
b) essential [I'senS(q)l] (істотний, суттєвий) = 1.Something fundamental.
2. Something necessary or indispensable.
с) explore [Ik'splO:] (дослідити, з’ясовувати, вивчати) = verb, transitive 1.To
investigate systematically; examine: explore every possibility. 2. To search into or travel
in for the purpose of discovery: exploring outer space. 3. Medicine. To examine for
diagnostic purposes. verb, intransitive To make a careful examination or search:
scientists who have been known to explore in this region of the earth.
d) verified facts ['verIfaId fxkts] (справжні, перевірені факти) to verify =
1.To prove the truth of by presentation of evidence or testimony;
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substantiate. 2. To determine or test the truth or accuracy of, as by comparison,
investigation, or reference: conducted experiments to verify the hypothesis. See
synonyms at confirm. 3. Law. a. To affirm formally or under oath. b. To append a
verification to (a pleading); conclude with a verification.
e) generalization ["dZen(q)rqlaI'zeIS(q)n] (узагальнення, загальне правило)
= 1. The act or an instance of generalizing. 2. A principle, a statement, or an idea
having general application.
Synonyms: correlation, general conclusion; reasoning.
f) representative government (представительное правление,
представницький уряд) = a. the members of a governmental body, usually
legislative, chosen by popular vote. b. members of the U.S. House of
Representatives or of the lower house of a state legislature.
g ) emphasis ['emfqsIs] (наголос) = 1.Special forcefulness of expression that
gives importance to something singled out; stress: a lecture on housekeeping with
emphasis on neatness; paused for emphasis, then announced the winner's name. 2.
Special attention or effort directed toward something: a small-town newspaper's
emphasis on local affairs. 3. Prominence given to a syllable, word, or words, as by
raising the voice or printing in italic type.
Synonyms: emphasis, accent, stress. The central meaning shared by these
nouns is "special weight placed on something considered important": laid a strong
emphasis on the study of foreign languages; opposition to nuclear power plants,
with the accent on total elimination; lay heavy stress on law and order.
h) effect [I'fekt] (вплив, результат, наслідок) = 1.Something brought about
by a cause or an agent; a result. 2. The power to produce an outcome or achieve
a result; influence: The drug had an immediate effect on the pain. The
government's action had no effect on the trade imbalance. 3. A scientific law,
hypothesis, or phenomenon: the photovoltaic effect. 4. Advantage; avail: used her
words to great effect in influencing the jury. 5. The condition of being in full force
or execution: a new regulation that goes into effect tomorrow. 6. a. Something
that produces a specific impression or supports a general design or intention: The
lighting effects emphasized the harsh atmosphere of the drama. b. A particular
impression: large windows that gave an effect of spaciousness. c. Production of a
desired impression: spent lavishly on dinner just for effect. 7. The basic or general
meaning; import: He said he was greatly worried, or words to that effect. 8.
effects Movable belongings; goods.
to effect = 1. To bring into existence. 2. To produce as a result. 3. To bring
about. — idiom. in effect In essence; to all purposes: testimony that in effect
contradicted her earlier statement.
Synonyms: effect, consequence, result, outcome, upshot, sequel. These nouns
denote something, such as an occurrence, a situation, or a condition, that is brought
123
about by a cause. An effect is produced by the action of an agent or a cause and
follows it in time: "Every cause produces more than one effect" (Herbert Spencer).
A consequence also follows a cause and is traceable to it, but the relationship
between them is less sharply definable: "Servitude is at once the consequence of
his crime and the punishment of his guilt" (John P. Curran). A result is an effect, or
the last in a series of effects, that is viewed as the end product of the operation of
the cause: "Judging from the results I have seen I cannot say that I agree with you"
(William H. Mallock). An outcome is a result but more strongly than result implies
finality and may suggest the operation of a cause over a relatively long period: If
you had refused, the outcome would probably not have been very different. An
upshot is a decisive result, often of the nature of a climax: "The upshot of the
matter was that she showed both of them the door" (Robert Louis Stevenson). A
sequel is a consequence that ensues after a lapse of time: "Our dreams are the
sequel of our waking knowledge" (Ralph Waldo Emerson).
i) pressure ['preSq] (економічний тиск) = 1.The application of continuous
force by one body on another that it is touching; compression. 2. A compelling or
constraining influence, such as a moral force, on the mind or will: pressure to
conform; 3. Urgent claim or demand: under the pressure of business; doesn't
work well under pressure. 4. An oppressive condition of physical, mental, social,
or economic distress.
j) federal ['fed(q)rql] (федеральний) = 1. Of, relating to, or being a form of
government in which a union of states recognizes the sovereignty of a central
authority while retaining certain residual powers of government. 2. Of or
constituting a form of government in which sovereign power is divided between a
central authority and a number of constituent political units.
k) insight ['InsaIt] (здібність глибокого проникнення у суть справи)
1. The capacity to discern the true nature of a situation; penetration.
2. The act or outcome of grasping the inward or hidden nature of things or of
perceiving in an intuitive manner.
Synonyms: acumen ['xkjVmqn], flair, intelligence
l) complication ["kPmplI'keIS(q)n] (ускладнення) A confused or intricate=
(заплутаний) relationship of parts.
m) hinder ['hIndq] (перешкоджати, заважати)
1. To be or get in the way of. 2. To obstruct or delay the progress of. 3.To
interfere with action or progress.
Synonyms: hinder, hamper, impede, obstruct, block, dam, bar.
These verbs mean to slow or prevent progress or movement. To hinder is to
hold back, as by delaying: The travelers were hindered by storms throughout their
journey. Often the word implies stopping or prevention: What is to hinder you from
trying? To hamper is to hinder by or as if by fastening or entangling: A suit and an
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overcoat hampered the efforts of the accident victim to swim to safety. She was
hampered by ill health in building up her business. To impede is to slow by
making action or movement difficult: "Sentiment and eloquence serve only to
impede the pursuit of truth" (Macaulay). Obstruct implies the presence of
obstacles that interfere with progress: A building under construction obstructs our view
of the mountains. One of the mugger's accomplices tried to obstruct the police officer
from upholding the law. Block refers to complete obstruction that prevents progress,
passage, or action: A huge snowdrift is blocking the entrance to the driveway. "Do not
block the way of inquiry" (Charles S. Peirce). Dam suggests obstruction of the flow,
progress, or release of something, such as water or emotion: dammed the brook to
form a swimming pool; dammed up his emotions. To bar is to prevent entry or exit or
prohibit a course of action: mounted troops barring access to the presidential palace;
laws that bar price fixing.

to gain important insight into smth;
accounting;
to put political decisions and programs into effect;
to respond to certain political conditions;
to take note of smth;
a recent trend;
to favor smb;
to study certain key behavior patterns;
to establish generalizations;
the mass media.
a) широка освіта ;
b) проблеми емпірічної політики ;
c) проводити (встановлювати) узагальнення;
d) міжнародне право ;
e) життєви (насущні) сили ;
f) економічний тиск ;
g) робити значні успіхи ;
h) приділяти особливу увагу ;
i) облік системних ресурсів (звітність; бухгалтерська справа;
самофінансування);
j) перешкоджати, заважати ;
k) здійснювати (проводити в життя ; виконувати) ;
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l) внутрішня політика ;
m) громадське управління ;
n) звернути увагу на щось ; прийняти до відома.
a) In the United States, political science is generally divided into nine main fields.
b) Most political scientists believe that relational algebra forms the basis of all
political studies.
c) Since 1945, much emphasis has been placed on the study of the United Nations.
d) The effects of economic pressures on international relations are never
studied by political science.
e) Government and politics is a field of political science only in the United States.
f) Behavioral [bI'heIvIqrql] studies are a recent trend in political science.
g) The U.S. government has a presidential system.
6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in the correct form. to make (2); to
consider; to influence; task; to study (2); to have.
a) Most political scientists ………………..the reading of great books on
political theory and philosophy to be essential for a broad education in politics.
b) Some scholars in comparative government specialize …………….. the
countries of a particular area of the world.
c) The effects of economic pressures on international relations ………….as well.
d) The U.S. government …………. a federal system.
e) American political scientists …………. notable progress in arriving at
realistic understandings of the Supreme Court.
f) Behavioral studies ……………………………… by developments in
anthropology, psychology, and sociology.
g) Investigations ………………………. in communications, propaganda, voting
behavior, and other activities.
h) Public administration deals with such …………… of public officials as
accounting, budgets, and personnel management.
7. Give as many synonyms as possible to the following words and phrases:

a) the basis ;
b) generally ;
c) to consider ;
d) to include ;
e) verified facts ;
f) generalization ;
g) to concern ;
126
h) to gain ;
i) to compare ;
j) a particular area ;
k) to place emphasis on something ;
l) vital forces ;
m) to give special attention to ;
n) notable progress ;
o) the mass media ;
p) the range of activities ;
q) to analyze ;
r) to take note of something ;
s) key patterns
9. Match up the pairs of "synonyms – antonyms"

correspondingly:
Synonym Antonym
a)notable dispensable
b)generalization simplicity
c)to take note of something to favour
d)to study failure ['feIljq]
e)to hinder to ignore
f)complication specification
g)progress to shrug off
h)essential humble
10. Retell the text: a) in detail b) in brief.
11.Think about these questions and be ready to discuss them using

information from the reading:
a) What is considered to be essential for a broad education in politics?
b) What is political science generally divided into?
c) What does comparative government deal with?
d) Which 3 components are included into international relations?
e) Have American political scientists studied the mass media?
f) What field of political science is related to personnel management?
g) What have behavioral studies been influenced by?
127
h) Which field explores the way people respond to certain political
conditions or influences?
Unit V
Assignments:
The Development of Political Science
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and his teacher, Plato, believed that
the main task of political science was to work out a model political order. This
political order would establish maximum justice and, at the same time, remain
completely stable. Plato was primarily a philosopher of ideas. He derived his
insight chiefly from abstract speculation (thinking about nonconcrete things).
Aristotle, on the other hand, insisted on empirical studies (investigation based on
experience) in constructing his political theories.
Scholasticism was a major philosophical movement during the late Middle
Ages. Its followers, often called scholastics, worked to fit the Greek tradition of
political science into the religious framework of Christianity. Their main concern
was to harmonize the power of government with ethics and moral laws. The
greatest scholastic was Saint Thomas Aquinas. He ranked all other political
subjects below law. In one of his most important works, Summa Theologica,
Aquinas elaborated Aristotle's theories and adapted them to Christian purposes.
Aquinas emphasized certain rights and duties of individuals in the processes of
government. He also stressed that government should rule in accordance with
those rights and duties. By stating that government was limited by law, Aquinas
helped lay the foundation of modern constitutionalism.
Secularism. The theories of the medieval philosophers were challenged in
the 1500's and early 1600's. Niccolo Machiavelli, a famous Florentine politician,
pushed aside Christian idealism in favor of realistic power politics. Machiavelli's
ideas were generalized by Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher. In Hobbes's
view, a person's entire life is a "ceaseless search for power." This approach
became known as secularism because it separated politics from religion. Three
writers who put those ideas into legalistic form were Jean Bodin, a French jurist;
Johannes Althusius, a German political scientist; and Hugo Grotius, a Dutch
lawyer who founded the science of international law.
Constitutionalism is a political system in which the powers of government
are in fact limited by law or tradition. Constitutionalism developed during the mid-
1600's as a reaction to absolutism--that is, absolute rule by one person. The
reaction was especially strong in England, where it was climaxed by the Glorious
Revolution of 1688. Several English writers influenced the basic theories of
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Western constitutionalism, including Richard Hooker, John Milton, and James
Harrington. John Locke, perhaps the most influential political writer of the time,
emphasized basic human rights and believed that people should revolt against
governments that violated those rights. His book Two Treatises of Government
(1690) greatly influenced political thought in the American colonies. Locke's ideas
helped shape the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.
Liberalism developed as a political philosophy largely from the theories of
Locke. Liberalism represents a willingness to change ideas, proposals, and
policies to meet current problems. Locke's theories were given a broader base by
Montesquieu, one of a group of French writers called the philosophers. Liberal
theories were reinforced by the radical individualism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
and the utilitarian theories of David Hume, a Scotsman, and Jeremy Bentham, an
Englishman. Individualists believe that freedom of the individual is as important as
the welfare of any community. Utilitarians believe that the goal of politics is "the
greatest happiness of the greatest number".
John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher and economist, summarized most of the
liberal ideas that had developed up to his time. Three great German philosophers
contributed liberal ideas that were somewhat different from classic liberalism. They
were Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.
The liberalism of Fichte and Hegel included ideas of socialism and nationalism. Kant's
liberalism included a theory of universal peace through world organization. Kant
explained his theory in On Eternal Peace (1795).
Democracy and socialism. Some of Rousseau's writings carried his political
theories beyond radical individualism. In The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau
became the theorist of democracy. His emphasis on the collective--the general
will, as Rousseau described it--gave rise to socialism. Eventually, the theories
about democracy became divided. Liberal, constitutional, democratic ideas were
followed in the United States. Socialist democratic ideas became predominant in
Europe. Socialism was further developed by Karl Marx, a German philosopher
and economist. He first expressed his socialist ideas in the Communist Manifesto
(1848), which he wrote with his colleague Friedrich Engels. Communism in the
Soviet Union was based on Marxist doctrines as interpreted and modified by V. I.
Lenin, who led the Russian Revolution in 1917. Marxism-Leninism differs greatly
from the Marxist doctrines followed by democratic socialists in many countries of
Western Europe.
Contemporary ideas. Since about 1900, most political scientists have sought
increasingly to strengthen the empirical basis of their work. They have been returning
to Aristotle's view of basing political theories and methods on experience. As a result,
much progress has been made in descriptive and analytical work, and in quantitative
studies (studies that collect data in numerical form), such as opinion polls. Today,
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political scientists make practical improvement and political reform of their major
concerns. Many current political studies consider most nations of the world. Such
global interests find expression in the International Political Science Association.
About 40 national political science associations work together in this organization.
a) to work out ['wE:k'aVt] (розробити, спланувати) = 1.To accomplish by
work or effort. 2. To find a solution for; solve: worked out the equations; worked
out their personal differences. 3. To formulate or develop: work out a plan.
b) stable ['steIb(q)l] (стійкий, стабільний; міцний, надійний) = 1.a. Resistant
to change of position or condition; steadfast. b. Maintaining equilibrium; self-
restoring.2.Immutable; permanent; enduring. 3.a. Consistently dependable. b. Not
subject to mental illness or irrationality. 4.Physics. Having no known mode of
decay; indefinitely long-lived. Used of atomic particles. 5. Chemistry. Not easily
decomposed or otherwise modified chemically.
Synonyms: steady, stable, fixed, constant, stable, permanent, unchangeable,
balanced, solid, substantial.
с) primarily ['praIm(q)rqlI] (перш за все, головним чином) = 1. Chiefly;
mainly: a scholastic program primarily for seniors; a primarily middle-class
neighborhood. 2. At first; originally.
Synonyms: initially, first of all, before everything, first and foremost.
d) to derive [dI'raIv] ( походити, происходить, вести своё происхождение,
вытекать, быть следствием, выводить, получать) verb, transitive 1. To obtain
or receive from a source. 2. To arrive at by reasoning; deduce or infer: derive a
conclusion from facts. 3. To trace the origin or development of (a word).
4.Chemistry. To produce or obtain (a compound) from another substance by
chemical reaction. verb, intransitive To issue from a source; originate.
e) to fit [fIt] (відповідати, пристосовувати) = 1. a. To be the proper size and
shape for: These shoes fit me. b. To cause to be the proper size and shape: The
tailor fitted the trousers by shortening them. c. To measure for proper size: She
fitted me for a new jacket. 2. To be appropriate to; suit: music that fits your mood.
3. To be in conformity or agreement with: observations that fit the theory nicely. 4.
To make suitable; adapt: fitted the shelves for large books. 5.To make ready;
prepare: Specialized training fitted her for the job.
f) to harmonize ['hQ:mqnaIz] (гармонізувати, узгоджувати, приводити у
відповідність) = To bring or come into agreement or harmony.= synchronize,
regulate, adjust
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g) to rank [rxNk] (шикувати, класифікувати; дати оцінку) = 1. To place in a
row or rows. 2. To give a particular order or position to; classify. 3. To outrank or
take precedence over.
h) to elaborate [I'lxbqreIt] (детально розробляти; виробляти, уточнювати,
розвивати) = 1. To work out with care and detail; develop thoroughly. 2. To
produce by effort; create.
i) to state [steIt] (заявляти, формулювати, стверджувати, констатувати,
визначати) = To set forth in words; declare.
j) constitutionalism ["kPnstI'tju:S(q)nqlIz(q)m] (конституційна форма
правління) = 1.Government in which power is distributed and limited by a system
of laws that must be obeyed by the rulers. 2. a. A constitutional system of
government. b. Advocacy of such a system.
k) to challenge ['tSxlIndZ] (заперечувати ,оспорювати, кидати виклик) =
1.a. To call to engage in a contest, fight, or competition: challenged me to a game
of chess. b. To invite with defiance (непокора); dare: challenged him to
contradict her. 2. To take exception to; call into question; dispute: a book that
challenges established beliefs. 3. To order to halt and be identified, as by a
sentry. 4. Law. To take formal objection to (a prospective juror). 5. To question
the qualifications of (a voter) or validity of (a vote). 6. To have due claim to; call
for: events that challenge our attention. 7. To summon to action, effort, or use;
stimulate: a problem that challenges the imagination.
l) to generalize ['dZen(q)rqlaIz] (узагальнити; розповсюдити, ввести в
загальний вжиток) = 1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law. b. To
render indefinite or unspecific.2. a. To infer (робити висновок) from many
particulars. b. To draw inferences or a general conclusion from. 3. a. To make
generally or universally applicable. b. To popularize.4. a. To form a concept
inductively. b. To form general notions or conclusions.
m) ceaseless ['si:slIs] (безперервний, непрестанный; непрерывный
безостановочный; непрекращающийся) = Without stop or pause; constant.
Synonyms: perpetual [pq'petSVql]: nonstop, constant, continual, incessant, unceasing.
n) secular ['sekjVlq] (світський , мирский, нецерковний) = 1. Worldly rather
than spiritual. 2. Not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body:
secular music. 3. Relating to or advocating secularism. 4. Not bound by
monastic restrictions, especially not belonging to a religious order. Used of the
clergy. 5. Occurring or observed once in an age or a century. 6. Lasting from
century to century.
o) secularism ['sekjVlqrIz(q)m] (заперечення (всякої) релігії; атеїзм;
антиклерикалізм; доктрина відділення церкви від держави; боротьба за
відділення школи від церкви, боротьба за світську освіту ) = 1. Religious
131
skepticism or indifference. 2. The view that religious considerations should be
excluded from civil affairs or public education.
p) climax ['klaImxks] (досягнути вищої межі; кульмінація; зростати) = 1. The
point of greatest intensity or force in an ascending series or progression; a
culmination. 2. a. A series of statements or ideas in an ascending order of
rhetorical force or intensity. b. The final statement in such a series. 3. a. A
moment of great or culminating intensity in a narrative or drama, especially the
conclusion of a crisis. b. The turning point in a plot or dramatic action.
q) to emphasize ['emfqsaIz] (робити наголос, підкреслювати, виділяти) =
To give emphasis to; stress.
Synonyms: lay stress on, accent, accentuate, underline, put in italics, italicize,
put in bold letters.
r) to revolt [rI'vqVlt] (повстати) = 1. To attempt to overthrow the authority of the
state; rebel. 2. To oppose or refuse to accept something: revolting against high taxes.
s) to shape [SeIp] (сформувати,придавать чёткую форму; приводить у
порядок) = 1. To give a particular form to; create. 2.To cause to conform to a
particular form or pattern; adapt to fit. 3. a. To plan to bring about the realization
or accomplishment of; devise. b. To embody in a definite form: shaped a folk
legend into a full-scale opera. 4. a. To adapt to a particular use or purpose;
adjust. b. To direct the course of: "He shaped history as well as being shaped by
it" (Robert J. Samuelson). 5. To come to pass; happen. 6. To take on a definite
shape or form. Often used with up or into.
t) to reinforce [ri:In'fO:s] (підсилювати) = 1. To give more force or
effectiveness to; strengthen: The news reinforced her hopes. 2.To strengthen (a
military force) with additional personnel or equipment. 3.To strengthen by adding
extra support or material.
u) to summarize ['sAmqraIz] (підсумовувати, підводити підсумки) = to
present a body of material in a condensed form by reducing it to its main points;
to abstract.
v) colleague ['kPli:g] (колега,товариш по службі) (A fellow member of a
profession, a staff, or an academic faculty; an associate. One that is united or
associated with another or others in an activity or a sphere of common interest.)
w) consider [kqn'sIdq] (розглядати, вважати, обговорювати, враховувати) =
verb, transitive 1. To think carefully about. 2. To think or deem to be; regard as. 3.
To form an opinion about; judge: He considers waste to be criminal. 4. To take
into account; bear in mind: Her success is not surprising if you consider her
excellent training. 5. To show consideration for: failed to consider the feelings of
others. 6. To esteem; regard. 7. To look at thoughtfully. verb, intransitive To think
carefully; reflect: Give me time to consider. Synonyms: consider, deem, regard,
account, reckon. These verbs refer to holding opinions or views that are based on
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evaluation. Consider suggests objective reflection and reasoning: She is
considered an intelligent woman. He considers success of little importance.
x) to give rise to smth. – а) давати початок чому-н.; б) спричиняти,
викликати, бути джерелом; давати привід; мати результат; the rumour gave
rise to a lot of unnecessary worry – ці чутки спричинили багато зайвих турбот =
To be the cause or origin of; bring about.
y) to become divided – (розійтися у думках, виявляти розбіжність) = To
become separated into parts according to kind.
3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

to derive one’s insight from;
to fit smth into ;
in accordance with smth;
to lay the foundation;
to push aside;
in favor of;
entire life;
to violate the rights;
to meet current problems;
descriptive and analytical work; quantitative studies;
opinion poll;
to strengthen the empirical basis
вести судження ;
прилаштувати (пристосовувати) щось до чогось ;
згідно з (відповідно до чогось);
закласти фундамент (покласти початок);
заперечувати(піддавати сумніву);
узагальнити ;
відштовхнути(відкинути);
на користь когось(чогось);
все життя;
безперервний пошук влади;
повстати проти уряду ;
готовність ;
задовольняти (відповідати, соответствовать) насущні проблемам;
добробут;
домінуючий;
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наочна та аналітична праця;
кількісний аналіз (дослідження);
опитування громадської думки;
5. Read the following statements and decide which of them are true (T) or
false (F) according to the context & grammar:
a) Three writers has been trying to put secular ideas into legalistic form.
b) John Locke believe that people shouldn’t revolt against governments.
c) Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s individualism reinforced liberal theories.
d) Kant's liberalism included a theory of universal peace.
e) Marxism-Leninism does not differ from the Marxist doctrines.
f) Many progress has been made in descriptive and analytical work.
6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in the correct form.

to give; to seek; to harmonize; to make; justice; to become; to develop.
1) This political order would establish maximum …………... and, at the same
time, remain completely stable.
2) Their main concern was …………………... the power of government with
ethics and moral laws.
3) This approach …………………….. known as secularism because it
separated politics from religion.
4) Constitutionalism …………………… during the mid-1600's as a reaction to
absolutism--that is, absolute rule by one person.
5) Locke's theories ………… …………… a broader base by Montesquieu, one
of a group of French writers.
6) Most political scientists ………. ………… increasingly to strengthen the
empirical basis of their work.
7) Much progress ………… ………. ………… in descriptive and analytical work.
line.
_____1) Thomas Aquinas a) entire life is a "ceaseless search for power".
_____2) John Stuart Mill b) the goal of politics is "the greatest
happiness of the greatest number."
_____3) V. I. Lenin c) He first expressed his socialist ideas in
the Communist Manifesto (1848).
_____4) Niccolo Machiavelli d) led the Russian Revolution in 1917.
_____5) Utilitarians e) summarized most of the liberal ideas
that had developed up to his time.
_____6) Thomas Hobbes f) He ranked all other political subjects below law.
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_____7) Karl Marx g) A famous Florentine ['flPrqntaIn] politician.
8. Translate these sentences. Interpret the underlined phrases and give

synonyms to them :
Charles II(1630-1685) attempted to restore order, but the issue of sovereignty
remained to be resolved. Some factions, called the Whigs, urged exclusion of the
king's Roman Catholic brother James from succession. The Tories, favoring the
king and the Anglican church, opposed his exclusion. Charles subsequently ruled
without Parliament.
He died in 1685, passing the throne to James. In 1688 the opponents of
James II invited William of Orange, a Protestant and husband of Charles I's eldest
daughter, Mary, to come to safeguard Mary's inheritance. When William landed,
James fled.
In 1689 Parliament gave William and Mary the crown jointly, on condition that they
affirm the Bill of Rights listing and condemning the abuses of James. A Toleration Act
gave freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters. This bloodless and successful
revolution was called the Glorious Revolution. Under William and Mary, England
asserted itself as the military, financial, and intellectual leader of the world.
Resume: As a result of the English, American, and French revolutions,
libertarian ideals were embodied in the structure of national governments. In
England the struggle between Parliament and the Stuart monarchs culminated in
the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The new king, William III, gave royal assent
(1689) to the Declaration of Rights, which guaranteed constitutional government.
The 17th century was marked also by the growth of individual freedom in
England. In the common law courts, for example, the judges became more
concerned for the rights of those accused of crime.
10. Restore the chain of the 3 components correspondingly:

"synonyms – antonyms – synonyms".
Synonyms Antonyms Synonyms
a) to develop b) to foul up c) to evolve
d) to strengthen e) to tame f) to reinforce
g) to harmonize h) interrupted i) to rebel
j) colleague k) slippery l) companion
m) to infringe n) to observe o) to trespass['trespqs]
p) to revolt q) to diminish r) to coordinate
s) ceaseless t) to depress u) steady
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v) stable w) rival x) incessant
12. Render all the biography of Johannes Althusius (p.172) into English,
paying special attention to the use of the Rules of Sequence of Tenses and non-
finite forms (Verbals).

a) Where has Plato chiefly derived his insight from ?
b) What was Thomas Aquinas’ attitude to Aristotle's theories ?
c) In what way can the term ‘secularism’ be interpreted ?
d) Whom was the science of international law founded by ?
e) What events took place in England in 1688 ?
f) What is the purpose of politics as Utilitarians considered ?
g) Who is considered to be the theorist of democracy ?
h) What organization represents the global interests of political scientists all
over the world ?
i) What do opinion poll takers deal with ?
j) Characterize John Locke’s contribution to the political science .
Unit VI
Assignments:
Government
Government is one of humanity's oldest and most important institutions. From
earliest times, some kind of government has been a vital part of every society.
This is because every society needs some people to make and enforce decisions
that affect conduct within the group. The term government also refers to the
process of exercising power in a group.
Any formal or informal group--a family, a church, a baseball team, a club, a
corporation, a labor union--may be said to have government. But when we speak
of government, we generally mean public government, such as that of a nation, a
state, a province, a city, or a village. This article mainly discusses the nature and
powers of public governments. Government of some kind affects every human
activity in important ways. For that reason, most political scientists (specialists
in the study of government) believe that government should not be studied by
itself. They urge that when we study government we should also know something
about anthropology, economics, history, philosophy, science, and sociology.
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Elements of Government
A number of basic elements are common to all governments. These elements
are (1) rules of conduct, (2) sovereignty ['sPvrIntI], (3) legitimacy, (4)
jurisdiction, and (5) enforcement.
Rules of conduct. Every group of people--from a family to a nation--has rules
of conduct to govern the lives of its members. For example, a family may have a
rule that all its members be in time for meals. This rule makes it possible for the
family members to eat together and then go about their own business. It is meant
to keep life running smoothly for group members. The rules made by a group are
really decisions about matters that affect the group as a whole. The decisions are
designed to encourage or require certain kinds of behavior, or to discourage or
forbid other kinds of behavior by individual members.
Sovereignty is supreme power or authority. A sovereign government has the
authority to use force within its boundaries. Through the years, different ideas
about the source of a public government's sovereignty have developed. An early
idea was that a government ruled by divine right. This idea suggested that
authority flowed to the government from God and was unlimited. Today, the
people are regarded as the chief source of the government's authority in
democratic countries.
Legitimacy is the acceptance by the people of the government's authority to
exercise power. No political system can exist unless its government has such
acceptance. The legitimacy of a government depends in part on the socialization
of its people.
Socialization is a learning process in which the people come to accept the
standards of their society. Most countries promote socialization through
educational systems that teach people to have positive views about their
government. In this way, people develop loyalty to such symbols of the
government as a flag or national anthem ['xnT(q)m].
Jurisdiction means the right or power of making and enforcing rules or laws. The
jurisdiction of a public government extends over all the people who live in a certain
area. The only way a person can escape such jurisdiction is to move out of its area.
Public governments have broad functional jurisdiction--the range of activities to which
their rules or laws apply. Public governments in the United States govern behavior
that affects national defense, social welfare, the economy, marriage and divorce,
public health, education, taxation, and transportation. In addition, these public
governments regulate most businesses, professions, and trades.
Law enforcement. Rules of conduct are not likely to have much effect unless
people obey them. If the members of a group were permitted to ignore or disobey
its rules, a society could not operate. Soon there would be no law or order. Most
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people obey the decisions of their group willingly. But some must be forced to
obey by the threat of punishment. Clubs, corporations, and labor unions have
officers who enforce their regulations. Cities, states, provinces, and nations have
police officers, judges, and soldiers who enforce their laws. Enforcement usually
means some kind of punishment for people found guilty of disobedience. Those
who have the power to control behavior by making and enforcing the rules of a
group are often called a power structure.
Probably the most important difference between private and public
governments lies in how they enforce their rules or laws. Only public governments
have the right to define certain acts as crimes or to use physical force against
disobedient people. A private government may fine or even expel a disobedient
member. But only a public government can legally imprison or execute a person.
a) to enforce [In'fO:s] (нав’язувати, проводити в життя, забезпечувати
дотримання або виконання) = 1. To compel observance of or obedience to:
enforce a regulation. 2. To impose (a kind of behavior, for example); compel:
enforce military discipline. 3. To give force to; reinforce: "enforces its plea with a
description of the pains of hell" (Albert C. Baugh).
Synonyms: implement, invoke. The central meaning shared by these verbs

is "to cause to be applied or carried out": enforced the rules; implementing the
terms of the agreement; invoke emergency powers.
b) to affect [q'fekt] (впливати (на щось) = 1. To have an influence on or effect
a change in: Inflation affects the buying power of the dollar. 2. To act on the
emotions of; touch or move. 3.To attack or infect, as a disease: Rheumatic fever
can affect the heart. 1. Psychology. a. A feeling or emotion as distinguished from
cognition, thought, or action. b. A strong feeling having active consequences.
2.Obsolete. A disposition, feeling, or tendency.
Synonyms: affect, influence, impress, touch, move, strike. These verbs
are compared as they mean to produce a mental or emotional effect. To affect is
to act upon a person's emotions: The adverse criticism the book received didn't
affect the author one way or another. Influence implies a degree of control or
sway over the thinking and actions, as well as the emotions, of another:
"Humanity is profoundly influenced by what you do" (John Paul II) To impress is
to produce a marked, deep, often enduring effect: "The Tibetan landscape
particularly impressed him" (Doris Kerns Quinn). Touch usually means to arouse
a tender response, such as love, gratitude, or compassion: "The tributes[to the
two deceased musicians]were fitting and touching" (Daniel Cariaga).
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Move suggests profound emotional effect that sometimes leads to action or
has a further consequence: The account of her experiences as a refugee moved
us to tears. Strike implies keenness or force of mental response to a stimulus: I
was struck by the sudden change in his behavior.
Usage Note: Affect and effect have no senses in common. As a verb affect is
most commonly used in the sense of "to influence" (how smoking affects health).
Effect means "to bring about or execute": layoffs designed to effect savings. Thus the
sentence These measures may affect savings could imply that the measures may
reduce savings that have already been realized, whereas These measures may effect
savings implies that the measures will cause new savings to come about.
c) to urge [E:dZ] примушувати, наполягати = verb, transitive 1. To force or
drive forward or onward; impel. 2. To entreat earnestly and often repeatedly;
exhort. 3. To advocate earnestly the doing, consideration, or approval of; press
for: urge passage of the bill; a speech urging moderation. 4. To stimulate; excite:
"It urged him to an intensity like madness" (D.H. Lawrence). 5. To move or impel
to action, effort, or speed; spur. verb, intransitive 1. To exert an impelling force;
push vigorously. 2. To present a forceful argument, claim, or case.
d) smoothly ['smu:DlI] adv (1. гладко; рівно; плавно 2.добре,
благополучно) = Having no obstructions or difficulties: a smooth operation.
e) to flow [flqV] (витікати, походити, виникати) = 1. a. To move or run
smoothly with unbroken continuity, as in the manner characteristic of a fluid. b. To
issue in a stream; pour forth: Sap flowed from the gash in the tree. 2. To circulate,
as the blood in the body. 3. To move with a continual shifting of the component
particles: wheat flowing into the bin; traffic flowing through the tunnel. 4. To
proceed steadily and easily: The preparations flowed smoothly. 5. To exhibit a
smooth or graceful continuity: The cadence of the poem flowed gracefully. 6. To
hang loosely and gracefully: The cape flowed from his shoulders. 7. To arise;
derive: Several conclusions flow from this hypothesis.
f) acceptance [qk'septqns] (прийняття; визнання; схвалення) = Favorable
reception; approval. Belief in something; agreement.
g) loyalty ['lOIqltI] (вірність,відданість,лояльність,благонадійність) =
Feelings of affection: My loyalties lie with my family. Faithfulness to obligations,
duties, or observances. Exact correspondence with fact or with a given quality,
condition, or event; accuracy, fidelity; loyalty implies a steadfast and devoted
attachment that is not easily turned aside: loyalty to an oath; loyalty to one's
family; party loyalty; loyalty to an ideal.
h) fine [faIn] (штраф, штрафувати) = A sum of money required to be paid as a
penalty for an offense; To require the payment of a fine from; impose a fine on.
139
3. To force to leave; deprive of membership: expelled the student from college
for cheating. Synonyms : banish, outcast, ostracize, outlaw, dismiss.
3. Use the collocations given below in the sentences of your own:
a) to control behavior
b) to be found guilty
c) to accept the standards of one’s society
d) divine right
e) to affect the group as a whole
f) to be a vital part of every society
g) to promote socialization through educational systems
 мати відношення, співвідноситись з чимось
 неслухняний( непокірний, упертий; той, хто не піддається впливу)
 впливати на людську діяльність
 оподаткування
 сприяти підготовці до життя в суспільстві
 штрафувати або виключати з складу
 ув'язнювати когось на законних підставах
 приведення до виконання
 судочинство (рос.судопроизводство; юрисдикція)
 головне джерело
 заохочувати(підтримувати) або вимагати певний вид поведінки
 заважати(перешкоджати) або забороняти
 суспільна (державна) форма правління
5. Comment on the use of tenses, verbals or grammar constructions if any in
the following sentences:
1) Today, the people are regarded as the chief source of the government's
authority in democratic countries.
2) Any group may be said to have government.
3) From earliest times government has been a vital part of every society.
4) Through the years, different ideas about the source of a public
government's sovereignty have developed.
5) If the members of a group were permitted to ignore or disobey its rules, a
society could not operate.
6) A private government may fine or even expel a disobedient member.
7) It is meant to keep life running smoothly for group members.
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8) Rules of conduct are not likely to have much effect unless people obey them.
a) to develop loyalty to the symbols
b) to imprison a person legally
c) law enforcement
d) the jurisdiction
e) national anthem
f) to exercise power
g) to use force within one’s boundaries
h) to encourage or require certain kinds of behavior
i) to discourage or forbid smth
j) rules of conduct
k) the threat of punishment
7. Fill in the missing words and collocations:
a) Every society ……….. some people to make and enforce decisions that
affect conduct ……………. the group.
b) When we study government we should also know something about
………… …………. ………… philosophy, science, and sociology.
c) Only ………….. …………………. have the right to define certain acts as
crimes or to use physical ………… against disobedient people.
d) The legitimacy of a government depends in part …… the socialization of its
………………... .
e) The only way a person can escape such jurisdiction is ……… ……… of its area.
f) Most people ………….. the decisions of their group willingly.
Synonym Synonym
a)to enforce to influence
b)to fine to confiscate
c)to expel to press for
d)acceptance defiance
e)smoothly menace of penalty
f)to urge to ostracize
g)to affect to compel
h)threat of punishment quietly ['kwaIqtlI]
i)flag behaviour
j)disobedience acknowledgement
k)conduct banner
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a) What are the basic elements of government ?
b) Why does society need government ? Prove it by example.
c) What do rules of conduct deal with ?
d) Characterize different ideas about the source of a public government's
sovereignty.
e) What can a learning process in which the people come to accept the
standards of their society be called ?
f) What differs jurisdiction from legitimacy ?
g) What groups of people make law enforcement possible?
h) What are the differences between private and public governments ?
Unit VII
Assignments:
The Scope of Government

Many questions about government concern the relations between public and
private governments. How far, and over what kinds of activities, should the functional
jurisdiction of public governments extend? Should the goods and services needed by
the people be produced and provided entirely by private governments? Or should
some industries and services be owned and operated by public governments? Should
corporations and labor unions settle their disputes by themselves?
Or should some public government step in to iron out labor-management
disagreements? Who should establish educational standards for schools and
colleges--public or private governments? Should public governments manage the way
news is reported in newspapers or on radio or television? Or should all news reporting
be controlled only by private governments?
Anarchism. Some people believe that public governments should have little or no
functional jurisdiction. The most extreme belief of this kind is called anarchism.
Anarchists believe that all public governments conflict with personal liberty and are
unnecessary. Thus, anarchists would eliminate all public governments and let only
individuals and private groups govern the activities of a country. Anarchism has few
followers today.
Totalitarianism. At the other extreme from anarchism is totalitarianism.
Totalitarian governments demand total loyalty. They seek to regulate, or even
destroy, such institutions as the family, church, corporation, or labor union. There
are no limits on the functional jurisdiction of such governments. Totalitarian
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countries are usually governed by a small group of people. They put down all
opposition and try to socialize citizens to believe the state is all-important.
Individual freedoms are given little importance. Some totalitarian systems require
total loyalty to a particular leader. These systems include military dictatorships
that have been common in some Latin-American countries. Other totalitarian
systems require citizens to believe in a certain system of ideas. All types of
totalitarian governments use force, the threat of force, or terrorism to maintain
control of the people. The basic idea of totalitarianism exists today--in varying
degrees--in such Communist countries as China, Cuba, and North Korea. In
practice, however, few governments have been able to extend their functional
jurisdiction to every kind of group or individual behavior. Some private groups,
such as families and churches, continue to make some rules for their members.
Pluralism. Most nations have both public and private governments to make and
enforce rules of behavior. These countries are called pluralistic because public
and private groups have legitimacy and can affect the way the country is run.
Groups representing the interests of business, farming, labor, ethnic, or racial
['reIS(q)l] segments of society work with public government to develop public
policy. Each group exerts pressure on the others and on public government.
Together, they produce balancing pressures that keep a single group from taking
over. In pluralistic societies, interaction among interest groups is a way of forming
public opinion.
Freedom for the individual is the most important value in a pluralistic system.
People in pluralistic countries, such as the United States and Canada, place firm
limits on government powers that affect the rights of individuals. Private
individuals and groups generally accept the procedure of working out their
conflicts in the judicial and legislative systems of public government. The rules for
resolving conflicts are found in a constitution and laws, and are an important part
of a pluralistic society. Preserving these rules thus becomes a primary goal of the
political system.
The public governments of some pluralistic countries, including the
Scandinavian nations and the United Kingdom, base some of their economic
policies on the principles of socialism. These public governments own or operate
certain basic industries or services. Other pluralistic countries, such as the United
States and Canada, base their economies on the principles of capitalism, also
called free enterprise. In these countries, almost all industries and services are
controlled by individuals or private groups, under government regulation.
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a) to iron out ['aIqn'aVt] phr v (1.усувати 2.згладжувати (труднощі,
розбіжності) 3.ек. вирівнювати (коливання) = To settle through discussion or
compromise; work out.
b) to step in ['step'In] phr v (1. втручатися, включати to step in to save the
situation – втручатися в справу, щоб врятувати становище 2. забігати на
хвилинку (до когось) = To enter into an activity or a situation.
c) to settle a dispute – (вирішувати суперечку; разрешить спор) = To
conclude a verbal controversy(a debate) by a final decision.
Synonyms: debate, dispute, controversy, polemics, paper war, argument.
These nouns denote discussion involving conflicting points of view. Argument
stresses the advancement by each side of facts and reasons buttressing its
contention and intended to persuade the other side: Emotions are seldom swayed by
argument. Dispute stresses division of opinion by its implication of contradictory
points of view and often implies animosity: A dispute arose among union members
about the terms of the new contract. Controversy is especially applicable to major
differences of opinion involving large groups of people rather than individuals: The use
of nuclear power is the subject of widespread controversy.
d) to eliminate [I'lImIneIt] (ліквідувати, знищувати) = 1. To get rid of;
remove: an effort to eliminate capital punishment; eliminated his enemies. 2. a. To
leave out or omit from consideration; reject. b. To remove from consideration by
defeating, as in a contest.
Synonyms: eradicate, liquidate, purge, destroy. The central meaning shared
by these verbs is "to wipe out someone or something undesirable, especially by
using drastic methods such as banishment or execution": eliminated all political
opposition; eradicate guerrilla activity; liquidating traitors; purged all the
imprisoned dissidents.
e) to put down ['pVt'daVn] ( придушувати (силою) to put down a revolt –
подавити повстання; примушувати замовкнути to put down gossip – класти
край чуткам) = To bring to an end; repress: put down a rebellion.
f) to exert [Ig'zE:t] (прикладати зусилля) = 1.To put to use or effect; put forth:
exerted all my strength to move the box. 2. To bring to bear (чинити тиск);
exercise: exert influence. 3. To put (oneself) to strenuous (енергійний) effort:
exerted ourselves mightily during the campaign to raise funds.
g) interaction ["Intq'rxkS(q)n] (взаємодія) = acting on each other
h) to keep smb. from smth. /from doing smth./ утримуватися, стримуватися
від чого-н.; заважати, перешкоджати кому-н. робити щось = to retain.
i) take-over ['teIk"qVvq] (державний переворот) = The act or an instance of
assuming control or management of or responsibility for something, especially the
seizure of power, as in a nation, political organization, or corporation. = coup
d'état ['ku:deI'tQ:]
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a) сфера діяльності уряду(можливості, масштаб, межі)
b) крайність(чрезмерность; крайній ступінь)
c) пристосовувати (когось) до потреб суспільства
d) підтримувати контроль над людьми
e) розширити сферу повноважень
f) встановлювати правила
g) здійснювати тиск на щось(когось)
h) утримувати когось від чогось
i) першочергова ціль
j) вільна ініціатива
4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

 to establish educational standards
 the scope of government
 to socialize citizens
 the threat of force
 to extend jurisdiction
 the threat of force
 to make the rules
 racial segments of society
 to exert pressure on smth
 forming public opinion
 a primary goal
 free enterprise
5.Choose the suitable variant and prove it by your own examples:
1) Anarchism has a few / few followers today.
2) Totalitarian countries are / had been usually governed by a small group
of people.
3) People in pluralistic countries place firm / firmly limits on government
powers that affect the rights of individuals.
4) Almost all industries and services will have been / are controlled by
individuals or private groups.
5) Who should / should be establish educational standards for schools and colleges?
6. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter

of the definition on the line.
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______1) Pluralism. a) The theory or doctrine that all forms of
government are oppressive and undesirable and
should be abolished. Active resistance and
terrorism against the state.
______2) Freedom. b) The ruling party controls all mass media. All
writers, actors, composers, and poets are
licensed by the government and usually are
required to belong to the ruling party.
_____3) Anarchism. c) A condition of society in which numerous distinct
ethnic, religious, or cultural groups coexist within
one nation. The belief that no single explanatory
system or view of reality can account for all the
phenomena of life.
_____4) Totalitarianism. d) The right to unrestricted use; full access. Liberty of
the person from slavery, detention, or oppression.
_____5) Free Enterprise. e) Attitudes, perspectives, and preferences of a
population toward events, circumstances, and
issues of mutual interest.
_____6) Public Opinion f) The freedom of private businesses to operate
competitively for profit with minimal government
regulation.
7. Read the following statements and decide which of them are true (T) or
false (F) according to the context & grammar:
a) Pluralistic governments demand total loyalty.
b) Anarchists believe that all public governments are unnecessary.
c) In pluralistic countries, almost all industries and services are controlled by
individuals or private groups, under government regulation.
d) Totalitarian countries are usually governed by people’s power.
e) The rules for resolving conflicts are finded in a constitution and laws.
f) Some private groups, such as families and churches, continue to maked
some rules for their members.
g) The totalitarian governments use the threat of force, or terrorism to maintain
control of the people.
8. Write an annotation of the text. (NB Annotation - a critical or explanatory note; a
commentary, attached to some part of a document to provide related information.)
9. Recompose the chain of the 3 components

correspondingly: "synonyms – antonyms – synonyms".
1)take-over separation faith
2)freedom subjection chaos ['keIPs]
3)interaction evolution fidelity
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4)to eliminate to exclude to demolish
5)anarchy treason liberty
6)opposition adherent antagonist
7)belief scepticism Upheaval [Ap'hi:v(q)l]
8)to include to establish to comprise
9)loyalty order intercommunion
a) What is the difference between public and private governments?
b) What do anarchists suggest eliminating?
c) Who are totalitarian countries usually governed by?
d) What totalitarian countries do you know?
e) Are pluralistic principles compatible with the principles of socialism?
Prove your point of view by examples.
f) What is the role of public opinion in pluralistic societies?
g) How can the term freedom be defined?
Unit VIII
Assignments:
Who Governs?
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle classified governments by the number
of rulers and by certain principles under which they operated. Today, various
forms of government, including democracy and communism, differ mainly by the
degree in which the people participate in them.
Aristotle's categories. Aristotle, sometimes called the father of political science,
suggested that all governments fall into one of three categories: (1) rule by one
person, (2) rule by a few people, and (3) rule by many people. Within each
category, rule could be exercised for the benefit of all and be "virtuous," or for the
benefit of only the rulers and be "corrupt." When one person ruled for the good of all,
Aristotle taught, the government was a monarchy. A corrupt monarchy was a
tyranny, whose leader ruled to satisfy an appetite for power or wealth. Government
by a few people, for the good of all, was an aristocracy. When a small group of
people ruled to increase their own power or wealth, the government was an
oligarchy. Rule by many people, for the good of all, was called polity by Aristotle. In
a polity, a large number of citizens could rule for the benefit of the rest.
Democracy was Aristotle's name for corrupt rule by the majority, and it was to
be feared as a dangerous kind of mob rule.
147
Democracy. Since the late 1600's, the idea that a nation's people are the most
legitimate source of authority for public government has won increasing acceptance.
United States President Abraham Lincoln emphasized this idea in 1863 in his
Gettysburg Address, in which he referred to the nation's democracy as a government
"of the people, by the people, for the people, ...." In a direct democracy, the people
govern themselves, making the laws for their community together. But direct
democracy can work only in small communities, where the people can all meet in one
place. All the people of large communities--cities, states, provinces, or countries--
cannot meet in one place. Instead, they elect a certain number of their fellow citizens
to represent them in making laws. An assembly of representatives may be a council, a
legislature, a congress, or a parliament. Each permits the people to make the laws
indirectly--through their representatives.
Representative government is the chief feature of a republic. The republican
form of government achieves self-government, the goal of modern democracy, for
large communities, such as cities or countries. In democratic countries, the
people have almost unlimited opportunities to make the government truly
representative. They vote in secret, may seek public office, and may demand the
removal of public officials who behave improperly. The basic laws of democratic
countries guarantee many rights, including freedom of speech and of the press.
If people can take an actual part in the process of their government, the
government may be called democratic. Under such a system of government, the
people have political democracy. Many people in a democracy take part in
government by supporting a political party. Such organizations are vital to a
democracy. They compete to capture control of public government and give it
direction. They also recruit candidates, adopt policies, and work to form public
opinion on important issues.
Some scholars suggest that capitalism, in which the means of production are
mostly privately owned, is also a necessary condition for democracy. But political
democracy exists in such countries as Sweden and Israel, where Socialist parties
have spent many years in power.
The term democracy can be confusing because some nations that have kept
the forms of monarchy and aristocracy, such as the United Kingdom and Japan,
actually function as democracies. On the other hand, some nations calling
themselves democracies or republics are not democratic at all.
Communism. In traditional Communist societies, the process of government
is tightly controlled by a small group--the members of the Communist Party. Few
other people have any voice in the government. Voting consists of casting ballots
for Communist candidates only. Rival political parties cannot be organized. The
government controls all publications, radio, and television, and strongly restricts
what may be said or written.
148
Leaders in most Communist nations call their systems democratic because
the systems are designed to eliminate extremes of wealth and poverty. Such
countries provide programs that bring education, medical care, housing, culture,
and employment to the mass of the people. The programs focus on groups or
classes, not on individuals. Communist Party members say that individual liberty
is sacrificed for the good of the whole of society. But in spite of being troubled by
continuing poverty, democracies with capitalistic or mixed economies have
provided greater prosperity for more people than has any other system of
government. In addition, such prosperity has been achieved without major
sacrifices of personal liberty.
a) benefit ['benIfIt] ( перевага, користь, благодійницька справа) = a.
Something that promotes or enhances well-being; an advantage. b. Help; aid. c.
A public entertainment, performance, or social event held to raise funds for a
person or cause. to benefit = profit = "to derive advantage from something"
b) exercise ['eksqsaIz] (здійснювати, застосовувати, розвивати,
використовувати; користуватися; виявляти, хвилювати, турбувати, непокоїти) =
1.To put into play or operation; employ: Proceed, but exercise caution. 2. To bring to
bear; exert: "The desire to be re-elected exercises a strong brake on independent
courage" (John F. Kennedy). 3. a. To subject to practice or exertion in order to train,
strengthen, or develop: exercise the back muscles; exercise the memory. b. To put
through exercises: exercise a platoon. See synonyms at practice. 4. To carry out the
functions of; execute: exercise the role of disciplinarian. 5. a. To absorb the attentions
of, especially by worry or anxiety. b. To stir to anger or alarm; upset: an injustice that
exercised the whole community.
c) virtuous ['vE:tSVqs] (доброчесний; сильний, дійовий, ефективний) =
1.Having or showing virtue, especially moral excellence: led a virtuous life. 2.
Possessing or characterized by chastity; pure: a virtuous woman. See synonyms
at moral.
d) polity ['pPlItI] 1) державний устрій 2) образ або форма правління civil
polity – цивільна форма правління; держава; уряд = 1.The form of government
of a nation, a state, a church, or an organization. 2.An organized society, such as
a nation, having a specific form of government: "His alien philosophy found no
roots in the American polity" (New York Times).
e) permit [pq'mIt] (дозволяти, давати дозвіл, можливість) = 1.To allow the
doing of (something); consent to: permit the sale of alcoholic beverages. 2. To
grant consent or leave to (someone); authorize: permitted him to explain. 3. To
afford opportunity or possibility for: weather that permits sailing.
149
f) recruit [rI'kru:t] (набирати, поповнювати ряди, мобілізувати) = 1. To
engage (persons) for military service. 2.To strengthen or raise (an armed force)
by enlistment. 3. To supply with new members or employees. 4. To enroll
or seek to enroll: colleges recruiting minority students. 5.To replenish. 6. To
renew or restore the health, vitality, or intensity of.
g) restrict [rI'strIkt] (обмежувати, тримати в певних межах) = To keep or
confine within limits. See synonyms at limit.
h) sacrifice ['sxkrIfaIs] (жертва, жертвувати) = Forfeiture['fO:fItSq] (втрата)
of something highly valued for the sake of one considered to have a greater value
or claim.
i) prosperity [prP'sperItI] ( процвітання, успіх) = booming economy; plenty;
success; flourishing.
a) підпадати під категорію
b) функціонувати (діяти)
c) доброчесний
d) правління натовпу (охлократія)
e) спотворене (корумповане) правління більшості
f) зростаюче визнання (схвалення)
g) рада
h) законодавча влада
i) поводити (вести) себе невідповідно
j) вимагати усунення посадових осіб
k) претендувати (прагнути) на державну посаду
l) збиваючий з глузду ( з пантелику) рос.сбивающий с толку
m) конкуруючі політичні партії
n) ліквідувати крайнощі
o) добробут та бідність
p) зосереджувати увагу на чомусь
a) to fall into one’s category
b) to operate
c) virtuous
d) mob rule
e) corrupt rule by the majority
f) increasing acceptance
g) council
h) legislature
150
i) the goal of modern democracy
j) to behave improperly
k) to demand the removal of public officials
l) to seek public office
m) to capture ['kxptSq] control of smth
n) to form public opinion
o) confusing
p) to cast ballots
q) rival ['raIv(q)l] political parties
r) to eliminate extremes
s) to focus on something
5. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter

of the definition on the line.
___1)Communism a)Absolute power, especially when
exercised unjustly or cruelly.
___2)Aristocracy ["xrI'stPkrqsI] b)Government by a few, especially by a small
faction (фракція) of persons or families.
___3)Oligarchy ['PlIgQ:kI] c)A hereditary ruling class;nobility.
___4)Capitalism d) Government by the masses; mob rule.
___5)Tyranny ['tIrqnI] e)A theoretical economic system
characterized by the collective ownership
of property and by the organization of labor
for the common advantage of all members.
___6)Ochlocracy [Pk'lPkrqsI] f)An economic system in which the means of
production and distribution are privately or
corporately owned and development is
proportionate to the accumulation and
reinvestment of profits gained in a free market.
6. Correct grammar, lexical and textual mistakes:

1) Aristotle is sometimes called the father of psychology.
2) United States Emperor Abraham Lincoln referred to the nation's
democracy as a government "of the people, by the people, for the people, ...." in
1863 in his Gettysburg Address.
3) Various forms of government differs mainly by the degree in which the
people participate in them.
4) Representative government is the chief feature of a tyranny.
151
5) The basic laws of democratic countries guarantee many rights, including
freedom of hijacking ['haIdZxkIN], kidnapping and the press.
6) Political parties also recruit candidates, adopt policies, and work to form
public opinion on important issues either.
7) Capitalism is a necessary condition for democracy.
8) Some nations have been kept the forms of monarchy and aristocracy.
9) Voting in traditional communist societies consists from casting ballots
for Communist candidates only.
10) Such countries provide programs to brought education, medical care,
housing, culture, and employment to the mass of the people.
7. Fill in the blanks & define the tenses in the following sentences:
a) But in spite of ………. ………….. by continuing poverty, democracies with
capitalistic or mixed economies ……….. …………. greater prosperity for more
people than ……….. any other system of government.
b) In addition, such prosperity …….. ……… …………. without major sacrifices
of personal liberty.
c) Democracy was ……. ……………. as a dangerous kind of mob rule.
d) The process of government …. ……….. controlled by a small group.
e) Rival political parties ………… ……. organized.
8. Write an annotation of the text

Synonym Synonym
a)virtuous crowd mastery
b)confusing medley
с)prosperity prey
d)mixed embarrassing
e)sacrifice bonanza [bq(V)'nxnzq]
f)to permit to gain possession
g)to restrict to restrain
h)mob rule moral
i)to capture control to consent [kqn'sent]
11. Express the following in English. Supply answers.Work in pairs:
a) Які категорії уряду запропонував Арістотель ?
b) Яке значення вкладав Арістотель у термін "олігархія" ?
152
c) Що відрізняє демократію від монархії (за Арістотелем) ?
d) У яких країнах найбільш реальна вірогідність усунення посадових
осіб, що ведуть себе невідповідно ?
e) Що гарантують основні закони демократичних країн ?
f) Чи є капіталізм необхідною умовою для розвитку демократії ?
g) Чи можлива сумісність понять "монархія" та "демократія" у
політичному процесі розбудови держави ?
h) На чому зосереджено увагу у політико-економічних програмах
комуністичних країн ?
i) В чому полягає перевага країн з капіталістичними або змішаними
економіками над комуністичними державами з плановим виробництвом? Чи
є в них слабкі сторони? Доведіть це на прикладах.

a) What did Aristotle say about virtuous and corrupt governments?
b) How did Aristotle name rule by many people, for the good of all?
c) What idea did Abraham Lincoln emphasize in 1863 in his Gettysburg Address?
d) What is the chief feature of a republic?
e) What government may be called democratic?
f) What’s the role of the political parties in the state’s development?
g) What are the characteristic features of the traditional communist societies?
h) How can individual liberty and the interests of the whole of society be correlated?
i) How can advantages and disadvantages of socialist (communist) &
capitalist societies be precisely defined ? Prove them by your own examples.
Unit IX
Assignments:
Public Relations
Public relations, commonly called PR, is an activity aimed at increasing
communication and understanding between an organization or individual and one or
more groups called publics. The term is also applied to the profession responsible for
handling such assignments. Corporations, educational institutions, religious groups,
government agencies, labor unions, politicians, and entertainers are among those
who use public relations. Their publics vary from employees and stockholders to an
entire community or members of the news media.
The communication between an organization and its public ranges from a
simple news release to a sophisticated campaign featuring films, advertisements,
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speeches, and television appearances. Such communication is aimed at gaining
the good will of the public.
The basis of any effective public relations campaign is public benefit. If an
organization does not serve the needs of the public, the public will not support it.
Public relations experts help an organization learn what the public wants and then
establish policies that reflect concern for the public's interests. Public relations
generally is practiced through (1) corporate public relations departments, (2)
public relations agencies, and (3) public information departments. In a
corporate PR department, specialists handle PR activities for only that
company. In PR agencies, specialists carry out activities for several
organizations or individuals, also called clients or accounts. Such nonprofit
organizations as colleges and government agencies have public information
departments that work to strengthen the image of the organization.
Methods. Public relations work consists of two main activities, research and
communication. Research is a vital part of public relations because an
organization may not know the public's opinion about it. What people think and
why they have such opinions about an organization are important in helping
management establish policies and practices.
Public relations experts use research and opinion surveys to obtain
information from the public. Researchers gather information on the many
problems and opportunities facing a company, its industry, and the business
community. They may gather information on public opinion so that a political
candidate will know what issues to discuss during a campaign. Researchers also
test the effectiveness of a PR campaign.
In addition, they keep up with public relations techniques being developed by
other companies. Communication between an organization and the public is an
important part of any public relations campaign. However, the size and complexity
of most modern organizations make direct communication with individuals almost
impossible. Most organizations use mass-communication methods to contact the
public. These organizations often aim their PR campaigns at groups of people
who share a common interest.
PR specialists use four principal methods to communicate with the public:
advertising, lobbying, publicity, and press agentry. Advertising involves the use of
paid, nonpersonal communication through such media as billboards, mail,
newspapers and other publications, radio, and TV. Lobbying is an attempt to influence
the voting of legislators to support the interests of a group. Publicity and press agentry
involve promoting an organization by getting favorable coverage in the media.
Public relations personnel can detect possible breakdowns in communication
by analyzing responses received from the public.
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These responses may come directly, as in letters or telephone calls to an
organization. They also may come indirectly, as when consumers respond to a
PR campaign by purchasing or refusing to purchase a company's products.
History. Some elements of public relations, such as informing and persuading,
have been used throughout history. In the United States, public relations as it is
known today began to take form after the end of World War I in 1918. During the late
1800's, rapid and unchecked industrial expansion had brought about certain business
attitudes and practices that were not in the best interest of the public. These
conditions led to criticism of business in the early 1900's. Corporation leaders realized
that their desire for bigger profits had increased such criticism. They felt that the good
will of the public would benefit them.
Business leaders also were aware of the successful public relations
campaigns carried out by the federal government and by welfare agencies in
winning approval for their aims. Corporations began to set up programs designed
to win the public's favor. Schools, hospitals, and other nonprofit organizations
also saw the need for organized attempts to gain public support. Public relations
developed slowly until the end of World War II in 1945. Since then, it has spread
to nearly every large corporate ['kO:p(q)rIt] and nonprofit organization.
The growth and expansion of mass communication media have tended to
make public opinion more powerful than ever before. The public is also more
accessible than ever to those who wish to reach it. That access is aided by the
work of public relations.
Careers. Most public relations activities take place in business and industry.
Colleges, labor unions, national associations, schools, and volunteer agencies also
have PR programs. An organization may have its own PR department, or it may hire a
PR agency. A college education is one of the best preparations for a public relations
job. Some employers seek people with a degree in English, journalism, or public
relations. Others prefer applicants with a background in a field related to the
company's activities. A person interested in a public relations career should be
creative and be able to express his or her thoughts clearly, both orally and in writing.
Such a person also should enjoy working with people and possess good problem-
solving abilities. Information about PR careers may be obtained by writing to the
Public Relations Society of America, 845 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022.
a) entertainer ["entq'teInq] (естрадний артист, конферансьє) = The person
who holds the attention of the audience with something amusing or diverting
[daI'vE:tIN].= master of ceremonies
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b) vary ['ve(q)rI] (мінятися, змінюватися) = To make or cause changes in the
characteristics or attributes of; modify or alter; to undergo or show change; to be different.
c) sophisticated [sq'fIstIkeItId] (позбавлений простоти, природньості;
витончений, досвідчений, складний, ускладнений) = 1.Having acquired worldly
knowledge or refinement;lacking natural simplicity. 2.Very complex or
complicated: the latest and most sophisticated technology.
d) complexity [kqm'pleksItI] (складність; заплутаність) = implies a
combination of many associated parts.
e) aim [eIm] (прагнути; ставити за мету) = to turn something in the direction
of an intended goal or target; to determine a course: aim for a better education; to
propose to do something; intend.
f) to lobby ['lPbI] (обробляти членів парламенту, конгресу; намагатися
впливати (чинити тиск) на членів законодавчого органу шляхом закулісних
переговорів) = To try to influence the thinking of legislators or other public officials for
or against a specific cause; to try to influence (an official) to take a desired action.
g) publicity [pA'blIsItI] (прилюдність, гласність, популярність, слава реклама,
рекламування) = 1.Information that concerns a person, a group, an event, or a
product and that is disseminated through various media to attract public notice.2
Public interest, notice, or notoriety achieved by the spreading of such information. 3.
The act, process, or occupation of disseminating (розповсюдження) information to
gain public interest. 4.The condition of being public.
h) consumer [kqn'sju:mq] (споживач) = One that consumes, especially one
that acquires goods or services for direct use or ownership rather than for resale
or use in production and manufacturing.
i) to bring about ['brINq'baVt] (викликати, спричиняти) = to cause; to make
something happen.
j) to benefit ['benIfIt] (приносити вигоду, прибуток) = To be helpful or useful to…
k) to aid [eId] (допомагати, надавати допомогу, підтримку; сприяти
прогресу, сприяти розвитоку) = To give assistance to; to contribute to the
furtherance of; to promote; to help; to support.
l) background ['bxkgraVnd] (підготовка,освіта; кваліфікація) = A person's
experience, training, and education.
m) creative [krI'eItIv] амер. розм. (творчий працівник) = One who displays
productive originality: the creatives in the advertising department.;Characterized by
originality and expressiveness; imaginative ability.(наділений багатою уявою).
a) відповідальний
b) поводження (маніпулювання , управління)
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c) службовець
d) акціонер
e) простий випуск новин
f) застосовувати до чогось
g) завойовувати прихильність публіки
h) суспільне благо
i) здійснювати (застосовувати на практиці) через щось
j) виконувати дії (роботу)
k) користувач (замовник, покупець, клієнт)
l) підсилити престиж (імідж) організації
m) неприбуткові організації
n) життєво важлива (невід’ємна) частина пропаганди
o) звертатися до когось
p) не відставати від когось (поспівати за кимось)
q) мати спільні інтереси
r) рекламний щит
s) отримання (здобуття) сприятливого освітлення подій в ЗМІ (засобах
масової інформації)
t) виявити можливі пробої в інформації
u) переконувати
v) стрімкий та неконтрольований індустріальний зріст
w) добитись схвалення (санкціонування)
x) завоювати громадську прихильність
y) більш доступний ніж коли-небудь
z) заявник, прохач; той, хто подає заяву; претендент

a) to handle the assignments
b) responsible
c) employee ["emplOI'i:, Im"plOI'i:]
d) stockholder
e) to apply to smth
f) a sophisticated campaign
g) public benefit
h) to gain (to retain) smb.'s goodwill
i) to serve the needs of the public
j) to reflect concern for the public's interests
k) to carry out activities
l) account
m) nonprofit organizations
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n) to strengthen the image of the organization
o) a vital part of public relations
p) to face smth
q) to keep up with smth
r) to share a common interest
s) billboard
t) getting favorable coverage in the media
u) to detect possible breakdowns in communication
v) to persuade
w) rapid and unchecked industrial expansion
x) certain business attitudes
y) to win the public's favor
z) to possess good problem-solving abilities
5. Correct mistakes in the following sentences and explain the usage of simple
tenses, voices & non-finite forms in them.
a) The term have also applied to the profession responsible on handle such
assignments.
b) Such communication could aimed at gaining the good will of the public.
c) What people will have been thinking and why they have such opinions about an
organization are important to helping management establish policies and practices.
d) They keep up with public relations techniques might being developed by
other companies.
e) Lobbying is an attempting to influence the voting of legislators to be
supported the interests of a group.
f) Consumers responds to a PR campaign by purchasing or refuse to
purchase a company's products.
g) A person is interested in a public relations career should had be creative
and be able to express his or her thoughts clearly.
6.Choose the suitable variant and prove it by your own examples:

a) Specialists carry out / are being carried out activities for several
organizations or individuals.
b) Public relations work consists from / of two main activities, research and
communication.
c) Public relations personnel can detect possible breakdowns in
communication by / in analyzing responses received from the public.
d) Some elements of public relations, such as informing and persuading,
were using / have been used throughout history.
e) Corporation leaders realized that their desire for bigger profits have /
had increased such criticism.
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f) They felt that the good will of the public would / will benefit them.
Synonym Synonym
1)entertainer 1)constructive
2)vary 2)to support
3)creative 3)master of ceremonies (MC)
4)to aid 4)modify
5)sophisticated 5)customer
6)aim 6)promotion
7)to lobby 7)to cause
8)publicity 8)goal
9)consumer 9)worldly-wise
10)to bring about 10)to affect
8. Choose the exact meaning (one or more if appropriate) of the underlined
word in each sentence.
I. Some employers seek people with a degree in English, journalism, or public relations.
a) to obtain b) to look for c) to find d) to point
II. The growth and expansion of mass communication media have tended to
make public opinion more powerful than ever before.
a) to encourage b) to apply c) to lead d) to aid
III. Corporations began to set up programs designed to win the public's favor.
a) support b) claim c) clearance d) service
IV. Public relations personnel can detect possible breakdowns in
communication by analyzing responses received from the public.
a) to punish b) to offer c) to rely d) to disclose
V. In addition, they keep up with public relations techniques being developed
by other companies.
a) to make up b) to carry out c) to catch up d) to set up
VI. Researchers gather information on many problems.
a) to intend b) to collect c) to pretend d) to solve
VII. Such nonprofit organizations as colleges and government agencies have
public information departments.
a)uncommercial b) pilot c) experimental d) charitable
VIII. In a corporate PR department, specialists handle PR activities for only that company.
a) deal with b) tackle c) manipulate d) operate
IX. Such communication is aimed at gaining the good will of the public.
a) receiving b) acquiring c) sending d) imposing
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X. The term is also applied to the profession responsible for handling such
assignments.
a) used b) sophisticated c) checked d) served
9. Give a summary of the unit in writing.
a) How can public relations be generally characterized ?
b) What is the basis of any effective public relations campaign ?
c) What is PR generally practiced through ?
d) How do specialists in PR agencies also call several organizations or individuals?
e) What is the purpose of public information departments in such nonprofit
organizations as colleges and universities ?
f) What two main activities does public relations work consist of?
g) Characterize the principal methods that PR specialists use to
communicate with the public.
h) In what way does lobbying differ from press agentry ?
i) Why did corporations begin to set up programs designed to win the
public's favor at the beginning of XX-th century?
j) What have the growth and expansion of mass communication media
tended to in the midst of the XX-th century?
k) Why do enterprises hire a PR agency?
l) Ennumerate the general requirements for applicants for a public relations job.
Unit X
Assignments:
Diplomacy
International Relations – is the branch of political science that is concerned
with the foreign affairs and relations among countries.
Diplomacy is the art or practice of conducting international relations, as in
negotiating alliances, treaties, and agreements.
Diplomacy is the means of conducting negotiations between nations. Some
scholars today also apply the term to the strategies and tactics nations use when
they negotiate. In this sense, diplomacy involves formulating the policies that
nations follow to influence other nations. When diplomacy fails during a major
crisis, war often occurs.
Traditionally, however, diplomacy referred to the formal practice that most
nations follow of sending representatives to live in other countries. These
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diplomats help carry on day-to-day relationships between their country and the
country where they serve. They work to gain political or economic advantages for
their country and to promote international cooperation.
Diplomatic representatives observe strict rules about rank and importance.
The highest rank is ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary, followed by
envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, minister resident, minister-
counsellor, counselor of embassy, secretary of embassy, and attaché. Most large
nations send ambassadors to each other, and to many smaller nations. Smaller
countries sometimes send and receive diplomats of lower rank. Most
governments also send consuls to handle international business.
Each nation handles its diplomatic affairs through a foreign office. In the
United States, the office that handles foreign relations is the Department of State.
Diplomatic duties. Diplomatic officers abroad are the accredited
spokespersons for their governments. They gather information on everything of
value to their governments and transmit it in formal reports, usually in code.
Diplomatic officers also protect the rights of fellow citizens who are abroad.
Diplomats maintain their headquarters in an embassy or legation. The only
difference between an embassy and a legation is the rank of the diplomat in
charge. An ambassador heads an embassy, and a minister heads a legation. A
diplomat's staff may include attachés and other special advisers who report on
economic, political, and social conditions.
Diplomatic immunity. Diplomats enjoy several important privileges and
immunities while serving abroad. These privileges arise partly because diplomats
are the direct representatives of sovereign powers. Just as important, diplomats
must have complete independence of action to perform their duties. A diplomat's
privileges are based on the principle of extraterritoriality. This principle, used in
international law, includes the guarantee that people living in foreign countries
remain under the authority of their own governments.
Four important diplomatic privileges and immunities are:
1. Diplomats cannot be arrested for any reason. Their families usually share
this exemption.
2. Their residences, papers, and effects cannot be searched or seized.
3. Their personal belongings cannot be taxed by the country in which they serve.
4. Diplomats, their families, and their staffs enjoy complete freedom of worship.
History.Nations have not always used diplomacy to settle international
problems. The ancient Romans used diplomatic representatives only for special
purposes. But as relations among countries grew more complex, many nations
found that they needed permanent representatives in other countries. Embassies
first appeared in Italy during the 1200's and 1300's. At that time, they served as
headquarters for spies and espionage agents, as well as for diplomats. Many
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historians believe that Cardinal Richelieu of France started the system of
resident representatives during the 1600's.
Through the years, formal diplomatic procedures have changed in various
ways. Beginning in the 1950's, for example, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster
Dulles became the first major diplomat to engage in extensive personal
diplomacy around the world. Dulles often bypassed the appointed ambassadors
in the countries he visited.
In the early 1970's, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger further
enhanced this practice when he engaged in shuttle diplomacy. He traveled back
and forth among the major capitals of the Middle East in an attempt to solve an
ongoing conflict there. Even heads of governments sometimes feel they need
personal conferences with leaders of other governments at summit meetings.
Some scholars argue that diplomatic representatives are unnecessary today
because of the ease of high-level exchanges and long-distance communication.
But ongoing personal diplomatic contact has many advantages. Diplomats take
great care to make friends with government officials and influential citizens. When
they present a formal proposal, they can count on these friendships to help them.
Diplomats also can test reaction to ideas their governments are considering by
talking with acquaintances.
a) alliance [q'laIqns] (альянс, союз) = 1.a. A close association of nations or
other groups, formed to advance common interests or causes: an alliance of labor
unions opposing the bill. b. A formal agreement establishing such an association,
especially an international treaty of friendship. 2. A connection based on kinship,
marriage, or common interest; a bond or tie: the shifting alliances within a large
family. 3.Close similarity in nature or type; affinity(спорідненість): the ancient
alliance between mathematics and music.
b) treaty ['tri:tI] (договір) = 1. a. A formal agreement between two or more
states, as in reference to terms of peace or trade. b. The document in which such
an agreement is set down. 2.A contract or an agreement. 3.Obsolete (['Pbsqli:t]
застарілий, невживаний "вышедший из употребления"; маловживаний). a.
Negotiation for the purpose of reaching an agreement. b. An entreaty(благання).
c) means [mi:nz] (засіб) = (used with a sing. or pl. form) A method, a course of
action, or an instrument by which an act can be accomplished or an end achieved.
d) to occur [q'kE:] (траплятися, відбуватися) = 1.To take place; to come about.
To happen, to chance. 2. To be found to exist or appear: Heavy rains occur during a
summer monsoon. 3. To come to mind: The idea never occurred to me.
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e) diplomat ['dIplqmxt] (дипломат) = 1. One, such as an ambassador, who
has been appointed to represent a government in its relations with other
governments. 2. One who uses skill and tact in dealing with others.
f) to carry on ['kxrI'Pn] (продовжувати робити; займатись чимось) = 1. To
conduct; maintain: carry on a thriving (= процвітаючий) business. 2.To engage
in: carry on a love affair. 3. To continue without halting; persevere: carry on in the
face of disaster.
g) rank [rxNk] (звання; чин; гідність; посада (dignity), службове положення;
ранг ) = a. A relative position in a society. b. An official position or grade: the rank
of sergeant. c. A relative position or degree of value in a graded group. d. High or
eminent station or position: persons of rank.
h) plenipotentiary ["plenIpq'tenS(q)rI] (повноважний представник;
уповноважений) = adjective. Invested with or conferring full powers: a
plenipotentiary deputy. noun. plural = plenipotentiaries. A diplomatic agent,
such as an ambassador, fully authorized to represent his or her government.
i) envoy ['envOI] (1) посланник; envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
– надзвичайний посланник та повноважний міністр 2) (головний) дипломатичний
представник (посол, посланник); temporary envoy – тимчасовий представник) = 1.
A representative of a government who is sent on a special diplomatic mission. 2.A
minister plenipotentiary assigned to a foreign embassy, ranking next below the
ambassador. 3. A messenger; an agent.
j) minister resident (resident-minister) ['rezId(q)nt"mInIstq] (міністр-резидент)
= A diplomatic agent ranking below a minister plenipotentiary.
k) counsel(l)or of embassy ['kaVns(q)lq qv 'embqsI] – радник амбасади
(посольства)
l) attaché [q'txSeI] (аташе) = A person officially assigned to the staff of a diplomatic
mission to serve in a particular capacity: a cultural attaché; a military attaché.
m) consul ['kPns(q)l] (консул) = An official appointed by a government to
reside in a foreign country and represent his or her government's commercial
interests and assist its citizens there.
n) ambassador [xm'bxsqdq] (посол; постійний представник (держави) при
міжнародній організації) = 1. A diplomatic official of the highest rank appointed
and accredited as representative in residence by one government or sovereign to
another, usually for a specific length of time. 2. A diplomatic official heading his or
her country's permanent mission to certain international organizations, such as
the United Nations. 3. An authorized messenger or representative. 4. An unofficial
representative: ambassadors of good will.
o) legation [lI'geIS(q)n] (дип.місія; дипломатичне представництво,
очолюване посланником) = a. A diplomatic mission in a foreign country ranking
163
below an embassy. b. The diplomatic minister and staff of such a mission. c. The
premises occupied by such a mission.
p) staff [stQ:f] (персонал, особовий склад (рос.личный состав),
співробітники) = a. A group of assistants to a manager, an executive, or another
person in authority. b. A group of military officers assigned to assist a
commanding officer in an executive or advisory capacity. c. The personnel who
carry out a specific enterprise: the nursing staff of a hospital.
q) privilege ['prIvIlIdZ] (привілей; перевага) = a. A special advantage, immunity,
permission, right, or benefit granted to or enjoyed by an individual, a class, or a caste.
b. Such an advantage, an immunity, or a right held as a prerogative of status or rank,
and exercised to the exclusion or detriment of others.
r) immunity [I'mju:nItI] (from, against) (юр. недоторканість, імунітет,
непідсудність) = Law. a. Exemption from normal legal duties, penalties, or liabilities,
granted to a special group of people: legislative immunity. b. Exemption from legal
prosecution, often granted a witness in exchange for self-incriminating testimony.
s) extraterritoriality ["ekstrq"terItO:rI'xlItI] (екстериторіальність) = also
exterritoriality, in law, system whereby the jurisdiction and laws of one sovereign
nation extend over the territory of another, under a treaty granting such rights. In
general, extraterritorial jurisdiction is most frequently exercised by consuls and
diplomatic agents in specific countries, who, in addition to their ordinary consular
duties, are vested with judicial powers.
The term extraterritoriality is sometimes defined as the immunity from the laws of
a nation enjoyed by sovereigns and diplomatic representatives. Such immunity has
been extended to armies in permitted transit and to warships. Extraterritorial rights
may be surrendered by treaty, abolished by the annexation of the country granting
extraterritorial rights to a country not granting such rights, or abolished by voluntary
renunciation on the part of the country enjoying such rights.
t) effects [I'fekts] ( pl. майно, власність) = Movable belongings; goods.
u) to be taxed [txks] (оподатковувати; піддавати обкладенню (податком) = to
make a contribution for the support of a government required of persons, groups, or
businesses within the domain (володіння,територія) of that government.
v) espionage ['espIqnQ:Z] (шпигунство) = The act or practice of spying or of
using spies to obtain secret information, as about another government or a
business competitor.
w) to enhance [In'hQ:ns] (збільшувати, розвивати, підсилювати,
посилювати) =To make greater, as in value, beauty, or reputation; to
emphasize,to heighten, aggravate, intensify, strengthen, deepen.
x) shuttle diplomacy ["SAtldI'plqVmqsI] (політ.човникова дипломатія) =
Diplomatic negotiations conducted by an official intermediary who travels
frequently between the nations involved.
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y) ongoing ['Pn"gqVIN] (1) безперервний, постійний ; ongoing process –
поступальний процес; ongoing conflict – безперервний конфлікт; 2) той, що
відбувається зараз) = 1. Currently taking place: an ongoing festival. 2. In
progress or evolving.
z) summit ['sAmIt] (зустріч в верхах; самміт; нарада або зустріч на вищому
рівні) = a. The highest level, as of government officials. b. A summit conference.
3. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases. Use
a) застосовувати термін
b) коли дипломатія потерпає невдачу
c) відноситись до формальної практики
d) добиватися (досягти) переваги
e) дотримуватись (слідувати) чітких (визначених) правил
f) надзвичайний та повноважний посол
g) надзвичайний посланник і повноважний міністр
h) міністр-радник
i) займатися міжнародним бізнесом
j) міністерство іноземних(зовнішних) справ
k) уповноважені представники
l) за кордоном
m) захищати права співвітчизників
n) утримувати штаб-квартиру
o) ранг відповідального дипломата
p) особовий склад
q) користуватися привілеями та імунітетом
r) верховна влада
s) поділяти привілеї (користуватися тими ж привілеями)
t) користуватись повною свободою віросповідання
u) владнати міжнародні проблеми
v) постійні представники
w) займатися (бути залученим до..) обширною особистою дипломатією
x) обминати (уникати, ігнорувати) призначених представників
y) човникова дипломатія
z) розраховувати на когось(щось)

a) to apply the term
b) when diplomacy fails
c) to refer to the formal practice
165
d) to promote international cooperation
e) to gain political or economic advantages
f) to observe strict rules
g) ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary
h) envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
i) to handle international business
j) foreign office
k) accredited spokespersons
l) to transmit information in code
m) to protect the rights of fellow citizens
n) to maintain one’s headquarters
o) the rank of the diplomat in charge
p) to enjoy privileges and immunities
q) sovereign power
r) the principle of extraterritoriality
s) to share the exemption [tq Seq DI Ig'zempS(q)n]
t) to enjoy complete freedom of worship ['wE:SIp]
u) to settle international problems
v) permanent representatives
w) to engage(to be engaged) in extensive personal diplomacy
x) shuttle diplomacy
y) back and forth
z) acquaintance [q'kweIntqns]
5. Finish the chain of synonyms with the word(s) from the unit:
a) to get ----- to score ----- to win ----- ?
b) to keep up ----- to attend to ----- to observe ----- ?
c) to develop ----- to advance ----- to expand ----- ?
d) to conduct ----- to bring along ----- to manage ----- ?
e) to pass along ----- to send ----- to carry over ----- ?
f) compatriot ----- countryman ----- paisano [paI'sQ:nqV] ----- kith [kIT] -----
clansman ['klxnzmqn] ----- ?
g) to hold ----- to sustain ----- to support ----- ?
h) to be on duty ---- to be in charge ---- to be responsible ---- ?
i) to originate ----- to appear ----- to emerge ----- ?
j) to snatch ----- to confiscate ----- to capture ----- ?
k) to toll ----- to rent ----- to impose a fine ----- ?
l) to evade ----- to ignore ----- to avoid ----- ?
m) hither and thither ----- to and fro ["tVqn(d)'frqV] ------ up and down ----- in-
and-out ----- to go seesaw ['si:sO:] ----- ?
166
n) to take into account ----- to regard ----- to deem ----- to presume -----to
suppose --- to esteem --- to fancy --- to figure --- ?
6. Fill in omitted words.

a) Diplomacy is the art or ………… of conducting international relations, as
in negotiating alliances, ……………., and agreements.
b) When diplomacy …………during a major crisis, war often ………..
c) In the United States, the office that …………. foreign relations is the
………………………. of State.
d) Diplomatic officers abroad gather information on everything of ………. to
their governments and transmit it in ………….. reports, usually in …………..
e) Diplomats must have complete ……………………… of action to
…………………… their duties.
f) Diplomats cannot be ……………………….. for any reason.
g) Many nations ……………. that they needed ………………………
representatives in other countries.
h) Diplomats take great ………….. to make friends with government officials
and ……………………. citizens.
7. Look through these sentences attentively and correct contextual and

grammar mistakes if any:
a) Diplomacy is the means of having been conducted negotiations between nations.
b) Many historians believe that Zbigniew Brzezinski started the system of
resident representatives during the 1900's.
c) Diplomatic officers also protects the rights of fellow citizens who are abroad.
d) A diplomat's privileges are based on the principle of extraterritoriality.
e) An ambassador heads Department of the Treasury, and a minister heads a
legations.
f) In the early 1970's, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger hasn’t traveled
by the Middle East too.
g) The only difference between an embassy and a legation is the age of the
diplomat in charge.
h) Embassies first appeared in the USA in 1870-s.
9. Choose the exact meaning (even more than one) of the underlined word in
each sentence from the suggested variants (a, b, c, d).
I. Some scholars today also apply the term "diplomacy" to the strategies and
tactics nations use when they negotiate.
167
a) to administer b) to use c) to employ d) utilize ['ju:tIlaIz]
II. In this sense, diplomacy involves formulating the policies that nations
follow to influence other nations.
a) to imply b) to include c) to imagine d) to correspond
III. Diplomats help carry on day-to-day relationships between their country
and the country where they serve.
a) casual b) routine c) vital ['vaItl] d) accidental
IV. Diplomatic representatives observe strict rules about rank and importance.
a) precise b) cruel c) exact d) oppressive
V. Each nation handles its diplomatic affairs through a foreign office.
a) to navigate b) to control c) to develop d) to examine
VI. Diplomats enjoy several important privileges and immunities while serving abroad.
a) to adore b) to relish ['relIS] c) to command d) to indulge
VII. Their residences, papers, and effects cannot be searched or seized.
a) to conceive b) to pursue [pq'sju:] c) to capture d) to buy
VIII.But as relations among countries grew more complex, many nations found
that they needed permanent representatives in other countries.
a) constant b) resident c) stiff d) motionless
IX. But ongoing personal diplomatic contact has many advantages.
a) benefit b) accomplishment c) fault d) ambition
X. Diplomats take great care to make friends with government officials and
influential citizens.
a) to attend to b) to heed c) to allow d) to ratify
10. Retell the text:
a) in detail 'b) in brief
11. Match the words on the left with the suitable collocations on the right.
1)___Permanent a) heads an embassy.
representatives
2)___Diplomacy b) the guarantee that people living in
foreign countries remain under the
authority of their own governments.
3)___Ambassador c) resident representatives
4)___Minister d) started the system of resident
representatives.
5)___Principle of extrater- e) strategies and tactics nations
ritoriality use when they negotiate.
6)___Cardinal Richelieu f) heads a legation.
7)___John Foster Dulles g) is known to have enhanced the
practice of shuttle diplomacy.
168
8)___Henry Kissinger h) often bypassed the appointed
ambassadors in the countries he
visited.
a) What does the term "diplomacy" mean ?
b) What are the after-effects of diplomacy failure ?
c) What does the diplomats practice involve ?
d) What is the ranking subdivision in diplomacy ?
e) Why are special advisors included in a diplomat's staff ?
f) In what way can principle of extraterritoriality be explained ?
g) Cite the instances of diplomatic privileges and immunities.
h) Who is considered to have started the system of resident
representatives in Europe ?
i) Who is said to be a father of shuttle diplomacy?
j) What is the reason of shuttle diplomacy?
k) Are diplomatic representatives vital to intercommunication between the
nations? Why or why not? Prove it by examples.
(compiled from World Book™ Millennium Encyclopedia. IBM. 1999. All rights
reserved.)
Biographies (in the order of the Units)

1. Niccolo Machiavelli [nIkql'o "mxkIq'velI] (1469-1527), Italian political
theorist whose book The Prince (1513) describes the achievement and
maintenance of power by a determined ruler indifferent to moral considerations.
Italian historian, statesman, and political philosopher, whose amoral but
influential writings on statecraft have turned his name into a synonym for cunning
and duplicity. Born in Florence, Machiavelli entered government service as a clerk
and rose to prominence when the Florentine Republic was proclaimed in 1498.
He was secretary of the ten-man council that conducted the diplomatic
negotiations and supervised the military operations of the republic.
He became acquainted with many of the Italian rulers and was able to study
their political tactics. From 1503 to 1506 Machiavelli reorganized the military
defense of the republic of Florence.
In 1512, when the republic was dissolved, he was deprived of office and
briefly imprisoned. After his release he retired to his estate near Florence, where
he wrote his most important works. In his most famous work, The Prince (1532),
169
he describes the method by which a prince can acquire and maintain political
power. This study is based on Machiavelli's belief that a ruler is not bound by
traditional ethical norms. In his view, a prince should be concerned only with
power and be bound only by rules that would lead to success in political actions.
Machiavellianism, as a term, has been used to describe the principles of power
politics, and the type of person who uses those principles in political or personal
life is frequently described as a Machiavellian.
2. Thomas Hobbes ['tPmqs hPbz] (1588-1679), English political philosopher
who wrote Leviathan (1651), which outlined his philosophy that human beings are
fundamentally selfish.
English philosopher and political theorist, one of the first modern Western
thinkers to provide a secular justification for the political state. Regarded as an
important early influence on the philosophical doctrine of utilitarianism, Hobbes
also laid the foundations of modern sociology by applying mechanistic principles
to explain human motivation and social organization .
Born in Malmesbury, Hobbes studied at the University of Oxford. He became
a tutor and traveled in France and Italy. In 1637 he returned to England and
published his Little Treatise, outlining his theory of motion. When his book The
Elements of Law, Natural and Politic was circulated in 1640, he fled to Paris,
fearing his arrest.
In 1642 Hobbes finished On Citizenship, a statement of his theory of government.
His best-known work, Leviathan; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a
Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil (1651), is a forceful exposition of his doctrine
of sovereignty. Hobbes held that people are fearful and predatory and must submit to
the absolute supremacy of the state, in both secular and religious matters, in order to
live by reason and gain lasting preservation. He also proposed that human actions are
caused by material phenomena and people are motivated by appetite or aversion. In
1666 the English House of Commons included Leviathan among books to be
investigated on charges of atheistic tendencies, causing Hobbes to burn many of his
papers and delay publication of several works.
3. Dante Alighieri ['dxntq q'lIgIqri] (1265-1321), Italian poet whose
masterpiece, The Divine Comedy (completed 1321), details his visionary progress
through Hell and Purgatory, escorted by Virgil, and through Heaven, guided by his
lifelong idealized love Beatrice. Italian poet, and one of the supreme figures of world
literature, who was admired for his spiritual vision and for his intellectual accomplishment.
Early Years
Dante was born in Florence, and the most significant event of his youth, according to
his own account, was his meeting in 1274 with Beatrice, the woman whom he loved, and
whom he exalted in his later works. Little is known about Dante's education, although his
works reveal a knowledge that encompassed nearly all the learning of his age.
170
La Vita Nuova
Dante's first important literary work, La vita nuova, (The New Life) was written not long
after Beatrice died. Combining verse and prose, it narrates the course of Dante's love for
Beatrice and his ultimate resolve to write a work that would be a worthy monument to her.
Dante's Political Life
Active in the turbulent political life of Florence, Dante was elected one of the six priors,
or magistrates, of Florence, a post he held for only two months. The rivalry between two
factions within the Guelph Party of Florence became intense, and one of the factions, in
1302, banned Dante from Florence for two years and fined him heavily. Failing to make
payment, he was condemned to death should he ever return to Florence. Dante spent his
exile partly in Verona and partly in other northern Italian cities.
Last Years
In 1316 the city of Florence invited Dante to return, but the terms offered him were
those generally reserved for pardoned criminals. Dante rejected the invitation,
maintaining that he would never return unless he were accorded full dignity and
honor. He continued to live in exile, spending his last years in Ravenna.
The Divine Comedy
Dante's epic masterpiece, La divinia commedia (The Divine Comedy), was
probably begun about 1307 and was completed shortly before his death. The work is
an allegorical narrative in verse of the poet's imaginary journey through hell,
purgatory, and heaven. It is divided into three sections named the Inferno (Hell), the
Purgatorio (Purgatory), and the Paradiso (Paradise). In each of these three realms the
poet meets with mythological, historical, and contemporary characters, each of whom
symbolizes a particular fault or virtue, either religious or political. Dante is guided
through hell and purgatory by the Roman poet Virgil, who is, to Dante, the symbol of
reason. The woman Dante loved, Beatrice, whom he regards as a manifestation and
an instrument of divine will, guides him through paradise. Dante intended the poem for
his contemporaries and wrote it in Italian rather than Latin.
Influence and Inspiration
In the centuries following the invention of printing, almost 400 Italian editions of
The Divine Comedy were published. Editions have appeared illustrated by Italian
masters Sandro Botticelli and Michelangelo, English artist William Blake, and French
illustrator Gustave Doré. It has been translated into more than 25 languages. The
work of modern poets throughout the world has been inspired by Dante, especially
that of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Gabriele D'Annunzio, and Paul Claudel.
4. Montesquieu ["mPntes'kju:] , Baron de la Brede et de
Montesquieu.Title of Charles de Secondat, (1689-1755), French
philosopher,writer and jurist, born in the Château of la Brède. An outstanding
figure of the early French Enlightenment, he wrote the influential Parisian Letters
(1721), a veiled attack on the monarchy and the ancien régime, and The Spirit of
171
the Laws (1748), a discourse on government. Montesquieu first became
prominent as a writer with Persian Letters (1721), in which he satirized
contemporary French politics, social conditions, ecclesiastical matters, and
literature. The book was one of the earliest works of the movement known as the
Enlightenment, which, by criticizing French institutions under the monarchy,
helped bring about the French Revolution (1789-1799). Montesquieu was elected
to the French Academy in 1728. His masterpiece was The Spirit of Laws (1748),
in which he examined the three main types of government (republic, monarchy,
and despotism) and held that governmental powers should be separated to
guarantee individual freedom.
5. Jean Bodin [dZi:n 'bPdqn] (1530–1596), French social and political philosopher. A
lawyer, he was dismayed=(наляканий) by the chaos resulting from conflict between
Roman Catholics and Huguenots ['hju:gqnqVts] and argued in his most important work, Six
Books of the Republic (1576), that the well-ordered state required religious toleration and a
fully sovereign monarch. His exposition of the principles of stable government was widely
influential. Its influence can be seen in the theories of sovereignty developed by Thomas
Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His writings made a major theoretical contribution
to the rise of the modern nation-state. In 1580 he published De la démonomanie des
sorciers/On the Fiendishness of Sorcerers, a guide for judges in witchcraft trials.Note!
fiendish ['fi:ndIS] диявольський, лиходійський, жорстокий.
6. Johannes Althusius ["dZqV'xnIs xl'TjuzIqs] (1557 – 1638), the German
jurist, who publishes Politica methodice digesta/A Digest of Political Method in
1603. A grammar of politics, it lays the foundation for much subsequent political
theory. АЛЬТУЗІЙ Іван (1557, Діденгаузен, Вестфалія - 1638, Емден) – нім.
філософ права. З 1586 професор Херборнського ун-ту; с 1604 – адвокат.
Розвивав вчення про те, що люди можуть об'єднуватися в залежності від
спонукань і потреб, результатом чого може бути договір. Народ – це "тіло,
що представляє собою співжиття індивідів" (лат. corpus symbioticum); він має
всі суверенні права також і по відношенню до уряду, що залежить від його
волі; уряд, за Альтузієм, повинен здійснювати в першу чергу адміністративну
діяльність в державі, яка становить "універсальнє суспільне об'єднання"
(лат. universalis publica consociatio), поряд з яким, однак, існує та здійснює
свої життєво необхідні права сім'я, муніципалітет, провінція та ін. Задача
політика – здійснення природнього етичного закону та волі божої. Головна
робота – "Politica", 1603.
7. Hugo Grotius ['hju:gqV 'groVSi"qs] (1583-1645).Originally Huig de Groot.
Dutch jurist, politician, and theologian whose major work, Of the Law of War and
Peace (1625), is considered the first comprehensive treatise on international law.
Humanist, and statesman, whose legal writings laid the foundation for modern
international law.
172
Grotius was born in Delft. His first published work on international law, The
Free Sea (1609), challenged the right of any nation to claim part of the open sea
as exclusively its own. Such a claim, Grotius argued, was against natural law and
the basic law of humanity. In On the Law of War and Peace (1625) he argued that
war violates natural law and can be condoned only if it is for a righteous cause
and conciliation has failed. Earlier, Grotius's efforts to moderate a bitter doctrinal
dispute among Dutch Calvinists had embroiled him in a political clash between his
province of Holland and the rest of the Dutch Republic and its orthodox majority.
He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1619 but escaped to Paris in 1621.
Grotius became Sweden's ambassador to Paris in 1634 and served in that post
until 1644.
8. Richard Hooker ['rItSqd 'hVkq] (1554 -1600), English writer and theologian. His
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (1594) was central to the formation of Anglican theology;
born in Exeter. As a clergyman in the Church of England, he is noted for his Of the
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (8 volumes). The immediate purpose of Hooker's work
was to demonstrate the advantages of the episcopal form of organization of the
Church of England over the presbyterian form used by its opponents.
9. John Milton [dZPn 'mIlt(q)n] (1608-1674), English poet and scholar who is best
known for the epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), an account of humanity's fall from
grace. His verse was a powerful influence on succeeding English poets, and whose
prose was devoted to the defense of civil and religious liberty. Milton is often
considered the greatest English poet after William Shakespeare. Life Milton was born
in London and attended Christ's College, University of Cambridge. From 1632 to 1638
he lived in his father's country home, reading the Latin and Greek classics and
ecclesiastical and political history. From 1638 to 1639 he toured France and Italy, and
on his return to England, he settled in London and began writing a series of social,
religious, and political tracts. Milton supported the parliamentary cause in the English
Civil War (1642-1649), and in 1649 he was appointed foreign secretary by the
government of the Commonwealth.
He became totally blind about 1652 and thereafter carried on his literary and
government work helped by assistants. After the Restoration of King Charles II in
1660, Milton was briefly imprisoned for his support of Parliament. Works Milton's
career as a writer can be divided into three periods. The first, from 1625 to 1640,
was the period of such early works as the sonnet "On Shakespeare" (1630),
"L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso" (both probably 1631), and the elegy Lycidas (1637).
His second period, from 1640 to 1660, was devoted chiefly to the writing of
numerous social, political, and religious tracts, the most famous of which is
Areopagitica (1644), an impassioned plea for freedom of the press.
He also wrote pamphlets to justify the execution of King Charles I. During the
third period of Milton's career, from 1660 to 1674, he completed his epic poem
173
Paradise Lost (1667) and wrote the companion epic Paradise Regained (1671)
and the poetic drama Samson Agonistes (1671). Paradise Lost, in which Milton
recounts the story of the fall of Adam in a context of cosmic drama, is considered
Milton's masterpiece and one of the greatest poems in world literature.
10. James Harrington [dZeImz 'hxrINtqn] (1611–1677), English political
philosopher. His Commonwealth of Oceana (1656) described a utopian society in
which political power rested with the landed gentry. He advocated a written
constitution and limitations on the amount of land one individual could hold. His
ideas foreshadowed doctrines of the American and French revolutions. In 1656
he publishes Commonwealth of Oceana, which argues in favor of a system of
republicanism on the lines of the Venetian oligarchy. In 1658 -The Prerogative of
Popular Government. In 1660 - Political Discourses.
11. Abraham Lincoln ['eIbrqhxm 'lINkqn] (1809-1865), The 16th President of
the United States (1861-1865), who led the Union during the Civil War and
emancipated slaves in the South (1863). He was assassinated shortly after the
end of the war by John Wilkes Booth.
A humane, far-sighted statesman, he became a legend and a folk hero after
his death. In his effort to preserve the Union during the American Civil War (1861-
1865), Lincoln assumed more power than any preceding president. His actions
had a lasting influence on American political institutions, most importantly in
setting the precedent of vigorous executive action in time of national emergency.
Early Life Lincoln was born in a log cabin near what is now Hodgenville,
Kentucky. In 1816 his family moved to Indiana, which at that time was a heavily
forested wilderness. Lincoln had less than one full year of formal education in his
entire life, but he was taught at home and at an early age could read, write, and
do simple arithmetic. In 1830 the Lincoln family settled west of what is now
Decatur, Illinois. Lincoln worked as a laborer on farms and on flatboats, and as a
store clerk in New Salem, a small community near Springfield, Illinois. He soon
became one of New Salem's most popular citizens. Early Political Career In
1832 Lincoln decided to run for a seat in the Illinois House of Representatives as
a member of the Whig Party. He was defeated in the election. A short time later
he was appointed postmaster of New Salem. In 1834 Lincoln again ran for
representative to the Illinois legislature. By then he was known throughout the
county. He won and served a total of eight years. Meanwhile, he continued his
study of law, and in 1836 he became a licensed attorney. In 1842 he married
Mary Todd. As a frontier lawyer, Lincoln traveled a great deal. For three months
each spring and fall, lawyers and judges of the Springfield courts held court at
different rural county seats, resolving local cases. Because of his storytelling
abilities and skill as a lawyer, Lincoln was popular on the circuit. In 1846 Lincoln
was elected U.S. representative for the Seventh Congressional District of Illinois.
174
The extension of slavery into new U.S. territories was an important question
during Lincoln's term in Congress. He supported the Wilmot Proviso, which
proposed that slavery in the United States be prohibited in any territory acquired
during the Mexican War (1846-1848). Lincoln wanted to run for a second term in
Congress, but it was traditional that the Whig candidate from his district serve
only one term. He returned to Springfield to practice law, soon becoming one of
the most respected lawyers in the state. Lincoln was losing interest in politics
when, in 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the
old dividing line between free and slave states as set by the Missouri
Compromise of 1820. Illinois senator Stephen A. Douglas, the author of the
Kansas-Nebraska Act, came to Springfield to defend the newly enacted law in
October 1854. The next night Lincoln spoke, attacking the act. In 1855 Lincoln
was the Whig candidate for the U.S. Senate. Senators were then elected by the
state legislatures, and when Lincoln realized that he could not win, he threw his
support to an anti-Douglas Democrat, Lyman Trumbull, who was elected. In 1856
Lincoln publicly identified himself as a Republican Party member and delivered
the main address at the Republican state convention. Agitation over the slavery
issue increased in 1856 and 1857.
In the Dred Scott case the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that
Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories. In Kansas proslavery and
antislavery partisans engaged in a bloody civil war for control of the territorial
government. In 1858 Senator Douglas came up for reelection. The Republican Party
nominated Lincoln to oppose him. The two engaged in a series of face-to-face
debates on the morality of slavery. The debates captivated Illinois. Although the
Republicans won a majority of the popular votes, the Democratic legislature reelected
Douglas. The Lincoln-Douglas debates brought Lincoln national recognition.
In 1860 the Republican national convention met in Chicago to nominate a
presidential candidate. Only Lincoln was acceptable to all factions of the party,
and he won the nomination. The convention chose Senator Hannibal Hamlin of
Maine as the vice-presidential candidate. The party's policies included a
moderate antislavery position designed to appease the South: Slavery was not to
be extended, but it would not be abolished where it existed. Also included were a
high tariff (tax on imports) to appeal to the industrial North, and the promise of
free land for settlers to satisfy the West. The Democrats split into a Northern
faction, which nominated Douglas for president, and a Southern faction, which
nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. A fourth party, the Constitutional
Union Party, nominated John Bell of Tennessee. With the Democratic Party split,
Lincoln was easily elected.
President of the United States Even before election day, Southern militants
had threatened to secede from the Union if Lincoln were elected. By February,
175
South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had
seceded. These states joined together to form the Confederate States of America,
also known as the Confederacy. On March 4, 1861, Lincoln was sworn in as
president. His inaugural address aimed at allaying Southern fears, although he
flatly rejected the right of any state to secede from the Union. When the
Confederacy demanded the evacuation of Fort Sumter, located at the entrance to
the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, Lincoln decided to send supplies to the
fort by sea.
On April 12, 1861, Confederate guns opened fire on Fort Sumter. Two days
later the fort surrendered. Lincoln asked loyal states to provide 75,000 militia.
Lincoln's call for arms caused Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas
to join the Confederacy. The states on the border between the North and the
South–Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland–remained in the Union. Lincoln also
ordered a blockade of Confederate ports, expanded the regular army beyond its
legal limit, directed government expenditures in advance of congressional
appropriations, and suspended the legal right of habeas corpus (the constitutional
guarantee that a person could not be imprisoned indefinitely without being
charged with some specific crime).
The North expected a brief struggle and an easy victory. In July the federal
Army of the Potomac was defeated in Virginia in the first Battle of Bull Run. The
North then realized that it faced a long, hard war. Lincoln placed Major General
George B. McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac. McClellan soon
restored the army's morale and whipped it into a superb fighting force.
In September 1862, the Union won a minor victory at the Battle of Antietam in
Maryland. Lincoln chose this opportunity to issue his Emancipation Proclamation,
which announced that on January 1, 1863, all slaves residing in rebellious states
would "be then, thenceforward, and forever free..."With this advance warning,
Lincoln gave the rebellious states an opportunity to rejoin the Union with slavery
intact. Because Lincoln only had the power to free the slaves as a necessity of
war, the proclamation did not affect border states in the Union or areas in the
rebellious states under federal control. For these states, Lincoln encouraged
voluntary, compensated emancipation. The Emancipation Proclamation isolated
the Confederacy from potential allies in Europe. France and Britain had
threatened to recognize the Confederate government and give it aid. Freeing the
slaves brought the people of these countries and their governments over to the
Northern side because the North represented the cause of freedom.
When McClellan refused to take the offensive after Antietam, Lincoln replaced him
with a series of commanders who proved unqualified for the task. When Confederate
general Robert E. Lee turned his army north to invade Pennsylvania, Lincoln appointed
Major General George G. Meade to lead Union forces. The two armies met at the Battle
176
of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in early July 1863. On July 5 Lee retreated, his army
badly beaten. That same day Lincoln received word that General Ulysses S. Grant had
captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, the key Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi
River. In March 1864 Lincoln promoted Grant to commander in chief of all Union armies.
Grant's overall strategy was bold. Instead of going after key Southern cities, he decided
to attack principal Southern armies.
Despite its military successes, the Union was faced with the problem of raising
huge sums of money to fight the war. New federal taxes were levied, and the tariff
was raised. The federal government also began printing paper money. The 1863
National Banking Act made it easier to sell government bonds. The act also
provided for a system of federally chartered, privately owned national banks that
could issue notes backed by government bonds. On November 19, 1863, Lincoln
was called upon to deliver remarks at a ceremony dedicating a military cemetery
at the Gettysburg battle site. After a two-hour speech by distinguished orator
Edward Everett, Lincoln spoke briefly, rededicating the war effort to the principles
of democracy. The speech is called the Gettysburg Address.
Lincoln gave frequent consideration to the reconstruction of the rebel states
and their restoration to the Union. Whenever Union armies gained control in a
rebellious area, he encouraged the local people to form a government loyal to the
Union, asking only that the new government outlaw slavery and that the number
of those voting for the new government be at least 10 percent of those who had
voted in the 1860 presidential election. Congressional leaders also had a plan of
reconstruction, but it was designed to punish the South and to make it subservient
to the Republican Party of the North. As the 1864 presidential elections
approached, Democrats and radical Republicans were dissatisfied with Lincoln's
policies. But the moderate Republicans remained faithful to their leader. Lincoln
was again nominated for president, with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee receiving
the vice-presidential nomination. The Democrats nominated General McClellan.
In the spring and summer of 1864, Lincoln did not think he would win the election.
In September the political and military situation took a turn for the better, and
Lincoln easily won reelection.
Second Term as President At his second inaugural, on the threshold of
Union victory, Lincoln made a speech that spoke only of peace and of ending the
nation's sectional differences. In early April the Union Army took Petersburg and
Richmond. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his army to Grant at Appomattox
Court House, in Virginia. The war was all but over. On April 14, 1865, Lincoln and
his wife attended a performance of a comic melodrama, Our American Cousin, at
Ford's Theatre in Washington. At about 10:30 PM John Wilkes Booth, an actor
with pro-Southern sympathies, made his way into the box, put a pistol to Lincoln's
head, and fired once. Booth escaped, but he was killed while resisting arrest 12
177
days later. After the shooting, the president was taken to a lodging house across
the street, where he died the next morning.
12. Cardinal Richelieu ['kQ:d(q)nql rJSqlu] (1585-1642) Duc de. Title of Armand
Jean du Plessis. French prelate and politician. As chief minister of Louis XIII he
worked to strengthen the authority of the monarchy and directed France during the
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). In 1624 Louis XIII chose that man as his first minister.
He was the effective ruler of France for the next 18 years.
Richelieu eliminated rivals to royal power by breaking the power of the nobility and
creating new administrative districts. He contained threats from abroad by
encouraging the development of the French Navy and a merchant fleet, chartering
foreign-trade companies, and supporting colonial expansion. However, inflation,
mounting taxes, and, after 1635, the devastation of the Thirty Years' War (in which
France, Sweden, and the Netherlands were eventually victorious over the Roman
Catholic Habsburgs) reduced the French peasantry to new depths of misery.
His Career and Life He gained the favor of the king's mother, MARIE DE'
MEDICI, and was made secretary of state (1616), cardinal (1622), and chief minister
(1624). In 1630 Marie conspired against Richelieu, but the king had her exiled.
Richelieu then enjoyed full control of the government until his death. Domestically, he
centralized royal authority by destroying the political power of the HUGUENOTS with
the capture of La Rochelle (1628) and the Peace of Alais (1629).
Conspiracies by the nobles were rigorously suppressed. In foreign affairs, he
rejected Marie de' Medici's pro- HAPSBURG policy, and in 1635 France openly entered
the THIRTY YEARS WAR against the Hapsburgs. In France the war led to heavy
taxation and caused dissatisfaction with his rule. Richelieu encouraged trade and the
arts; he was the founder of the learned society known as the French Academy.
13. John Foster Dulles [dZPn 'fPstq 'dAlqs] (1888-1959), American diplomat
and politician who as U.S. secretary of state (1953-1959) pursued a policy of
opposition to the U.S.S.R. largely through military and economic aid to American
allies.He is remembered as an uncompromising foe [fqV](ворог) of Communism.
He was born in Washington, D.C. Dulles was appointed to negotiate the United
States peace treaty with Japan in 1951; two years later he became secretary of
state in the Cabinet of President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
A staunch anti-Communist, Dulles was active in promoting the establishment of
the European Defense Community as a barrier to possible Soviet aggression in the
West. He also initiated the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, or
SEATO (1954), and the Baghdād Pact, or Central Treaty Organization (1955), which
were designed to contain Soviet and Chinese power in Asia.
Dulles made controversial threats of "massive nuclear retaliation" against
Communist aggression and declared that the United States must be prepared to
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"go to the brink" of war to attain its objectives. His brother, Allen Welsh Dulles,
1893–1969, was director (1953–61) of the CIA.
14. Henry Alfred Kissinger ['henrI 'xlfrId 'kIsiNGq] (b.1923), served as
secretary of state from 1973 to 1977. He was appointed by President Richard M.
Nixon and kept the post after Gerald R. Ford became President in 1974. Kissinger
also served as assistant to the President for national security affairs from 1969 to
1975. He was the most influential foreign policy adviser of both Presidents.
Between 1969 and 1973, Kissinger conducted secret negotiations with North
Vietnamese diplomats in an effort to end the Vietnam War. The negotiations led
to a cease-fire agreement signed in January 1973 by the United States, North
Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the Viet Cong. Kissinger and Le Duc Tho, the chief
North Vietnamese negotiator, won the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the
cease-fire. But fighting went on until the war ended in 1975.
Kissinger carried out other missions for Nixon. In 1971, he went to China to
arrange Nixon's 1972 visit. He went to Moscow in 1972 to prepare Nixon's meeting
with Soviet leaders. In 1974, Kissinger helped arrange agreements to separate the
fighting forces of Israel from those of Egypt and Syria. These nations were involved in
the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan named Kissinger head
of a federal commission to develop U.S. policy on Central America.
Kissinger was born in Furth, Germany. His family came to the United States in
1938 to escape Nazi persecution of Jews. Kissinger served in the U.S. Army
during World War II. He became a U.S. citizen in 1943. Kissinger earned three
degrees at Harvard University, and taught courses there on international
relations. His writings on foreign policy include Nuclear Weapons and Foreign
Policy (1957). Kissinger has published two volumes of memoirs, White House
Years (1979) and Years of Upheaval (зрушень) (1982). Diplomacy (1994) deals
with notable statesmen since the 1600's.
Important Note ! All other biographies are available in

Lyalko S.V. "General Philosophy Overview",Kyiv, 2001.
Contributors: 1) Michael P. Sullivan, Ph.D., Prof. of Political Science, Univ. of
Arizona. 2) David S. Broder, M.A., National Political Correspondent, Washington Post;
Winner of Pulitzer Prize in Commentary, 1973. 3) Robert L. Cord, Ph.D., Matthews
Distinguished Univ. Prof. and Prof. of Political Science, Northeastern Univ.
Some Notions Used In Political Science.

Government and Political Terms
(in alphabetical order)["xlfq'betIk(q)l]:
179
Abdication ["xbdI'keIS(q)n] is giving up the right to rule. Abdication,
relinquishment of office by a sovereign or other ruler. In modern times, sovereigns
have abdicated for many different reasons. Queen Christina of Sweden relinquished
her crown in 1654 because she was weary of the cares of office. Ill health caused the
abdication of Holy Roman emperor Charles V in 1558. Napoleon I was forced to
abdicate by allied foreign powers, both in 1814 and, after his return, in 1815.
Insurrections often have forced abdications, including those of Richard II of England
(1399), Mary, Queen of Scots (1567), Charles X of France (1830), and Nicholas II of
Russia (1917).The defeat of the Central Powers in World War I (1914-1918) resulted
in a number of abdications, including those of William II of Germany and Charles I of
Austria-Hungary. Several more abdications occurred before the onset of World War II
in 1939. King Edward VIII of Britain (later duke of Windsor) abdicated in 1936 because
the government opposed his marriage plans. In 1940, during World War II, Germany
forced King Carol II of Romania to abdicate. King Michael of Romania abdicated in
1947 under the pressure of Romanian Communists. King Faruk I of Egypt had to
abdicate in 1952 after a military coup d'etat. Queen Juliana of the Netherlands
abdicated in 1980 at the age of 71.
Absolutism ['xbsqlu:tIz(q)m], political system in which total power is vested in a
single individual or group of rulers. Absolutism claims unlimited power for rulers as
contrasted with the constitutional limitations placed on heads of state in democratic
governments. Modern absolutism began with the emergence of European nation-
states toward the end of the 1400s. It flourished for more than 200 years. A series of
revolutions gradually brought power to parliamentary governments. Other forms of
absolutism arose in the 1900s, such as National Socialism in Germany.
Affirmative Action [q'fE:mqtIv 'xkS(q)n], policies used in the United States to
increase opportunities for minorities by favoring them in hiring and promotion, college
admissions, and the awarding of government contracts. Generally, affirmative action
has been undertaken by governments, businesses, or educational institutions to
remedy the effects of past discrimination against a group. Until the mid-1960s legal
barriers prevented blacks and other racial minorities in the United States from entering
many jobs and educational institutions. Many universities would not admit women,
and employers often would not hire them. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited
discrimination in public accommodations and employment and laid the groundwork for
the subsequent development of affirmative action. The term affirmative action was first
used by President Lyndon B. Johnson in a 1965 executive order that declared that
federal contractors should "take affirmative action" to ensure that job applicants and
employees "are treated without regard to their race, color, religion, sex, or national
origin". President Richard Nixon was the first to implement federal policies designed to
guarantee minority hiring.
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The scope and limitations of affirmative action policy have been defined through a
series of legislative initiatives and by decisions of the Supreme Court of the United
States. To avoid discrimination lawsuits, in the early 1970s public and private
employers began to adopt hiring policies designed to recruit more minorities. In later
cases the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action, but placed
some restrictions on its implementation. Although sharply divided on the issue, the
court has struck down a number of affirmative action programs as unfair or too broad
in their application. Conservative justices appointed to the court in the 1980s and
1990s have attempted to limit the scope of affirmative action. Congress responded to
a number of conservative Supreme Court rulings by passing the Civil Rights Act of
1991, which strengthened antidiscrimination laws. From its beginnings affirmative
action has been highly controversial. Critics charge that affirmative action policies
violate the principal that all individuals are equal under the law. Advocates of
affirmative action respond that effective remedies must exist to aid groups that have
suffered from discrimination. In the 1990s affirmative action has been a highly
charged legal and political issue. With legislatures, courts, and the public divided over
the issue, the status of affirmative action remains uncertain.
African National Congress (ANC) ['xfrIkqn 'nxS(q)nql 'kPngres], South African
political organization that won the country's first democratic elections in which the
black majority could vote. In 1994 the ANC became South Africa's ruling party under
the leadership of Nelson Mandela, who was elected the nation's first black president.
The ANC was founded in 1912 as a nonviolent civil rights organization promoting the
interests of black Africans. In 1940 ANC president Alfred B. Xuma began recruiting
younger, more outspoken members, including Mandela, Oliver Tambo, and Walter
Sisulu. ANC membership greatly increased in the 1950s after South Africa's white-
minority government implemented apartheid, a policy of rigid racial segregation. In
1960 the government banned all black political organizations, including the ANC,
which began a campaign of sabotage against the government in 1961. During the
unrest of the next several years, Mandela and Sisulu were sentenced to life in prison.
For the next 30 years the ANC operated as an underground organization. In 1990 the
government released Mandela from prison and lifted its ban on the ANC, which
evolved into a political party.
Amendment [q'mendmqnt] is a change made in a law, a constitution, or a
legislative bill. Amendment, in legislation, the alteration of an existing statute. The
Congress of the United States has no power to alter the Constitution of the United
States but does have the power to repeal and alter laws. The method of amending the
Constitution is described in Article V of that document. In parliamentary procedure an
amendment may be added to a motion or bill. In the law of pleading and practice, an
amendment corrects an error or defect in a pleading or judicial proceeding.
Amnesty ['xmnqstI] means forgiveness granted by a government.
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Anarchism ['xnqkIz(q)m] is a belief that every form of government regulation
is wrong and that public governments should be destroyed. Anarchism, political
theory that opposes all forms of government. Anarchists believe that the highest
attainment of humanity is the freedom of individuals to express themselves,
unhindered by any form of external repression or control. One limitation on such
freedom, however, is the ban against injuring other human beings. If any human
being attempts to injure others, individuals have the right to organize against that
person, although only by voluntary cooperation and not under governmental
organization.The 19th-century French writer Pierre Joseph Proudhon is regarded
as the father of philosophic anarchism, which repudiates violent methods and
contends that society will evolve gradually toward anarchic organization.
Anarchists who reject Proudhon's theories maintain that the trend of human
development is toward achievement by cooperation, and that social cooperation
can never be wholly voluntary. Another school, relying on organized action and
even terrorist deeds grew out of socialism and appeared toward the end of the
19th century. Since that time socialism and anarchism have diverged sharply.
Anarchism declined steadily as both a political philosophy and an organized
movement between 1925 and 1950.
Appropriation [q"prqVprI'eIS(q)n], legislative action authorizing the
expenditure of public funds for some designated purpose. Through the power to
allocate funds, a legislature can influence the course of government. For
example, by relying on this "power of the purse," the British Parliament was
gradually able to wrest control of the government from the monarch. Although
legislatures retain control over appropriations, executive officials are generally
granted discretion over expenditure, which can result in sharp clashes between
the legislative and executive branches. The Constitution of the United States
provides that "no money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of
appropriations made by law." The Congress of the United States relies on a two-
step appropriation process: authorization of programs as recommended by
legislative committees, followed by the financing of those programs by measures
approved upon recommendation of the appropriations committees.
Aristocracy ["xrI'stPkrqsI] is a form of government controlled by a few people,
usually wealthy members of the nobility. Aristocracy, form of government in which
sovereign power is vested in a small number of citizens, as opposed to monarchy, in
which the supreme authority is vested in one person, and democracy, in which
authority is exercised by the entire body of citizens or their representatives. Athens,
before the Persian wars of the 400s BC, and Sparta, during practically its entire
history, were aristocracies, as was Rome during the Republic (6th century to 1st
century BC). In England the government from 1714 through the 1800s, although
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parliamentary in form, was an aristocracy, since the monarch and Parliament were
under the control of a few families.
Authoritarianism [O:"TPrI'te(q)rIqnIzm] is a form of government in which the
governing power is used without the consent of the governed. It is undemocratic,
but it is generally not so extreme as totalitarianism.
Authority [O:'TPrItI] is the right and duty to make decisions, and the power to
enforce them.
Autocracy [O:'tPkrqsI] is rule by one person who has complete control of all
branches of the government.
Autonomy [O:'tPnqmI] means self-government and usually refers to a political unit that
is not completely independent. Each state of the United States has some autonomy.
Balance of Power, doctrine of international relations maintaining that
aggressive tendencies on the part of a state or an alliance of states can be
discouraged by the formation of another alliance of equal or greater strength.
Thus, in a system where one party is more powerful than any other single party,
peace may be preserved by an alliance of the weaker parties. This doctrine was
first clearly enunciated in the 1500s by Italian historian and statesman Francesco
Guicciardini, who observed in his History of Italy that the goal of Florentine policy
was to prevent the domination of the peninsula by any single Italian state.
In the 1500s and early 1600s the struggle to retain the balance of power in
Europe focused on avoiding dominance first by the Habsburg dynasty and later
by King Louis XIV of France, who eventually provoked an alliance involving most
of the rest of Europe. During the American Revolution (1775-1783) Great Britain
was challenged by an alliance of France, the Netherlands, Spain, and the
rebelling American colonies. Revolutionary France and French Emperor
Napoleon I forced the states of Europe into a series of alliances that took 20
years to restore a balance of power.
German Unification and Italian Unification led to a realignment of powers in
the late 1800s and early 1900s that ultimately resulted in World War I (1914-
1918). The alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan was broken during World War II
(1939-1945) by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Britain, the
United States, and a host of other nations. The development of nuclear arsenals
in the 1950s and 1960s led to a condition known as the balance of terror, in which
the decisive deterrent to war between the United States and the USSR was the
enormous destruction a nuclear conflict could wreak on both sides.
Ballot, in modern usage, sheet of paper used in voting, usually in an electoral
system that allows the voter to make choices secretly. The term also designates
voting by means of a mechanical device. The ballot method protects voters from
coercion and reprisal. Wherever the practice of deciding questions by free vote
has prevailed, some form of secret voting has always been found necessary.
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In ancient Greece members of high courts voted secretly and legislation
enacted in Rome in 139 BC established a system of secret voting. Colored balls
were used as ballots during the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). Each
voter received two balls–one white, indicating acceptance, and the other black,
indicating rejection–and deposited them secretly in appropriate receptacles. With
the development of modern democracy the practice of voting secretly in
legislative assemblies responsible to the people was generally abandoned. In
Great Britain the Ballot Act of 1872 provided for secret voting in parliamentary
elections. Similar legislation had been previously adopted in France (1852) and
Italy (1859).
Following the American Revolution (1775-1783), the secret ballot was adopted
in most of the United States. Development of the political party system resulted in
abuses of the ballot system during the first half of the 1800s. In the late 1800s
states gradually adopted a system that included the preparation, printing, and
distribution of the ballot by government agencies; the use of a ballot listing the
names and party designations of all candidates for all offices; and secret voting
under government supervision.
By 1967 most states had adopted the office-column type of listing, in which
the names are arranged under the office sought, with the party label appearing
after the name. Some states, counties, and cities provide ballots with space for
write-in votes for candidates not listed. Various methods have been devised for
the nomination of candidates to ensure that only the names of authorized office
seekers appear on the ballot. Many states and localities require the filing of a
petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters before the
name can appear on the ballot. Mechanical voting devices began to be adopted in
parts of the United States after 1892.
Bicameral System [baI'kxm(q)rql], legislative system in which the power of
making law is vested in two chambers, or houses, both of which must approve a
bill before it becomes law. In general, members of the upper house represent
states or other political subdivisions rather than the people directly, and usually
serve for longer terms than the members of the lower house. The lower house is
generally composed of members selected on the basis of population, each
member representing an equal number of citizens.
Bill, proposed law placed before a legislative body for examination, debate, and
enactment. Once enacted, a bill becomes a law. In the United States government, a
bill must be introduced by a member of the Congress of the United States. It is then
assigned to a committee, where it is reviewed. A bill approved by committee is
generally debated on the floor. If the bill receives a favorable majority vote, it is sent to
the other house of Congress, where a similar procedure takes place. The president
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may approve or veto the bill. A veto ['vi:tqV] may be overridden(скасовано) by a two-
thirds majority vote in both houses.
Bill of Rights is a document that describes the basic liberties of the people
and forbids the government to violate those rights. The U.S. Bill of Rights consists
of the first 10 amendments to the Constitution.
Bipartisanship, in the United States, the attempt of political leaders to obtain
maximum unity from members of both parties on matters of foreign policy. It is
generally considered desirable to have some measure of cooperation between
the Democratic and Republican parties on international programs. To achieve
this, the president consults with both parties before acting on major global
problems. An important provision of bipartisanship is that neither party attempts to
take advantage of diplomatic problems or defeats.
Bolshevism ['bPlSqvIz(q)m], Communist doctrine based on the theories of
German revolutionary Karl Marx as formulated by Russian revolutionary Vladimir
Lenin. These theories were outlined at the second congress of the Russian Social
Democratic Labor Party of 1903.
The congress crystallized into two factions, the more radical faction being led by
Lenin. He advocated a unified party of active, professional revolutionary members,
willing to use any means to establish a Communist society. His opponents proposed
to admit all who declared general sympathy with the aims of the party. After the
congress elected Lenin to the party leadership, his faction became known as
Bolshevik (from the Russian word for "majority"), and the opposition became known
as Menshevik (from the Russian word for "minority"). In subsequent years the
Mensheviks emphasized reform, especially the establishment of constitutional
government. When a parliament, called the Duma, was created in 1905, the
Bolsheviks preferred either to boycott it or to use it as a forum for agitation, whereas
the Mensheviks hoped to use it to build opposition to the tsar.
After 1912 the two parties competed for the leadership of the anticzarist
revolution. In 1917 a revolution broke out, resulting in the tsar's abdication and
the introduction of parliamentary government. The Bolsheviks overthrew the
parliamentary government later that year, and eventually decreed themselves the
sole political organization in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Bureaucracy ["bjV(q)'rPkrqsI] is the system of officials who carry out the
functions of a government. Synonyms: red tape, officialdom, beadledom .
Bureaucracy, personnel and administrative structure of an organization.
Business, labor, religious, educational, and governmental systems depend on a
large workforce arranged in a hierarchy to carry out specialized tasks based on
internal rules and procedures. The term is used mostly in referring to government
administration. The United States federal bureaucracy is the result of almost two
centuries of adjustments and compromises.
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During the early days executives were recruited mainly from an educated
class interested in a long-term career in government. Beginning in the 1820 jobs
began to be allocated to political supporters of the party in power. The Pendleton
Act of 1883 created a competitive civil service, dedicated to professionalism and
nonpartisanship. In the 20th century the civil service was criticized for being
insufficiently responsive to the Congress of the United States and the president.
In 1978 Congress passed the Civil Service Reform Act, bringing the civil service
under closer control of the president.
Cabinet ['kxb(I)nIt] is a group of advisers, including the heads of major
government departments and other high officials.Cabinet (government), name
applied to the collective body of advisers to the executive head of a parliamentary
government. The composition and functions of the Cabinet vary in different countries.
The Cabinet originated early in the 15th century as a council advising the king
of England. In the 18th century, when the center of governmental power shifted
from the monarch to the British Parliament, the Cabinet became the council of the
most important minister in the government, the prime minister. Since about 1780
most British Cabinet ministers also have been department heads. In the United
States the Cabinet consists of the president's advisers, each of whom is a
department head. The cabinets of Latin America usually follow the U.S. model,
whereas most European countries and Canada have adopted the British model.
The principal characteristics of European cabinets are the responsibility of the
cabinet to the legislature and the identification of the cabinet with the government.
The cabinet is formed by the prime minister, and together they administer the
country as long as they have the confidence of the legislature. A cabinet of the
British type typically consists of members of the party that has a decisive majority
in the legislature, although cabinets are sometimes formed by parties that
together control a majority. In the British government, Cabinet members are
members of Parliament, usually of the same political party as the prime minister.
The Cabinet of the U.S. government consists of the administrative heads of
the executive departments of the federal government. Cabinet members are
appointed by the president with the approval of the United States Senate and may
be removed by the president either at will or as a result of censure or
impeachment by the Congress of the United States. The cabinet as a
governmental institution is not provided for in the Constitution of the United
States. It developed as an advisory body out of the president's need for
consultation on matters of federal policy and on problems of administration.
Unlike their counterparts in other countries, Cabinet officers have no direct
legislative function. In 1886 Congress enacted legislation establishing the order of
succession of Cabinet officers to the presidency. The secretary of state headed
the list. In 1947 Congress modified the act of 1886, placing the Speaker of the
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House of Representatives and the president pro tempore of the Senate, in that
order, before any Cabinet members.
Capitalism is an economic system in which individuals or private businesses own
most of a nation's means of producing goods and services. Capitalism, economic
system in which firms carry on the production and exchange of goods and services
through a complex network of prices and markets. Capitalism has certain key
characteristics. First, basic production facilities–land and capital–are privately owned.
Second, economic activity is organized and coordinated through the interaction of
buyers and sellers (or producers) in markets. Third, owners of land and capital as well
as the workers they employ are free to pursue their own self-interests in seeking
maximum gain from the use of their resources and labor in production. Consumers
are free to spend their incomes in ways that they believe will yield the greatest
satisfaction. This principle reflects the idea that under capitalism, producers will be
forced by competition to use their resources in ways that will best satisfy the wants of
consumers. Fourth, a minimum of government supervision is required; if competition
is present, economic activity will be self-regulating.
Beginnings of Modern Capitalism
Two 18th-century developments paved the way for the emergence of modern
capitalism. The first was the appearance of the economists called physiocrats in
France after 1750. Physiocracy is the term applied to a school of economic thought
that suggested the existence of a natural order in economics, one that does not
require direction from the state for people to be prosperous. According to the
physiocrats, productive activities such as agriculture, fishing, and mining produce a
surplus or net product. Other activities, such as manufacturing, do not produce new
wealth but simply transform or circulate the output of the productive class.
The second development was the thought of British philosopher Adam Smith.
He also tried to show the existence of an economic order that would function most
efficiently if the state played a limited role, but unlike the physiocrats he did not
believe that industry was unproductive. Rather, Smith saw in the division of labor
and the extension of markets almost limitless possibilities for society to expand its
wealth through manufacture and trade.
The Rise of Industrialization
The ideas of Smith and the physiocrats provided the ideological and
intellectual background for the Industrial Revolution—the material side of the
sweeping transformations in society and the world that characterized the 19th
century. The industrialization process introduced mechanical power to replace
human and animal power in the production of goods and services. Production
became more specialized and concentrated in larger units, called factories. The
application of mechanical power to production helped increase worker efficiency,
which made goods abundant and cheap.
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However, the development of industrial capitalism had serious human costs.
The early days of the Industrial Revolution were marred by appalling conditions
for large numbers of workers, especially in England. Abusive child labor, long
working hours, and dangerous and unhealthy workplaces were common. These
conditions led German political philosopher Karl Marx to produce his massive
indictment of the capitalistic system, Das Kapital (3 volumes, 1867-1894). Marx's
work struck at the fundamental principle of capitalism–private ownership of the
means of production. Marx believed that land and capital should be owned by
society as a whole and that the products of the system should be distributed
according to need.
In the late 19th century, especially in the United States, the modern
corporation began to emerge as the dominant form of business organization, and
capitalism became the dominant economic system. The tendency toward
corporate control of manufacturing led to many attempts to create combines,
monopolies, or trusts that could control an entire industry. Eventually, the public
outcry against such practices was great enough in the United States to lead the
Congress of the United States to pass antitrust legislation. This legislation
attempted to make the pursuit of monopoly by business illegal, trying to enforce at
least a bare minimum of competition in industry and commerce.
20th-Century Capitalism
For most of the 20th century, capitalism has been buffeted by wars, revolution,
and economic depressions. However, capitalist systems demonstrated
remarkable abilities for survival and adaptability to change, including the use of
government intervention to soften the impact of boom and bust cycles, periods of
expansion and prosperity followed by economic depression and increased
unemployment. World War I (1914-1918) brought revolution and a Marxist-based
Communism to Russia. The war also spawned the Nazi system in Germany (see
National Socialism), a mixture of capitalism and state socialism, brought together
in a regime whose violence and expansionism eventually pushed the world into
another major conflict, World War II (1939-1945). After the war, Communist
economic systems took hold in China and Eastern Europe.
The Western capitalist nations enjoyed economic growth and rising standards
of living, although inflation and unemployment continued to be intermittent
problems. As the Cold War came to an end in the 1980s, the former Soviet-bloc
nations turned to capitalism (with mixed success at first). China was the only
major power to retain a Marxist regime. Many of the developing nations, strongly
influenced by Marxist ideas in the early postcolonial period, turned to a modified
form of capitalism in their search for answers to economic problems.
Census ['sensqs], term primarily referring to the official and periodical counting of
the people of a country or section of a country; also, the printed record of such a
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counting. In actual usage the term is applied to the collection of information on
population, housing, business enterprises, and governmental agencies.
History
The earliest known censuses were conducted for purposes of levying taxes or
for military conscription. The Romans were the first to count their empire's
inhabitants at regular intervals. With the dominance of feudalism in the Middle
Ages (5th century to 15th century), information on taxation and personnel for
military conscription became unnecessary. Not until the 17th century did a nation
again attempt an accurate count of its population. The first true census in modern
times began in 1665 in the colony of New France (France's North American
empire). During the 1800s and the first half of the 1900s, the practice of census-
taking spread throughout the world.
The United States Census
The first census in the United States began in 1790. Seventeen U.S. marshals
solicited answers to six questions: the name of the head of the household, the
number of free white males 16 years of age and older, the number of free white
males under 16 years of age, the number of free white females, the number of
other free persons, and the number of slaves. For the next 50 years, the census
questions remained basically unchanged. In 1840 the government expanded the
scope of census information and by 1860 six separate census questionnaires
posed 142 different questions. With the invention in the 1880s of the punch-card
system of tabulation, vast quantities of data could be processed quickly. In 1902
the Congress of the United States established the Bureau of the Census as a
permanent organization. The New Deal programs of the 1930s and the
subsequent wartime emergency made unprecedented demands for accurate, up-
to-date information on the population. The Census Bureau developed sampling
techniques to provide a wide range of information on a regular and continuing
basis. In 1951 the first computer for nonmilitary use began tabulating data from
the 1950 census.
The Census Today
Response to the census is required by law. The information is kept strictly
confidential. Data collected from individuals can be used for statistical purposes
only, not for taxation, investigation, or regulation. In addition to operations
mandated by law, the Census Bureau consults extensively with the users of its
statistics. Advisory committees discuss methods of handling census materials so
that the statistics are appropriate for most data users.
Census data directly influence decisions on matters of national and local
importance such as education, employment, transportation, military-personnel
potential, business cycles, health-care needs, parks, natural resources, energy,
and international relations. State and local governments use census information
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for drawing legislative and other district boundaries. Because many public
programs are funded according to population, and because congressional
representation is based on the number of residents, state and local authorities are
particularly concerned with obtaining an accurate count.
The 21st Decennial Census of Population and Housing officially began on
April 1, 1990. A temporary workforce of approximately 300,000 people was hired
to check the returned forms, visit households from which forms had not been
returned, and perform many clerical tasks. Tabulation of the data yielded more
than 300,000 pages of statistics, which were made available to the public.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), agency of the Executive Office of the
President of the United States, created in 1947 together with the National Security
Council. The CIA is a permanent peacetime intelligence agency, responsible for
keeping the government informed of foreign actions affecting national interests
and coordinating national intelligence activities. Its director is appointed by the
president with the approval of the United States Senate.
The CIA attempts to recruit agents who can obtain vital information without
detection. Intelligence reports are reviewed by analysts who produce daily,
weekly, or monthly bulletins. The CIA is also responsible for counterespionage
activities (see Espionage). Covert political operations have ranged from
subsidizing friendly foreign politicians, parties, or pressure groups, to providing
assistance through paramilitary operations.
In 1975 the CIA came under extensive congressional and White House
examination. Investigators found that the agency had engaged in "unlawful" domestic
spying activities and had been implicated in assassination attempts abroad.
Permanent congressional committees were established to oversee CIA operations.
By 1986, however, the agency was involved in a controversy concerning the secret
sale of weapons to Iran and the disbursement of funds from the sale to the rebels
(known as the contras) fighting the government of Nicaragua.
In the 1990s the CIA was rocked by a number of scandals. In 1994 Aldrich
Ames, a career counterintelligence officer, was convicted of selling secrets to the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and sentenced to life imprisonment.
In 1995 it was revealed that two men in Guatemala–an American innkeeper and a
leftist Guatemalan guerrilla–had been murdered on the orders of a Guatemalan
colonel who was a paid agent of the CIA. An investigation revealed that the CIA
had known that one of its agents was responsible for the murders.
Checks and Balances are limitations on the powers of any branch of
government. Checks and balances are created by giving each branch some
powers that offset those of the other branches.
Citizen, individual member of a political society or state. In the republics of
antiquity, the term citizen signified not merely a resident of a town but a free,
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governing member of the state. Greek citizens had the right to participate in both
the legislative and judicial functions of their political community. In ancient Rome
two classes of citizens were recognized: The first possessed the rights of
citizenship; the second possessed these rights and the additional right to hold
state office. In the United States the word citizen is used in its broadest sense. An
individual may be at once a citizen of the United States and of the state in which
he or she resides. However, the citizen owes first and highest allegiance to the
federal government. A citizen of the United States may be native-born or
naturalized. A naturalized citizen was originally a subject of a foreign state but has
become a citizen of the United States (see Naturalization). A person may also
hold dual citizenship, meaning that two different nations officially recognize that
person as a citizen. This occurs most commonly when a child is born in one
country and the parents hold citizenship in another.
City Planning, unified development of cities and their environs. For most of its
history, city planning dealt primarily with the regulation of land use and the
physical arrangement of city structures, as guided by architectural, engineering,
and land-development criteria. In the mid-1900s it broadened to include the
guidance of the physical, economic, and social environment of a community. City
planning is conducted by governments on all levels and by private groups.
History of City Planning
Archaeological excavations of ancient cities reveal evidence of some deliberate
planning: the arrangement of housing in regular, rectangular patterns and the
prominent location of civic and religious buildings along main thoroughfares. The
emphasis on planning broadened during the Greek and Roman eras. Religious and
civic citadels were oriented so as to give a sense of aesthetic balance; streets were
arranged in a grid pattern; and housing was integrated with cultural, commercial, and
defense facilities. After the fall of the Roman Empire, cities declined in population and
importance. From the 400s to 1400s towns were usually planned around castles,
churches, and monasteries, with informal street arrangements.
The emulation of Greco-Roman classicism during the Renaissance revived city-
planning efforts. Renaissance planning stressed wide, regular streets forming
concentric circles around a central point, with other streets radiating out like spokes of
a wheel. These themes of Renaissance planning surfaced in the colonial cities of the
Americas in the 1500s and 1600s. The ideals of public grandeur and radial,
circumferential streets continued in the 1800s. During this century of the Industrial
Revolution, the few design standards that were introduced often neglected basic
physical and aesthetic considerations. By the end of the 1800s the growth of major
cities led to serious overcrowding, with a host of associated problems.
The United States and Britain responded similarly to the need to improve the
living conditions in cities. Their initial action was to regulate the sanitary
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conditions and density of tenement housing. A movement then arose for a more
comprehensive, long-term approach. Important steps were taken in the early
1900s to formalize and legalize city planning. In 1909 American architect Daniel
Burnham published his Plan of Chicago, a comprehensive design that integrated
transportation systems, parks, streets, and other facilities. In the United States
during the 1920s local planning increased significantly. Greater acceptance of city
planning resulted from the rapid growth of cities during the 1920s and the ensuing
pressures on transportation facilities and public services. During the Great
Depression of the 1930s, regional and national governments intervened more
forcefully in city planning to foster economic development in depressed regions.
The extensive physical rebuilding of European cities following World War II (1939-
1945) lent new urgency to city planning. In the 1950s and 1960s British
development of new towns received new emphasis. In the United States efforts
were focused on designing vast new suburban housing subdivisions and
providing for their transportation needs. The redevelopment of older central cities
was also a major concern. The interstate highway network of expressways, begun
in the early 1950s, influenced the shape of all metropolitan areas.
Modern City Planning
In its modern form, city planning is an ongoing process that concerns not only
physical design but also social, economic, and political policy issues. City
planning requires more than a narrow specialist who can develop and implement
a physical plan. The basic city-planning document is a comprehensive plan that is
adopted and maintained with regular revisions. The plan receives its day-to-day
expression in zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations, and building and
housing codes that establish standards of land use and quality of construction.
The comprehensive plan served as a guide to making daily development
decisions in terms of their long-range consequences.
Land is allocated and private activities are coordinated with public facilities by
means of zoning ordinances and subdivision regulations. A zoning ordinance governs
how the land may be used and the size, type, and number of structures that may be
built on the land. Construction on previously undeveloped land is controlled by
subdivision regulations and by site-plan review. Building and housing codes govern
the quality and safety of new buildings, as well as subsequent maintenance.
Contemporary city planning also addresses many long-range social and
economic issues, including economic development and redevelopment. Economic
development plans involve job training and create jobs, establish new industry
and business, help existing enterprises to flourish, rehabilitate what is
salvageable, and redevelop what cannot be saved. Capital projects–such as road
improvements, street lighting, public parking facilities, and purchase of land for
open spaces–must be considered and prioritized. In declining areas, economic
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redevelopment is of prime concern. City planners must understand that regional,
interregional, national, and international economic forces affect a city. Their plans
must reflect the interests and priorities of the people and businesses of the city,
and the programs that are implemented must help the city survive and maintain
the quality of life that these groups desire.
Civil Rights are the freedoms that people may have as members of a community,
particularly a nation. In most countries, law and custom guarantee civil rights.
Civil Service includes most civilian government employees who are
appointed rather than elected.
Colonialism is a term that refers to the rule of a group of people by a foreign power.
Commonwealth, body of people in a politically organized community that is
independent or semi-independent, and in which the government functions by the common
consent of the people. The United States and its separate, semiautonomous states are
commonwealths. In addition, the term is applied in a general sense to an association of
persons having a common interest. It is also applied to Australia and the Bahamas and to
the association of countries known as the Commonwealth of Nations.
Common Law is the body of rules found in the written records of judges'
decisions. It is law made by courts, rather than by legislatures.
Communist Parties, political organizations designed to establish and
maintain a Communist system, theoretically dominated by the working class and
generally patterned on the party established in Russia after the Russian
Revolution of 1917. Most Communist parties have been totalitarian and monolithic
in both spirit and practice (see Totalitarianism). In the 1980s more than one-fourth
of the world's population lived under Communist rule. During the late 1980s and
early 1990s, however, political and economic upheavals led to the collapse of
numerous Communist regimes and severely weakened the power and influence
of Communist parties throughout the world.
The USSR and Eastern Europe
In 1903 the Bolshevik (majority) faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party,
headed by Vladimir Lenin, split from the Menshevik (minority) faction to form a separate
party. In 1917 the Bolsheviks seized control of the Russian revolutionary movement and
founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The name Communist Party of
the Soviet Union (CPSU) was adopted in 1952. The general secretary of the CPSU, the
party's highest official, wielded political power in the USSR. The party permeated all facets
of Soviet economic, political, military, and cultural life. Until the end of the 1980s, the CPSU
was the leader of the international Communist movement. As the 1990s began, economic
and political upheavals in Eastern Europe and the USSR forced the CPSU to give up its
leading role. By the end of 1991 the USSR had dissolved and its Communist remnant was
in disarray (безладдя, невпорядкованість).
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The drastic decline of the CPSU followed the collapse of many Eastern
European Communist parties, which had been linked to the CPSU. The
Communist parties of Eastern Europe had their origins in the period from 1891 to
1921. They assumed power in the late 1940s following the occupation of Eastern
Europe by the Soviet Army. Every Communist government in Eastern Europe
surrendered its monopoly on political power between 1989 and 1991.
China
Unlike the Communist organizations of Eastern Europe and the USSR, the
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was able to stem the tide of democratic protest in
the late 1980s. Since the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, it has been
the country's only legal party. The Chinese and Soviet parties were once closely
allied, but during the 1960s they became bitter rivals. The CCP's influence in the
international Communist movement declined after the death of its longtime chairman,
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), in 1976. Because of the political instability that followed
Mao's death, the CCP sought to lessen the power of individual leaders by making the
National People's Congress the leading body of the CCP.
Western Europe
The Communist parties of Western Europe were established between 1918
and 1923, following the Russian Revolution. They have since enjoyed differing
degrees of political power in their respective countries. Since the early 1960s the
French Communist Party has forged electoral alliances with non-Communist
parties of the Left and the Center. Although it has never won a majority, it was the
largest of all French parties by the late 1970s. The French Communist Party
joined with those of Italy and Spain during the 1970s in advocating a more liberal,
pluralistic form of communism (Eurocommunism). The Italian Communist Party
appeared as a major force in Italian politics in 1944. At the local level the party
has held power in many municipalities since the late 1940s. Seeking to redefine
its program for the 1990s, the Italian Communist Party took a new name, the
Democratic Party of the Left, and emphasized social democracy, women's rights,
and environmental issues.
The Western Hemisphere
The Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA) is descended
from the Communist Labor Party and the Communist Party, both founded in 1919.
The membership of the CPUSA is concentrated in a few industrial states and is
believed to be largely middle-aged or older. Communist parties in the western
hemisphere, except for those of Cuba and Nicaragua, are generally small and
sometimes illegal. Their significance stems from their support of leftist coalitions and,
on occasion, guerrilla activities. The Cuban party is the only ruling Communist party in
the western hemisphere. It depended on the Soviet Union for financial support, and
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during the 1970s and 1980s acted in fulfillment of CPSU policies by providing military
assistance to "national liberation movements" abroad.
Communism is a form of government, an economic system, a revolutionary
movement, and a philosophy. Communism calls for government control of economic
activity and for government ownership of factories, machines, and other means of
production. Communism, concept or system of society in which the major resources
and means of production are owned by the community rather than by individuals.
Theoretically, communist societies provide for equal sharing of all work, according to
ability, and all benefits, according to need. As a concept of an ideal society,
communism is derived from ancient sources. In the early 1800s the idea of a
communist society was a response to modern capitalism by the poor and the
dislocated. Later, the term was reserved for the philosophy advanced by German
revolutionary theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their Communist Manifesto.
In their writings, Marx and Engels described human history as the attempt to
control nature in order to improve the human condition. In the development of
human productive forces, social institutions were created that introduced
exploitation, domination, and other evils. Engels and Marx believed that the
capitalist system would also destroy itself, culminating in a revolution in which the
poor would rebel against their oppressors, do away with private ownership, and
eliminate inequalities and coercive government. Marx and Engels expected this
would happen in the most highly industrialized nations. However, communists
have come to power in nations that lacked the preconditions Marx and Engels
considered essential.
The first of these countries was Russia, which became known as the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) following the Russian Revolution (1917). When
the Communist Party emerged victorious, it was faced with the need to modernize
the Soviet economy and transform the country into a major military power. The
Soviet leadership was ruthless in marshaling human and material resources for
these tasks. The resulting system has been labeled totalitarianism or Stalinism,
after Joseph Stalin, the leader who controlled the USSR for more than a quarter
of a century. Stalinism scarcely resembled the communist utopia that Marx and
Engels had envisioned. Three decades after Stalin's death, the USSR remained a
society administered in authoritarian fashion by a managerial bureaucracy.
To the West, the Soviet Communist government appeared as a threat, and
from the beginning attempts were made to destroy it by force. In its endangered
position, the Communist regime tried to establish workable relations with other
countries. Between 1945 and 1975 the number of countries under Communist
rule increased greatly, partly because of the way the victorious powers in World
War II had divided the world, and partly because revolutionary Communist
movements were gaining strength in the Third World. By the early 1980s the
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USSR had become the world's second-ranking industrial power. However, it soon
became apparent that Soviet Communism was in crisis. By the end of 1991 rapid
political change had led to the collapse of Communist governments in Eastern
Europe, the USSR, and elsewhere.
Confederation, union of sovereign states, each of which may act
independently. It is distinguished from a federation, in which individual states are
subordinate to the central government. Confederations existed in ancient times,
notably the Delian League, formed under Athenian leadership in the 400s BC. In
modern times the term applies to formerly independent states joined in a single
political unit. During the American Revolution (1775-1783) the former colonies set
up a confederation that later formed a federation under the Constitution of the
United States. The southern states that seceded in 1861 formed themselves into
a confederation. Several short-lived European confederations appeared in the
1800s, including the North German Confederation of 1866 to 1870.
Congress of the United States, legislative branch of the federal government
of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
In conjunction with the executive and judicial branches, Congress exercises the
sovereign power of the people of the United States. Congress has only such
functions and authority as are expressly conferred or implied by the Constitution
of the United States. Among these are the power to tax, to borrow money on the
credit of the United States, to regulate commerce with foreign nations and
between states, to coin money, to establish post offices, to declare war, to form
armies, and to make laws necessary for the execution of its own powers and
those of the government of the United States. Constitutional limitations on the
powers of Congress generally prohibit the abridgment or destruction of
fundamental rights.
Two general and important restrictions are the presidential veto and the
invalidation of legislation as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United
States. If vetoed by the president, a bill cannot become law unless passed a
second time and by a two-thirds majority of each house. Only the Senate may
confirm presidential appointments, give consent to treaties, and try
impeachments. However, impeachment may be initiated only by the House of
Representatives. Only the House may initiate revenue bills.
The term of a Congress extends from each odd-numbered year to the next
odd-numbered year; the First Congress convened in 1789. The houses of
Congress meet separately in the Capitol in Washington, D.C., but convene in joint
session for communications from the president or addresses by foreign
dignitaries. Most sessions are open to the public. Each house makes its own rules
of procedure and may punish or expel members for just cause. Both houses use
a system of committees to consider and prepare legislation. Committees are
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composed of members of the majority and minority political parties in proportion
to their strength. Members of the majority party chair the committees. A majority
and a minority leader in each house, chosen by their respective party members,
are influential in scheduling and shaping legislation.
The Senate is composed of two senators from each state, elected for six-year
terms. Since 1959 the Senate has had 100 members. The terms of one-third of
the members of the Senate expire every two years. Since 1913, when the 17th
Amendment went into effect, senators have been elected by popular vote. A
senator must be at least 30 years of age, a U.S. citizen for at least nine years,
and a resident of the state in which he or she is elected. Each senator has one
vote. The presiding officer of the Senate is the U.S. vice president, who may vote
only in the event of a tie. In the absence of the vice president, the Senate is
presided over by a president pro tempore.
The entire membership of the House of Representatives is renewed every
second year. Representatives are elected by popular vote. The Constitution
provides that each state have at least one representative and that the other
representatives be apportioned among the states, based on a decennial census.
At present the size of the House is fixed at 435 members, elected on the basis of
one representative for about 500,000 inhabitants.
Members of the House generally represent congressional districts established
by the states. A representative must be at least 25 years of age, a U.S. citizen for
at least seven years, and a resident of the state in which he or she is elected, but
not necessarily a resident of the congressional district that he or she represents.
Each representative has one vote. The presiding officer of the House of
Representatives is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the House. The
Speaker appoints all select committees and may vote, but generally does so only
to break a tie.
Conservatism is a political belief in making changes in line with proven values of
the past. Most American conservatives, for example, want to hold public governments
strictly within the limits of their powers as set forth in the Constitution. Conservatism,
general state of mind that is averse to rapid change and innovation and strives for
balance and order, while avoiding extremes. Originally conservatism arose as a
reaction against the Age of Enlightenment. Conservatives advocated belief in faith
over reason, tradition over free inquiry, hierarchy over equality, collective values over
individualism, and divine or natural law over secular law. Conservatism emphasizes
the merits of the status quo and endorses the prevailing distribution of power, wealth,
and social standing. Political conservative thought, however, has reconciled itself with
constitutional democracy and individual rights as well as with prudent and orderly
social and economic change.
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Conservatism received its classic formulation in the works of British statesman
Edmund Burke, who viewed society as an organic whole, with individuals
performing various roles and functions: A natural elite provides leadership in a
community held together by customs and traditions. Burke rejected the principles
of equality, popular representation, and majority rule. He advocated order,
balance, and cooperation in society; restraints on government; and the
supremacy of law. After the mid-1800s gradual extension of voting rights, social
legislation, and better cooperation between the poor and the rich became part of
conservatism in Britain. In the 1900s the Conservative Party accepted economic
controls by the state, broadened the state's social responsibility in some areas,
and endorsed the tenets of the welfare state. Only after 1979 did the
Conservative Party begin to reconsider these practices.
European conservatives, until the end of the 1800s, rejected democratic
principles and opted for monarchies or for authoritarian government. A dominant
conservative doctrine in many European countries has been corporatism, which
advocates a close collaboration between employers and workers under the
direction of the state. Corporatism remains a major influence on conservatism in
Europe and in Latin America. For most of the 1980s, conservative parties held
power in both Britain and West Germany. In France a Gaullist movement has
been influential since 1958. In other European countries conservative forces are
caught between left-wing and authoritarian movements.
Unlike the trend in England and the European continent, the main currents of
American political thought converged throughout the 1800s into a broad
consensus that incorporated economic individualism and constitutional
democracy with powerful restraints on the government. With the Great
Depression of the 1930s and the New Deal introduced by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt in 1933, American conservatism became a distinct political movement.
The conservatives disapproved of the New Deal and restated the fundamental
premises of a free-market economy. Conservatives gradually made important
inroads among Republicans and even among Democrats. This led to the defeat of
many liberal senators and representatives in the 1980 election.
Constitution is the written or unwritten collection of rules and principles followed
by governments. Constitution, in politics, fundamental system of law, written or
unwritten, of a sovereign state, established or accepted as a guide for governing the
state. A constitution fixes the limits and defines the relations of the legislative, judicial,
and executive powers of the state, thus setting up the basis for government. It also
provides guarantees of certain rights to the people. The United States has a written
constitution, while the United Kingdom has an unwritten constitution.
Coup d'état, ['ku:deI'tQ:] seizure of an existing government by a small group.
This overthrow is sometimes accompanied by violence. A coup d'état involves
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relatively few members of the population, and these few frequently are military
officers. For many years the coup d'état has been used in Latin America. This
pattern now seems to be appearing in some African nations.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, manifesto adopted in
1789 by the National Assembly of France that formed the preamble to the new
constitution of 1791. The declaration enumerated a number of rights with which
"all men" were held to be endowed and nullified the divine right of kings, which
was the former basis of French government.
The enumerated rights included participation in the making of laws; equality of
all before the law; equitable taxation; protection against loss of property through
arbitrary action by the state; freedom of religion, speech, and the press; and
protection against arbitrary arrest and punishment. The declaration served as a
model for most of the declarations of political and civil rights adopted by European
states in the 19th century.
Democracy means rule by the people. It may refer to a form of government, or to
a way of life. Democracy, political system in which the people of a country rule
through any form of government they choose to establish. In modern democracies,
supreme authority is usually exercised by popularly elected representatives. The
representatives may be replaced by the electorate according to the legal procedures
of recall and referendum, and they are in principle responsible to the electorate.
The city-states of ancient Greece and of Rome during the early years of the
Republic were direct democracies, in which all citizens could vote in assemblies.
Some European cities carried on the democratic tradition during the Middle Ages
(5th century to 15th century). Concepts of equal political and social rights were
further defined during the Renaissance (14th century to 17th century), when the
development of humanism was fostered, and later during the Reformation (16th
century), in the struggle for religious freedom.
Beginning with the first popular rebellion against monarchy in England (1642),
political and revolutionary action against autocratic European governments
resulted in the establishment of democratic governments. This change was
fostered largely by political philosophers, notably French philosophers
Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau, and American statesmen Thomas
Jefferson and James Madison. By the end of the 19th century, every major
Western European monarchy had adopted a constitution giving considerable
political power to the people. The British Parliament became a model for
representative legislatures in Europe and around the world.
Later, democratic institutions in the United States served as a model for many nations.
The major features of modern democracy include individual freedom, equality before the
law, and universal suffrage (voting rights) and education. By the mid-20th century nearly
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every independent country in the world had a government that–in form if not in practice–
embodied some of the principles of democracy.
Despotism is a form of government in which the ruler has unlimited power
over the people. Despot, absolute ruler, unrestricted by any legal or constitutional
process. In modern usage, the word carries connotations of cruel and oppressive
policies, but in the original Greek usage it meant the master of a household, and
denoted merely the possessor of unlimited power. In the Byzantine Empire, the
term was a title of honor applied to the emperor.
Dictator is any ruler whose power is not limited by law or by the acts of any official
body, such as a legislature. Dictator, title of a magistrate in ancient Rome, appointed
by the Senate in times of emergency. The dictator held office usually for six months,
and served as chief magistrate of the state. According to the Roman orator Cicero, the
office was created to cope with civil disturbances. In the last years of the Republic,
Roman politicians occasionally assumed the office with powers not permitted by law.
Julius Caesar became dictator for life in 45 BC. In modern times, those who have
assumed sole power over the state have been called dictators. Notable dictators
include Francisco Franco, Benito Mussolini, Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Juan Perуn,
Manuel Antonio Noriega, and Saddam Hussein.
Diplomacy, practices and institutions by which nations conduct their relations
with one another.
History of Diplomacy
The first civilization to develop an orderly system of diplomacy was ancient
Greece. Ambassadors were sent from city to city to deliver messages, to transfer
gifts, and to plead the cases of their own people before the rulers of other city-
states. As the Roman Empire expanded, its diplomacy served the purposes of
conquest and annexation.
Modern diplomacy had its origins during the Italian Renaissance. Although
Renaissance diplomacy was especially vicious and amoral, the Italian city-states
developed a number of institutions and practices that still exist, including a system
of permanent ambassadors, the creation of foreign offices, and a system of
protocol, privileges, and immunities for diplomats. The concept of extraterritoriality
was established, by which an embassy in any state was subject only to the laws
of its own country. With the rise of nation-states in 17th-century Europe, the
concept of national interest developed, replacing personal interests as the basis
of diplomatic objectives. At the same time, diplomats sought to maintain the
balance of power among the most powerful nations. The European system of
diplomacy was upset when Napoleon attempted to conquer Europe in the early
19th century. The system was restored after Napoleon's defeat, and no major
wars occurred for the next 100 years.
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The carnage of World War I (1914-1918) brought the European system of
diplomacy into disrepute. United States President Woodrow Wilson proposed a
"new diplomacy" that did away with the practice of the balance of power, the
pursuit of national interests, and secret agreements and treaties. Many of
Wilson's ideas were incorporated into the 1919 Treaty of Versailles and the
League of Nations. After the United States returned to a policy of isolationism,
however, the European states reverted to their former practices. During World
War II (1939-1945), U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt and British prime
minister Winston Churchill worked on a postwar international order that
conformed to the old European system. International politics since then has
adhered closely to the European model.
Departments of Foreign Affairs
Government agencies that deal with foreign affairs are usually called the ministry or
department of foreign or external affairs. In the United States, foreign affairs is handled by
the Department of State. Such a department is headed by the foreign secretary (or, in the
United States, by the secretary of state). In democracies, the foreign secretary is always
appointed by the nation's leader. The secretary advises the head of state on matters of
foreign policy. At times, the foreign secretary is also directly involved in negotiations with
other nations. Bureaus for major geographic areas are broken down into smaller divisions
and, ultimately, into "country desks." Desk officers are career diplomats who specialize in
various aspects of the country to which they are assigned. Functional divisions deal with
issues that do not fall under the domain of any one country.
Foreign Missions
The embassy abroad, or foreign mission, is headed by an ambassador
assisted by a career diplomat who serves as deputy or first secretary. The deputy
secretary oversees and coordinates the work of the staff and assumes the
responsibilities of the mission whenever the ambassador is away or
incapacitated. Staffed largely by foreign service officers, most missions contain
sections for political affairs, economic affairs, information and cultural affairs,
consular affairs, and administrative matters. A mission also usually includes a
number of attachйs from other government departments. The varied activities of a
diplomatic mission range from negotiation and reporting on events to meeting with
foreign students and issuing visas. Most nations staff their foreign services with
career civil servants who are selected on the basis of competitive examinations.
About 10,000 people are in the U.S. Foreign Service. While many nations appoint
distinguished citizens who are not career officers to serve as ambassadors, most
ambassadors are career diplomats.
Diplomatic Conventions
Detailed and universally accepted conventions exist concerning most of the
formal ways in which countries interact. The modes and conventions of diplomacy
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are highly stylized, allowing diplomats to deal with important issues in a calm and
unemotional manner. The privileges and immunities of diplomats are highly
developed and accepted by all nations. The premises of missions are inviolable,
and free communication between the mission and the host government must be
permitted. Diplomatic agents and their staffs are not liable to any form of arrest;
diplomats are immune from criminal laws and, in most cases, from civil and
administrative jurisdiction as well.
They are exempt from all direct taxes in the host state. In the event of war, the
host state must enable diplomats from belligerent nations to leave the country.
Very important negotiations are increasingly being undertaken by specially
selected envoys or foreign ministers and by heads of state. Resident diplomats,
however, still do almost all the day-to-day negotiating and interacting with leaders
of other states. Latin was the language of diplomacy until the 17th century, when
it was increasingly replaced by French.
World War I marked the rise of English as a second language of diplomacy.
After World War II, the framers of the United Nations sought to create a five-
language system, including French, English, Russian, Spanish, and Chinese.
Divine Right of Kings, doctrine that sovereigns are representatives of God
and derive their right to rule directly from God. According to the doctrine, a ruler's
power is not subject to secular limitation; the ruler is responsible only to God. In
the 17th century the doctrine was supported by the English Royalists against the
Parliamentarians, who maintained that the exercise of political power springs from
the will of the people. The doctrine of divine right, epitomized by the reign of King
Louis XIV of France from 1643 to 1715, was one of the elements that led to the
French Revolution (1789-1799).
Downing Street, street in the West End of London. The official residence of the British
prime minister, where cabinet meetings are often held, is located at No. 10. Also on
Downing Street are the residence of the chancellor of the Exchequer and the Foreign
Office. The term Downing Street is often used to mean the British government.
Due Process of Law consists of the legal steps that must be taken whenever
a person is charged with breaking the law. Every American citizen is guaranteed
due process by the U.S. Constitution.
Election, procedure that allows members of an organization or community to
choose representatives who will hold positions of authority within it. Elections
select the leaders of local, state, and national governments. They allow the public
to make choices about government action and promote accountability among
those in power.
In the United States elections are held at regular intervals. National presidential
elections take place every four years. Congressional elections occur every two years.
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Elections for state and local office usually coincide with national elections. The
responsibility for organizing elections rests largely with state and local governments.
Voting Rights
Native-born or naturalized U.S. citizens over the age of 18, with the exception
of convicted felons, possess the right to vote. During the early years of the
nation's history, legislatures in the United States generally restricted voting to
white men over the age of 21. In 1870 the 15th Amendment of the Constitution of
the United States secured the right of blacks to vote throughout the nation.
However, Southern states continued to deny blacks voting rights until the civil
rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s brought about the enactment of the
1965 federal Voting Rights Act. The women's suffrage movement culminated in
1920 in the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote. In 1971 the
26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
Voter Participation
Compared to voter participation rates in other democracies, participation in
American elections is low. Slightly more than 50 percent of those eligible
participate in national presidential elections. In European nations, voter turnout
consistently exceeds 80 percent. Participation rates have dropped severely
among poorer and less educated citizens. Voting rates are nearly twice as high
among the wealthiest fifth of the population as they are among the poorest fifth.
Voter Registration
In the United States, eligible voters must register with state election boards
before they may vote. Registration requirements have decreased in most states
since the 1960s. An eligible individual may now register to vote by mailing a
postcard to the state election board. The 1993 federal "Motor-Voter" Act required
states to make such postcards available in motor vehicle, public assistance, and
military recruitment offices.
Electoral Systems
"Majority systems" require that a victorious candidate receive more than 50
percent of the vote. Under a "plurality system", winning candidates need only
receive more votes than any opponent. Systems of "proportional representation"
award legislative seats to competing political parties in rough proportion to their
percentage of the popular votes cast. European nations commonly use this
electoral system.
Virtually all national elections in the United States use the plurality system,
although the majority system survives in some elections. In general, proportional
representation works to the advantage of smaller or weaker groups in society,
while plurality and majority rules tend to help larger and more powerful forces.
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Proportional representation tends to boost participation and increase the number
of competitive political parties.
Types of Elections
In most nations, political party leaders select candidates for office in a general
election. The United States is one of the few nations to hold primary elections prior to
the general election campaign in which voters select the party's candidates for office.
Some states also provide for referendum voting, a process that allows citizens
to vote directly on proposed laws. Although it involves voting, the referendum is
not an election. The election is an institution of representative government, while
the referendum is an institution of direct democracy.
Redistricting
State legislatures redraw the boundaries of congressional districts every ten
years, in response to population changes. The purpose is to ensure that
congressional seats are fairly apportioned among the citizens of a state.
However, some legislators manipulate the boundaries of electoral districts to
influence electoral outcomes. This process is often called gerrymandering. In the
past, one common purpose of gerrymandering was to reduce the electoral
strength of racial minorities in congressional districts. See Gerrymander.
Electoral Reform, elimination of undemocratic, dishonest, and corrupt
practices in the conduct of public elections. Reform is usually effected by statutory
enactments that extend voting rights to certain categories of citizens, revise
procedures for selecting candidates and arranging elections, and outlaw corrupt
practices employed to influence the outcome of elections.
Early Electoral Reform in the United States
A federal law enacted in 1925 ordered political committees to file with the
House of Representatives sworn statements identifying all contributors of $100 or
more, all persons receiving $10 or more from the moneys collected by the
committees, and the purposes for which the disbursements were made.
Candidates for the Congress of the United States were required to submit
itemized accounts of contributions made to their campaign expenses. Limits were
placed on the amounts candidates were allowed to expend in campaigning. In
1939 Congress passed the Hatch Act, which prohibits certain types of political
activity on the part of federal employees.
Voting Rights
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 suspended voter qualification devices that were
often used to prevent blacks from voting. It also required federal review to prevent
racial discrimination by new state voting laws and made interference with voting
rights a criminal offense. In 1964 the 24th Amendment to the Constitution of the
United States prohibited poll taxes as a qualification for voting in federal elections.
The 26th Amendment, ratified in 1971, lowered the voting age to 18.
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Later amendments to the Voting Rights Act added bilingual requirements in
some counties, banned the use of literacy requirements, and allowed voters who
are illiterate, blind, or disabled to be assisted in the voting booth by a person of
their own choice. U.S. citizens residing abroad were granted the right to vote in
federal elections by absentee ballot in 1975, and voting accessibility for the
elderly was guaranteed in 1984.
Reapportionment and Redistricting
A major concern of supporters of electoral reform has been the establishment
of election districts that are nearly equal in population. In districts that are
unequal, a disproportionate power has often been given to a small number of
voters. In 1962 the Supreme Court of the United States declared this kind of
disproportionate representation violates the Constitution. In 1985 the court ruled
unconstitutional the manipulation of election district lines to give one political party
an advantage over the others.
Campaign Financing
The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 placed strict limits on
contributions and on the amount that can be spent on media advertising. It
required periodic disclosures of all contributions and disbursements on behalf of
candidates. It also provided for the partial federal financing of presidential primary
campaigns and the full federal financing of presidential campaigns in the general
election.
Embargo, [Im'bQ:gqV] edict, decree, or order, usually issued by a
government, prohibiting the departure of merchant ships from ports under its
control, or prohibiting them from carrying certain types of goods out of the
country. An embargo may be levied on both domestic and foreign vessels.
Embargoes on foreign ships were formerly levied principally to prevent the spread
of information about developments in the country declaring the embargo or in reprisal
for an injury committed by another government. Both reasons lost their force, and
embargoes on foreign ships declined in importance, chiefly as a result of extraordinary
developments in communications in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Embargoes on domestic ships, sometimes called civil embargoes, have been
levied because of an existing or anticipated shortage in a vital commodity within a
country and for reasons of international policy.
Emperor, ['emp(q)rq] title, derived from the Latin imperator, which was
originally applied generally to any magistrate of ancient Rome vested with power
to command and to enforce the laws of the state. Later, the term came to be used
specifically by Roman troops for a victorious general. When Julius Caesar
adopted the title, imperator for the first time denoted a sovereign ruler, rather than
merely a victorious commander. Throughout history various rulers have adopted
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the title of emperor, which generally refers to a ruler of wide territories and
peoples.
Espionage, ['espIqnQ:Z] secret collection of information, or intelligence, that
commonly relates to governmental foreign and defense policy. Espionage, or
spying, proceeds against the attempts of counterespionage (or
counterintelligence) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired.
Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in foreign nations; efforts to
encourage the disloyalty of those possessing significant information; and audio
surveillance, as well as the use of photographic, sensing, and detection devices.
In the United States, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is the main agency for
gathering secret information that may bear on national security. The Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) has primary responsibility for counterespionage activities within the
United States. The CIA is responsible for counterespionage outside the country. Many
governments maintain some kind of intelligence capability. All nations have laws against
espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands.
The Gathering of Intelligence
Many developed nations maintain intelligence organizations with programs for
recruiting new agents. Agents generally come from universities, the armed
services and police forces, and the underground world of espionage, which
produces an assortment of persons with relevant experience. Counterintelligence
staffs are always skeptical of defectors, as they may be double agents (spies who
pretend to be defecting but in reality maintain their original loyalty). The "agent-in-
place" is a person who remains in a position of trust with access to secret
information but who has been recruited by a foreign intelligence service; such a
spy is known as a mole.
The world's intelligence programs follow three distinct organizational patterns:
the American, the totalitarian, and the British (parliamentary) systems. In the
United States the CIA sits at the corner of an elaborate complex of separate
intelligence organizations, each of which has a specific role and area of
operations. This model influenced countries where the United States was
dominant following World War II (1939-1945), such as West Germany and Japan.
The totalitarian system is highly centralized. In the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), the KGB (secret police) was responsible for foreign
intelligence gathering, counterespionage, and recruiting foreign agents. Several
Communist nations still follow the KGB model.
In the British intelligence model, a confederation of agencies is coordinated by a
Cabinet subcommittee and accountable to the Cabinet and prime minister. The
intelligence services of France, Italy, and Israel follow this general pattern of organization.
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History of Espionage
Intelligence was haphazardly organized until the rise of nationalism in the 18th
century. Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically during
the French Revolution (1789). Under the direction of Joseph Fouché;, duc d'Otrante, a
network of police and spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power. Not until the late-
19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaus created.
Most nations entered World War I (1914-1918) with inadequate espionage
staffs, and the war was fought frequently on the basis of poor intelligence. World
War II (1939-1945) was the great stimulus to intelligence services worldwide.
Some of the major battles of the war were actually intelligence battles. Japan's
surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 was a major intelligence failure for the
Americans, stimulating the postwar growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in
the United States.
In the mid-1970s the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the policies of détente caused
many Americans to question the role of the CIA. Disclosures of intelligence agency
abuses and failures were followed by investigations that resulted in new guidelines for
secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision.
Implications of Modern Technology
Intelligence is now aided by an accelerating technology of communications
and a variety of computing and measuring devices. Satellites are used for aerial
photography, telephones can be tapped without wires, and photographs can be
produced in the dark. In some foreign embassies, confidential discussions take
place in plastic bubbles encasing secure rooms.
Espionage in Politics and Industry
Secret information is also employed to make decisions in politics and industry.
Political parties have always been interested in the strategic plans of their
opponents and in any information that might discredit them. Most large corporate
enterprises employ industrial espionage, which uses many of the tools of
government intelligence work.
Executive is the branch of government that oversees the carrying out of laws.
The U.S. Constitution separates the work of government into three branches:
legislative, judicial, and executive. Although power is shared, Congress has most
legislative duties, the courts have most judicial duties, and the President is the
chief executive.
Fascism ['fxSIz(q)m] is a strongly nationalistic movement favoring government
control of economic and social activity but private ownership of property.
Fascism, 20th-century form of totalitarian dictatorship that sought to create a
viable society by strict regimentation of national and individual lives; conflicting
interests would be adjusted by total subordination to the service of the state and
unquestioning loyalty to its leader (see Totalitarianism). Fascism emphasized
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nationalism, but its appeal was international. It flourished between 1919 and 1945
in several countries, mainly Italy, Germany, Spain, and Japan.
Origins
Among the factors contributing to the rise of Fascism in Europe were the
economic dislocation following World War I (1914-1918), the threat of
Communism arising from the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Great
Depression of the 1930s. In 1914 Benito Mussolini, the founder of Fascism in
Italy, called on Italy to enter World War I. Influenced by the ideas of French writer
Georges Sorel and German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, he glorified "action"
and "vitality" and denounced antiwar Communists. After the war, Mussolini's
oratorical powers and the support of conservative interests that wanted to stop
the spread of leftist movements helped him rise to power.
Italy Under Fascism
In 1922 Mussolini seized control of the Italian government and established a
dictatorship. Roman Catholicism was named the state religion. Labor unions were
abolished, strikes were forbidden, and political opponents were silenced. Mussolini
gave free rein to big business and reduced workers' wages. By 1930 the wages of
Italian workers were the lowest in Western Europe. Despite the land hunger of the
peasantry, Mussolini did nothing to divide the country's large estates.
Ignoring the increased poverty of the Italian people, Mussolini launched a
campaign to increase the birth rate. Women were encouraged to bear as many
babies as possible, and all education regarding birth control was banned. This
campaign was intended to demonstrate national "virility" and provide future
personnel for the Italian armed forces. By 1936 foreign conquest had become
Mussolini's final solution to Italy's economic problems. The philosophy of Italian
Fascism heralded military values and the virtues of war.
Fascism Elsewhere
Fascism in other countries differed from the Italian variety in certain respects.
In Germany under National Socialism, it was more racist; in Romania, it was allied
with the Orthodox church rather than the Roman Catholic church. Fascism in
Japan was closely akin to that of Germany: Like their German counterparts,
Japanese Fascists launched a fanatical drive for military conquest.
Generally Fascism flourished in countries that were economically backward or
marked by strong authoritarian political traditions. However, Fascism also made
headway in France, one of Europe's most established democracies. Many
prominent intellectuals and university students in both France and England were
attracted to Fascist ideals during the 1920s and 1930s.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), agency of the United States
Department of Justice, and principal federal investigative agency. Its functions
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include the investigation of espionage, sabotage, organized crime, drug
trafficking, terrorism, and white-collar crime.
Headquartered in Washington, D.C., the FBI has 58 field offices. It also maintains an
Identification Division, the FBI Laboratory, a training program for FBI agents, the FBI
National Academy, and a project called Uniform Crime Reporting.
Jurisdiction
FBI jurisdiction extends to more than 180 matters, including bank robbery,
extortion, kidnapping, antitrust violations, and drug enforcement activities. The
FBI investigates infringement of civil rights committed in violation of federal law.
The Office of Personnel Management has primary responsibility for conducting
applicant investigations for the federal government. However, when the president so
directs or when data indicate possible disloyalty, the FBI conducts the applicant
investigation. The FBI is the national clearinghouse for data relating to internal security.
Activities
The Identification Division has on file the largest collection of fingerprints in the
world. As a result, the FBI serves as a national center for criminal identification
data and identification data on missing persons. The FBI Laboratory employs
specialists trained in many branches of science and in scientific methods of crime
detection. They examine and analyze specimens of evidence. The training
program educates FBI agents in the techniques of scientific investigation and
crime detection. The National Academy trains police instructors and
administrators. The FBI also serves as a national center for crime statistics and
issues the Uniform Crime Reports Bulletin to law enforcement officials.
Federal Government, or federalism, form of government whereby political
power is divided between a central or national authority and smaller, locally
autonomous units such as provinces or states. A federal government, or
federation, is usually formed through the political union of two or more formerly
independent states under one sovereign government that does not arrogate the
individual powers of those states. In a federal nation, the central government has
full sovereignty in external affairs and is preeminent with respect to internal
administration within its allotted powers.
A federation is distinguished from a confederation, which is an alliance of
autonomous countries for the purpose of joint action or cooperation on specific
matters. It is also distinguished from a so-called unitary system, in which the
central government holds the principal power over administrative units that are
virtually agencies of the central government. Britain has a unitary system of
parliamentary government.
After some experience as a confederation, the United States adopted the
federal form of government in 1789. The Constitution of the United States has
served as a model of federal government for many countries.
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Federalism is a union of two or more sovereign political units, such as states
or provinces, under a single government of limited powers.
Filibustering ['fIlI"bAstqrIN] is a method sometimes used by lawmakers to
block or delay passage of a proposed bill. One legislator, or a group of legislators,
makes long speeches or demands unnecessary roll calls to use up time and keep
the bill from coming to a vote.
Geopolitics, term used to designate the determining influence of the
environment (including geographical features, social and cultural forces, and
economic resources) on the politics of a nation. A sovereign state occupies a
particular territory with physical features that partly determine viable forms of
economic, social, political, and military organization. Geopolitics also considers
the geographical location of a state in relation to that of other states, each
possessing unique geopolitical qualities.
Geopolitics became important in Germany during the period of National
Socialism, providing a rationale to justify that nation's territorial expansion. Many
scholars have looked to geopolitics to understand the structure of power relations
between states. To explain the rivalry between the United States and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), geopolitical theorists have looked for the roots
of foreign policy imperatives in the domestic conditions of each country.
Gerrymander, ['dZerImxndq] (передвиборчі махінації) = apportionment of
electoral districts in such a way as to give the political party in power an
advantage in elections. Gerrymandering is usually accomplished by spreading out
the favored party's electorate in order for it to win by a light majority in many
districts. This device often produces electoral districts of curious shapes. The
term gerrymander originated in 1812, when Republican governor Elbridge Gerry
of Massachusetts signed a bill giving his party such an advantage. One electoral
district was shaped so fantastically that it was compared to a salamander, and
from that the term gerrymander was coined. In 1985 the Supreme Court of the
United States ruled unconstitutional the manipulation of electoral district lines so
as to give any party an advantage over others.
Government, political organization comprising individuals and institutions
authorized to formulate public policies and conduct affairs of state. Governments
are empowered to establish and regulate the interrelationships of people within
specific communities, the relations of people with the community as a whole, and
the dealings of the community with other political entities. Government applies in
this sense both to the governments of national states and to the governments of
subdivisions of national states.
Classifications
Governments are classified in many ways. One classification is that which
distinguishes monarchic from republican governments. Modern scholars have
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tended to stress the characteristics that distinguish democratic governments from
dictatorships. In classifying democratic nations, parliamentary governments are
often distinguished from presidential ones. Another classification makes a
distinction among unitary, federal, and confederated governments.
History
The ancient despotic empires of Egypt, Sumer, Assyria, Persia, and Macedonia
were followed by the rise of Greek city-states, the first self-governing communities.
Greek philosopher Aristotle distinguished three categories of government: monarchy,
government by a single individual; aristocracy, government by a few; and democracy,
government by many. Ancient Rome introduced the principle that constitutional law,
establishing the sovereignty of the state, is superior to ordinary law.
After the fall of Rome, the Holy Roman Empire kept alive the Roman concept
of a universal dominion during the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century),
retarding the development of national governments in Europe. However, the
struggle of feudal barons to limit the power of their monarchs contributed to the
development of representative government. The emergence of national
governments in the 16th century is attributed to the great expansion in trade and
manufacturing that made the creation of large political units necessary.
The modern nation-state was originally almost entirely dynastic and autocratic.
However, in time, the middle class began to demand constitutional and
representative government. In England, the Glorious Revolution in 1688 restricted
the power of the monarch and established the preeminence of Parliament. This
tendency culminated in the American Revolution (1775) and the French
Revolution (1789), marking the rise of modern democratic government.
In the 19th century and part of the 20th century, the political base of
government broadened through the extension of voting rights and other reforms.
In addition, the concept developed that government should administer public and
social services. Other developments of the 20th century included the appearance
of totalitarian governments in a number of countries.
Great Seal of the United States, official seal of the United States
government. It is two-sided, with an obverse and a reverse. Its design was
adopted by the Congress of the Confederation in 1782. The seal now appears on
a variety of documents, including presidential proclamations.
On the obverse of the seal is an American eagle with wings spread. On its
breast the eagle bears a shield with 13 vertical red and white stripes surmounted
by a horizontal stripe of blue. In its beak is a scroll inscribed with the Latin motto
Epluribus unum ("From many, one"). A cluster of 13 five-pointed stars appears
above the eagle.
A pyramid is the central figure of the reverse side. The base of the pyramid is
inscribed with the date 1776 in Roman numerals. At the zenith of the pyramid
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appears the all-seeing eye of Divine Providence. The mottos Annuit coeptis ("He
has smiled on our undertakings") and Novus ordo seclorum ("New order of the
ages") are inscribed on this side.
Habeas Corpus ["heIbIqs'kO:pqs] лат. юр. розпорядження про притягнення
арештованого до суду (особливо для розгляду питання щодо законності його
арешту; тж. writ of habeas corpus)
Habeas Corpus Act – Хабеас Корпус (англійський закон 1679 г. про
недоторканість особистості) refers usually to a writ(ордер) of habeas corpus, an
order by a judge requiring the police to bring an arrested person into court. The
court then decides if there is good reason to hold the prisoner.
Impeachment is an official charge by a legislative body accusing a government
official of being unworthy of office. Impeachment, in the United States and the United
Kingdom, proceeding by a legislature for the removal from office of a public official
charged with misconduct in office. Impeachment comprises both the act of formulating
the accusation and the resulting trial of the charges. The Constitution of the United
States gives explicit directions for conducting impeachments.
The House of Representatives conducts the impeachment before the Senate,
which serves as a court to try the official. The vice president presides over the
impeachment, except in the case of an impeachment of the president, when the
chief justice of the United States presides. A two-thirds majority vote of the
senators present at an impeachment trial is necessary to secure conviction.In
1868 President Andrew Johnson was impeached on charges of defying the
authority of Congress and of violating a federal law. Johnson was acquitted.
In 1974 President Richard M. Nixon was charged with obstructing justice, abusing
his constitutional authority, and failing to obey the committee's subpoenas. Nixon
resigned and the House took no further action. Impeachment procedure for states is
modeled on that of the federal Constitution and has been infrequently invoked.
Imperialism [Im'pI(q)rIqlIz(q)m] is the policy or action by which one country
controls another country or territory.
Initiative and Referendum are actions that allow voters a certain amount of
direct control over lawmaking. Through the initiative, the voters can introduce a
law. Through the referendum, a proposed law is put up to the voters for approval
or disapproval.
Isolationism, ["aIsq'leIS(q)nIz(q)m] former United States foreign policy
advocating the avoidance of alliances with other nations in order to maintain
freedom of action in world affairs.
Origins
The U.S. policy on isolationism had its roots in the American Revolution
(1775-1783). Early leaders endorsed commercial treaties and trade expansion,
but they warned against long-term political and military commitments. For most of
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the 19th century, Americans developed the continent without interference and
viewed isolationism as a fixed principle.
The World Wars
These conditions began to change by the early 1900s. The rise of Germany and
Japan challenged the established order in Europe and the Far East. During World
War I (1914-1918) the traditional policy of isolationism in the United States was
discontinued when the country entered the conflict in 1917. Following the war, many
Americans became committed to world law and collective security, but the Congress
of the United States passed strict neutrality legislation between 1935 and 1937. After
the outbreak of World War II (1939-1945) isolationists lost ground to those who
favored sending aid to the Allied powers. The debate ended when the United States
entered the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.
Postwar Policies
American postwar policy was initially based on international cooperation and
collective security through the United Nations (UN). Increasing confrontation with
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), however, caused changes in
U.S. foreign policy. American policymakers sought to contain Soviet expansion
and Communist influence through economic and military aid, but eventually
committed troops to active engagement during the Korean War (1950-1953) and
the Vietnam War (1959-1975).
Judiciary is the branch of government made up of courts and judges.
Law is a set of rules that public governments make and enforce.
Left Wing is a group of people and parties holding radical views. Many left
wing groups support socialist or Communist views.
Legislature is the lawmaking branch of a government.
Legislature, branch of government empowered to make, change, and repeal
its laws and to levy and regulate its taxes. Most modern legislatures are
representative–composed of many members who are chosen directly or indirectly
by popular vote.
Nearly all modern governments have bicameral, or two-house, legislatures.
The so-called lower house is elected generally on a basis of direct representation,
while the upper house is elected generally on a basis of indirect representation or
direct representation limited to certain groups. The traditional theoretical
justification for an upper house is that it restrains the effects of impulsive or
excessive fluctuations of public opinion.
Various legislatures throughout the world are known by different names, such as
Congress, Parliament, Knesset, Diet, and Assembly. Most are limited in their powers
by the constitution or organic law of the government of which they are a part.
Legitimacy is the widespread acceptance of the authority of a public government.
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Liberalism is a political philosophy that favors rapid social change as a
means of correcting economic and social inequality. Liberalism, attitude,
philosophy, or movement concerned with the development of personal freedom
and social progress. Liberalism eventually became identified with movements to
change the social order through democracy. In domestic politics, liberals have
opposed restraints that prevent the individual from rising out of a low social
status; barriers such as censorship that limit free expression; and arbitrary power
exercised by the state. In international politics, liberals have opposed the
domination of foreign policy by militarists and the exploitation of native colonial
peoples. In economics, liberals have attacked monopolies and mercantilist state
policies that subject the economy to state control.
Humanism
In postmedieval Europe, liberalism was perhaps first expressed in humanism,
which redirected thinking from the consideration of a divine world order to the
conditions and potentialities of people. As social transformation continued, the
objectives and concerns of liberalism changed. It retained a humanist social
philosophy that sought to enlarge personal, social, political, and economic
opportunities by removing obstacles to individual choice.
Modern Liberalism
During the 17th century, political thinkers began to debate liberal ideas
concerning voting rights, parliamentary rule, government responsibilities, and
freedom of conscience. In 1644 English poet and prose writer John Milton wrote
Areopagitica, advocating freedom of thought and expression. English philosopher
Thomas Hobbes argued that the sole test of government was its effectiveness
and stressed individual equality. English philosopher John Locke argued for
popular sovereignty, the right of rebellion against oppression, and toleration of
religious minorities. According to Locke and his followers, the state exists to serve
its citizens and to guarantee their life, liberty, and property under a constitution.
American statesman Thomas Jefferson echoed Locke's ideas when he wrote the
Declaration of Independence.
In France, Locke's philosophy was adopted by the leaders of the French
Enlightenment. French philosopher Voltaire insisted that the state should be
supreme over the church and demanded universal religious toleration, abolition of
censorship, and a strong state acting only against obstructions of social progress
and individual liberty.
Liberalism in Transition
By the middle of the 19th century, liberal thought had acquired powerful
advocates in Europe and in the United States. Europeans considered the United
States an exemplar of liberalism because of its popular culture, emphasis on
equality, and wide suffrage. However, most 19th-century liberals feared mass
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participation in politics, believing that the so-called lower classes were indifferent
to freedom and hostile to the expression of diversity. As suffrage expanded, many
liberals became concerned with preserving the individual values that they
identified with an aristocratic social and political order.
Economics
Economic liberals opposed mercantilist restrictions on economic activity and
favored unhampered private enterprise. As industrial capitalism developed in the
19th century, economic liberalism continued to be characterized by a negative
attitude toward state authority. The working classes began to suspect that
liberalism protected the interests of powerful economic groups, particularly
manufacturers, and turned to the political liberalism that was more concerned with
their needs–that of the socialist and labor parties. So-called positive liberals,
however, advocated positive state action to prevent economic monopoly, abolish
poverty, and secure people against the disabilities of sickness, unemployment,
and old age.
20th-Century United States

In the United States, positive liberalism expanded as programs, movements,
and laws provided sanctions for government intervention in the economy.
Legislation provided for old-age and survivors insurance, unemployment
insurance, federal control of various financial interests, minimum wages,
supervision of agricultural production, and the right of labor unions to organize
and bargain collectively.
Libertarianism, ["lIbq'te(q)rIqnIzm] political philosophy emphasizing the rights
of the individual. The doctrine of libertarianism stresses the right to self-ownership
and the right to private ownership of material resources and property. Advocates
oppose any form of taxation and favor a laissez-faire economic system. The
Libertarian Party was founded in the United States in 1972.
Lobbying, practice of attempting to influence legislation. Lobbying is
performed by agents, called lobbyists, of a particular interested group, known as
the lobby. Guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United
States, lobbying has become an accepted fact of American political life. Lobbyists
may represent such varied interests as agriculture, transportation, professions
such as medicine and law, or such groups as women voters or conservationists.
Local Government, agency organized to provide administrative, fiscal, and
other services to the people who reside within its territorial boundaries. It is the
level of government most directly accountable to the public. In the United States,
local governmental units consist of five major types: county, town and township,
municipality, special district, and school district.
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Organized county governments exist in nearly every U.S. state. Counties have
a local authority, most often called the county board of commissioners or board of
supervisors, which levies taxes and performs various administrative, legislative,
and judicial functions.
Townships exist in a number of U.S. states. In New England, the town
meeting, or primary assembly of voters, convenes annually to elect officers, make
appropriations, and enact laws. Municipal or city governments are usually
patterned after one of three plans: the mayor-council plan, the council-manager
plan, and the commission plan.Special districts provide services such as
sewerage, parks and recreation, fire protection, hospitals, and libraries. School
districts are special districts concerned with the administration and operation of
public schools.
Medicare and Medicaid, programs of medical care for the aged and the
needy, respectively, in the United States. Medicare and Medicaid are under the
direction of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Medicare is the popular name for a federal health insurance program for people
65 years of age and over. Benefits include a basic hospital-insurance plan and a
voluntary medical-insurance program. Medicare costs are met by Social Security
contributions, monthly premiums from participants, and general revenues. Medicare
also serves people under the age of 65 with certain disabilities.
Medicaid, a federal-state program, is usually operated by state welfare or
health departments. Medicaid furnishes at least five basic services to needy
people: inpatient hospital care, outpatient hospital care, physicians' services,
nursing-home services for adults, and laboratory and X-ray services. Each state
decides who is eligible for Medicaid benefits and what services will be included.
Monarchy ['mPnqkI] is a form of government in which a ruler, such as an
emperor, king, or queen, holds power, either actually or ceremonially, for life.
Monarchy, form of government in which one person has the hereditary right to
rule as head of state during his or her lifetime; the term monarchy is also applied
to the state so governed.
Throughout history many monarchs have wielded absolute power. By the
Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) the monarchical system of government
had spread across Europe, and by the 15th and 16th centuries absolute
monarchs ruled many European countries. Abuses of power, as well as growing
dissatisfaction among the bourgeoisie, helped bring about the end of many
absolute monarchies. Revolutions in England in the 17th century and France in
the 18th century were major landmarks in limiting absolute power.
During the 19th century parliamentary authority grew as royal power
diminished. Many Western monarchies ceased to exist after World War I (1914-
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1918). Some constitutional monarchies still survive, primarily as symbols of
national unity.
Municipal Government, [mju:'nIsIp(q)l] in the United States, public
corporation chartered by a state legislature to provide and supervise the
governmental services and activities of an urban subdivision in that state. The first
urban centers in the American colonies were patterned after the English
boroughs, which were usually governed by elected aldermen and councilmen,
and by an appointed mayor and a recorder. The New England townspeople
preferred the town meeting, which they considered more democratic. Four major
forms of government—weak-mayor-council, strong-mayor-council, commission
plan, and council-manager plan—evolved from town meetings. These forms
include an elected body of representatives, called a council, commission, or
board. Members of the council are elected either by voters within a particular
boundary, called a district, ward, or precinct, or by the voters at large.
The most common form of municipal government in the United States is the
strong-mayor-council plan. Under this plan the mayor, elected by the voters at
large, has considerable appointive and removal powers, a strong veto power,
almost complete control of administrative department heads, and full
responsibility for the city budget. The council is restricted mainly to lawmaking
functions. Under the weak-mayor-council plan, the mayor usually has limited
appointive and veto powers and little control over the city administration. The
council has both legislative and executive powers, including the authority to
appoint and supervise administrative department heads. Under the commission
form of municipal government, each of the popularly elected commissioners is
responsible for a single, different phase of the local administration. In the council-
manager plan, a popularly elected council is responsible for making laws. It also
selects and employs a city manager to manage the day-to-day affairs of the city
and direct its administrative agencies.
Most of the revenue for local governments comes from property taxes. Other
sources of income are user fees, dividends from investments, special assessments,
sale of property, and federal grants. In addition to education, some services normally
provided by the municipality are public safety, health services, sewage collection and
treatment, transportation systems, and park and recreation facilities.
Nationalism is a people's sense of belonging together as a nation.
Nationalism, movement in which the nation-state is regarded as the most
important force for the realization of social, economic, and cultural aspirations of a
people. Nationalism is characterized principally by a feeling of community among
a people, based on common descent, language, and religion.
The beginnings of modern nationalism can be traced back to the
disintegration of cultural unity and the social order in Europe at the end of the
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Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). The breakup of feudalism, the
prevailing social and economic system, was accompanied by the development of
larger communities, wider social interrelations, and dynasties that fostered
feelings of nationality. During the Reformation (16th century), the adoption of
either Catholicism or Protestantism as a national religion became an added force
for national cohesion.
The French Revolution (1789-1799) was the turning point in the history of
nationalism in Europe. As a result of the revolution, loyalty to the king was
replaced by loyalty to the fatherland. In 1789 France achieved a truly
representative system of government under the new National Assembly. Regional
divisions were abolished, and France became a uniform and united national
territory with common laws and institutions.
The Revolution of 1848 in central Europe marked the awakening of various
peoples to national consciousness. Both Germans and Italians began movements
for the creation of nation-states. After much political agitation and several wars,
an Italian kingdom was created in 1861 and a German empire in 1871. The
events in Europe between 1878 and 1918 were shaped by the nationalist
aspirations of these peoples and their desire to form nation-states independent of
the empires of which they had been part.
As a result of World War I (1914-1918), the rule of the dynasties in Turkey,
Russia, Austria, and Germany was ended, and a number of new nation-states arose
in central and eastern Europe. The inflammation of nationalist passions during and
after the war led to the rise of fascism and National Socialism. Another far-reaching
effect of the war was the rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. Asian nationalism was
inspired by Japan, the first Far Eastern country to transform itself into a modern
nation. In the 1920s the Turks defeated the Western allies and modernized their state
in the spirit of nationalism. During the same period the leader of the Indian National
Congress, Mohandas Gandhi, deeply stirred the aspirations of the Indian people for
national independence. In China the leader of the Nationalist People's Party, Sun Yat-
sen, inspired a successful national revolution.
World War II (1939-1945) hastened the penetration of nationalism into colonial
countries. Colonial powers, economically weakened by the war and influenced by
political liberalism, willingly granted independence to their colonies. In the postwar
period nationalist movements resulted in many new nation-states, including Israel,
Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, the Sudan, Ghana, the United Arab Republic (Egypt and
Syria), and Iraq. In the 1960s and 1970s many formerly British, French, or Belgian
colonies in Africa became independent. During the 1990s competing Jewish, Arab,
and Palestinian nationalist aspirations continued to generate political instability in the
Middle East. In Eastern Europe the decline of Communist rule unleashed separatist
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forces that contributed to the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia.
National Health Insurance, government-operated system of insurance that
provides financial benefits and medical services to persons disabled by sickness
or accident. Systems of national health insurance frequently are coordinated with
other national programs of social insurance, such as pension programs, programs
of unemployment insurance, and workers' compensation. National health
insurance systems are found in many countries, particularly in Europe.
In the United States, health insurance has traditionally been provided by
private enterprise on a voluntary basis. National health insurance bills were
introduced in the Congress of the United States in the 1930s, 1940s, and in 1993,
but they were not enacted. The Social Security Amendments of 1965, however,
created a governmental health insurance program known as Medicare, which is
intended primarily for the aged.
The first country to provide health insurance on a national scale was Germany in
1883. Various types of national health insurance were adopted by other European
countries. After World War II (1939-1945), the growth of national systems of health
insurance in Europe was extensive. Britain's system of national health insurance is
one of the most comprehensive systems in operation.
Neutrality, [nju:'trxlItI] legal status of a state that adheres to a policy of
nonengagement during war. The rules covering wartime relations between a
neutral and a belligerent were formulated largely in response to the limited
conflicts of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Rules of Neutrality
Although neutrals and belligerents often disagree regarding their interpretation, the
rules of neutrality are based on the assumptions that a neutral state will show
impartiality to all belligerents, and that belligerents will respect the sovereignty of
neutral states. Throughout a war, neutral states continue diplomatic intercourse with
all belligerent states. A neutral state may not give armed assistance to any belligerent,
or lend money, or permit its territory to become a base for hostile operations. It is
expected to confine belligerent troops and aircraft that enter its jurisdiction.
Neutral governments may not protect their citizens from the penalties of
committing unneutral acts. Belligerents have the right to stop and search neutral
vessels and to capture them if there is evidence that they are carrying contraband
to the enemy, breaking a blockade, or engaging in unneutral service. A belligerent
may also proclaim a blockade of enemy ports and may capture neutral ships that
are trying to leave or enter blockaded ports.
Alternatives to Neutrality
The breakdown of neutrality that marked World War I (1914-1918) and World
War II (1939-1945) reflected changes in the nature of warfare and the growing
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economic interdependence of nations throughout the world. Economic targets
were as important as military targets, warfare covered entire nations, and
weapons became increasingly destructive and difficult to control. At the same
time the flow of trade from neutral nations became vitally important to the survival
of most of the belligerent nations. The development of nuclear weapons,
moreover, made neutrality increasingly impractical.
After the mid-1900s the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) both showed an awareness of the need to prevent a nuclear
war by mutual deterrence and to seek ways to limit the production and
possession of highly destructive weapons. In areas where these nations or their
allies developed conflicting interests, they sometimes agreed in principle to
accords guaranteeing the neutrality of such areas.
Nonaligned Nations, ["nPnq'laInd] association of countries that, during the
Cold War period, had no formal commitment to either of the power blocs led by
the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The
group's origins can be traced to the division of the world into Communist and
capitalist blocs after World War II (1939-1945) and the subsequent demise of
colonialism. The group included countries that had freed themselves from foreign
domination and rejected renewed ties to any big power. The nonaligned nations
saw themselves as a buffer between rival military alliances. The dissolution of the
USSR in 1991 forced the nations to redefine their role in a world where rivalry
between two superpowers was no longer a factor.
Oligarchy ['PlIgQ:kI] is a form of government in which a small group of people
holds the ruling power. Oligarchy, in political philosophy, form of government in
which the supreme power is vested in a few persons. Political writers of ancient
Greece used the term to designate the debased form of an aristocracy, or
government by the best citizens. In an oligarchy, the government is controlled by
a faction that acts in its own interests.
Open Door Policy, term that refers to the principle of equal trading rights in
China at the end of the 19th century. It is also used to describe policies of equal
trading rights in other countries. In the late 1800s the major European powers had
obtained control of important areas of China. In 1899 and 1900 the United States
negotiated the open door agreement with Japan and several European nations,
guaranteeing equal trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire and preservation of
Chinese territorial integrity.
Pacifism, ['pxsIfIz(q)m] opposition to war and other violence, expressed either
in an organized political movement or as an individual ideology. Absolute pacifists
are against all wars and violence; relative pacifists are selective of the wars and
violence they oppose.
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Absolute pacifism assumes that its adherents will be able to maintain moral
courage when faced with aggression and that their opponents will be influenced
by a constant return of good for bad. Such pacifism has never been entirely
successful, however. A contemporary proponent of absolute pacifism usually
claims the status of conscientious objector when faced with military service.
Some pacifists urge moral persuasion and passive resistance to achieve their
goals. Many believe that peace can be maintained only by a readiness to use force in
certain circumstances. One approach permits armed defense against attack, but not
assistance to other nations being attacked. Proponents of collective security urge a
defensive collaboration of peace-loving nations against violators of the peace.
The first peace society was organized in New York in 1815. Another society
was organized in Massachusetts later that year, and both were incorporated into
the American Peace Society founded in 1828. Other peace societies were
established in Europe, and American linguist Elihu Burritt founded the League of
Universal Brotherhood in 1848. Many new groups were organized toward the end
of the 19th century, including the International Workingmen's Association and the
International Peace Bureau.
Following World War I (1914-1918) many pacifists hoped the newly formed
League of Nations would achieve collective security. This organization was loosely
constructed, however, and provided no effective means of preventing war. After World
War II (1939-1945) the United Nations (UN) was established, with a more elaborate
machinery for keeping the peace. The greatest impetus to pacifism in modern times
has been the development and use of nuclear weapons. Faced with the possibility of
total nuclear war, pacifists throughout the world joined in working for a ban against the
production of nuclear weapons, an end to testing nuclear weapons, and the
disarmament of nations already possessing them.
Parliament, British, legislature of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. It consists of the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of
Commons, but in common usage it refers only to the Lords and Commons. No statute
may become law or be altered or repealed, nor may taxes be levied, without
Parliament's consent. Cabinet members, including the prime minister, are members of
one house or the other and are responsible to the House of Commons. The House of
Lords is the highest court of appeal in Britain's judicial system.
Commons and Lords
The House of Commons has 651 elected members. Elections are set by the
prime minister but must be held at least every five years. Because of the strict
party discipline, important decisions are often made in less formal meetings of the
cabinet and party caucus.
The House of Lords, with about 1200 members, is made up of the bishops of
the Church of England and the hereditary and life peers, all of whom are
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appointed by the Crown. Its power is limited to delaying money bills for 30 days
and other bills for one year. As a court of appeal, its deliberations are limited to
those peers with judicial experience.
History
Parliament was initially an event, not an institution. Representatives from
towns were officially summoned for the first time in 1265. In the 14th century
Parliament split into two houses, gained control over statutes and taxation, and
presided over the abdications of Edward II and Richard II. Under the Stuart kings,
cooperation between Parliament and the Crown changed to conflict. This was
highlighted in 1649 by the overthrow and execution of Charles I, and in 1688 and
1689 by the English Revolution, which established parliamentary sovereignty. In
the 19th century the House of Commons became democratic, as the Great
Reform Bill of 1832 gave voting rights to the middle class for the first time. Later
acts broadened the electorate and created equal electoral districts. The
Parliament Act of 1911 weakened the House of Lords.
Parliamentary System of government consists of a legislature (parliament)
and a Cabinet. A prime minister or premier heads the Cabinet, which is chosen
from the parliament and stays in office as long as it is supported by a majority of
the representatives.
Partnership for Peace (PFP), program established in 1994 to strengthen
relations between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an alliance of 16
Western nations, and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. In July 1991 the
Warsaw Pact, a defense alliance between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) and its Eastern European satellites, dissolved. Several Eastern European
states then requested membership in NATO, which responded by creating the North
Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) in December.
The PFP was created within the framework of NACC to allow those countries
to develop a closer relationship with NATO. PFP participants may eventually
become full NATO members. Participants promise to respect existing borders and
settle disputes peacefully. They also pledge to share defense and security
information with NATO, maintain democratic control of their military, and be ready
to participate in peacekeeping operations.
Passport, document of nationality and identity, used for purposes of identification
and protection when traveling abroad, usually granted only to persons who are
nationals of the issuing country. It is also a formal permit authorizing the holder to
leave and return to the nation of which he or she is a subject. The practice of granting
passports developed from the right of nations to withhold from foreigners the privilege
of transit through their territory. In the United States, passports are issued only by the
Department of State, and no distinction is made between native-born and naturalized
citizens. A passport for the head of a family may cover children under 13 years old if
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they are traveling together. A U.S. passport is issued for a period of ten years and
may be renewed upon expiration.
Peacekeeping, nonbelligerent use of military force to assist warring parties in
reaching a settlement. Traditional peacekeeping missions try to maintain peace
while the parties negotiate. Historically, peacekeeping is a relatively new practice
that has usually been organized under the United Nations (UN). The UN has
three qualifications for peacekeeping missions: consent of the disputants, support
from the international community, and the deployment of impartial forces. The
peacekeeping forces are lightly armed for self-defense.
The UN's first peacekeeping effort was sending observers to the Middle East
in 1948 to supervise the truce negotiated after the Arab attack on Israel earlier
that year. Over the years the UN has undertaken numerous other peacekeeping
missions. In conducting these missions, it has confronted several problems: the
financial strain of the missions, the tendency for operations to stagnate while the
underlying dispute drags on, and the UN's lack of enforcement power (if the
disputants do not respect UN decisions, it cannot require compliance).
Plebiscite ['plebIs(a)It] is a vote of the people. The term has come to mean the
vote of the people of a certain place to choose the nation that will govern them.
Plebiscite, vote by the electorate of a nation, region, or locality on a specific question.
Since the time of the French Revolution (1789-1799), plebiscites have been used to
determine the wishes of an electorate with regard to the question of sovereignty.
Plebiscites were used as democratic instruments after the resurgence of nationalistic
sentiments in Europe in 1848. They played a prominent role, for example, in the
independence and unification of Italy. In 1905 an important plebiscite resulted in the
separation of Norway from Sweden. More recently, plebiscites have been used by
African peoples on the issue of national sovereignty.
Political Party is an organized group of people who control or seek to control
a government. Political Parties, organizations that mobilize voters on behalf of a
common set of interests, concerns, and goals. They formulate political and policy
agendas, select candidates, conduct election campaigns, and monitor the work of
their elected representatives. Political parties link citizens and the government,
providing a way for people to have a voice in their government.
Party Systems
There are three types of party systems: (1) multiparty systems, (2) two-
party systems, and (3) one-party systems. Multiparty systems are the most
common party system. Parliamentary governments based on proportional
representation often develop multiparty systems. In this type of government, the
number of legislative seats held by any party depends on the proportion of votes
they received in the most recent election. Advocates of multiparty systems believe
they permit all points of view to be represented in government.
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In a two-party system, government power shifts between two dominant
parties. Two-party systems most frequently develop when an election requires a
candidate to gain only a simple plurality vote—that is, the winner gets the most
votes but not necessarily a majority. Advocates of two-party systems believe they
limit the dangers of excessive fragmentation and government stalemate.
Opponents believe that eventually the two parties tend to resemble each other
and eliminate too many viewpoints from the political process.
In a single-party system one party nominates selected candidates, and there
is no competition for elected offices. Voters simply vote "yes" or "no" for the
designated candidate. Single-party systems have characterized Communist Party
governments and other authoritarian regimes.
Organization and Structure of Political Parties
In democracies with competitive party systems, political parties pressure
governments to respond to the needs and interests of the population. In more
authoritarian governments, parties offer a structure for directing and conditioning
the behavior of individual citizens. Political parties use different strategies for
recruiting supporters. So-called externally mobilized parties develop around
leaders who lack power within an existing government. These leaders
compensate by gathering support from rebellious groups in society.
The social-democratic, Socialist, Communist, and Fascist parties in Europe
were established through external mobilization. So-called internally mobilized
parties develop under a defensive strategy of countermobilization by influential
government insiders. Internally mobilized parties seek to neutralize the
organizational efforts of another party or to gain that party's cooperation in the
pursuit of goals that require a broad foundation of support.
History of Political Parties
Political parties evolved through the struggle of contending groups to control
the government. An early model of the modern party system developed in Britain
in the 18th century, shaped around the efforts of the Whig and Tory parties to
control government jobs and political influence. A party system also developed in
the United States in the late 1700s and early 1800s, pitting members of the
Federalist Party against members of the Democratic-Republican Party.
During the 19th century political parties grew dramatically in size as voting
rights were extended to adult male citizens throughout Europe and the United
States. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, political machines offered
urban Americans an array of services, ranging from housing, food, and jobs to
legal assistance and language instruction. In return, they asked for votes.
The influence of primary elections, the mass media, and lobbyists for special
interests has gradually weakened party ties to the candidates and the voters.
Public attention now focuses on the personalities and ideologies of candidates,
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rather than the benefits that the party as an organization can offer party loyalists.
Candidate organizations have taken over more of the work of campaigning. The
political parties continue to provide expert assistance with polling, fundraising,
and advertising efforts of candidates. They also help to coordinate the campaigns
of party members and organize statewide and national conventions.
Political Campaign, organized effort by a political party or candidate for
public office to attract voter support in an election. Candidates organize a network
of volunteer and professional campaign workers, establish a fund-raising
apparatus to finance expenses, and develop media and advertising strategies to
communicate an image and a message.
Modern political campaigning includes four basic elements: professional public
relations, polling, direct mail, and the broadcast media. Hired campaign consultants
typically direct modern political campaigns. They conduct public opinion polls, produce
television commercials, organize direct-mail campaigns, and develop the issues and
advertising messages used by the candidate. Polling data help candidates and their
staffs to select issues, assess strengths and weaknesses of the candidate and of the
opposition, and measure voter responsiveness to campaign appeals. Direct-mail
campaigns include distributing pamphlets, letters, and brochures describing the
candidate's views and appealing for funds.
Broadcast media provide perhaps the most powerful means for candidates to
increase their public exposure. The televised spot advertisement attempts to
establish candidate name identification, create a favorable image of the candidate
and a negative image of the opponent, link the candidate with desirable groups,
and communicate the candidate's stands on selected issues. Televised debates
between opposing candidates enable the contenders to reach millions of viewers
and can increase the visibility of lesser-known candidates.
During the 1990s presidential campaigns introduced four new media settings
for candidates: the talk show interview, the electronic town hall meeting, the
infomercial, and the Internet website. Television and radio talk shows enable
candidates to address a vast audience without the presence of journalists or
commentators who might criticize or question them. The televised town meeting
format allows candidates to interact directly with ordinary citizens, while
simultaneously reaching viewers across the nation. The infomercial is a lengthy
televised broadcast, presenting the candidate's views in a manner similar to a
news program. Candidates also design elaborate sites on the Internet that offer
detailed information about their experience and qualifications, their political views,
and the progress of their campaigns.
Historically, political parties representing the aspirations of working-class voters gained
an edge in campaigns through their ability to mobilize and organize large masses of
people. However, the weakening of party organizations and the move toward technology-
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intensive campaigns have shifted the balance of power from working-class voters to those
with more money. These campaigns emphasize the impact of money in politics and help
those politicians who speak for wealthier constituents.
Presidential System of government consists of separate legislative and
executive branches. A president, who is elected for a fixed term, heads the
executive branch.
Prime Minister or Premier ['premIq], highest ranking minister of a country,
and in practice often the chief executive, even though the nation's constitution
might provide for a king or a president as head of state. The prime minister is
usually the chief formulator of governmental policy. The office is particularly
associated with the parliamentary system of government and is commonly held by
the leader of the majority party or coalition of parties. The prime minister is
assisted by a cabinet and is responsible to the legislature.
Proportional Representation, electoral system designed to produce
legislative bodies in which the number of seats held by any group or party is
proportional to the number of votes cast for members of that group. The purpose
of proportional representation has been to reduce the power of a dominant
political party and to provide minority groups with a degree of representation that
has been denied them previously. Modern systems of proportional representation
probably originated during the French Revolution (1789-1799), and the principle
was favored by the 19th century British philosopher John Stuart Mill. The
technique was first used in Denmark in 1855, and subsequently in other
European countries. By 1920, some form of proportional representation was
being used by almost all the countries of continental Europe. Since then, the
practices of proportional representation have been modified and refined and are
used by most European democracies for legislative, as well as local, elections.
The principles of proportional representation were used in some United States
cities during the early 20th century, but were abandoned.
Public Opinion, attitudes, perspectives, and preferences of a population
toward events, circumstances, and issues of mutual interest. Public opinion can
be shaped by relatively permanent circumstances–for example, race, religion,
geographical location, economic status, and educational level–or by temporary
factors, including current events, the opinions of influential or authoritative
persons, the effect of the mass communications media, and public relations
campaigns. Public opinion is usually measured by a sample survey or a public
opinion poll.
Uses
Hundreds of public opinion polling firms operate around the world. In
business, polls are used to test consumers' preferences and to discover what it is
about a product that gives it appeal. Response to commercial polls aids in
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planning marketing and advertising strategies. In politics, polls are used to obtain
information about voters' attitudes toward issues and candidates, to put forward
candidates with winning potential, and to plan campaigns. Polling organizations
have also been successful in predicting the outcome of elections. Governments
use opinion polls to learn what people think about many issues. In addition,
government agencies use polling methodology to determine unemployment rates,
crime rates, and other social and economic indicators. Academic research,
particularly in the social sciences, also makes wide use of polls.
Methods and Techniques
Public opinion polling involves procedures to draw a representative sample of
the population under study. When proper techniques of random sampling are
used and the sample is large enough, the results obtained are likely to be very
close to the results one would get if the entire population were surveyed.
Ideally, questions should be short, clear, direct, and easily understood.
Factors that can affect the respondent's answer include wording or phrasing; the
order in which questions are asked; the interviewer's tone; and age, sex, class, or
racial differences between the respondent and the interviewer. Once the opinion
data have been gathered, the analyst must seek to find meaning in the results,
keeping in mind the problems of sampling variability, question-wording biases,
and interviewer effects. The results are tabulated and analyzed using various
statistical techniques to determine patterns.
Criticisms of the Research
Criticisms of public opinion research come from a variety of sources. Many
people simply are not convinced that a small sample of the population viably
represents the whole. Other criticisms deal with sample procedures that, for
reasons of economy or expediency, sometimes use outdated population data or
make compromises with rigorous statistical requirements. Additionally,
interpretation of the data may be casual and superficial, presenting the raw data
without deep and careful analysis.
Public Relations = PR, management function that creates, develops, and
carries out policies and programs to influence public opinion or public reaction
about an idea, a product, or an organization. The field of public relations includes
advertising, publicity, promotional activities, and press contact. Public relations
also coexists in business with marketing and merchandising to create the climate
in which all selling functions occur.
In industry, public relations personnel inform management of changes in the
opinions of various groups of people, such as employees, stockholders,
customers, suppliers, dealers, and government. These professionals counsel
management regarding the impact of actions on the behavior of the target
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audiences. Once an organizational decision has been made, the public relations
person communicates this information to the public.
Public relations activities are a major part of the political process in the United
States and other nations. Politicians, government agencies, officials seeking
policy support, and foreign governments seeking aid and allies all use public
relations specialists. People and businesses in the entertainment industry also
use public relations services to increase their business or enhance their image.
Other public relations clients are educational, social service, and charitable
institutions, trade unions, religious groups, and professional societies.
The successful public relations specialist is skilled in communication arts and
persuasion. The work involves functions including the following: (1)
programming–that is, analyzing problems and opportunities, defining goals,
determining the public to be reached, and recommending and planning activities;
(2) writing and editing press releases, speeches, stockholder reports, product
information, and employee publications; (3) placing information in the most
advantageous way; (4) organizing special events; (5) scheduling meetings and
delivering speeches; (6) providing research and evaluation; and (7) managing
resources by planning, budgeting, and training staff.
Radicals, members of a movement that advocates extreme change of political
and social institutions. The word was first used in the political sense by British
statesman Charles James Fox, when he asked for universal manhood suffrage,
and it afterward indicated those in support of parliamentary reform. The British
Radicals proposed the removal of all political and social restraints on economic
relations, believing that individuals are free to the extent that their commercial life
is unrestricted.
Today, the term radical usually is used to indicate extreme liberalism, and
reactionary is the term used to indicate extreme conservatism. The labels, left and right,
respectively, have been attached to these viewpoints. Communism is an example of
radical, leftist extremism, and fascism exemplifies the extreme rightist views.
Radicalism ['rxdIkqlIz(q)m] is a political philosophy that emphasizes the need
to find and eliminate the basic injustices of society.
Recall, method of removing elected officials from office before the end of their
terms. In the United States approximately 1000 cities and 11 states utilize this
method to remove officials who have proved unsatisfactory to their constituencies.
In order that a recall election may be instituted, a petition, signed by a specified
proportion of the qualified voters, must be filed with the appropriate officials who
then, after verifying the signatures, order an election.
Refugee, ["refjV'dZi:] person who has fled or been expelled from his or her
country of origin because of natural catastrophe, war or military occupation, or
fear of religious, racial, or political persecution.
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History
Throughout recorded history, oppression and disaster have caused people to
flee their homelands. In biblical times, the enslaved Israelites fled Egypt. In the
15th century, the Moors and Jews were expelled from Spain. In the 17th century
the Puritans, seeking religious freedom, settled in what became the United
States. Political exiles left central and southern Europe during the upheavals of
the mid-19th century. After World War I (1914-1918), people were displaced in
large numbers from Asia Minor, the Russian Empire, and the Balkans. During
World War II (1939-1945), an estimated 7 million Jews and others threatened by
the Nazis fled their homelands.
After World War II, refugees fled Communist countries of Eastern Europe,
Tibet, and China. Dutch nationals left Indonesia during the struggles for
Indonesian independence. Arabs and Jews were displaced following the 1948
Arab-Israeli War. More recently, refugee problems have developed in Vietnam,
from the Vietnam War (1959-1975); Afghanistan, from the Soviet occupation
(1979-1989); and Rwanda, from the ethnic fighting of the mid-1990s.
International Aid
Until the early 20th century, refugees, who depended for survival on aid from
private groups, lacked both legal rights and protection. Since the end of World
War I, international organizations have been created to protect and assist
refugees. Currently, legal protection and material assistance are provided to
refugees by the United Nations Office of High Commissioner for Refugees, or
UNHCR, established in 1951 to resettle the refugees remaining after World War
II. The international government refugee agencies work closely with national and
international agencies such as the International Rescue Committee, the
International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Council of Voluntary
Agencies, and the U.S. Committee on Refugees. Two United Nations (UN)
documents, the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of
Refugees, specify the rights and duties of refugees, including the rights to work,
education, and access to courts of law. Because the causes of political and
economic upheaval remain in operation in the developing nations of Africa, Asia,
and Latin America, the large-scale movement of refugees is bound to continue
and even to intensify as the world's population continues to increase.
Republic [rI'pAblIk] is a form of government in which the citizens elect
representatives to manage the government. Republic, form of state based on the
concept that sovereignty resides in the people, who delegate the power to rule to
elected representatives and officials. In the theoretical republican state, republic
and democracy may be identical. However, historical republics have never
conformed to a theoretical model, and the term republic is freely used by
dictatorships, one-party states, and democracies alike.
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Republican Theories
In his Republic, Greek philosopher Plato presented an ideal state, made up of a
commercial class, a spirited class of administrators and soldiers, and the guardians or
philosopher-kings, who make laws. Because Plato entrusted a carefully selected few
with the responsibility of maintaining a harmonious state, republicanism is often
associated with goals established by a small segment of the community presumed to
have special insight into what defines the common good.
In his Politics, Greek philosopher Aristotle provided a concept of
republicanism that prevails in most of the Western world. Aristotle categorized
governments on the basis of who rules: the one, the few, or the many. He then
distinguished between good and perverted forms of government, the main
difference being whether rulers governed for the good of the state or in their own
interests. Aristotle believed that democracies would experience instability
because the poor would seek economic and social equality that would stifle
individual initiative and enterprise. In contrast, the polity (good form of rule by the
many) would have a middle class capable of justly buffering conflicts between the
rich and the poor.
James Madison, often called the father of the United States Constitution,
defined a republic in terms similar to those of Aristotle's polity. He believed
republics were systems of government that permitted control by the people over
those who govern. Madison emphasized the election of representatives by the
people; he believed that these representatives would be less likely to sacrifice the
public good than would the majority of the people.
Republics in History
Some scholars regard the ancient confederation of Hebrew tribes in Palestine
from the 15th century BC until about 1020 BC as an embryonic republic. Early
republics include many Greek city-states after the early 8th century BC, Carthage for
more than 300 years, and Rome for more than 500 years. Later republics include
Iceland, which established a republic in AD 930 that lasted for more than 300 years;
the medieval commercial city-states of northern Italy; and the Commonwealth (1649-
1660) of England, Scotland, and Ireland under Oliver Cromwell.
Modern republicanism began with the American Revolution of 1776 and the
French Revolution of 1789. The establishment of the United States as a federal
republic with a government consisting of three coordinate branches, each
independent of the others, created a precedent that was widely imitated
throughout the western hemisphere and elsewhere.
Revolution, ["revq'lu:S(q)n] forcible, pervasive, and often violent change of a
social or political order. Revolution is the most extreme political option of a
dissenting group, a course taken generally when more moderate attempts to
achieve reform have failed. Modern societies owe much to past uprisings against
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repressive governments. On the other hand, revolutions have often replaced one
evil with another, sometimes leading to opposing counterrevolutions.
A revolution is distinguished from a coup d'état ['ku:deI'tQ:], which is a sudden
seizure of state power by a small faction that does not necessarily change the
social system, and a revolt or rebellion, which may be either a failed attempt at
revolution or a violent expression of grievances. See American Revolution;
English Revolution; French Revolution; Russian Revolution.
Right Wing is a group of people and parties holding conservative or
reactionary views.
Secret Police, special police force organized by autocratic or totalitarian
regimes. Early modern examples were the intelligence services organized by
Joseph Fouchй for Napoleon I and by Prince Klemens von Metternich in Austria
after 1819. The first truly modern model, adding judiciary and executive powers,
was the Okhrana in tsarist Russia, established in 1825. The Okhrana has had
numerous successors in the 20th century, including the KGB of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics, the OVRA of Fascist Italy, and the Gestapo of Nazi
Germany. These forces rely heavily on torture for investigative purposes and
detention for isolating prisoners.
Separation of Powers, ["sepq'reIS(q)nqv'paVqz] (юр. розділення влади
(розмежування законодавчої, виконавчої та судової влади) concept of
government in the United States whereby power is divided among the executive,
judicial, and legislative branches.
Socialism ['sqVS(q)lIz(q)m] is an economic system and also a way of life.
Socialists believe that a country's principal means of production should be owned
or controlled by public governments or by cooperatives.
Socialization ["sqVSqlaI'zeIS(q)n] is the process of learning or being taught
the standards of a group or society.
Social Security, ["sqVS(q)lsI'kjV(q)rItI] (соціальний захист) public programs
designed to provide income and services to individuals in the event of retirement,
sickness, disability, death, or unemployment. In the United States the term social
security refers to the programs established under the Social Security Act,
originally enacted in 1935. The Social Security Act consists of 20 titles or
subjects, including Old-Age, Survivors', and Disability Insurance; Medicare;
Supplemental Security Income; Unemployment Compensation; Aid to Families
with Dependent Children; and Medicaid.
Retirement, Disability, Death, and Medicare Benefits
Old-Age, Survivors', and Disability Insurance (OASDI); Medicare hospital
insurance; and Medicare Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI) are separately
financed segments of the social security program. The OASDI program provides
benefits for the aged, for the disabled, and for survivors of deceased workers. The
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cash benefits for OASDI are financed by earmarked payroll taxes, as is the
hospital insurance portion of Medicare, for the most part. The SMI part of
Medicare, which applies to physicians' services, is financed in part by uniform
monthly contributions from aged and disabled people enrolled in the program and
in part by general federal revenues.
In 1996 some 124 million people contributed to social security funds and about 43
million people drew monthly social security cash benefits. The law specifies certain
minimum and maximum monthly benefits. Cash benefits are annually indexed to the
increase in the cost of living as it is gauged in the consumer price index.
Unemployment Compensation
The U.S. unemployment compensation program and the employment service
programs form a federal-state cooperative system. The Federal Unemployment
Tax Act levied a tax on the payroll of employers. State financing and benefit laws
vary widely. In general, unemployment benefits are intended to replace about half
of an average worker's wages, up to a maximum. All states pay benefits to some
unemployed people for 26 weeks. During periods of heavy unemployment, federal
law authorizes extended benefits, which are financed in part by federal employer
taxes. See Also Unemployment Insurance.
Other Programs
The Social Security Act provides money to states to help pay costs of
programs for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and of Medicaid for
those who cannot afford the costs of medical care. Medicaid and AFDC programs
are administered by the states. Under the Supplemental Security Income program
(SSI), the federal government provides payments to needy aged, blind, and
disabled individuals. The federal government also provides money to the states
for maternal and child health, crippled children's services, child welfare services,
and various social services.
Sovereignty ['sPvrIntI] is the supreme power of a country over its own affairs.
Sovereignty, autonomous, absolute political and military power embodied in a
ruler or governmental body. In international relations, a sovereign state is equal to
other states, with the power to govern its own territory and to declare war. In
terms of the authority a nation exercises over its own citizens, sovereignty stands
in direct opposition to political expression. In modern democracies, therefore, the
exercise of sovereignty is restricted to times when the state's survival is at stake,
as in wartime.
State, in political science, generally a group of people inhabiting a specific
territory and living according to a common legal and political authority; a body
politic or nation. In this definition, the term state includes government; in another
usage, the two terms are synonymous. The modern nation-state, which consists
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of a group of people with the same or similar nationality inhabiting a definite
territory, emerged by a gradual process extending over centuries.
Strategy, ['strxtIdZI] art of employing all elements of a nation or nations to
accomplish the objectives of a nation or an alliance in peace or war; also the art
of military command in combat. Strategy involves the use and close integration of
economic, political, cultural, social, moral, spiritual, and psychological power.
Suffrage, ['sAfrIdZ] (право голосу, виборче право) right or privilege of
voting. Suffrage is a political institution that dates from the city-states of ancient
Greece and from ancient Rome. However, the idea that people under a
government should have a voice in selecting their political leaders did not gain
substantial support until the 17th and 18th centuries, when philosophers argued
that self-government is a natural right of every person and that governments
derive their powers from the consent of the governed. This idea has not entirely
superseded the competing view that suffrage is a political privilege, subject to
qualifications. Although modern governments have generally liberalized the
qualifications for suffrage, literacy is often a requirement, and in many countries
persons convicted of serious crimes are deprived of voting rights. There are also
several countries in which women may not vote.
The Constitution of the United States originally specified that each state would
determine the qualifications for its voters. However, amendments to the
Constitution have prohibited states from denying suffrage to any citizen based on
race or sex or requiring the payment of a poll tax as a condition for voting.
Syndicalism, ['sIndIk(q)lIz(q)m] revolutionary trade unionist movement
advocating control of government and industry by trade unions. Syndicalism
envisions a stateless society in which production is administered by a federation
of industrial unions and associations of nonindustrial workers. Syndicalist
doctrines were formulated in the 1860s by German revolutionist Karl Marx and
further developed by Russian revolutionist Mikhail Aleksandrovich Bakunin. True
syndicalism, however, originated in France in the late 1870s. It was strongly
influenced by the writings of French anarchist Pierre Joseph Proudhon and
French social philosopher Georges Sorel. Syndicalism achieved its greatest
impact in the years before World War I (1914-1918), when a related movement
called guild socialism had some impact in England and the Industrial Workers of
the World (IWW) formed a comparable program in the United States. Syndicalism
declined after World War I, except in Spain, where the Confederaciуn Nacional de
Trabajo (National Confederation of Labor) achieved a membership of 1 million
workers.
Technocracy, [tek'nPkrqsI] theoretical system of government and
management based on principles devised by scientists and professional
technicians and also administered by them. The technocratic movement started in
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the United States after World War I and was based on the belief that the advent of
science and technology had made the traditional economic system obsolete. It
offered instead a political system based on scientific and physical laws and an
economic system based on units of "productive energy."
Territory ['terIt(q)rI], partially self-governing section of the United States that
has not been granted statehood. The territories are the District of Columbia, the
Samoa Islands, and Guam. Puerto Rico, now a commonwealth, was a U.S.
territory until 1952. The states of Alaska and Hawaii were territories until 1959.
The territories are not regularly represented in the U.S. Congress but are allowed
to send a delegate, who is given a seat in the House of Representatives with a
right to take part in debates but not to vote.
Terrorism, use of violence, or the threat of violence, to create a climate of
fear in a given population. Terrorist violence targets ethnic or religious groups,
governments, political parties, corporations, and media enterprises. Organizations
that engage in acts of terror are almost always small in size and limited in
resources. Through the publicity and fear generated by their violence, they seek
to effect political change on a local or international scale.
Terrorist acts date from as early as the 1st century, when the Zealots, a
Jewish religious sect, fought against Roman occupation of what is now Israel. In
the 12th century in Iran, the Assassins, a group of Ismailis (Shiite Muslims),
conducted terrorist acts against religious and political leaders of Sunni Islam.
Beginning in the 19th century terrorist movements acquired a more political and
revolutionary–rather than religious–orientation.
In the latter half of the 20th century terrorist acts multiplied, facilitated by
technological advances in transportation, communications, microelectronics, and
explosives. The conflict between Arab nations and Israel following World War II
(1939-1945) produced waves of terrorism in the Middle East. In the 1970s and
1980s organized terror spilled into Western Europe and other parts of the world,
as supporters of Palestinian resistance to Israel carried their war abroad and
domestic conflicts gave birth to terrorist organizations in countries such as West
Germany (now part of the Federal Republic of Germany), Italy, and Japan. In the
United States, terrorism has chiefly consisted of attacks by isolated individuals
who violently oppose state and corporate power.
Theocracy, [TI'PkrqsI] constitution, or polity, of a country in which God is
regarded as the sole sovereign and the laws of the realm are seen as divine
commands. By extension a theocracy is a country in which control is in the hands
of the clergy.
Third World, ["TE:d' wE:ld] general designation of economically developing
nations. The term arose during the Cold War, when the United States and the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) appeared to lead two power blocs of
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nations that dominated world politics. Within this bipolar model, the Third World
consisted of economically and technologically less developed countries that were
not committed to either bloc. The countries of the Third World are located in Latin
America, Africa, and Asia.
Political instability and precarious economic conditions are widespread in the Third
World. The countries concerned generally prefer to create their own institutions based
on indigenous traditions, needs, and aspirations. The Third World is divided by race,
religion, culture, and geography, as well as frequently opposite interests. It generally
sees world politics in terms of a global struggle between rich and poor countries.
Some nations, such as those of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), have found ways to assert their economic importance as sources of raw
materials indispensable to advanced societies.
Totalitarianism [tqV"txlI'te(q)rIqnIz(q)m] is a form of government in which the
state claims control of all the activities of the people. Totalitarianism, system of
government and ideology in which all social, political, economic, intellectual,
cultural, and spiritual activities are subordinated to the purposes of the ruler of a
state. Totalitarianism is a form of autocracy (rule by a single person with unlimited
power) peculiar to the 20th century. Under a totalitarian dictator, each individual in
the society is responsible to another in a position of higher authority–with the
single exception of the dictator, who is answerable to no one. All
nongovernmental social groupings are organized to serve the purposes of the
state. Among the features of totalitarian dictatorships are a monopoly of mass
communications, a secret-police apparatus, a monopoly of all effective weapons,
and a centrally controlled economy.
The ruling party controls all newspaper, magazine, and book publishing, as
well as radio and television broadcasting, theater productions, and motion
pictures. All writers, actors, composers, and poets are licensed by the
government and usually are required to belong to the ruling party. The secret
police terrorizes the populace through institutions and devices such as
concentration camps, predetermined trials, and public confessions. Totalitarian
dictatorships provide no legal means of effecting a change of government.
Tyranny ['tIrqnI] is a term used throughout history to describe various forms of
government by rulers who have unrestricted power.
United Nations (UN), international organization of nation-states based on the
sovereign equality of its members. Members are pledged to settle international
disputes by peaceful means, to refrain from the threat or use of force, to assist the UN
in actions ordered under the charter, to refrain from assisting any country against
which such UN action is being taken, and to act according to the charter's principles.
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Origins
The United Nations is the successor to the League of Nations, the
international organization formed after World War I (1914-1918). The first
commitment to establish a new international organization was made in the
Atlantic Charter in 1941. The principles of the Atlantic Charter were more widely
accepted in the Declaration by United Nations, signed on January 1, 1942, by
representatives of 26 Allied nations that were fighting against the Axis powers
during World War II. In a 1943 conference in Moscow, representatives of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Britain, China, and the United States
signed a declaration in which they recognized the need to establish a general
international organization.
In the fall of 1944 representatives of the four powers met in Washington, D.C. to
work out proposals for an international organization. They agreed on a draft charter
that specified its purposes, structure, and methods of operation, but they could not
agree on a method of voting in the proposed Security Council. The voting issue was
settled at the Yalta Conference in the USSR in February 1945, when American
president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British prime minister Winston Churchill, and
Soviet premier Joseph Stalin met for the last of their wartime conferences.
Delegates from 50 nations met in San Francisco later in 1945, for what was officially
known as the United Nations Conference on International Organization. They completed
and approved a charter consisting of 111 articles. The charter became effective on
October 24, 1945, after ratification by a majority of the signatories.
In December 1945 the Congress of the United States invited the UN to
establish its headquarters in the United States. In 1946 the UN moved to a
temporary location in Lake Success, New York, and later that year purchased a
site bordering the East River in New York City. The complex, completed in mid-
1952, includes the General Assembly Hall, the Secretariat Building, the
Conference Building, and the Dag Hammarskjцld Library.
Under the charter, UN membership is open to all peaceful states that accept
the obligations of the organization. The 50 nations that attended the San
Francisco conference, with the addition of Poland, became founding members of
the United Nations. China initially was represented by a delegation from the
Nationalist government on Taiwan, but in 1971 the General Assembly voted to
seat the delegation from the People's Republic of China instead.
New members are admitted by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly on
the recommendation of the Security Council. Since 1945 membership has more
than tripled, mainly with the admission of many new African and Asian countries
that had been European colonies. As of 1995, the UN had 185 members.
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Organization
The UN charter established six principal organs: the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the
International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.
All member states are represented in the General Assembly, which is the
main deliberative body of the UN. The General Assembly meets annually in
regular sessions and in special sessions at the request of a majority of its
members or of the Security Council. The assembly has no enforcement authority;
its resolutions are recommendations to member states. The charter permits the
assembly to establish agencies and programs to carry out its recommendations.
Among the most important of these agencies are the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 1993 the office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights was created, heading the Center for
Human Rights in Geneva.
The UN's operating costs are met by contributions from member states, although
special programs such as UNICEF and the UNDP are usually financed through
voluntary contributions. Most members pay less than 1 percent of the budget, and
only 14 countries contribute more than 1 percent. The largest contributors are the
United States (25 per cent) and Japan (14 per cent). Russia, Germany, France,
Britain, Italy, Spain, and Canada contribute more than 2 percent.
The Security Council, which is in continuous session, is the UN's central organ
for maintaining peace. The council has 15 members, of which 5–China, France,
the United Kingdom, Russia, and the United States–have been accorded
permanent seats. Non-permanent members serve nonconsecutive two-year
terms, with five new members elected by the General Assembly every year.
Decisions of the council require nine votes on procedural matters, but any one of
the five permanent members can veto a more substantive issue. The Security
Council is responsible for matters of peace and security. It encourages disputing
nations to settle their differences through peaceful means, including negotiations,
mediation, conciliation, arbitration, and judicial settlement. The council may,
however, enforce its recommendations, either by nonmilitary means, such as
economic or diplomatic sanctions, or by the use of military force. Such action is
subject to the concurring votes of the five permanent council members, and thus
emphasizes the significance of the great-power veto.
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which meets annually,
coordinates the economic and social activities of the UN. ECOSOC recommends
action on topics such as medicine, education, economics, and social needs.
ECOSOC also establishes specialized agencies such as the World Health
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Organization (WHO); the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO); the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); and the
International Labor Organization (ILO).
The Trusteeship Council, originally responsible for supervising 11 territories
placed under international trust at the end of World War II, is currently inactive
because all of the original trust territories and dependencies have gained full
sovereignty or have become part of a larger state.
The International Court of Justice, situated in The Hague, the Netherlands, is
the judicial body of the UN. The court hears cases referred to it by UN members,
who retain the right to decide whether they will accept the court's ruling as binding.
The Secretariat carries out the programs and the administrative tasks of the
UN. The body is headed by the secretary general, who is appointed by the
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The secretary
general acts as the UN spokesperson and can present situations that threaten
peace to the Security Council.
The UN and Trade and Development
Economic and social activities now constitute the most extensive part of the
UN's work. ECOSOC serves as a forum for discussions of economic and social
problems and for coordination of the UN programs and those of the specialized
agencies. Information services support both ECOSOC and the General
Assembly, providing standing bodies of ECOSOC such as the Statistical,
Population, and Human Rights commissions.
These economic activities also must be seen as part of the entire United
Nations System. The financial institutions–the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD; part of the
World Bank group)–are responsible for making loans to member states. The IMF
permits UN members to support the value of their currencies by covering
temporary deficits in their balance of payments. The World Bank helps to finance
long-range development projects.
UN development programs are part of a much wider network of assistance that
also includes regional and nationally organized programs. At the same time,
developing countries must supply most of the capital, through savings and foreign
earnings, for their economic growth. Therefore, development assistance has been
increasingly related to general conditions in the world economy–especially those
conditions under which developing nations engage in foreign trade.
The UN and World Peace
Shortly after World War II and the establishment of the UN, political
cooperation among the major powers broke down, and the world entered into the
period of the Cold War. As the interests of the United States and the USSR
clashed, the ability of the United Nations to maintain peace was limited. Some of
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these limitations were lifted in 1991 when the USSR broke apart and Russia took
over its permanent seat on the Security Council. Despite limitations, the Security
Council was able to bring about the settlement of disputes in situations in which
the interests of the permanent members, especially the United States and the
USSR, converged.
Since the early 1950s the UN role in maintaining peace and security around the
world has expanded. UN-sponsored forces have been especially active in areas
where decolonization has led to instability. In many cases, the withdrawal of the
former colonial power left a political vacuum, and a struggle for domination ensued. In
response, the UN developed the strategy of deploying peacekeeping forces to
separate antagonists, providing time and opportunity for negotiation, and to keep local
conflicts from spreading over an entire region. UN peacekeeping forces have been
active in numerous conflicts, including those in Korea, the Middle East, Africa, Cyprus,
Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), South Africa, and the former Yugoslavia. In 1988 the
peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
The Role of the UN
During the period of superpower rivalry, along with its peacekeeping
operations, the UN also established several committees on disarmament and was
involved in negotiating treaties to ban nuclear weapons in outer space and the
development of biological weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency has
helped to control the proliferation of nuclear weapons by inspecting nuclear
installations to monitor their use. The United Nations has played a wider role in
the transition to statehood in a few critical regions. It has been a major forum
through which newly independent states have begun to participate in international
relations. Many global problems have been considered in a series of special UN-
sponsored conferences, including the World Conference of the International
Women's Year (1975), the Conference on Human Settlements, or Habitat (1976),
the Conference on Desertification (1977), the World Summit for Children (1990),
the International Conference on Population and Development (1994), and the
World Summit on Social Development (1995).
The United Nations is not a world government; rather, it is an instrument
through which nations can cooperate to solve their mutual problems. Whether
they do cooperate and use the UN creatively depends on how both their
governments and their peoples view relations with others and how they envision
their place in the future of humankind.
Veto, ['vi:tqV] executive power to abrogate or kill a measure that has been
passed by a legislative body. Under the Constitution of the United States, a two-
thirds majority vote in both houses of the Congress of the United States is needed
to override the president's veto. In the case of a so-called pocket veto, a bill fails
to become law when the president does not sign it and Congress adjourns within
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ten days after submitting it to the president. The governors of most U.S. states
have veto powers. The monarch of the United Kingdom has veto power, but it has
not been exercised since 1708. In the Security Council of the United Nations,
each of the five permanent members has veto power over substantive matters.
Welfare, public assistance programs that provide at least a minimum amount
of economic security to people whose incomes are insufficient to maintain an
adequate standard of living. These programs generally include such benefits as
financial aid to individuals, subsidized medical care, and stamps that are used to
purchase food.
Welfare State ["welfeq'steIt] (політ. "держава загального добробуту") (із
системою соціального забезпечення, безкоштовного навчання и т. п.) is a
term sometimes applied to a country in which the government assumes major
responsibility for the social welfare of the people.
Woman Suffrage, ['sAfrIdZ] right of women to share on equal terms with men the
political privileges afforded by representative government and, more specifically, to
vote and hold public office. Organized woman-suffrage movements emerged only
after suffrage had been won by large groups of the male population following the
democratic revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. See Women's Rights.
American Suffrage Movement

In colonial America women were not granted the right to vote. However,
because in most colonies land ownership determined the right to vote, women
whose families owned property could sometimes vote. The framers of the
Constitution of the United States reserved decisions about voting qualifications for
the states. By the early 19th century most states had dropped the property
qualification and extended voting rights to all adult men.
During the first half of the 19th century American suffragists worked mainly
through the abolitionist and temperance movements. However, antifeminist
prejudices within these movements led suffragists to create a separate movement
dedicated to women's rights. Early leaders in the movement were feminists
Lucretia [lH'krJSq] Coffin Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and
Lucy Stone.
In 1848 the first women's rights convention met in Seneca Falls, New York.
The convention adopted a Declaration of Sentiments, patterned after the
American Declaration of Independence. Many U.S. citizens responded to the
convention with ridicule and anger. Suffragist leaders were often subjected to
physical violence.
After the American Civil War (1861-1865), many male abolitionists argued that
suffragist claims should be deferred so as not to impede the campaign to gain
240
voting rights for male ex-slaves. To many suffragists, postponement was
unacceptable, and in 1869 feminist leaders created independent organizations to
fight for woman suffrage.
In 1890 suffragists formed the National American Woman Suffrage Association.
The association's work helped achieve suffrage in several states in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. In 1920 the Congress of the United States approved the 19th
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, granting women the right to vote.
British Suffrage Movement
The pioneer figure of British feminism was the writer Mary Wollstonecraft,
author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). During the 1830s and
1840s British suffragism was supported by the Chartists, who fought for a
sweeping program of human rights. Later, some liberal legislators favored woman
suffrage, among them John Stuart Mill. In 1897 the National Union of Woman
Suffrage Societies was formed. A faction of this group, led by the feminist
Emmeline Pankhurst, established the militant Women's Social and Political Union
in 1903. The union's tactics included boycotting, bombing, and picketing. In 1913
a suffragist publicized her cause by deliberately hurling herself to her death under
the hooves of horses racing at Epsom Downs.
In 1918 the British Parliament gave voting rights to all female householders,
householders' wives, and female university graduates over 30 years of age. In
1928 Parliament lowered the voting age of women to 21.
Suffrage in Other Countries
Most other nations have enacted woman-suffrage legislation. By the 1980s
women could vote virtually everywhere in the world, except for a few Muslim
countries. Women who attained national leadership posts include prime ministers
Golda Meir (Israel), Indira Gandhi (India), and Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan) and
President Corazon Aquino of the Philippines.
Zionism, ['zaIqnIz(q)m] movement to unite the Jews [dZu:z] of the Diaspora
and settle them in Palestine; it arose in the late 19th century and culminated in
the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948. The movement's name is derived
from Zion, the hill on which the Temple of Jerusalem was located.
In the 1700s the Haskalah (Hebrew for ‘enlightenment’) movement marked
the beginning of a trend away from traditional religious orthodoxy and toward
Jewish assimilation into European society. The achievement of political equality
by European Jewry began in revolutionary France in 1791 and spread over most
of Europe during the next several decades. Political emancipation proved to be a
false dawn, however. In the second half of the 1800s anti-Semitic parties
emerged in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In Russia, pogroms (anti-Jewish riots)
spread across the country. Large numbers of Russian Jews migrated to the West,
241
primarily to the United States. A smaller number went to Palestine, which was
then under Turkish rule.
In 1896 Theodor ["TIq'dO:] Herzl, a Hungarian-Jewish journalist, published a
book called The Jewish State, in which he analyzed the causes of anti-Semitism
and proposed its cure, the creation of a Jewish state. In 1897 Herzl organized the
first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. The congress formulated a program
defining Zionism's goal as the creation ‘for the Jewish people of a home in
Palestine secured by public law.’ The congress worked to establish branches in
every country with a substantial Jewish population. Herzl made unsuccessful
efforts to acquire land and financial backing for the new state.
During World War I (1914-1918), the British wooed the Zionists in order to
secure strategic control over Palestine and to gain the support of world Jewry for
the Allied cause. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 approved the establishment in
Palestine of a ‘national home for the Jewish people.’ After the war, Zionism faced
a setback when Russian Jewry (the traditional source of Zionist migration) was
sealed off by the government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
In addition, a dispute arose between the leader of American Zionism, Supreme
Court justice Louis Brandeis, and Russian-born chemist Dr. Chaim [haIm]
Weizmann, the man credited with obtaining the Balfour Declaration. Weizmann's
‘synthetic [sIn'TetIk] Zionism,’ which advocated both political struggle and
colonization, won out over Brandeis's pragmatic approach, which concentrated on
colonization without reference to future nationhood.
During the British mandate over Palestine ['pxlIstaIn] (1920-1948), the
number of Jewish settlers in Palestine grew from 50,000 to 600,000, most of
whom were refugees of Nazi persecution in Europe. Coexistence between Jews
and the Arabs of Palestine became an increasingly intractable problem. Recurrent
riots in the 1920s culminated in full-scale rebellion from 1936 to 1939. In 1939, on
the eve of World War II, the British government changed its Palestine policy in an
effort to appease the Arab world. It terminated Britain's commitment to Zionism,
provided for the establishment of a Palestinian state within ten years, and limited
additional entry into Palestine by Jews.
In 1942 Zionist leaders demanded that a Jewish state be created in western
Palestine. The Holocaust ['hPlqkO:st] (systematic murder of European Jews by
the Nazis ['nQ:tsIz]) convinced Western Jewry of the need for a Jewish state. In
1944 Zionist guerrillas began an armed revolt against British rule in Palestine. In
1948 the British mandate ended, and the Jews declared the independence of the
new state of Israel. Relations between the new state and the Zionists proved
problematic, however. Israel's first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, insisted that
Zionist leaders who chose to remain outside of Israel would have no say in
Israel's policy decisions. During the 1970s a great deal of Zionist activity focused
242
on Soviet Jews, who were finally allowed to emigrate in restricted numbers. A
massive wave of immigration by Soviet Jews to Israel began in the late 1980s.
Zionism has been repeatedly denounced by Arab nations and their supporters
as a ‘tool of imperialism.’ Zionists have emphasized that the movement has never
rejected Arab self-determination. Zionism today is based on the support of two
principles: the autonomy and safety of the state of Israel and the right of any Jew
to settle there.
Additional resources:
1. Mindscape Complete Reference Library.Version 3.5.0,IBM Inc.,1995.
2.The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia .Columbia University Press,1991.
3.The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,Third Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company,1992.
4. Поліщук Н.П., Лісовий В.С. Англо-український філософський словник.
Київ: Либідь, 1996.
5. Jones, Daniel. English Pronouncing Dictionary.15th edition,Cambridge
University Press, 1999.
6. Simon & Shuster’s New Millenium Encyclopedia.1999
7. Roget's II: The New Thesaurus.,Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980.
8. The Legal Word Book, Third Edition Compiled by Frank S. Gordon, Thomas
M.S. Hemnes, and Charles E. Weinstein, INSO, 1991.
9. The Reader's Companion to American History.Eric Foner and John A.
Garraty, Editors.Society of American Historians.,1991.
10. Craig, Gordon A., and Loewenheim, Francis L., eds. The Diplomats.
Princeton, 1994.
11. Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy. Simon & Schuster, 1994.
12. Sweeney, Jerry K., and Denning, M. B. A Handbook of American
Diplomacy. Westview, 1992.
13. Ebenstein, William and A. O. Great Political Thinkers. 5th ed. Harcourt, 1991.
14. Hampsher-Monk, Iain. A History of Modern Political Thought. Blackwell, 1992.
243
15. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary., Merriam-Webster Inc., 1998.
16. Webster's New World dictionary of the American language. - New York; 1984.
17. The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press; 1992
18. Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. - London; 1995.
19. BBC English Dictionary. - London; 1993.
20. Мюллер В. К. Англо-русский словарь, - М.; Рус.Яз., 1992.
21. Новый Большой англо-русский словарь под ред. академика Апресяна
Ю. Д. - М.; Русский Язык, 1993-1994
22. Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. -
Oxford University Press, 1980.
23. The Penguin Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words. - London; 1987.
24. Courtney R. Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. 1983.
25. Longman Language Activator. – London, 1993.
26. Roget International Thesaurus. -N.Y. 1977.
27. Ожегов С.И., Шведова Н.Ю. Толковый словарь русского языка. – М., 1992.
28. Большой энциклопедический словарь. – М., 1991
29. LingvoUniversal 7.0. – ABBYY Software House, 2001
30. Русско-английский словарь / Сост. О. С. Ахманова и др.; Под общ.
рук. А. И. Смирницкого - 16 изд., под ред. О. С. Ахмановой. - М.; 1992.
31. Оксфордский русско-английский словарь/Сост. Маркус Уилер. - М.; 1994.
32. Katzner, Kenneth. English-Russian, Russian-English Dictionary. – N. Y.,
etc.; 1984.
33. Romanov's Pocket Russian-English, English-Russian Dictionary. -
Washington; 1964
34. Лубенская С.И. Русско-английский фразеологический словарь. – М.; 1997.
244

Lyalko - Philosophy &amp; Political Science

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Lyalko S.V.

Philosophy and Political Science

Part I. General Philosophy Overview

3.Interpret the following in English:

6. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (4 points).

7. Answer the following questions:

9. Retell the text : a) in detail b) in brief .

10. Write an annotation of the text.

11. Write 5 questions covering the basic points of the text .

The Importance of Philosophy

3.Interpret the following in English:

4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

The Branches of Philosophy

Epistemology aims to determine the nature, basis, and extent of knowledge.

4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

6. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (4 points).

7.Answer the following questions:

Logic is the study of the principles and methods of reasoning.

The History of Western Philosophy

3.Interpret the following in English:

4.Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

3.Interpret the following in English:

6. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (10 points).

7.Answer the following questions:

Problematic Revision Questions

Terms Used in Philosophy

BIOGRAPHIES IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. (UNITS VII –

IV. Give a brief talk on one of the following topics:

2.Interpret the following in English:

6. Choose the correct word(s).

8. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (5 points).

3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

8. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (5 points).

9. Recompose the chain of the 3 components (ternary ['tE:nqrI]):

3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

7. Give as many synonyms as possible to the following words and phrases:

8. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (5 points).

9. Match up the pairs of "synonyms – antonyms"

10. Retell the text: a) in detail b) in brief.

11.Think about these questions and be ready to discuss them using

3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in the correct form.

8. Translate these sentences. Interpret the underlined phrases and give

9. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (5 points).

10. Restore the chain of the 3 components correspondingly:

11. Retell the text : a) in detail b) in brief .

13. Answer the following questions:

Synonyms: implement, invoke. The central meaning shared by these verbs

The Scope of Government

4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :

6. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter

9. Recompose the chain of the 3 components

5. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter

6. Correct grammar, lexical and textual mistakes:

8. Write an annotation of the text

9. Match up the pairs of synonyms correspondingly.

12. Answer the following questions:

4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

6.Choose the suitable variant and prove it by your own examples:

7. Match up the pairs of synonyms correspondingly.

4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

6. Fill in omitted words.

7. Look through these sentences attentively and correct contextual and

Biographies (in the order of the Units)

Lyalko - Philosophy & Political Science

Lyalko - Philosophy & Political Science