Commercial Transport: Proceedings of The 2nd Interdiciplinary Conference On Production Logistics and Traffic 2015 1st Edition Uwe Clausen

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Lecture Notes in Logistics
Series Editors: Uwe Clausen · Michael ten Hompel · Robert de Souza
Uwe Clausen
Hanno Friedrich
Carina Thaller
Christiane Geiger Editors
Commercial
Transport
Proceedings of the 2nd Interdisciplinary
Conference on Production, Logistics and
Traffic 2015
Series editors
Uwe Clausen, Dortmund, Germany
Michael ten Hompel, Dortmund, Germany
Robert de Souza, Singapore, Singapore
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11220
Uwe Clausen Hanno Friedrich
•
Carina Thaller Christiane Geiger

•
Editors
Commercial Transport
Proceedings of the 2nd Interdisciplinary
Conference on Production, Logistics and
Traffic 2015
123
Editors
Uwe Clausen Carina Thaller
Institute of Transport Logistics Institute of Transport Logistics
TU Dortmund University TU Dortmund University
Dortmund Dortmund
Germany Germany
Hanno Friedrich Christiane Geiger

Institute of Traffic and Transport Institute of Transport Logistics
Chair of Commercial Transport TU Dortmund University
TU Darmstadt Dortmund
Darmstadt Germany
Germany
ISSN 2194-8917 ISSN 2194-8925 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-21265-4 ISBN 978-3-319-21266-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21266-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015944739
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
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Printed on acid-free paper
Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media

(www.springer.com)
Foreword
The Interdisciplinary Conference on Production, Logistics and Traffic (ICPLT)

addresses the interfaces between the three eponymous disciplines. The second
ICPLT in particular deals with economic, ecological and societal issues around
commercial transport as the essential link for production, logistics and society. It
took place during July 21–22, 2015, at TU Dortmund University, representing a
joint effort by TU Dortmund University and TU Darmstadt University.
Today, transport and mobility are affected by manifold trends including new
production technologies (like 3D printing or automation), urbanization and
e-commerce. The international markets are integrating rapidly, promoting economic
growth and in this way fulfilling a fundamental prerequisite for prosperity. To foster
this development, technical, social and political barriers to international competition
are more and more abolished, resulting in the development of intercontinental
networks realizing an intensified division of labour. Starting and end point of the
associated global passenger and goods flows are mostly agglomerations.
Worldwide, concentration tendencies of population and economic activities in
cities are therefore observable. These flows are further marked by high-frequency
small-scale deliveries, arising from retail and industry and their endeavour to reduce
their inventory in order to save storage costs and valuable land and sales space.
Besides, also e-commerce demands in particular of private households as well as
offered e-commerce activities within most sectors are increasing.
All these forces again create an augmenting demand for commercial transport,
especially in agglomerations, provoking a higher transport performance and putting
pressure on traffic infrastructure.
Besides, conflicting goals of different interest groups fuel the discussion about
commercial transport. On the one hand, commercial transport ensures adequate
supply and distribution. Therefore, it is a fundamental prerequisite for economic
actors to operate their business as well as for customers to receive goods and
services. On the other hand, commercial transport has negative effects on envi-
ronment and society, since it endangers the quality of life by external effects, e.g. air
quality, noise and traffic safety.
v
vi Foreword
In this way, the authorities of politics, municipalities and interdisciplinary

planning, actors of production and logistics, habitants as well as all further groups
of interests are involved and affected by this topic in various forms.
For this reason, this book comprises over 28 contributions examining trends and
challenges for commercial transport as the essential link for production, logistics
and society. Therefore, innovative technologies and strategies are presented and
discussed to better understand the interdependencies and conflicts of interest
between the areas of production, logistics and traffic.
Hence, the focus of this book is on the following core topics:
• Modelling of freight transport considering logistics, production and society
• Potentials for usage of e-mobility in commercial transport
• Balancing and reducing the environmental impacts (like noise, air pollution and
greenhouse gases)
• Logistics hubs as interlinkages for intermodal commercial transport
• ICT system integration in production, logistics and traffic
• Supply chains and networks
• Empirical studies and data mining for analysing commercial transport
• Urban commercial transport
• Innovative approaches for production, logistics and transport systems
This book is addressed to all representatives of research and practice from the
disciplines production, logistics as well as spatial and transport planning, who are
interested in scientific and practice-oriented approaches.
The contributions had been evaluated and selected on the basis of a double-blind
review process.
Acknowledgments
We as the editors of the book would like to thank all involved members of the
scientific committee of the second ICPLT, who reviewed the presented contribu-
tions to assess their scientific and practical relevance, quality and originality.
The following professors were decisively involved in the selection of the fol-
lowing contributions:
• Prof. Dan Andersson, Chalmers University of Technology, Technology
Management and Economics, NORTHERN LEAD Logistics Centre
• Dr.-Ing. Wulf-Holger Arndt, TU Berlin, Center for Technology and Society
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Manfred Boltze, TU Darmstadt, Institute of Traffic and Transport
• Prof. Ph.D. Michael Browne, University of Westminster, Faculty of
Architecture and the Built Environment
• Prof. Dr. Laetitia Dablanc, University of Paris-Est, French Institute of Science
and Technology for Transport, Development and Networks
• Prof. Dr. Gerard DeJong, University of Leeds, Institute for Transport Studies
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Deuse, TU Dortmund University, Institute of Production
Systems, Professor for Operating and Production Systems
• Prof. Dr. Ralf Elbert, TU Darmstadt, Department of Management and Logistics
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Heike Flämig, Hamburg University of Technology, Institute for
Transport Planning and Logistics
• Prof. Dr. George A. Giannopoulos, National Centre for Research &
Development, Hellenic Institute of Transport
• Prof. Ph.D. Genevieve Giuliano, University of California, Margaret and John
Ferraro Chair in Effective Local Goverment, METRANS
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Evi Hartmann, Friedrich-Alexander-University
Erlangen-Nuremberg, Chair of Supply Chain Management
• Prof. Dr. Michael Henke, TU Dortmund University, Institute for Corporate
Logistics
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernd Kuhlenkötter, Ruhr University Bochum, Chair for
Production Systems
vii
viii Acknowledgments
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bert Leerkamp, University of Wuppertal, Institute for Freight

Transport Planning and Logistics
• Prof. Dr. Barbara Lenz, German Aerospace Center, Institute of Transport
Research
• Prof. Dr. rer. pol. Gernot Liedtke, German Aerospace Center, Institute of
Transport Research, Commercial Transport
• Prof. Dr. Alan McKinnon, Kühne Logistics University, Logistics Department
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Metternich, TU Darmstadt, Institute of Production
Management, Technology and Machine Tools
• Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Hans-Christian Pfohl, TU Darmstadt, Department of Supply
Chain and Network Management
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Rabe, TU Dortmund University, Department of IT in
Production and Logistics
• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Günther Schuh, RWTH Aachen University, Chair
for Production Engineering
• Prof. Dr. Lóránt Tavasszy, Delft University of Technology, Professor Freight
Transport and Logistics
• Prof. Dr. Michael ten Hompel, TU Dortmund University, Chair of Materials
Handling and Warehousing
• Prof. Dr. Eddy Van de Voorde, University of Antwerp, Departement Transport
en Ruimtelijke Economie
• Prof. Dr. Johan Woxenius, University of Gothenburg, Logistics and Transport
Research Group
We thank them and all authors particularly. With their help, support and efforts,
it was possible to realize this publication.
Dortmund Uwe Clausen

Darmstadt Hanno Friedrich
May 2015 Carina Thaller
Christiane Geiger
Contents
Part I Modelling of Freight Transport Considering Logistics,

Production and Society
1 Redeveloping the Strategic Flemish Freight Transport Model . . . . 3

Stefan Grebe, Gerard de Jong, Dana Borremans,
Pieter van Houwe and Hans-Paul Kienzler
2 Building a Model of Freight Generation with a Commodity

Flow Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Duy-Hung Ha and François Combes
3 Freight Transport Demand Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Carina Thaller, Benjamin Dahmen, Gernot Liedtke
and Hanno Friedrich
4 System Dynamics Based, Microscopic Freight Transport

Simulation for Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Carina Thaller, Uwe Clausen and Raymond Kampmann
5 Analysing the Connection Between Gross Value Added

of Industries and Freight Transport Demand—The Merit
of Supply and Use Tables in the Identification of Relevant
Economic Activities for Freight Transport Demand . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Stephan Müller, Axel Wolfermann and Sandra Burgschweiger
6 Requirements for Traffic and Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Wulf Hahn and Werner Frey
ix
x Contents
Part II Potentials for Usage of e-Mobility in Commercial Transport
7 Who Are the Early Adopters of Electric Vehicles in Commercial

Transport—A Description of Their Trip Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Ina Frenzel
8 Potentials of e-Mobility for Companies in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . 129

Wolfgang Trummer and Norbert Hafner
Part III Balancing and Reducing the Environmental Impacts
9 Global Standardisation of the Calculation of CO2 Emissions

Along Transport Chains—Gaps, Approaches, Perspectives
of the Global Alignment Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Verena Ehrler, Aad van den Engel, Igor Davydenko,
Daniel Diekmann, Jan Kiel, Alan Lewis and Saskia Seidel
10 Role of Cargo Weight and Volume: Minimizing Costs and CO2

Emissions in Container Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Radoslav Rajkovic, Nenad Zrnic, Sanja Bojic and Đorđe Stakic
11 Determination of GHG-Emissions of Handling Operations

in Multimodal Container Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Zoran Miodrag, Jan Kaffka, Uwe Clausen and Lars Munsel
Part IV Logistics Hubs as Interlinkages for Intermodal Commercial

Transport
12 Developing Dry Ports Through the Use of Value-Added

Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Dan Andersson and Violeta Roso
13 Outlying Location of Logistics Activities: The Example

of the Burgundy in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Cecilia Cruz and Christine Belin-Munier
Part V ICT System Integration in Production, Logistics and Traffic
14 Networking of Information Flows—Improved Concept

for the Inland Waterway Transport on the Danube . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Milosav Georgijevic, Sanja Bojic and Miljan Matijevic
Contents xi
15 CargoSwApp—Short-Term Replacement of Cancelled Cargo

Transports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Mathias Bös, Patrick Crucq and Bioniko Tauhid
16 ORFE to AFEX—A Conceptual Look into the Future

of Online Freight Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
René Föhring and Stephan Zelewski
17 Delivery Time Windows for Road Freight Carriers

and Forwarders—Influence of Delivery Time Windows
on the Costs of Road Transport Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Ralf Elbert, Dominik Thiel and Daniel Reinhardt
Part VI Supply Chains and Networks
18 Application of Service Engineering Methods for Developing

a Functional Model for a Supply Chain Service Using
the Example of the Air Cargo Supply Chain Service
“CairGoLution” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Hans-Christian Pfohl and Tamer Kurnaz
19 A Holistic Approach to Measure Quality of Service in Freight

Transport Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Albert Mancera, Dirk Bruckmann and Ulrich Weidmann
20 Supply Chain Collaboration or Conflict? Information Sharing

and Supply Chain Performance in the Automotive Industry . . . . . 303
Liyuan Wang, Hans-Christian Pfohl, Ulrich Berbner
and Anna Katharina Keck
Part VII Empirical Studies and Data Mining for Analysing

Commercial Transport
21 Empirical Analysis of Freight Transport Prices Using the French

Shipper Survey ECHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
François Combes, Julien Harache, Martin Koning and Eric Morau
22 An Inventory-Focused Analysis of German Food Supply Chains:

The Case of Dairy Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Ole Hansen and Hanno Friedrich
xii Contents
Part VIII Urban Commercial Transport
23 Factors Influencing the Performance of Urban Consolidation

Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Sönke Behrends
24 Ho.Re.Ca. Logistics and Medieval Structured Cities: A Market

Analysis and Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Thomas Verlinden, Eddy Van de Voorde and Wouter Dewulf
25 Capacity for Freight in Urban Railway Networks—An Analytical

Model for Capacity Consumption of Freight Trains
in Urban Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Tobias Fumasoli, Dirk Bruckmann and Ulrich Weidmann
Part IX Innovative Approaches for Production, Logistics

and Transport Systems
26 Automatic Robot-Based Unloading of Goods Out

of Dynamic AGVs Within Logistic Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Adrian Böckenkamp, Frank Weichert, Yan Rudall
and Christian Prasse
27 PROduction Plan Based Recovery of VEhicle Routing Plans

Within Integrated Transport Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Michael Schygulla and Andreas Stadler
28 Monte-Carlo Tree Search for Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Stefan Edelkamp, Max Gath, Christoph Greulich, Malte Humann,
Otthein Herzog and Michael Lawo
About the Editors
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Clausen is Managing Director

of the Institute of Transport Logistics at TU
Dortmund University and—in joint appointment—
also Director of the Fraunhofer-Institute for Material
Flow and Logistics in Dortmund (since 2001) and
Chairman of the “Fraunhofer Traffic and
Transportation Alliance” (since 2003). He worked in
the logistics service industry as European Operations
Director at Amazon.com and Logistics Manager at
Deutsche Post DHL. In July 1995 he achieved the title of Dr.-Ing. with his doctoral
thesis on transportation network optimisation at TU Dortmund University.
He is member of the board of ECTRI European Conference of Transport
Research Institutes, since 2012 (representative of Fraunhofer within ECTRI since
2005). He is Advisory Council Member of the Association of German
Transportation Companies (VDV) and Member of the scientific advisory board
of the Bundesvereinigung Logistik (BVL) e.V.
He was member of the DFG (German Research Foundation) experts board
“System technology” on the subject “Traffic and transportation systems, logistics,
quality management”, from 2004 to 2012. From July 2002 till July 2005, Prof.
Clausen was Dean of the Engineering Faculty at TU Dortmund University.
His research areas include green logistics, commercial transport modelling,
intermodal transportation, mathematical optimization, network optimization and
distribution systems.
xiii
xiv About the Editors
Prof. Dr. Hanno Friedrich studied Industrial

Engineering at the Karlsruhe Institute for
Technology (KIT). After having finished his studies
in 2004, he worked for six years at McKinsey &
Company, a strategic management consulting firm.
Within this time, he did his Doctorate, which he
finished in 2010 at the KIT under the supervision of
Prof. Dr. Werner Rothengatter. After working for
one year as a Postdoc at the KIT he received a call
for a Junior Professorship in the area of commercial
transport at the TU Darmstadt in 2011. Since
September 2015 he is Assistant Professor at the
Kühne Logistics University (KLU) in Hamburg. His research topics include freight
transport demand modelling, transport economics, risk management in transport
and logistics and food logistics.
Dipl.-Geogr. Carina Thaller studied Human
Geography at the Ludwig-Maximilans-University in
Munich. Her study focus was in the fields of trans-
port planning und traffic techniques, as well a urban
and rural planning. While her study she worked on
transport planning projects for motorized individual
and public transport as a student assistant at gevas
humberg & partner. In addition, she absolved
internships successfully as a trainee for Transport
Politics and Transport Concepts at ADAC e.V. in the
Section “Representation of Interests in Transport” as
well as at BMW AG in the Department of Traffic
Techniques and Transport Management in Munich. In the framework of her
diploma thesis she has researched in the field of intermodalility in individual
transport. Her main focus was on the potentials of public bikes in suburban areas.
Her recommendation served the principal Munich Public Transports (MVV) as a
preparatory study to implement public bikes projects in the suburbs of Munich.
Since 2011 she has been working as a PhD student and research assistant at the
Institute of Transport Logistics, TU Dortmund University, Germany. Carina
Thaller’s research focuses on freight transport planning, modelling and analysing as
well as green logistics. Thereby, she concentrates on the effects of interactions
between society, economy, transport and environment and evaluates the impacts on
freight transport flows. She is working in the group “Process Management” at the
Institute of Transport Logistics. In this role, she assumes control and research work
of national and international research and transfer projects.
About the Editors xv
Dr.-Ing. Christiane Geiger is Chief Engineer and a

Member of the Executive Board of the Institute of
Transport Logistics at TU Dortmund University. She
is responsible for the administrative management
of the Institute as well as she coordinates and supports
project work. Additionally, in this position, she holds
lectures on waste logistics, planning and optimizing
logistics nodes and logistics and traffic management.
Christiane Geiger studied logistics at TU Dortmund
University. She joined the Institute of Transport
Logistics as scientific assistant in June 2008. Her
methodical focus lies on process analysis and optimization from a cost, perfor-
mance and ecological perspective. With this expertise, she took over the leadership
of the group “process management” in October 2011. In technical terms she is
engaged in contract logistics and environmentally sustainable freight transport. In
November 2014, she completed her doctorate on resource rough dimensioning for
launching automotive contract logistics services.
Part I
Modelling of Freight Transport
Considering Logistics, Production
and Society
Chapter 1
Redeveloping the Strategic Flemish
Freight Transport Model
Stefan Grebe, Gerard de Jong, Dana Borremans, Pieter van Houwe

and Hans-Paul Kienzler
1.1 Introduction
The Flemish authorities use a strategic freight model to forecast the demand for
freight transport in the future and to support the decision making process for large
infrastructure investments. In addition, the estimated truck matrix is input for the
Flemish strategic passenger transport model.
The freight model is a classical four-step traffic model with several additions.
One of the additions is a time-period choice model, which takes into account shifts
from peak periods to off-peak periods due to congestion and allows for instance
simulations of policies with congestion charges during peak hours. Another
extension is a module for the use of logistical hubs (by mode).
Recently, a new version of the freight model (version 4.1.1) has been developed.
In this paper we will discuss the Flemish freight model version 4.1.1 with a main
focus on the mode and vehicle type choice. We discuss the model structure, the cost
functions, the results of logit model estimations and present the elasticities.
Furthermore, we briefly discuss the time-of-day choice model.
S. Grebe (&) G. de Jong

Significance, The Hague, The Netherlands
e-mail: grebe@significance.nl
G. de Jong
ITS Leeds, Leeds, UK
D. Borremans
Verkeerscentrum, Department MOW, Flemish Authorities, Antwerp, Belgium
P. van Houwe
MINT, Mechelen, Belgium
H.-P. Kienzler
Prognos, Basel, Switzerland
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

U. Clausen et al. (eds.), Commercial Transport,
Lecture Notes in Logistics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21266-1_1
4 S. Grebe et al.
1.2 Model Description
The model starts with the application of production and attraction multipliers on
socio-economic data (for future year these are forecasts themselves) for each zone.
The model uses 518 zones within Belgium and 96 larger external zones in Europe.
Given the productions and attractions per zone, the distribution is modelled by
using a gravity model.
Mode choice and vehicle type choice are integrated in one model and are esti-
mated simultaneously. The mode and vehicle-type choice part of the model con-
siders three road vehicle types, three train types and ten inland waterways
(IWW) vessel types as direct and intermodal transport modes. Air transport and
short sea shipping are not modelled. To compensate for this, the zones hosting
harbors or airports attract and produce the amounts of cargo that is shipped further
away in reality.
There are three separate network assignments: for IWW transport, for rail
transport and for road transport (the latter takes place simultaneously with the
assignment of the cars in the strategic passenger transport model).
Goods are distinguished in 20 product groups (NST 2007 classes) following the
classification system for transport statistics by the Economic Commission for
Europe by the United Nations. For three of the commodities (NST 15, 18 and 20)
no data is available and no model can be estimated. Table 1.9 in the Appendix gives
an overview of the classification of goods per NST class. During the estimations
and the model calculations the commodities are treated independently. In this way,
different demands for the different product groups can be taken into account and
different trends between them are incorporated correctly.
1.3 Mode and Vehicle Type Choice
1.3.1 Model Specification
The mode choice and the vehicle-type choice are integrated within one model. An
overview of the structure and the alternatives is shown in Fig. 1.1. The three modes
are road, rail and inland waterways. The latter is split further into direct and
intermodal transport. On the lowest level are the different vehicle types. For rail and
the two IWW branches substitution between specific alternatives is taken into
account by including nesting coefficients. For road transport a deterministic model
is estimated, due to lack of observations on road vehicle type at the OD level.
In the estimation process, first multinomial logit (MNL) models have been
estimated per NST class. The probability Pi of each alternative i can be calculated
from the utilities Ui
1 Redeveloping the Strategic Flemish Freight Transport Model 5
Model specification
Freight
Inland
Road Rail
waterways
Direct Intermodal
Scale IWW Scale IWW

Scale rail direct intermodal
300 t 300 t
(IWW_D1) (IWW_I1)
600 t 600 t
Van Block train
(IWW_D2) (IWW_I2)
(Va) (T1)
Small truck Wagonload 1350 t 1350 t

(ST) train (T2) (IWW_D3) (IWW_I3)
Large truck Intermodal 2000 t 2000 t

(LT) (T3) (IWW_D4) (IWW_I4)
4500 t 4500 t
(IWW_D5) (IWW_I5)
Fig. 1.1 Schematic overview of the mode and vehicle-type choice model
eU i
Pi ¼ P
n :
eUj
j¼1
The utility function Ui consists of two terms, the observed utility component U ~i
~
and the random (or error) term ei : Ui ¼ Ui þ ei .
The error term follows the extreme value distribution type 1 (Gumbel) and will
not be further discussed in the rest of this paper. The observed utility consists of an
alternative specific constant ASCi, a number of coefficients ci times continuous
variables Ki and di coefficients times dummy variables Di ð¼ 0 _ 1Þ
~ i ¼ ASCi þ ci Ki þ di Di :
U
The problem of a classical MNL model is that it does not take into account
correlations between alternatives, which are very often present in reality. Nested
logit models take the substitution between specific alternatives into account. The
nesting coefficient describes the correlation between the alternatives. The coefficient
has a value between 0 and 1. A value outside this range is not consistent with utility
maximization and indicates a problem with the estimated model. A coefficient of 1
6 S. Grebe et al.
Fig. 1.2 Example of a simple MNL model with 3 alternatives (left) and a nested logit model
(right). ϴ is the nesting coefficient
means no correlation and 0 full correlation between the alternatives. A schematic

comparison of a MNL model without nesting and a nested model is shown in
Fig. 1.2.
In a nested model the probability for an alternative with utility H within a nest
with m alternatives is calculated with a similar formula as in the MNL model.
Within a nest the probability of each alternative compared to the m alternatives is
calculated analogously to a MNL model
eHi =h
P\ijA;k [ ¼ P
m
eHj =h
j¼1
with Hi the observed utility component, Θ the nesting coefficient and k the
number of alternatives on the higher level. The probabilities one level higher in the
decision tree with n alternatives are calculated with
eGk þhk Lk
PA;k ¼ P
n
eGl þhl Ll
l¼1
with Gk the utility term of the top level and the “logsum”-term within the nest
X
m
Lk ¼ ln eHi =h
i¼1
The probability of alternative i is the product of the probabilities of the two

levels
Pi ¼ PA;k P\ijA;k [ :
For more details about nested and MNL models see (Train 2003).
In the Flemish freight model only utilities on the lowest level are estimated. This
means that in the formulas above Hi ¼ U ~ i and Gk ¼ 0. By multiplication of all
utilities with all nesting coefficients in the model, costs and times have the same
meaning for all alternatives.
1.3.2 Data on Transport Flows and Costs
For the modes and vehicle types the distances and travel times between
Origin-Destination (OD) pairs are estimated by skimming each of the three net-
works. The results are level-of-service files per vehicle type that contain per OD
pair distance, travel time, (road charge) and accessibility. For intermodal transport
the travel times and travel distances are given for both modes. All zones are
accessible by road transport, but not all zones can be reached by rail and IWW. If an
alternative is not available, it is excluded during the estimation process.
Furthermore, OD matrices for the base year 2010 have been constructed based
on data from available transport statistics. These are aggregate data (zonal level)
which are split in the 20 NST classes. For rail and IWW this information is
available for all vehicle types. For road transport only a national vehicle type split is
available. Therefore, a deterministic road vehicle-type choice model was built and
calibrated to match the overall shares per vehicle type. Based on the costs the best
vehicle per OD-pair is chosen. The method will be discussed in the next section.
The cost functions used in the mode and vehicle-type choice model include
transport-time dependent cost, transport-distance dependent cost, toll fees, resting
periods, as well as costs for loading, unloading and transshipment. The general
formula is:

Costs ¼ ~a þ b1 t1 þ c1 d1 þ D þ b2 t2 þ c2 d2 þ e:
~ is the sum of the loading costs a1 in the origin zone and the unloading costs a2
• a
in the destination zone. We assume that loading and unloading costs are equal
and only depend on the vehicle type. As time and distance costs scale linearly,
threshold effects are also incorporated in the costs for loading and unloading.
• b1 and c1 are the time and distance dependent costs for rail or IWW. They are
multiplied with the transport time t1 and transport distance d1 with one of these
modes. The times and distances are vehicle type dependent.

• D are the transshipment costs for intermodal transports. In the model the
assumption is made that these costs have to be paid once if the origin or
destination zone is a harbor and otherwise twice. This implies that non-harbor
zones require pre- and post-carriage by road transport.
• b2 and c2 are the time and distance dependent costs for road transport (either
direct or serving as access to and egress from rail or IWW). They are multiplied
with the transport time t2 and transport distance d2 with this mode. Road user
charges ε can add to the transport cost of the road shipment. The distances and
times are vehicle type dependent.
8 S. Grebe et al.
For direct trips the equation simplifies:
Costs ¼ 2 a1;2 þ b1;2 t1;2 þ c1;2 d1;2 ðþeÞ:
The cost functions are determined based on data from studies in Scandinavia, the
Netherlands and Belgium. In addition to the determination of the a; b; c; D and ε
special attention has been given to also determine the shares of fuel, taxes, personal,
insurances and other important contributions to the total costs per hour and per km.
This is important in the forecast of future years and for the simulation of policy
effects (Table 1.1). An overview of the unit cost inputs per ton is given in Fehler!
Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden.
The capacities and the cost indicators take the average load factors into account.
All costs have to be paid for integer numbers of vehicles, wagons or containers. For
road transport the minimum shipment size is one truck. For (wet en dry) bulk ships
it is the capacity of a ship. For container ships and intermodal rail transport costs are
per containers of 12 tons. Carriage trains have a minimum shipment size of 20 ton
(one wagon) and for block train only whole trains can be booked. Note that for
intermodal shipments (IWW and rail) the road transport part is exclusively with
heavy trucks (with containers) in the model.
For IWW the model distinguishes direct and intermodal shipments. For inter-
modal shipments the cost indicators of container ships are applied. For direct
transport, the assumption is made that all NST classes except 2, 7 and 8 are dry bulk
goods. For the other three classes we assume a mixture of wet and dry bulk with
percentages of 50 % (NST 2), 75 % (NST 7) and 100 % (NST 8) wet bulk.
1.3.3 Deterministic Road Transport Model
For road transports five vehicle types are considered (the three that are in Fig. 1.1,
but with container and non-container for small and large trucks). However, the
information which vehicle is used for specific ODs is lacking (which is required to
estimate a logit model). Therefore, the choice of the road-vehicle-type is estimated
using a deterministic model. Based on the transport costs the cheapest vehicle is
chosen for each OD pair and NST class. To match the fraction of containerized and
non-containerized transports an intermediate step is introduced.
The amount of containerization per NST class is deduced from the Dutch
BasGoed (Significance, NEA en DEMIS (2010)) in which the containerization is
determined for 10 NSTR classes. Under the assumption that the amount of con-
tainerization is the same in both countries the containerization can be approximated
for the 20 NST classes (see Table 1.2).
For small and large trucks the container-type and the non-container type are
merged into a single vehicle type each. Thus, the deterministic model is estimated
for three vehicle types only: vans, small trucks and large trucks. For small and large
Table 1.1 Overview of the cost indicators (in Euro per ton) for 2010 in the cost functions of all
transport modes in the freight model

Category Capacity b c a
D
Road Van 1.5 20.087 0.086 14.400 14.400
Road Small truck 12 3.128 0.019 2.700 2.700
Road Small truck (co) 12 2.954 0.019 2.167 1.500
Road Large truck 27 1.741 0.014 1.481 1.481
Road Large truck (co) 27 1.656 0.014 1.541 0.970
IWW dry bulk 600 0.163 0.004 0.800
IWW Wet bulk 600 0.171 0.004 1.000
IWW Container 600 0.120 0.004 0.600
IWW Dry bulk 1350 0.090 0.002 0.700
IWW Wet bulk 1350 0.111 0.002 0.800
IWW Container 1350 0.071 0.002 0.500
IWW Dry bulk 2000 0.075 0.002 0.654
IWW Wet bulk 2000 0.095 0.002 0.754
IWW Container 2000 0.060 0.002 0.454
IWW Dry bulk 4500 0.058 0.001 0.600
IWW Wet bulk 4500 0.077 0.001 0.700
IWW Container 4500 0.047 0.001 0.400
IWW Dry bulk 9000 0.038 0.001 0.600
IWW Wet bulk 9000 0.050 0.001 0.700
IWW Container 9000 0.031 0.001 0.400
Rail Carriage 501 0.898 0.021 1.500
Rail Intermodal 765 0.598 0.014 1.500
Rail Blok train 765 0.598 0.014 1.435
The two vehicle types with the addition (co) are trucks with containers
Table 1.2 Average containerization per NST class for road transport
NST % Cont NST % Cont NST % Cont NST % Cont
1 2.9 % 6 5.1 % 11 6.8 % 16 6.8 %
2 1.5 % 7 1.6 % 12 6.8 % 17 6.8 %
3 1.2 % 8 2.5 % 13 6.8 % 18 –
4 4.5 % 9 2.2 % 14 3.1 % 19 6.8 %
5 4.3 % 10 4.3 % 15 – 20 –
trucks the costs depend on the amount of containerization per NST class dNST and
are calculated as:
Costs ¼ dNST CostsContainer þ ð1 dNST Þ CostsNoContainer :

10 S. Grebe et al.
270min 45min 270min 45min 24min 705min
Fig. 1.3 Overview of driving times (light grey) and resting times (dark grey) for road transport.
For shipments longer than 24 h the pattern repeats
In the mode and vehicle choice model congestion is not considered as freight
transport takes place only to a small extent during peak hours. Much more
important to consider during mode choice are the mandatory rest periods for
truckers. In the model they are added to the transport times for road-shipments
longer than 270 min. Figure 1.3 gives an overview of the implemented resting
periods. In the calculation of the time-dependent costs the short breaks of 45 min
are considered, the long breaks during the night are not.
A not trivial choice in the deterministic model is the trip frequency. The OD matrix
contains the flows of goods between zone pairs in the base year. This corresponds to a
trip frequency ω equal to 1. Per NST class there are many zone pairs where several
shippers and receivers are situated. For most of them the trip frequency will be higher
than once per year. Both effects are arguments for a higher trip frequency.
Counteracting this is consolidation of shipments from different zones. By comparing
the amount of ton kilometers per vehicle type in Belgium (see Table 1.3), the optimum
trip frequency is determined. It is 2.6 for national transports and 1.04 for international
transports. After the calibration the determined and observed shares per vehicle type
are in good agreement (Federale Overheidsdienst Economie, ADSEI 2010).
Taking into account the containerization per NST class, the rest times and the
trip frequencies, the costs for the three vehicle types can be calculated for each OD
pair. Per vehicle type also the minimum number of vehicles is determined. The total
costs are the product of the costs per vehicle and the minimum number of vehicles
(integer number) required. For each OD pair the cheapest type is chosen and its
price is used in the logit model.
1.3.4 Estimation Results
The logit model is estimated with the ALOGIT software. In the estimations process
observations are weighted by their shipment size. To normalize all shipments are
normalized by the average shipment size per NST class (see Table 1.4).
Table 1.3 Observed and modelled distribution (after the calibration) of freight in ton kilometers
transported in vans, light and heavy trucks for national and international shipments
Mode Observed Deterministic model
National (%) International (%) National (%) International (%)
Van 0.5 0.0 0.82 0.08
Light 5.5 1.0 4.45 0.91
Heavy 94.0 99.0 94.73 99.01
Table 1.4 Average flow of NST Ton per transport NST Ton per transport
goods per OD pair and NST
class 1 203.9 10 381.9
2 143.6 11 104.1
3 258.9 12 97.5
4 187.9 13 24.8
5 46.5 14 109.9
6 119.4 16 47.1
7 268.9 17 39.9
8 189.8 19 31.0
9 321.5 Average 159.9
The model includes a cost term that consists of the monetary transport costs and
shadow costs to account for the transport time that is related to the commodities
(e.g. for interest on the capital in transit, deterioration, safety stock). For the
transport time different valuation estimates have been tested and compared. In the
final model the transport time is valuated with 10 % of the transport costs for non-
containerized goods and 20 % for containerized goods, which means that transport
time is valuated as shadow costs of 10 of 20 % respectively (Significance et al.
2013).
In the model cost coefficients are estimated for road, rail, direct IWW and
intermodal IWW. The utilities of all alternatives have the structure

~ i ¼ ASCi þ cci C C
U þ 0:1 i þ Di ;
þ Dint Hav
TonTot TonTot
with ASC the alternative specific constants, cc the cost coefficients, C the
transport costs and TonTot the size of the transport. Dint is a dummy for interna-
tional transports and DHav the dummy for trips to harbor zones. The 0.1 in the
formula is a 0.2 for containerized shipments. As reference category road transport
has been chosen. Therefore, the ASC for road transport has been fixed to zero.
An overview of all results is given in Table 1.5. The model contains individual
cost coefficients for road, rail plus direct and intermodal IWW transport. All cost
coefficients have negative values. The absolute values for road transport are the
smallest, for rail transport in the middle and for IWW transport the largest. This is in
agreement with our expectations. In addition, significant dummy coefficients have
been found for international IWW and rail transports and transports by rail to or
from harbor zones.
Different patterns of substitution between different modes were tested by spec-
ifying different nesting structures and testing whether the nesting coefficients were
significant. Per NST class zero, one or two nesting coefficients are estimated.
12
Table 1.5 Overview of the estimated coefficients of the final model

File NST01.F12 NST02.F12 NST03.F12 NST04.F12 NST05.F12 NST06.F12
Title VrachtModel VrachtModel VrachtModel VrachtModel VrachtModel VrachtModel
Converged TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
Observations 275389 156103 233731 274571 220612 267109
Final log (L) −69989.2 −92727 −208866.9 −49407.1 −88370.8 −116294.7
D.O.F. 20 16 20 20 7 18
Rho2(0) 0.845 0.675 0.605 0.892 0.7 0.78
Rho2(c) 0.083 0.124 0.134 0.102 0.088 0.06
Estimated 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15
Scaling 1 1 1 1 1 1
ASC_Road 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_Rail1 −25.11 (−13.6) −8.097 (−56.2) −9.367 (−88.4) −97.36 (−4.4) −2.004 (−120.4) −5.487 (−5.1)
ASC_Rail2 −27.93 (−13.6) −10.15 (−57.6) −10.71 (−88.6) −98.70 (−4.5) −2.998 (−186.3) −6.989 (−5.1)
ASC_Rail3 −34.42 (−13.6) −13.63 (−55.1) −13.42 (−82.7) −101.1 (−4.6) −4.174 (−150.6) −9.883 (−5.1)
ASC_IWW_D1 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_I1 0 (*) 0 (*) −12.51 (−28.3) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_D2 −14.09 (−13.8) −5.712 (−42.5) −4.274 (−99.7) −60.63 (−4.5) 0 (*) −13.98 (−5.0)
ASC_IWW_I2 −21.99 (−16.0) 0 (*) −7.124 (−51.6) −135.1 (−4.4) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_D3 −12.45 (−13.6) −2.214 (−32.7) −2.336 (−76.1) −43.68 (−4.5) 0 (*) −7.054 (−5.1)
ASC_IWW_I3 −16.87 (−13.9) 0 (*) −4.715 (−45.9) −98.48 (−4.4) 0 (*) −7.206 (−5.0)
ASC_IWW_D4 −14.16 (−13.8) −2.176 (−33.2) −2.561 (−80.9) −59.29 (−4.5) 0 (*) −7.780 (−5.1)
ASC_IWW_I4 −18.94 (−15.2) 0 (*) −4.173 (−41.8) −152.7 (−4.4) 0 (*) −4.593 (−3.6)
ASC_IWW_D5 −13.77 (−13.8) 0.8681 (15.9) −1.203 (−40.4) −49.80 (−4.5) 0 (*) −11.71 (−5.1)
ASC_IWW_I5 −14.54 (−12.6) −0.5718 (−0.2) −3.891 (−41.3) −172.4 (−4.3) 0 (*) −3.963 (−3.1)
InternRail 1.540 (6.8) 0.8425 (12.5) 2.305 (43.0) 10.08 (4.1) −0.2126 (−13.7) −0.8602 (−5.0)
InternIWW 4.401 (13.2) 2.506 (73.8) 21.12 (4.4) 0 (*) 1.030 (4.4)
S. Grebe et al.
−1.309 (−25.2)
(continued)
Table 1.5 (continued)
HarborRail 5.283 (12.4) −1.531 (−23.0) 2.617 (50.3) 21.19 (4.3) 0.5161 (36.1) 1.142 (5.0)
cc_Road −0.09306 −0.1354 (−43.6) −0.1286 (−62.1) −0.2872 (−5.6) −0.04490 (−76.2) −0.1086 (−5.1)
(−12.8)
cc_Rail −0.05573 −0.1323 (−29.1) −0.08025 (−29.8) −0.1694 (−11.3) −0.07660 (−65.7) −0.1610 (−5.1)
(−7.9)
cc_IWW_D −0.4522 −1.066 (−46.3) −0.5832 (−72.8) −5.026 (−4.6) 0 (*) −1.172 (−5.1)
(−13.7)
cc_IWW_I −1.540 (−11.7) −3.432 (−5.3) −0.7038 (−49.8) −4.139 (−4.1) 0 (*) −2.096 (−4.8)
Theta_IWW_I 0.6734 (14.7) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 0.4269 (5.1)
Theta_IWW_D 0.3291 (38.0) 0.3574 (63.3) 0.4905 (99.4) 0.5811 (37.6) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*)
Theta_Rail 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 0.09426 (4.6) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*)
1 Redeveloping the Strategic Flemish Freight Transport Model
Observations 168950 250690 264028 248535 229675 201072

Final log (L) −80577.3 −183076.1 −99886.4 −155781.1 −99952.1 −125041.1
D.O.F. 21 18 19 19 14 15
Rho2(0) 0.668 0.707 0.807 0.626 0.754 0.604
Rho2(c) 0.103 0.057 0.079 0.041 0.062 0.15
Estimated 16-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 16-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15 14-Jan-15
Scaling 1 1 1 1 1 1
ASC_Road 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_Rail1 −12.83 (−5.3) −6.500 (−73.7) −4.903 (−35.1) −3.799 (−24.3) −3.316 (−3.8) −1.969 (−111.2)
13
ASC_Rail2 −16.14 (−5.3) −7.668 (−74.3) −5.578 (−35.1) −5.032 (−24.3) −4.388 (−3.8) −2.741 (−141.8)
(continued)
Table 1.5 (continued)
14

ASC_Rail3 −22.60 (−5.3) −10.38 (−72.2) −7.148 (−34.8) −8.369 (−24.4) −6.344 (−3.8) −4.126 (−123.3)
ASC_IWW_D1 −10.31 (−5.1) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) −14.18 (−4.7) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_I1 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_D2 −10.47 (−5.3) −4.299 (−89.0) −5.576 (−48.4) −9.062 (−26.4) −15.09 (−4.8) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_I2 2.421 (1.2) −11.78 (−28.3) −1.528 (−3.4) −20.62 (−12.0) 0 (*) 0 (*)
ASC_IWW_D3 −1.931 (−5.0) −3.069 (−75.5) −4.278 (−41.0) −7.621 (−23.3) −10.99 (−3.8) −2.946 (−61.0)
ASC_IWW_I3 2.550 (1.4) −7.419 (−31.2) −4.354 (−8.0) −14.74 (−15.3) 0 (*) −0.8200 (−7.1)
ASC_IWW_D4 −2.452 (−5.1) −3.081 (−79.8) −3.977 (−37.3) −8.194 (−25.9) −11.70 (−4.2) −2.203 (−56.5)
ASC_IWW_I4 −2.684 (−1.5) −9.643 (−33.5) −2.745 (−6.0) −16.48 (−15.4) 0 (*) 3.255 (60.6)
ASC_IWW_D5 4.323 (5.3) −1.553 (−46.4) −3.725 (−42.5) −7.669 (−24.4) 0 (*) −1.058 (−34.3)
ASC_IWW_I5 −6.126 (−3.5) −5.345 (−26.7) −0.8786 (−2.2) −15.27 (−15.7) 0 (*) 4.271 (84.6)
InternRail 0.2285 (1.7) 0.1395 (4.2) 0.4618 (16.8) −1.429 (−21.7) −0.5841 (−3.7) −0.3324 (−17.2)
InternIWW −2.836 (−5.3) 0 (*) −0.1630 (−4.1) −1.747 (−13.1) −5.571 (−3.6) −0.7909 (−40.7)
HarborRail −2.507 (−5.2) 0.8848 (27.9) 1.516 (31.9) 0.8522 (19.5) 0.8282 (3.7) 0 (*)
cc_Road −0.1220 (−5.3) −0.02492 (−29.6) −0.04757 (−29.9) −0.09695 (−24.6) −0.07789 (−3.7) −0.01900 (−34.6)
cc_Rail −0.1033 (−5.1) −0.01958 (−16.7) −0.03777 (−20.4) −0.1073 (−23.0) −0.1247 (−3.7) −0.03124 (−33.1)
cc_IWW_D −1.960 (−5.3) −0.4238 (−59.4) −0.2638 (−25.3) −0.3779 (−23.6) −0.04960 (−2.2) −0.2932 (−38.1)
cc_IWW_I −4.213 (−5.3) −0.6024 (−20.7) −1.133 (−14.4) −0.5089 (−6.0) 0 (*) −0.8211 (−91.6)
Theta_IWW_I 0.2770 (5.3) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*)
Theta_IWW_D 0.7381 (68.3) 0.5082 (79.2) 0.8011 (35.5) 0.4052 (24.8) 0.6153 (3.8) 1.000 (*)
Theta_Rail 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*) 1.000 (*)
(continued)
S. Grebe et al.
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CHAPTER IV
HAYDN, MOZART, AND BEETHOVEN
The ‘Viennese period’ and the three great classics—Joseph
Haydn; Haydn’s clavier sonatas; the Variations in F minor—W. A.
Mozart; Mozart as pianist and improvisator; Mozart’s sonatas; his
piano concertos—Ludwig van Beethoven; evolution of the modern
pianoforte—Musical qualities of Beethoven’s piano music;
Beethoven’s technical demands; his pianoforte sonatas; his piano
concertos; conclusion.
The association of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven with Vienna

affords historians a welcome license to give to a conspicuous epoch
in the development of music a local habitation and a name. Their
work is commonly granted to constitute a more or less definite era
known as the Viennese period. All three speak, as it were, a
common idiom. There is a distinct family likeness between their
separate accomplishments. They were personally acquainted.
Haydn and Mozart were warm friends, despite the difference in years
between them. Mozart was among the first in Vienna to recognize
the greatness latent in Beethoven, who later was for a while even the
pupil of Haydn. Moreover, all three reckoned among their friends the
same families, even the same men and women. The three great men
now sit on golden chairs, enshrined in the same niche, Beethoven
considerably to the fore.
The insulation which circumstances of time and space may seem to

have woven about them proves upon investigation to be quite
imperfect. To begin with, Bach was but a year dead, D. Scarlatti still
alive, and Rameau with more than a decade yet to live when Haydn
was writing his first mass and along with it clavier sonatas for the
benefit of his few pupils. Mozart had written his three immortal
symphonies in 1786, before Emanuel Bach had ceased publishing
his sonatas for Kenner und Liebhaber. On the other end, Moscheles
was a famous though very young pianist before Beethoven had half
done writing sonatas; and Carl von Weber’s Freischütz had begun to
act upon the precocious Richard Wagner before Beethoven had
completed his ninth symphony, his last sonata, his great mass and
his great quartets.
Merely as regards pianoforte technique the period was a transitional

one. Even the Beethoven sonatas as late as opus 27 were published
for either harpsichord or pianoforte. Both Mozart and Beethoven
were influenced by men who, in a narrow sense, seem far more than
they to belong to a modern development. Clementi, for example,
deliberately burned his harpsichords and clavichords behind him in
the very year Beethoven was born, and from then on gave up his life
to the discovery of new possibilities and effects upon the pianoforte,
by which his pupils Cramer and Field paved the way for Chopin.
Yet, all signs to the contrary, the Viennese period remains a period of
full fruition, and this because of the extraordinary genius of the men
whose works have defined it. Each was highly and specially gifted
and poured into forms already made ready for him a musical
substance of rare and precious quality. In considering keyboard
music we have to deal mostly with this substance, in fact with the
musical expression of three unusual and powerful personalities.
It is to be regretted that Haydn and even Mozart have been in no

small measure eclipsed by Beethoven. This is especially true of their
keyboard music. It may be questioned whether this be any more just
for being seemingly natural. There are many reasons to account for
it. The most obvious is the more violent and fiery nature of
Beethoven, his explicit and unusual trials. These, wholly apart from
his music, will for ever make the study and recollection of him as a
man of profound interest. Haydn can urge but a few young years of
hardship for the human sympathy of generations to come. Mozart’s
disappointments, so sickening to the heart that puts itself in tune with
him, have after all but the ring of hard luck and merit disregarded, to
which the weary world lends only a passing ear. But Beethoven’s
passionate nature, his self-inflicted labor of self-discipline, his
desperate unhappiness and the tragic curse of his deafness, are the
stuff out of which heroes are made.
So his music, reflecting the man, is heroic in calibre. Even its humor
is titanic. It will impress by its hugeness and its force many an ear
deaf to more engaging and more subtle language. Its poignancy is
unmistakable, nearly infallible in its appeal; so that Beethoven is a
name with which to lay even the clod under a spell.
But another reason why Mozart and Haydn lie hidden or but partly
perceived in the shade of Beethoven, is more recondite, is, in fact,
paradoxical. This is no other than the extreme difficulty of their
music. Clara Schumann, writing in her diary of the music of Richard
Wagner, which she rejected in spite of the world’s acclaim,
conceived that either she or the world at large had gone mad. To one
who writes of the difficulties of Haydn’s and Mozart’s sonatas a
similar idea is likely to occur. At the present day they are put into the
hands of babes and sucklings, in whose touch, however, there is no
wisdom. Yet if ever music needed a wise hand, it is these simple
pieces; and a lack of wisdom has made them trivial to the world.
The art of the pianist should be, as Emanuel Bach declared, that of
drawing from his instrument sounds of moving beauty, beautiful in
quality, in line and in shading. His tools are his ten fingers which he
must train to flexibility, strength and security. It is right that as soon
as he can play a scale or shake a trill, he should put his skill to test
upon a piece of music. So the teacher lays Haydn and Mozart under
the clumsy little fingers of boy and girl. ‘Stumble along there on your
way to great Beethoven, whom you must approach with firm and
tested stride.’ That is the burden of the pædagogic lay. It echoes in
the mind of riper age, Haydn and Mozart have been put aside, like
the perambulator, the bib and the high table chair; or, like toys, are
brought out rarely, to be smiled upon.
If they are toys, then maturity should bring a sense of their exquisite
beauty and meaning, and may well shudder at the destruction youth
made imminent upon them. This it all too rarely does, because only
ten fingers in ten thousand can reveal the loveliness of these
sonatas, and because, also, ears are rare that now delight in such a
revelation. You must give to fingers the skill to spin sound from the
keyboard that is like the song of birds, or, if more vocal, is more like
the voice of fairies than the voice of man. It is easier to make
thunder; and even mock thunder intimidates. So your player will
pound Beethoven, and lightning will flash about his head as the
sarcastic Heine fancied it about Liszt’s. Some will scent sacrilege
and cover their ears from the noise. But let the soulless man play
Mozart and his hearers will cover their mouths, as all well-bred
people are trained to do when boredom seeks an outlet.
Technically Haydn and Mozart may be held to have condemned their

music to the sort of galley-service it now performs. Both wrote
perhaps the majority of their sonatas for the use of their pupils. Bach
wrote the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord’ with what seems to be the
same purpose; but Bach’s aim was constantly to educate and to
expand the power of the students under his care; whereas both
Haydn and Mozart may be often suspected of wishing rather to
simplify their music than to tax and strengthen the abilities of their
high-born amateurs. There is something comical in the fact that even
with this most gracious of intentions both were occasionally accused
of writing music that was troublesome, i.e., too difficult. Haydn may
have been grieved to be found thus disagreeable. Mozart’s letters
sometimes show a delicate malice in enjoyment of it. But one can
hear Beethoven snort and rage under a similar reproach.
Yet the wonder is that sonatas so written should be today full of

freshness and beauty. This they undoubtedly are. Composed
perfunctorily they may have been, but the spirit of music is held fast
in most of them, no less appealing for being oftener in smiles than
tears. And if to evoke this spirit in all her loveliness from a box of
strings chance to be the ideal of some player, let him take care to
bring to the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart the most precious
resources of his art and he will not call in vain.
I
The prevalent mood in Haydn’s music is one of frank cheerfulness.
His native happy disposition, his kindliness and his ever-ready, good-
natured humor, won him friends on every hand. These qualities in his
music recommended it to the public. For the public wanted light-
hearted music. Italian melody had won the world. Haydn’s happy,
almost jovial melodies and his lively, obvious rhythms spread over
the world almost as soon as he began to write.
From the start, however, he treated his art seriously. He was never a
careless writer, though he had the benefit of little regular instruction.
Clavier sonatas he had composed for his pupils were so much
copied and circulated in manuscript that a piratical publisher finally
decided money could be made from them. He had written quartets
for strings, which were received with favor at soirées given by
Porpora and men of rank. He won the approval of men like
Wagenseil, Gluck, and Dittersdorf. All his work, though simple, is
beautifully and clearly done.
He was not, like Mozart and Beethoven, a great player on the

harpsichord or piano. In this respect, and, indeed, in many others, he
is a little like Schubert. Both men wrote extremely well for the
keyboard. The music of both has an unusual stamp of spontaneous
originality. In Haydn’s music as in Schubert’s the quality of folk-
melodies and folk-rhythms is very distinct. In spite of most obvious
differences in temperament and in circumstances, they speak of the
same race unconsciously influenced by Slavic elements.
The collection of thirty-four sonatas for pianoforte published by

Peters includes, with perhaps one exception, the best of his work for
that instrument alone. On looking over them one cannot but be
struck by the general similarity of any one to the others. Some are
more frankly gay, more boyish, than others; some tempered by
seriousness. It may be added, however, that those of a later period
do not seem generally more profound than those of an earlier one.
The later ones are more elaborate, sometimes musically more
complicated, but a single mood is on the whole common to them all.
The same is in part true of Mozart’s sonatas. Except as these show

distinct traces of the various influences under which he came from
time to time, they do not differ strikingly from each other. There is
over both Haydn’s and Mozart’s keyboard music a normal cast of
thought, as there is over the music of Couperin. In this they suffer by
comparison with Beethoven, as Couperin suffers by comparison with
Bach. One would have no difficulty in choosing ten Beethoven
sonatas, each one of which is entirely distinct from the others, not by
reason of form or style or content, but by reason of a very special
emotional significance. One could not choose ten Haydn sonatas of
such varied character. One does not, in other words, sit down to the
piano with a volume of Haydn sonatas, expecting to confront a
wholly new problem in each one, to meet a wholly new range of
thought and feeling, passing from one to the other. One looks for the
same sort of thing in each one, and with few exceptions one finds it.
To what is this due? To the nature of the man or to the circumstances

under which most of the sonatas were written? Or is it due to public
taste of the day and the consequent attitude of the man towards the
function of music? To answer these questions would lead us far
afield. But it is doubtless in large measure owing to this fact that
Haydn, and Mozart too, have been thought to concern themselves
primarily with form in music. And Beethoven has again and again
been described as the man who overthrew the supremacy of the
formal element in music, to which his predecessors are imagined to
have sworn prime allegiance.
It is a great injustice so to stigmatize Haydn and Mozart. The beauty

of their music is far more one of spirit than one of form. In his own
day Haydn was thought to be an innovator, not in the matter of form,
but in the spirit with which he filled forms already familiar. This may
be said to be the spirit of humor. Weitzmann[30] cites an interesting
passage in the Musikalisches Handbuch for the year 1782 which
speaks of Haydn as ‘A musical joke-maker, but like Yorick, not for
pathos but for high comic; and this in music most exasperating
(verzweifelt sehr). Even his adagios, where the man should properly
weep, have the stamp of high comedy.’ And a most joyous humor
fills the Haydn sonatas full to overflowing. That is the secret of the
charm they will exert on any one who takes the time to study them
today, a charm which has little to do with formal perfection.
Let us look into a few of the sonatas. Most of them were written
between 1760 and 1790. The few written earlier than 1760 are so
obviously teaching pieces that, though they won him fame, we need
not trouble to study them. Take, however, a sonata from the set
published in 1774, known as opus 13, in C major (Peters No. 15).
The whole first movement is built upon two rhythmical phrases which
by their lilt and flow cannot fail to delight the dullest ear. There is the
dotted sixteenth figure of the first theme, a theme frankly melodious
for all its rhythmical vivacity; and later the same opening notes, with
playful triplets added. Nothing profound or serious about it, but yet a
wealth of vitality; and nearly all accomplished with but two voices.
The adagio seems not at all conspicuous, yet compare it with an

adagio of Clementi to see how much genuine life it has. Then the
rapid little last movement, with its rocking, tilting figures, all as
sparkling as sunlight. Here again, only two voices in most of the
movement.
Another sonata in the same set in F major (Pet. 20) is a little more
developed. The quick falling arpeggio figures following the first
theme are a favorite, comical device of Haydn’s. The second theme,
if so it may be called, is only a series of scampering notes, with a
saucy octave skip at the end; the whole full of smiles and laughter.
The fine harp-like runs in the development section are reminiscent of
Emanuel Bach. Haydn is noticeably fond of sudden and abrupt
changes of harmony. There is one in the first section of this
movement. But often he is surprisingly chromatic, more subtle in
harmony than the naïve character of his music would lead one to
expect him.
In the opus 14, published in 1776 by Artaria, there are some joyous
sonatas. The first theme of one in G major (Pet. 11) suggests
Schubert by its sweetness. There is a minuet instead of a slow
movement, and the final presto is a theme with lively variations. The
Alberti bass on which the fourth variation floats is irresistibly naïve.
Another sonata in E-flat seems richer. It is hardly less naïve and less
humorous than the others in the set, but there is a warmer coloring.
The overlapping imitations in the fourth, fifth, and sixth measures are
strangely poignant, especially as they appear later in the
restatement. There is a minuet instead of a slow movement, of which
the trio is especially beautiful. The way in which the first phrase
seems to be prolonged into five measures, once more suggests
Schubert.
It is, of course, nearly impossible to characterize the sonatas in

words, or to distinguish any striking feature in one which may not be
found in another. There are two sonatas in E-flat (Pet. 1 and 3)
among the last he wrote. These appear at first sight more profound
than the earlier ones, but it is hard in studying them to find them so.
They are more fully scored, more fully developed, perhaps more
moderately gay. But it is still the Haydn which spoke in the earlier
ones. Premonitions of Schubert are again evident in the second of
these sonatas (Pet. 3), in the second section of the slow movement,
and in the brief passage in E-flat minor in the minuet. There are very
fine moments in the first movement, too. It will be observed that the
second theme is very like the first. This is frequently the case with
Haydn, a feature which points to his dependence on Emanuel Bach.
Even in his symphonies it shows itself, conspicuously in the great
symphony in D major, No. 7, in Breitkopf and Härtel’s edition. In the
sonata in question, however, there is no lack of secondary material
of varied and decided character; for example, the transitional section
between the first and second themes; the broad closing theme of the
first section, with its alternate deep phrases and high answers; and
the carefully wrought measures which open the development
section.
The effect of the measures which bring this section almost to a close
and then lead on into the recapitulation is almost magical. We
approach the romantic. The strange power of silence in music is
nowhere better employed, a power which the old convention of
constant movement had kept concealed, at least in instrumental
music. Mention has been made of the pauses in Emanuel Bach’s
music and in Clementi’s; but here in Haydn’s sonata is a passage of
more than twenty measures in which silence seems to reign.
Something calls on high and there is silence. Then from some deep
down range there is a faint answer. And so the high calls across
silence to the deep, again and again, as if one without the other
might not prevail against some spirit of silence.
Such a passage as this, and many another in Haydn’s music,

suggest Beethoven. One is quick to exclaim, ‘Ah! this foreshadows
the great man to come!’ Almost as if the music had no merit but by
comparison. Yet Haydn’s music should be taken at its own value.
Only in that way may the charm of it, and the genuine beauty as well,
be fully appreciated. Surely it has a life and a spirit all its own,
without which music would be poorer.
Only one clavier work of special significance, apart from the sonatas,
remains to be mentioned. This is a very beautiful series of variations
on a theme in F minor. They present, of course, the familiar features
of Haydn’s style, clear and ‘economic’ part-writing, perfect balance
and lucidity in form, abrupt, unprepared chords, furnishing what
Hadow has aptly called ‘points of color’; and still, smooth, chromatic
progressions which are somehow naïve. The theme itself is in two
sections, with a ‘trio’ section in F major, full of ascending and
descending arpeggio figures which seem in Haydn’s music like the
warble of a bird’s song, odd little darts and flurries of sound. There is
over the whole a changing light of plaintive and gay which is rather
different from the perpetual sunshine of the sonatas.
It is needless to say that the theme undergoes no such
metamorphosis in the course of the variations as Bach’s theme in his
Goldberg Variations. The accompaniment may be said to remain
practically the same throughout the set. The first variation leads the
melody through half-steps, in syncopation, and numerous trills are
brought in to beautify the almost too ingenuous major section. In the
second variation the melody is dissolved, so to speak, into a clear
stream of rapid counterpoint which curves and frets above and below
the familiar accompaniment. The final restatement of the theme
leads by abrupt soft modulations into a long coda in which traces of
the theme still linger. The whole set makes up a masterpiece in
pianoforte literature, and may be ranked as one of the most beautiful
pieces of music in the variation form.
II
Mozart’s keyboard music is astonishingly different from Haydn’s.
Because both men have fallen into the obscurity of the same
shadow, one is likely to speak of them as if both were but a part of
one whole. The differences between them are not merely matters of
detail. In fact they may resemble each other more in detail than in
general qualities. The spirit of Mozart’s music is wholly different from
the spirit of Haydn’s. If with Haydn we may associate a frank good
nature and something of the peasant’s sturdiness, in Mozart’s music
we have to do with something far more subtle, far more graceful, and
almost wholly elusive. It has been said of Mozart’s music that its
inherent vitality is all-sufficient to a listener. In other words, there is
neither any need nor any desire to interpret it, either in terms of
another art or as an expression or a symbol of human emotion. It is
perhaps unique in being sheer sound and nothing else. It is the
thinnest gossamer spun between our ears and stillness. It is of all
music the most ethereal, the most spiritual, one might almost say the
least audible.
His life was utterly different from Haydn’s. To begin with, he was
twenty-four years younger. He was most carefully and rigorously
trained in his art, from infancy, by his father and by the greatest
musicians in the world, whom he met on his triumphant tours over
Europe. As a child he was all but adored in Vienna, in all the great
cities of Italy, in London, in Paris, and in Brussels. As a youth fortune
began to forsake him. He was not so much neglected as
unappreciated. He was underpaid, harassed by debt. He was without
an established position, chiefly apparently because in the nature of
things he could not be but young. He died at last in Vienna, in more
or less miserable circumstances, at the age of thirty-five. Thus a life
could end that in early years had been the marvellous delight of
nearly a whole world.
He was always a virtuoso as well as a composer. He played the

violin excellently; he played the piano as no man in his time could
play it and as perhaps no man has played it since. His playing was
not so much distinguished by brilliance as by beauty. The quality of
his tone was of that kind which once heard can never be forgotten. It
haunted the minds of men long after he was dead. Even the memory
of it brought tears.
His compositions give only a slight idea of what the range of his
playing was. He seems to have moved people most at times when
he improvised. This he would often do in public, according to the
custom of the day; but in private, too, he would often go to his piano
and pour his soul out hour after hour through the night in improvised
music of strange and unusual power. Something of the quality of
these outpourings seems to have been preserved in the fantasia in C
minor. The sonatas and rondos have little of it. Neither have the
concertos. Franz Niemetschek, one of his most devoted friends and
author of the first of his biographies, said, as an old man, that if he
dared ask the Almighty for one more earthly joy, it would be that he
might once again before he died hear Mozart improvise. The
improvisations of Beethoven, marvellous as they were, never took
just the place of Mozart’s in the minds of those who had been
privileged to hear the younger man as well.
Mozart did not compose his piano music at the piano, as Schumann
and Chopin did. The improvisations were not remembered later and
put down in form upon paper. They seem to have been something
apart from his composing. He wrote music away from the piano, at
his desk, as most people write letters—in the words of his wife. Most
of the sonatas, too, were written for the benefit of pupils. Few of
them make actually trying demands upon technical brilliance. Their
great difficulty is more than technical, or than what is commonly
regarded as technical—strength, velocity, and endurance. Yet no
music more instantly lays bare any lack of evenness or any stiffness
in the fingers. Mozart cared little for a brilliant style. His opinion of
Clementi has already been mentioned. He preferred rather a
moderate than an extremely rapid tempo, condemned severely any
inaccuracy or carelessness, likewise any lack of clearness in rhythm.
But, above all, he laid emphasis on a beautiful and singing quality of
tone.
His avoidance rather than cultivation of brilliancy alone makes his

music often suggest the harpsichord. There is an absence of the
technical devices then new, which have since become thoroughly
associated with the pianoforte style. Yet from 1777 Mozart devoted
himself to the pianoforte. An instrument made especially for him,
which he invariably used in his many concerts in Vienna, has been
preserved. The keyboard has a range of five octaves, from the F
below the bass staff to the F above the treble staff. The action is very
light, the tone rather sharp and strong. It can be damped, or
softened, by means of a stop which pulls a strip of felt into position
between the strings and the hammers.
Concerning the pianoforte sonatas it may be said again that few

depart from a normal, prevailing mood. Some are exceptional.
Knowing his great gift of improvising and how rich and varied his
improvisations were, it is perhaps a temptation to read into them
more definite emotions than are really implied. Yet it is easy to pick
from the later sonatas at least three which not only differ
considerably from the earlier sonatas, but differ likewise from each
other. Nevertheless, two or three traits are common to them all. They
mark Mozart’s sonatas distinctly from Haydn’s and, indeed, from all
other sonatas.
First, there is rare melodiousness about them all. The quality of the
melodies is hard to analyze. There is little savor of the folk-song, as
there is in many of Haydn’s melodies. They are not so clearly cut,
not, in a way, of such solid stuff. Neither, on the other hand, have
they a peculiar germinating vigor which we associate with
Beethoven. They seem to spin themselves as the music moves
along. The movements seem to flow rather than grow. Mozart was
none the less a great contrapuntist, one of the greatest among
composers. But his music seems strangely to pass through
counterpoint, not to be built up of it. It has therefore a quality of
litheness or supple flexibility which distinguishes it from that of other
composers and gives it a preëminent grace. In this regard it is akin
only to the music of Couperin and Chopin.
In the second place, the harmonic coloring is subtle and suggestive.

His music seems to play about harmonies rather than with them. The
simplest chords and modulations have a sort of shimmer. An
instance in orchestral music comes to mind—the second themes in
both the first and last movements of the inspired symphony in G
minor, particularly the treatment of the second theme in the
restatement section of the last movement. The effect is due largely
to the chromatic half-steps through which his melodies glide,
noticeably into cadences, and to the same chromatic hovering about
tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. Oftener than not the fine
thread of his melody only grazes the notes proper to its harmony,
touching just above or below them in swift, light dissonances.
Frequently the harmonic foundation is of the simplest kind.
Modulations to remote keys or vague drifting of the whole harmonic
fabric, such as one finds, for instance, in the first pages of the
Fantasia in C minor, are rare. Usually the harmonic foundation is
astonishingly simple. It is the wholly charming unwillingness of the
melodies to be flatly chained to it that gives the whole such an
elusive color.
There is a wealth of passing notes, of anticipations and suspensions,
of every device which may aid melody to belie its unavoidable
relations to harmony. These take from most of his pianoforte music
all trace of commonplaceness. Most of it has a graceful distinction
which we may call style. Take even the opening theme of the great
sonata in A minor. The nature of the theme is bold and declamatory;
yet the very first note avoids an unequivocal allegiance to the
harmony by a D-sharp. Or observe in the last movement of the
sonata in C minor (K. 457) how the short phrases of the melody not
only anticipate the harmony in beginning, but delay acknowledging it
again and again.
In the third place, the scoring of Mozart’s sonatas is usually lighter

than that of Haydn’s. We have to do with a finer set of fingers, for
one thing, which are unexcelled in lightness and sweetness of touch,
fingers which prefer to suggest oftener than to declaim. The
treatment of inner voices is more airy. One thinks again of Couperin
and even more of Chopin. There is a better understanding of
pianoforte effects, not effects of brilliance but of delicate sonority
combined with grace. The last movement of the sonata in A minor
just mentioned, is a masterpiece of style, and yet for the most part is
hardly more than a whisper of sound. The passage work in the last
movement of a beautiful sonata in F major (K. 332), the chord figures
of the Piu allegro section of the Fantasia, even the F-sharp minor
section of the familiar Alla Turca are the work of a man with an
unusually fine sense of what fitted the pianoforte. Mozart also
expected more of the left hand than Haydn expected. In all his
pianoforte music there is more delicacy than there is in Haydn’s,
more sophistication, too, if you will. It is more difficult to play.
Of the many sonatas, rondos and fantasias only a few may be

discussed in detail. Three sonatas written before Mozart settled in
Vienna, in 1781, are very fine. These are in A minor (K. 310), in A
major (K. 331) and in F major (K. 332). That in A minor was written in
1778. The first movement is more stentorian than Mozart’s music
usually is. It is dominated by a strong rhythmical motive throughout,
used with fiery effect in the development section over a series of
rumbling pedal points. There is something assertive and martial
about it, like the ring of trumpets over a great confusion. The second
theme seems to be but an expression of energy in more civilian
strain. It is perilously near virtuoso stuff; but the movement as a
whole is splendid by reason of its force. It is Mozart in a very unusual
mood, however.
The second movement is a picture in music, according to Mozart

himself, of a charming little girl, who has ‘a staid manner and a great
deal of sense for her age.’ Yet something of the boldness of the first
movement still lingers. The mood is beautifully lyrical and poetic, the
style, however, very free and broad. It lacks the intimate tenderness
of most of Mozart’s slow movements. The last movement is magical.
The fine, delicate scoring, the short phrases, as it were breathless,
the beautiful shifting of harmonies, the constantly restless unvaried
movement, weave a texture of music that must make us ever wonder
at the nature of the mysterious, elusive spirit that whispers all but
unheard behind so much of Mozart’s music.
The sonata in F major and that in A major were written the following
year, and are of strikingly different character, both speaking of the
Mozart whose playing was long remembered for its quality of heart-
melting tenderness. Unlike the first movement of the A minor sonata,
the first movement of the F major is full of a variety of themes and
motives. It is rather lyrical in character. The first theme has a song-
like nature; and a beautiful measure or two of folk-song melody
makes itself heard in the transition to the second theme, which is
again lyrical. The development section opens with still another
melody. There is an oft-repeated shifting from high register to low.
The whole is wrapped in a veil of poetry. The slow middle movement
is unexcelled among all slow movements for purity of style, for
perfection of form, for refinement, but also tenderness of sentiment;
and the last movement flows like a brook through Rondo Field. One
cannot choose one movement from the others as being more
beautiful either in spirit or workmanship; and the three together
compose one of the flawless sonatas of pianoforte literature.
The more familiar sonata in A major is more irregular. It has, by the
way, no movement in the triplex form. The first is an air and
variations. It has long been a favorite with amateur and connoisseur
alike. The naïve beauty of the air is irresistible. The variations throw
many traits of Mozart’s style into prominence, particularly in the first
and fifth, his love of entwining his harmonies, so to speak, with
shadows and passing notes. The scoring of the fourth is wonderfully
beautiful. The sixth is perhaps unworthy to follow the fifth. After the
almost inevitable monotony of the variation form, it is perhaps to be
regretted that the second movement, a minuet, continues the key of
the first. The movement itself is of great charm. The trio is happily in
D major. One would be glad to have it in any key, so exquisite and
perfect is its beauty. The last movement, a rondo alla Turca, takes up
the key of A again. That it is in minor, not major, hardly suffices to
break the monotony of tonality which may threaten the interest of the
sonata as a whole. The rondo is engagingly jocund, but more
ordinary than Mozart is elsewhere likely to allow himself to be.
Two later sonatas have a more serious allure than these earlier
ones. That in C minor (K. 457), composed in 1784, is commonly
considered his greatest sonata. Why such a distinction should be
insisted upon, it is difficult to see. The C minor sonata is more
weighty than the others, but is it for that reason greater? Must music
to be great, hint of the tragic struggles of the soul? Such is the merit
often ascribed to this sonata, as if there were no true greatness in a
smile. Without setting up a standard of the great and the trivial in
music, we may grant that the work has a compelling force. Let us not
liken it to Beethoven. It still has the charm of which only Mozart was
the master, that charm which remains one of the intangible,
inexplicable things in music.
A sonata in F major (K. 533) was composed in 1788. The whole

work is characterized by a possibly too prominent contrapuntal
ingenuity. There is besides a boldness in harmonies, especially in
the slow movement, which makes one wonder into what strange
lands Mozart strayed when he sat improvising at the keyboard.
The sonatas as a whole rest, as we have said, upon a harmonic
foundation which is relatively simple. The great Fantasia in C minor
differs from them in this regard more than in any other. If, as Otto
Jahn suggested in his ‘Life of Mozart,’ this fantasia may offer us
some suggestion of what Mozart’s improvisations were like, we may
be sure that such outpourings wandered into harmonies rich and
strange.
The fantasia was composed in 1785, the year after the C minor
sonata, to which it was at one time thought to have been intended as
an introductory movement. An earlier fantasia in D minor is
fragmentary. It ends abruptly and leaves an impression of
incompleteness on the mind of the listener. The C minor fantasia is
without definite form, but the return of the opening motive at the end
gives it a logical balance. It divides itself into five or six sections. The
tempo is not very fast in any one of them, but there is an uneasy
current of unrest running under the whole.
It would be foolish to attempt an analysis of what may be its

emotional content. It calls for no such analysis, but stands as
another instance of the strange power Mozart’s music has to satisfy
of itself alone. It must remain, like his other work, mysterious and of
secret origin. Only one section is given a key-signature. The others
are without harmonic limitation. Perhaps the opening section, and
the brief part of it repeated at the end, are the most impressive. The
motive out of which they are built is of unfathomable significance;
their harmonies rise and fall as slowly and mysteriously as the tide.
Of the quality of other more melodious sections, of the occasional
charm and grace that here and there rise, as it were, on the wings of
light; of the passionate harmonies that die away into silence before
the slow opening motive returns inexorably, nothing can be said.
There comes over it in memory the light that never was on land or
sea. It is a poet’s dream.
III
We have now to consider the pianoforte concertos which as a whole
may be taken to be the finest of his works for the instrument. They
were written primarily for his own use, seventeen of them in Vienna
between 1783 and 1786, some earlier, however, and a few later.
They are concertos in the modern sense, not like the concertos of
Sebastian Bach. In the latter we find the clavier treated in much the
same style as the orchestra or the tutti, as it was, and still is,
generally called. In the Mozart concertos, on the other hand, the solo
instrument is given a rôle which will show off to the best its peculiar
qualities. The Vivaldi form of concerto, such as Bach used, was a
modified rondo; that is to say, there was one chief subject, usually
announced at the beginning by the tutti. This subject properly
belonged to the tutti, and the solo instrument was given various
episodes of contrasting material, between which the orchestra
usually was introduced with ritornelles based upon the chief subject.
The whole was a sort of dialogue between soloist and orchestra.
The form of the concerto which Mozart used was clearly as follows:
an expanded triplex form for the first movement, a slow movement in
song form, and a rondo of the French type for the finale. Moreover,
he used the solo instrument not only alone, but with the orchestra; in
such cases writing a brilliant sort of fioritura for it, which added a
special and distinct color to the ensemble. Such a form of concerto
was apparently first employed by Christian Bach in London. From
him Mozart learned the use of it. He was not, therefore, as has often
been stated, the true ‘father’ of the modern concerto. Nevertheless it
was he who first used the form with enduring success, and it may be
considered as his special contribution to the standard musical forms.
A brief outline of the first movement of one of his concertos will

illustrate the manner in which the triplex form was used in all of
them, and in which, with few modifications, it has continued to be
used by most composers. Let us take the wonderfully delightful
concerto in A major (K. 488). The movement opens with a long
section for the orchestra. The first theme is announced at once.
Later comes the lovely second theme, in the tonic key, be it noted.
There is then a short coda, and the orchestra comes to a full tonic
cadence and allows the piano to take up the music. The function of
this orchestral introduction is to introduce the two themes out of
which the movement now proceeds to build itself, conforming pretty
closely to the triplex model.
The piano has the first theme practically alone, the orchestra merely
suggesting an inner voice in the harmony from time to time. In the
transitional passage to the dominant key which follows, the piano
serves chiefly to spin a few figures over the chords carried by the
orchestra. Then the piano has the second theme, now in the
dominant, alone; after which it is repeated by the orchestra, the
piano adding a touch of ornamental color here and there. Pianoforte
and orchestra now play together, the piano taking the rôle of soloist
in a series of scales and figures. A full cadence in E major ends the
first section.
The development section is not long. It will be noticed that the pianist
is really soloist through it all, the delicate figure work which he has to
perform being always evident above the harmonies or themes of the
orchestra.
The long opening section for orchestra at the beginning of the

concerto is cut down to a few measures in the restatement. The
transitional passage between first and second themes is very much
shortened likewise. Finally, after the music has progressed duly
according to the conventions governing the restatement section in
the triplex form, the orchestra makes a pause. Here the pianist is
supposed to play what is known as a cadenza—a long passage
usually testing both him and his instrument to the limit of their
abilities. These cadenzas were commonly improvised, and in them
Mozart must have displayed the greatness of his power both as a
musician and as a player. The cadenza came to an end with a long
trill, after which the orchestra, usually without the piano, added the
completing coda.
The second and third movements were usually in some simpler form.
The second was most frequently an aria, the third a rondo. The
whole was primarily a piece for the virtuoso, while the orchestra,
save when announcing themes or playing ritornelles, served mainly
as an accompaniment to the brilliant soloist. It might well, be it
understood, carry on the thematic development of the music, thus
leaving the pianist free to weave every sort of arabesque; but from
now on the concerto was a form of music which was deliberately
planned to show off the special qualities of a solo instrument.
It was almost inevitable that in most concertos the genuinely musical

element should be regarded as of less and less importance. The
public expected, and indeed still expects, to hear or even to see a
virtuoso display the uttermost limits of his skill in such pieces. The
improvised cadenzas were in the hands of most players a nuisance
which marred the work as a whole beyond repair. But the Mozart
concertos, written as they were for occasions of his public
appearance, have a true musical value. We know enough of his
improvising to be sure that his cadenzas added and did not subtract
from this.
Their chief beauty is here, as in his other music, the melodious

freshness of his themes, the delightful subtlety of his harmony. The
constant stream of arabesque which the piano adds to this
intrinsically beautiful foundation is in the main simple. It is surprising
how little Mozart added to the virtuoso style of pianoforte literature,
even how little he made use of what, through Clementi and Dussek,
was already common property. There are practically no octave
passages, and no passages in double notes. He uses only scales,
arpeggios and trills.
But his art of combining these with the orchestra has never been
excelled. In this regard his concertos stand far above those of the
virtuosi like Hummel, Dussek, and John Field. Their tone-color is not
only that which the essentially colorless pianoforte can afford; it is a
beautiful interweaving of many colors. His treatment of the orchestra
is always distinguished, never haphazard or indifferent. Delicate as
the coloring may be to ears now accustomed to heavier and more
sensuous blendings, it is not watery and faded. It is still exquisitely
clear and suggestive. As the first of composers to make such

Commercial Transport: Proceedings of The 2nd Interdiciplinary Conference On Production Logistics and Traffic 2015 1st Edition Uwe Clausen

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Commercial Transport: Proceedings of

the 2nd Interdiciplinary Conference on

Advances in Production Logistics and Traffic

Intermodal freight transport and logistics Bergqvist

Directions of Development of Transport Networks and

Proceedings of Second International Conference on

Proceedings of the 2015 Federated Conference on

Modern Traffic Engineering in the System Approach to

Advances in Engineering Research and Application:

Proceedings of the 2nd International Colloquium on

Carina Thaller Christiane Geiger

Hanno Friedrich Christiane Geiger

ISSN 2194-8917 ISSN 2194-8925 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015944739

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media

The Interdisciplinary Conference on Production, Logistics and Trafﬁc (ICPLT)

In this way, the authorities of politics, municipalities and interdisciplinary

• Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bert Leerkamp, University of Wuppertal, Institute for Freight

Dortmund Uwe Clausen

Part I Modelling of Freight Transport Considering Logistics,

1 Redeveloping the Strategic Flemish Freight Transport Model . . . . 3

2 Building a Model of Freight Generation with a Commodity

3 Freight Transport Demand Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 System Dynamics Based, Microscopic Freight Transport

5 Analysing the Connection Between Gross Value Added

6 Requirements for Traffic and Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Part II Potentials for Usage of e-Mobility in Commercial Transport

7 Who Are the Early Adopters of Electric Vehicles in Commercial

8 Potentials of e-Mobility for Companies in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . 129

Part III Balancing and Reducing the Environmental Impacts

9 Global Standardisation of the Calculation of CO2 Emissions

10 Role of Cargo Weight and Volume: Minimizing Costs and CO2

11 Determination of GHG-Emissions of Handling Operations

Part IV Logistics Hubs as Interlinkages for Intermodal Commercial

12 Developing Dry Ports Through the Use of Value-Added

13 Outlying Location of Logistics Activities: The Example

Part V ICT System Integration in Production, Logistics and Traffic

14 Networking of Information Flows—Improved Concept

15 CargoSwApp—Short-Term Replacement of Cancelled Cargo

16 ORFE to AFEX—A Conceptual Look into the Future

17 Delivery Time Windows for Road Freight Carriers

Part VI Supply Chains and Networks

18 Application of Service Engineering Methods for Developing

19 A Holistic Approach to Measure Quality of Service in Freight

20 Supply Chain Collaboration or Conflict? Information Sharing

Part VII Empirical Studies and Data Mining for Analysing

21 Empirical Analysis of Freight Transport Prices Using the French

22 An Inventory-Focused Analysis of German Food Supply Chains:

Part VIII Urban Commercial Transport

23 Factors Influencing the Performance of Urban Consolidation

24 Ho.Re.Ca. Logistics and Medieval Structured Cities: A Market

25 Capacity for Freight in Urban Railway Networks—An Analytical

Part IX Innovative Approaches for Production, Logistics

26 Automatic Robot-Based Unloading of Goods Out

27 PROduction Plan Based Recovery of VEhicle Routing Plans

28 Monte-Carlo Tree Search for Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Clausen is Managing Director

Prof. Dr. Hanno Friedrich studied Industrial

Dr.-Ing. Christiane Geiger is Chief Engineer and a

Stefan Grebe, Gerard de Jong, Dana Borremans, Pieter van Houwe

S. Grebe (&) G. de Jong