Kleto~nite `ivi organizmi se delat na tri carstva: Procariotes: I. Archebacteria II. Eubacteria III.

I. Eukaryotes (mikroorganizmi, rastenija (Plantae) i `ivotni (Animalia)

2

Bezkleto~ni `ivi organizmi se izgradeni samo od pomal ili pogolem broj na makro i mikromolekuli, sodr`at samo DNK ili samo RNK, nekoi imaat i malku proteini i enzimi, obavezno parazitiraat na bakterii, rasteniaj ili `ivotni. Me|u niv spa|aat: virusi, virusoidi, viroidi i prioni.

virus
1892 Dmitri Iosifovich Ivanovski gi otkriva virusite agent, the tobacco mosaic virus, capable of permeating porcelain filters, something which bacteria could never do

He described his findings in an article (1892) and a dissertation (1902).

VIRUSI
Virusite se najsitni i najednostavni poznati mikroorganizmi. Glavni karakteristiki: sodr`at samo eden vid nukleinski kiselini (DNK ili RNK), mo`at da se razmno`uvaat samo vo `ivi kletki; pomali se od bakteriite Spored goleminata se podeleni na: 1. Mali virusi 10-50 nm 2. Sredno golemi virusi 50-150 nm 3. Golemi virusi 150-300 nm

Spored oblikot virusite mo`at da bidat: Top~esti Stap~esti Elipsoidni Vo vid na kvadar

A.
` .

Virusite se sostaveni se od: jadro i obvivka. Nekoi virusi imaat i nadvore{na obvivka.

A.
1. ( ), () (virusen genom). 2. , gi [TITI nukleinskite kiselini od razgraduvawe od nukleazite. S , . - M . JADROTO+KAPSIDATA= NUKLEOKAPSIDA 3.

 i i at , jat . , . Eden virus mo`e da ima 32 do 252 kapsomeri.

3. . T sodr`i (LIPO-PROTEINI), . Virusite koi imaat lipidna obvivka se osetlivi na eter, a virusite bez lipidna obvivka ne se osetlivi na eter. Virusite so proteini vo obvivkata imaat dobri antigenski osobini koi se va`ni za imuniot odgovor.
A peplomer is a glycoprotein spike on a viral capsid or viral envelope, that only bind to certain receptors on the host cell: they are essential for both host specificity and viral infectivity.

. postojat : - (helikalna
simetrija)

- (ikozaedarna simetrija)

ENZIMI: :
( -) (kaj HIV).

Dijagnosti~ki postapki

Kultivirawe Mikroskopski ispituvawa Identifikacija na virusite

KULTIVIRAWE: Eksperimentalni `ivotni Pile{ki embrioni/oplodeni koko{kini jajca (se koristi za virus na grip) Kulturi na kletki/kulturi na tkiva (epiteloidni kletki, fibroblasti od ~ove~ki embrioni, bubreg od majmun ili razni kancerogeni tkiva) => CITOPATOGEN EFEKT

Dijagnosti~ki postapki Mikroskopski ispituvawa: Svetlosen mikroskop Fluorescenten mikroskop Elektronski mikroskop Identifikacija na virusite, naj~esto so serolo{ki testovi: Test na neutralizacija Reakcija na vrzuvawe na komplement Inhibicija na hemaglutinacija Imunofluorescencija (DIF, IIF) Imunodifuzija ELISA Molekularna dijagnostika (PCR)

Razmno`uvawe na virusite
Vo tek na nekolku fazi: Prepoznavawe od strana na virusot na kletkata doma}in, so pomo{ na specifi~ni receptori na kletkite za koi virusot se vrzuva (adherira); Navleguvawe (penetracija) na virusot vo kletkata doma}in; Razgoluvawe na nukleo-kapsidot - odvojuvawe na virusniot genom od kapsidata (obvivkata); Sinteza na makromolekuli vo kletkata doma}in, sinteza na virusna mRNK i virusni proteini; Sinteza na novi, kompletni virusi; Osloboduvawe na virusite od kletkata doma}in.

 100.000 1-10% , , .

Virusite se odlikuvaat so: - selektivnost i - tropizam. Selektivnosta se izrazuva so toa {to virusite koi `iveat na ~ovekot i se patogeni za ~ovekot ne `iveat i ne se patogeni za `ivotnite (isklu~ok e virusot na besnilo koj e patogen za pove}e vidovi cica~i, virusot na grip); Zaradi ova virusite ne mo`at da se prou~uvaat na animalen model =>ne mo`e da se najdat efikasni antivirusni lekovi.

Tropizam na virusite e osobina na virusite da se razmno`uvaat vo odreden tip na kletki koi imaat specifi~ni receptori za tie virusi. (pr. HIV se vrzuva za Th limfocitite /CD4+, Influenca virusot se vrzuva za epitelnite kletki na respiratornite pati{ta, Virusot na besnilo se vrzuva za neuronite, E-B virusot se vrzuva za B-limfocitite).


, :
, ( ), ( ) Henderson-Peterson Molluscum contagiosum

Negri bodies, eosinophilic, sharplyoutlined, pathognom onic inclusion bodies (210 m in diameter) in the cytoplasm of certain nerve cells containing the virus of rabies, especially in Ammon's horn of the hippocampus. Often also found in the cerebellar cortex of postmortem brain samples of rabies victims

:
: () :

Interferons (IFNs) are proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites or tumor cells. They allow for communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune system that eradicate pathogens or tumors.

IFNs belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines. Interferons are named after their ability to "interfere" with viral replication within host cells.
IFNs have other functions: they activate immune cells /natural killer cells and macrophages; they increase recognition of infection or tumor cells by up-regulating antigen presentation to T lymphocytes; and they increase the ability of uninfected host cells to resist new infection by virus.

 : 1. 2. : 1. () 2. () 3. ()

 / :
1. / 2. / 3. / , , ( ) 4. / , .

Zna~ewe na virusnite infekcii

Virusnite infekcii se naj~esti infekcii kaj lu|eto (okolu 60% od site infekcii, ili 90% od infekciite na gornite respiratorni pati{ta, i pove}e od 60% od prolivi kaj decata). Virusnite infekcii se povrzuvaat so:
-nekoi benigni tumori (bradavici pri~ineti od Papilloma virusi),

-karcinom na matka (HPV-Human Papilloma virus);

-karcinom na crn drob (HCV- Hepatitis C virus);

Mnogu te{ki i smrtonosni bolesti se pri~ineti od virusi: SIDA (AIDS), ebola, SARS, pti~ji grip, `olta treska, denga, besnilo i drugi.
Imunitetot {to se stvara kaj virusnite infekcii e soliden, dolgotraen i ~esto do`ivoten. Virusite se dobri antigeni {to ovozmo`ilo da se razvijat dobri vakcini za mnogu virusni zaboluvawa (variolla, pollio, Hepatitis-B, morbilli, rubeola, parotit...). Glavna uloga vo imuniot odgovor ima kleto~niot imunitet (citotoksi~ni T limfociti i NKkletki /kletki ubijci). Zna~ajna uloga imaat i antitelata, interferonite ( i ), makrofagite, poka~enata telesna temperatura.

Specifi~ni anti-virusni lekovi ima vo mal broj: ACICLOVIR GANCICLOVIR FAMCICLOVIR ZANAMIVIR (RELENZA) TAMIFLU (OSELTAMIVIR)

 : ( ) ()

1. Baltimorskata klasifikacija (Baltimore classification) na virusite napravena vo 1971 god. od strana na biologot David Baltimor, dobitnik na Nobelova nagrada vo 1975 god. Ovaa klasifikacija e vrz osnova na metodot na sinteza na virusna mRNK. Virusite mora da sozdadat mRNK od svoite genomi za da mo`at da produciraat proteini i da se repliciraat (razmno`uvaat). Virusniot genom mo`e da bide: ss (single stranded) so edna veriga ds (double stranded) so dve verigi SS virusite mo`e da se sens (+) ili antisens (-). RNK ili DNK mo`e da koristat ili da ne go koristat enzimot Reverzna transkriptaza.

Pozitiven (+) sens (+ strand, veriga) (5' to 3') na virusnata RNK zna~i deka del od virusnata RNK mo`e da se smeta kako mRNK i vedna{ da se zapo~ne so sinteza na potrebnite proteini, zaradi {to na ovie virusi ne im e potreben enzimot RNK polimeraza . Negativen (-) sens ( - strand, veriga) (3' to 5'), na virusnata RNK e komplementarna na mRNK zaradi {to prvo mora da se pretvori so enzimot RNK polimeraza vo sens-pozitivna RNK koja potoa dejstvuva kako mRNK.

Single strand of DNA sense (or positive (+) ) if an RNA version of the same sequence is translated or translatable into protein. Its complementary strand is called antisense (or negative (-) sense). - Protein coding and non-coding RNA's

A. DNK (DNA) virusi

Positive-sense ssRNA viruses (Group IV) have their genome directly utilized as if it were mRNA, with host ribosomes translating it into a single protein which is modified by host and viral proteins to form the various proteins needed for replication. One of these includes RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNA replicase), which copies the viral RNA to form a double-stranded replicative form, in turn this directs the formation of new virions. Negative-sense ssRNA viruses (Group V) must have their genome copied by an RNA polymerase to form positive-sense RNA. This means that the virus must bring along with it the RNA replicase enzyme. The positive-sense RNA molecule then acts as viral mRNA, which is translated into proteins by the host ribosomes. The resultant protein goes on to direct the synthesis of new virions, such as capsid proteins and RNA replicase, which is used to produce new negative-sense RNA molecules.