Alice Mathscript Set Theory 2007

,
MATHEMATICSCRIPT*C OF AXIOMATIC SET THEORY

VERSION 1.2, APRIL 2007
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
GONGJU NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
DESIGNERALICE PUBLISHERS
,

1.2 , 2007 4
MathematicScript*C
An Introduction to Intuitive and Axiomatic Set Theory
Version 1.2, April 2007
::
MathematicScript*C :: An Introduction to Intuitive and Axiomatic Set Theory

:
:
:
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1.2
| designeralice@daum.net
| http://www.designeralice.com
2004 10, 1.0
2004 12, 1.1
2007 4, 1.2
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| Index
| Preface .............................................................................................................................. 008
01. | Mathematical Logic ............................................................................................... 010
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02. | Statements and their Connectives ................................................. 014

|
03. | Deductive Reasoning ............................................................................................ 018

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04. | Quantification Rules .................................................................................................... 024

| |
05. | Sets and their Operations ............................................................................ 030

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06. | Relations and Partitions ....................................................................................... 038

| |
07. | The Axioms of Set Theory ............................................................................. 046

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08. | Functions and Inverse Function .......................................................... 052

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09. | Image and Composition of Functions ........................................... 060

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10. | The Natural Numbers .................................................................................................... 068

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11. | The Ordered Sets ....................................................................................................... 078

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12. | Deeper Properties of Ordered Sets ......................................................... 086

| |
13. | The Axiom of Choice ................................................................................................. 094

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14. | Finite Sets and Infinite Sets ............................................................. 102

| |
15. | Deeper Properties of Infinite Sets ............................................................ 110

| | |
16. | The Cardinal Numbers ....................................................................................................... 118

| | |
17. | Deeper Properties of Cardinal Numbers ......................................................... 126

| | |
| Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 134

| | | | |
| Preface
.

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7
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10-
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6 , 6 7 8 9
. 15 1113
. 2
.
Charles C. Pinter Set Theory You-Feng LinShwu-Yeng T. Lin
Set Theory .
You-Feng Lin .
9

.
.
(definition) A B
. A B
A . (theorem)
.
.

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PDF
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2007 4,
10 | ,
01
| Mathematical Logic
| |

.
| Mathematical Principles
360
, 180
360 .
180
. .
180 360
.
?
?
?
.

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 x a , b , c 0
.

. .

.
.

.
. , A B , B C
, C A .

.
. ,

.
.
.
. .
(Axiom) .
01. | 11
.
1. .
2. .

,
. .
3.
.

. .
4. .
.

.
.
| Conditions of Axiom
,
.

.
.
?
.

?

?
. 300
(Euclid) .
1. P , Q P Q l
.
2. AB , CD B A E CD
BE E .
12 | ,
3. O , A O OA
.
4. .
5. l l P P l
m .
.
, , , ,
.
P , Q l m
1 .
, , , , , ,
. AB AB A B
, A B .

.
.
ABC AC BC .
(1) C AB D .
(2) ACD BCD AC BC .
(3) ACD BCD .
(4) CD CD .
(5) ACD BCD .
A B .
.
.
. C AB ?
D A B ?

01. | 13
.
.
.
.
.
(set of axioms) , .
.
.

. . 3
A , B , C A B C
C . A B
C .
| Necessity of Set Theory

.
.
. .
. ,
.
.

.
.
1.
, . ,
,

. .
2. .
.
.
3. ,
.
.
14 | ,
02
| Statements and their Connectives

|
.
| Statement
.
.
x 2 = 4 x = 2 .
2000 .
2x + 1 = 5 .
.
, .
?
?
. .
.
,
.
.
.
2.1
.
,
. ,
, .
2.2
.
(1) .
(2) 2 + 1 5 .
(3) 105 8 .
(4) .
(5) .
(1) (2) (4) . (3) ,
. (5)
, .
02. | 15
2.3
,
.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
.
.
.
.
.
| Connectives of Statements
2.2 (simple statement) ,
(compounded statement) . ,

.
p , q , r ,
. p .

. (connective) .
2.4

p
pq
pq
p q
p q
p .
p q .
p q .
p q .
p q , q p .

.
p p p p p
, p . p
p . p
, p , .
(truth table) .
p
T
F
p
F
T
T , F . p
(truth value) T F .
16 | ,
.
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
F
F
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
T
T
F
p q p , q (component)
. . p q
,
(logical possibility) 4 . n
2 n .
. ( q r) p q
r p .
, , , , .
, .
2.5
p , q
p q (logically equivalent) (equivalent)
p q .
2.5 .
2.6
p , q p q ( p q) .
[ ] ( p q) .
p
q
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
p
F
F
T
T
1
q
F
T
F
T
1
( p) ( q)
F
F
F
T
2
[ ( p) ( q)]
T
T
T
F
3
[ ( p) ( q)] p q
.
p q (conditional)
p q p q
.
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
02. | 17
p q p q
.
.
.
,
.
p q p q .
x x > 3 x > 1
p x > 3 , q x > 1
pq
.
() x 1 p q ,
() 1 < x 3 p q ,
() x > 3 p q
. , p q p , q TT, FT, FF
. p q , p q , q
p , p q . p q
p q .
p q q p ( p q) ( q p) p q
(biconditional) .
1. .
(1) ( p q ) r
(2) p ( q r )
(3) ( p q ) r
(4) ( p q) r
(5) p q
(6) ( p q) ( p q)
2. p , q ,
.
(1) p q
(2) p q
(3) p q
(4) p q
(5) q p
(6) p q
3. p , q ,
.
(1) .
(2) .
(3) .
(4) .
18 | ,
03
| Deductive Reasoning
|
.
| Implication and Equivalence
p , q .
p p
p p
( p q) ( p q)
( p q) ( q p)
.
? ?
p q ?
p p . p p
.
3.1
(tautology) t
.
(contradiction) c .
3.2
p , q p q , (implication)
p q p q . p q
q p .
3.3
p q p q , p q
. p q q p .
p q .
p q .
p q q p .
p q .
3.4
[ ( p q ) ( q r )] [ p r ]
. ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r ) .
p , q p q
, p q . ,
.
03. | 19

.
.
a b a < b a = b
ab a < b a= b
= .
2
f ( x) x + 3 f ( 1) = 4 .
f x 2 + 3 f ( 1) 4 .
3.5
, , .
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
T
T
F
qp
T
T
T
F
pq
T
F
F
F
qp
T
F
F
F
pq
T
F
F
T
qp
T
F
F
T
p q q p , p q q p , p q q p
. , , .
3.6
p (q r )
(p q ) (p r )
p (q r )
(p q ) (p r )
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
1 0 . 1
, 0 .
1 0 +
.
x ( y z) ( x y) ( x z)

x( y + z) = xy + xz
. 0 1 +
(Boolean Algebra) .
.
20 | ,
| Theorem and Proof
( p q ) ( q p )
.
.
.
p q p q q p ( q) ( p) q p
.
?
?
?
(theorem) .
(proof) .
3.7
p , q .
(1) p p q
(2) p q p , p q q
(3) ( p q ) p q
[ ] ( p q ) p q .
(p
T
T
F
F
1
T
T
T
F
2
q)
T
F
T
F
1
F
F
T
F
3
p
F
F
T
T
2
T
T
T
T
4
q
T
F
T
F
1
( p q ) p q . (1) (2)
.
.
p , q , (1)
, . (2)
.
.
3.8
p , q .
(1) ( p) p
(2) p q q p , p q q p
(3) p p p , p p p
(4) ( p q ) ( q p )
03. | 21
(Augustus De Morgan)
.
3.9
[ ] p , q .
( p q ) p q , ( p q ) p q
.
( p 1 p 2 p n ) p 1 p 2 p n
( p 1 p 2 p n ) p 1 p 2 p n

. ,
170cm 170cm
.
(mathematical induction)
.
2
1+3+5+ + ( 2n - 1) = n

.
n = 1 .
n = k , .
1+3+5+ + ( 2k - 1) = k 2
2( k + 1) - 1
1+3+5 + + ( 2k - 1) + { 2( k - 1) - 1} = k 2 + { 2( k + 1) - 1} = ( k + 1) 2
. n = k n = k + 1 .
n = 1 . , n = 2
. n = 3 . n = 4
. n = 5, 6, 7, .
n () n = 1 , () n = k
n = k + 1
n .
(Peano)
.

.
.
22 | ,
3.10
p , q , r .
(1) ( p q ) r p ( q r ) ,
(p q )r p (qr )
(2) p ( q r ) ( p q ) ( p r ) ,
p (qr ) (pq ) (pr )
(3) ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r )
( p q ) r p ( q r ) .
p q r p q r . p i
p 1 p 2 p n p 1 p 2 p n .

.

.
(deductively) .
3.11
( p q ) ( q p )
.
( p q ) p q q p ( q) ( p) q p
( p q ) ( q p ) .
, , ,
(deductive reasoning) .
3.12
p q p q . ,
q p p q .
p q p q . ,
q p p q .
, , .
( p q ) ( q p )
.
03. | 23
p q , p q
. ( p q ) ( p q ) c ( p q ) c
. p , p
. p p c p c .
3.13
.
() p q q p .
() p p c .
1. .
(1) ( p q ) ( p r q r )
(2) ( p q) ( p q) ( p q )
(3) ( p q r ) p q r
(4) ( p q r ) p q r
2. .
(1) .
(2) .
(3) .
(4) .
3. .
(1) ( p q ) p q
(2) ( p q) ( p r ) ( p q r )
(3) ( p q ) ( p q q q )
4. n .
(1) 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
1
(2) 12 + 23 + 34 + + n(n + 1) = 3 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1
1
1
1
n
(3) 12 + 23 + 34 + + n(n + 1) = n + 1
5. .
(1) (p 1 p 2 p 3 p n ) p 1 p 2 p 3 p n
(2) (p 1 p 2 p 3 p n ) p 1 p 2 p 3 p n
6. .
(1) p ( q 1 q 2 q n ) ( p q 1 ) ( p q 2 ) ( p q n )
(2) p ( q 1 q 2 q n ) ( p q 1 ) ( p q 2 ) ( p q n )
24 | ,
04
| Quantification Rules
| |
.
| Quantified Proposition

1
x x + x 2
p x + ( 1/x) 2 .
x
.
q x p q
.
.

. .
?
?
, , ,
.
x
x , . x
, x .
. .
p( x) x
p( x) x
,
.

.
x .
x x
x (universal quantifier)
( x ) x .
(,) (:), (;), (|), such that s.t.
. p( x)
.
x, p( x)
04. | 25

.
q( x) x .

x x
x p( x)
x (existential quantifier)
( x ) x .
.
x, q( x)
(quantifier) .
,
. .
2
( x + 1) ( x - 1) = x -1
x . x
x ( x) .
x , x x
( x) .
| Rule of Quantifier Negaton

.
[x, p( x)] [ x, p( x)]
[x, p( x)] [ x, p( x)]
a i
. x, p( x) a 1 , a 2 , , a n p( x)
, p( a 1 ) , p( a 2 ) , , p( a n ) .
x, p( x)
p( a 1 ) p( a 2 ) p( a n )
. x, p( x)
p( a 1 ) p( a 2 ) p( a n )
.
x, p( x)
p( a 1 ) p( a 2 ) p( a n )
x, p( x) .
x, p( x) x, p( x) .
x, p( x) x, p( x) .
26 | ,
| Order of Quantifiers
.

x, y, ( y x . )
y, x, ( y x . )

x , x y .
y x .
. .
.
, x y x y
y x x y
.
4.1
, , .
(1) x y, y > x
(2) y x, y > x
[ ] (1) x x + 1 > x y = x + 1 y > x .

x y > x y x .
(1) .
(2) x . x, y > x y
. (2) .

.
x y, ( x - 1) 2 + ( y - 2) 2 = 0
2
y x, ( x - 1) + ( y - 2) = 0
. x = 1 , y = 2 .

2
x y, x + ( y + 2) 0
y x, x + ( y + 2) 0
. 0 , 0
0 .
.
.
x y, y = f ( x)

x, [ y, ( y = f ( x) )]
.

.
04. | 27
4.2
. (
.)
> 0 > 0 x, 0 < | x - x 0 | < | f ( x) - L | <
[ ] [ > 0 > 0 x, ( 0 < | x - x 0 | < ) | f ( x) - L | < ]
> 0 , [ > 0 x, ( 0 < | x - x 0 | < ) | f ( x) - L | < ]
> 0 > 0, [x, ( 0 < | x - x 0 | < ) | f ( x) - L | < ]
> 0 > 0 x, [( 0 < | x - x 0 | < ) | f ( x) - L | < ]
> 0 > 0 x, [ (0 < | x - x 0 | < )] [ | f ( x) - L | < ]
> 0 > 0 x, 0 < | x - x 0 | < | f ( x) - L |
p( x) x , p( x) x
. .
4.3
p( x)
() x, p( x)
() p(x 1 ) p( x 2 )
x1= x2
p( x) x
1 x, p( x)
! x, p( x)
.
4.4
, , .
(1) p( x) x 2 < 3 x .
(2) ! x, x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
(3) x ! y, y = 2 x
(4) x ! y, x y
[ ] (1) 3 1 .
(2)
2
2
x + 2x + 1 = ( x + 1 ) = 0 - 1 , - 1
.
.
(3) x 2 x .
(4) x = 1 1 1 ,
! y, x y
. x 2 x
. x
.
p( x) x p( x)
x 1 x 2 x 1 = x 2 .

.
28 | ,

1.
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
.
2. .
(1) .
(2) .
(3) .
(4) .
(5) .
3. 2 .
4. [ x, q ( x )] x, ( q ( x )) .
[ x, p ( x )] x, ( p ( x ))
5. [ x, q ( x )] x, ( q ( x )) .
[ x, p ( x )] x, ( p ( x ))
6. n .
1
2
2
2
2
(1) 1 + 2 + 3 + + n = 6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 2
3
3
3
3
2
(2) 1 + 2 + 3 + + n = 4 n ( n + 1)
7. (binomial theorem)
(a+b) n = n C 0 a n + n C 1 a n - 1 b + n C 2 a n - 2b 2 + + n C r a n - r b r + + n C n b n
n .
(1) n = 1 .
(2) n = k n = k ( a + b) .
. (810)
8. .
. .
9. .
. .
.
10. .
. . .
.
.
04. | 29

.
.
19 (Boole, G. 18151871)
. 1854
.
,
1 0 , .
,
.

. ,
.
, ,
. .
1. .

. ,
?
2. ,
. ,
() .
?
3. . ?
1.
3.
5.
7.
.
.
.
.
2.
4.
6.
8.
.
.
.
.
4. .
.
.
. 2+2=4 ? ,
. 2+2=4
.
. -
?
30 | ,
05
| Sets and their Operations

| |
.
| The Concept of Set

. .
? .
?
?
.
(Georg Cantor)
.*
5.1
(element)
(set) .
A , B , C ,
a , b , c , .
a A
a A A a
a A , a A , A a
. b A
b
/ A A
/b
b A , A b .
.
A a a 2 -1= 0

2
a A, a -1= 0
.
5.2
.
(1) 2
(2) a , b , c , d
(3)
(4)
(5) 1 0
05. | 31
,
. (1)(3) (4) .
14 ,
.

. (2) A
A = { a, b, c, d }
. .
, .
{ a, b, c, d } = { b, d, a, c } = { c, a, d, b } =
. .
{ a, b, c, a } , { a, b, c }
.
.
.
(4)
{ n | n }
. .
A A n( A) .
n( { a, b, c, d }) = 4
.
(5) 1 0
.
. n( ) = 0 .
16
.

. { x | x 2 } x 2
. p ( x) { x | p ( x) }
.
.
.

, 7 .

.
.
32 | ,
| Operations of Sets

.
5.3
A B A B , a A a B
A B (subset) B A (superset)
A B B A .
5.4
S = { a, b, c } .
[ ] 2 3 = 8
. S 8
, { a } , { b } , { c } , { a, b } , { a, c } , { b, c } , S
.
n 2 n .
5.5
A B x A x B
A = B .
S A S A =
/ S A S .
S = { a, b, c }
, { a } , { b } , { c } , { a, b } , { a, c } , { b, c }
. A S A B .
.
. , A B A B A =
/ B .
5.6
A A .
[ ] A a a A
. a
. .
5.7
A B A B
A B . A B { x | x A x B } . A
B A B
A B . , A B { x | x A x B } .
n( A) + n( B) n( A B) .
A = { 1, 2, 3} , B = { 2, 4, 6}
A B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 6} . n( A) + n( B) = 6
n( A B) = 5 .
05. | 33
A B = { 3}
. ,
n( A B) = n( A) + n( B) - n( A B)
.
.
X , Y X Y =
n( X Y ) = n( X ) + n( Y )
.
,
. X Y .
5.9
A B A B
AB A - B .
AB { x | x A x B
/ } .
5.10
U A , A A
A c . , A c = U A .
x A B c
c
x A B x A x B x A x B
/ x AB
. AB = A B c .
5.11
A , B , C .
(1)
AA= A, AA= A
(2)
AB= BA, AB= BA
(3)
A ( B C) = ( A B) C , A ( B C) = ( A B) C
(4)
A ( B C) = ( A B) ( A C) ,
(5)
A ( B C) = ( A B) ( A C)
A = A , A = , AAc = , (Ac)c = A
(A B) c = A c B c , (A B) c = A c B c
(6)
[ ] (4) x A ( B C ) x A x B C
x A ( x B x C )
( x A x B ) ( x A x C )
( x A B ) ( x A C )
x ( A B ) ( A C )
A ( B C) = ( A B) ( A C) .
.
A ( B C ) = ( A B) C A B C
. A B C .
34 | ,
| Indexed Family
. .
A 1 = { a 1, a 2, a 3, , a n } , A 2 = { b 1, b 2, b 3, , b n }
A 3 = { c 1, c 2, c 3, , c n } , A 4 = { d 1, d 2, d 3, , d n }

F = { A 1 , A 2, A 3, A 4 }
. 14 A i (index).
(indexed family)
(family set) .
I = { 1, 2, 3, 4} F = { A i | i I } .
I (index set) .
3 .
5.12
F = { A i | i I } A i
A i { x | i I, x A i }
(1) : F
i I
A i { x | i I, x A i }
(2) : F
i I
.
F = { A 1, A 2, A 3, A 4 } A i
.
4
A i = A i = A 1 A 2 A 3 A 4
(1) : i
=1
i I
4
A i = A i = A 1 A 2 A 3 A 4
(2) : i
i I
=1
.
5.13
U { A i | i I } I = .
Ai=
(1)
i
Ai = U
(2)
i
A i = x
/ A i
[ ] (1)
x
i
i
.
x
/ A i ( x A i ) ( i , x A i )
i
i , x A
/ i i x A
/ i
i .
A i U .
(2) U
i
A i .
U x x
i
x A i i , x A i i x A i
i
i .
05. | 35
5.14
A { A i | i I } .
c
Ai) = Ai
(1) (
i I
i I
Ai) = Ai
(2) (
i I
i I
(1)
(2)
A i ) = ( A A i)
(3) A (
i I
i I
(1)
A i ) = ( A A i)
(4) A (
i I
i I
(2)
A i ) ( x A i ) [ i I, x A i ]
[ ] (1) x (
i I
i I
c
i I, x A
/ i i I, x A i x A i
i I
A i ) x A x A i x A ( i I, x A i )
(3) x A (
i I
i I
i I, ( x A x A i ) i I, x A A i x A A i
i I
.
a , b { x | a < x a .
1
n , n < a .
5.16
A A P(A) 2 A
. P( A) { X | X A } .
2 A A { 0, 1 }
. Y X X Y .
P( A) 2 A P( A) 2 A
. 8.18 .
5.17
S = { a, b, c } P( S) .
P( S) = { , { a }, { b }, { c }, { a, b }, { b, c }, { a, c }, S }
36 | ,

.

. 1895
. (Bertrand Russell,
18721970) 1902
.
.
5.18
.
[ ] U .
R R = { S | S U S S
/ } R R
/ .
R R . R U R R R
/ .
.
R = { S | S U S S
/ } R R . R R
/
R U R R R . .
U R R R R
/ R
. U .
(Paul R. Halmos) .
(nothing contains everything).
1895 (Georg Cantor, 18451918)
.
.
.

, , ,
, , ,
.
.

,
.

.

, , ,
.
05. | 37
1. stewardess steward
.
2. , .
(1) A = { x | x 2 -8x+ 17= 0 }
(2) B = { 2, 4, 6 }
(3) C = { 2k | k }
(4) D = { 6 }
3. A B AB B A .
4. A A = .
5. A , B , C [ ( AB ) ( B C )] ( AC )
.
6. { x, { y, z }} .
7. A , B , C .
(1) AB A B = B A B = A
(3) ( A C ) ( B C ) ( A B )C
(4) ( A B ) ( A C ) A( B C )
(5) AB P( A)P( B )
(6) A B = A B A = B
(7) AB = A( B A)
(8) A B ( BA) B = A
8. A n P( A) 2 n .
9. ? .
10. A , B .
(1) P( A) P( B ) = P( A B )
(2) P( A) P( B ) = P( A B )
11. A 1 = { a, b, c, d } , A 2 = { b, c, d } , A 3 = { a, b, c } , A 4 = { a, b }
.
4
(1) i = 1 A i
(2) i = 1 A i
12. a , b [ a, b] { x | a x b }
. a > b [ a, b] = . .
(1)
1
0, n
(2)
[ n1 , 1]
13. (1) , (2) .

(1)
(i=1 Ai ) (j=1 Bj )
(2)
( i= 1 A i ) ( j=1 B j )
38 | ,
06
| Relations and Partitions

| |
.
| Cartesian Product
.
{ , } , { , } , { , } , { , } ,
, ,
? .
.
?
a , b .
6.1
a , b ( a, b)
( a, b) { { a }, { a, b }}
. a , b .
(ordered) a , b
. ( a, b) { a, b} .
6.2
( a, b) = ( c, d ) a = c b = d .
[ ] () ( a, b) = ( c, d )
{ { a }, { a, b }} = { { c }, { c, d }}
. a =
/ b c =
/ d
{ a } = { c } { a, b } = { c, d } . { a } = { c } a = c
. { a, b } = { c, d } a = c b = d .
() a = c b = d
( a, b) = { { a }, { a, b }} = { { c }, { c, d }} = ( c, d)
( a, b) = ( c, d ) .
(cartesian product) .
6.3
A , B x A , y B ( x, y)
A B , A B .
AB { ( x, y) | x A y B }
2
. A AA .
06. | 39
6.4
A = { a, b, c} , B = { 1, 2} A B B A .
[ ]
AB = { ( a, 1), ( a, 2), ( b, 1) ( b, 2) ( c, 1) ( c, 2) } ,
BA = { ( 1, a), ( 1, b), ( 1, c) ( 2, a) ( 2, b) ( 2, c) }
.
6.5
A , B , C .
(1) A ( B C ) = ( AB ) ( AC )
(2) A ( B C ) = ( AB ) ( AC )
(3) A ( BC ) = ( AB ) ( AC )
[ ] (1) ( x, y) A( B C ) x A y B C
x A ( y B y C ) ( x A y B ) ( x A y C )
( x, y) AB ( x, y) AC ( x, y) ( AB) ( AC )
A ( B C ) = ( AB ) ( AC ) .
.
6.6

( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) { ( i, a i ) | 1 i n i }
.
6.7
( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) = ( b 1, b 2, , b n ) i, a i = b i .
.
( a 1 , a 2, , a n + 1 ) ( ( a 1 , a 2, , a n ), a n + 1 )
.
.
,
.
6.8
F = { A i | i { 1, 2, , n }}
n
A i A 1A 2A n { ( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) | i, a i A i }
F i
=1
. A n + 1 A nA . , a i ( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) i
, i i .
( x, y) 2
2 . n n (n
dimensions real space) .
40 | ,
| Relation
A , B A a R B b
A B ( a, b)
.
.
6.9
A B R A B .
( a, b) R a R b
.
aR b
a R b
.
.
6.10
R = { ( 1, 2), ( 2, 4), ( 3, 6), ( 4, 8), ( 5, 10)}

1 R 2 , 2 R 4 , 3 R 6 , 4 R 8 , 5 R 10
. A = { x | 10 } R AA R A
A . R
R = { ( x, y) | y = 2x ( x, y) AA }
.
,
.
6.11
A , B A B R R - 1
R - 1 { ( y, x ) | ( x, y ) R }
.
6.12
R = { ( 1, 2), ( 2, 4), ( 3, 6), ( 4, 8), ( 5, 10)} .

[ ]
1 R 2 , 2 R 4 , 3 R 6 , 4 R 8 , 5 R 10
2R
-1
1, 4R
-1
2, 6R
-1
3, 8R
-1
4 , 10 R
-1
. R
R
-1
= { ( 2, 1), ( 4, 2), ( 6, 3), ( 8, 4), ( 10, 5) }
.
A = { x | 10 }

R = { ( x, y) | x = 2y ( x, y) AA }
.
06. | 41
6.13
M , F xRy x y
R F M . ( a, b) R a R b
x y y x
. yR - 1x xRy y x .
6.14
G H G BC , H AB , GH
GH = { ( x, y ) | z B, ( x, z) H ( z, y) G }
.
GH A C . GH
. GH G H .
6.15
G , H
G = { ( z, y) | z y 2 } , H = { ( x, z) | x z }
GH
GH = { ( x, y) | x 2y }
.
6.16
F , G , H F CD , G BC , H AB .
(1) ( F G )H = F( GH )
(2) ( F - 1 ) - 1 = F
(3) ( FG ) - 1 = G - 1F - 1
[ ] (2) F
( x, y) ( F - 1 ) - 1 ( y, x) F - 1 ( x, y) F
( FG ) - 1 = G - 1F - 1 (2) . (1) (3)
.
6.17
6.18
X R .
(1) xX, x R x
R .
(2) x R y y R x
R .
(3) x R y y R z x R z
R .
(4) R (1), (2), (3) .
R .
R = { ( x, x ) | x X } X .
[ ] () xX, ( x, x)R .
() x =
/ y ( x, y ) R
/ x R y ( x, y) R x = y .
x R y = x R x = y R x .
() x R y x = y y R z y = z
x R y y R z y R y y R y y R y x R z .
R .
42 | ,
6.18 A A
. .
A A A .
. A
R A R AA .
6.19
R R XX .
(1) R = R - 1 R .
(2) RR R R .
[ ] R
(x, y) R ( y, x) R ( x , y) R
-1
. R = R - 1
( x, y) R ( x, y) R
. (1) .
-1
( y, x) R
R
( x, y) RR z, [ ( x, z) R ( z, y) R ] ( x, y) R
RR R . RR R
( y, z) R ( x, y) R ( x, z) RR R
R . (2) .
6.20
X Y R , y Y, x R y x R
(domain) Dom( R) . x X, x R y y
R (image) Im( R) . R

Dom( R) { x |y Y, x R y } , Im( R) { y |x X, x R y }
.

.
.
X R X X
.
R = { ( x, y) | ( x, y) x 2 + y 2 = 4 }
.

.
06. | 43
| Partition
.
.
6.21
X P
() A P B P, [ A B = A = B ]
() A P, A =
/
() P = X
P X (partition) .
6.22
X = { 1, 2, 3, , 9} , A = { 1, 2, 5} , B = { 3, 4, 7} , C = { 6, 8, 9}
P = { A, B, C } X .
A , B , C , A B C = X
.
6.23
Z k = { x | x 3 k } P = { Z 0, Z 1, Z 2 }
P . 3
0 , 1 , 2 Z 0 , Z 1 , Z 2
. , Z 0 Z 1 = , Z 1 Z 2 = , Z 0 Z 2 =
Z i .
. R x R x
,
. .
6.24
E X , X x
E x = { y | y E yEx }
x (equivalent class) . X
(quotient set) X/E .

X/E { E x | x X }
.
44 | ,
6.25
x y xRy x y 3
. 3 , 6 , 9 , , 3k , 3
0 R 3 = R 6 = = R 3k = { 3, 6, 9, , 3k, } .
R 1 = R 4 = = R 3k - 2 = { 1, 4, 7, , 3k - 2, } ,
R 2 = R 5 = = R 3k - 1 = { 2, 5, 8, , 3k - 1, }
. R 1 1 , R 2 2 ,
R 3 3 .
/R = { R 1, R 2, R 3, R 4, R 5, R 6, R 7, , R n, }

/R = { R 1, R 2, R 3 }
. .
R 1 , R 2 , 1/R , 2/R , .
R x x/R .
6.26
P X . X R p
R p { ( x, y) | A P, x A y A }
. , x y R p
R p .
E X X . , E
xEx x E x X/E E x
/ E x = E y .
. , E x E y =
X x x E x .
X E X .
X P . X a , b
P ,
aEb A P, [ a A b A ]
E . , P A X a
a A a A aEa E . a b
b a aEb bEa
. a b , b c a
c aEb bEc aEc .
X/E P P .
X P R p .
06. | 45
1. A , B A B = BA ?
2. AB = A = B = .
3. A n( AA ) = 9 , { ( - 1, 0), ( 0, 1)} AA . ,
A A A .
4. A , B , C , D .
(1) A C B D A B C D .
(2) P ( A B ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) .
(3) ( A B ) ( CD ) = ( A C )( B D ) .
(4) ( A C ) ( BD ) = ( A B )( C D ) .
5. .
6. .
7. A B R .
(1) Dom( R - 1 ) = Im( R)
(2) Im( R - 1 ) = Dom( R)
8. X R .
(1) R x R .
(2) R = R - 1 R .
(3) R - 1 R .
(4) R - 1 R .
(5) R - 1 R .
9. X = ( { 0})
( a, b) ( c, d) ad = bc
, . (, .)
AA .
10. X P R p = A
P
11. X = { a, b, c, d, e } , P = { { a, b }, { c }, { d, e }} P X
R p , X/R p .
12. X P R p X
. R p X P .
X/R p = P . .
13. X E X/E X .
R
X/E
X . R
X/E = E
46 | ,
07
| The Axioms of Set Theory

|

.
| Building Classes

?
. ,
, ?
. ,
?
.
?
.

. (collection of objects)
.
.
.
.
S-1
x = y x A y A .
7.1
A , B A = B x A x B .
. A B x A x B .
A B .
S-2
S p( x) , , , , , , ,
p( x) S
C . C = { x S | p( x) } .
C S .
7.2
A B A B = { x | x A x B } .
A B = { x | x A x B } . A -
A c = { x | x A
/ } .
07. | 47
. , , ,
,
.
.
7.3
A , B .
(1) A = A
(2) A = B B = A
(3) A = B B = C A = C
(4) A B B C A C
[ ] x A x A . (1) .
A = B x A x B x B x A (2) .
A , B , C A = B B = C .
x A x B x B x C
. x A x C (3) .

x A x B x B x C
x A x C (4) .
.
.
(1) A ( A B) = A , A ( A B) = A
(2) ( A B) c = ( A c B c ) , ( A B) c = ( A c B c )
(3) A A B , B A B , A B A , A B B
(4) ( A B) C = A ( B C) , ( A B) C = A ( B C)
7.4

A { x | A , x A }
(1) : A
A { x | A , x A }
(2) : A
.
7.4 5.12 .
F ,
. 7.4
.
7.5
= { S | S = { y | 0 y x 2 } x } .
S 0 S . 0 .
{
/ y | 0 y 2 } ,
S .
= { 0 } . > 0, { y | 0 y } ,
S S 0 .
48 | ,
| Formal Definition of Set

.
7.6
A A B B .
.
,
.
.
(proper class) . S { S}
. C = { a, b} a b
a C b C a b .
S-3
a , b { a, b } . a , b { a, b } .
. { a} = { a, a } .
S-3 .
S-4
.
A B A .
.
S-5
A .
S-5 S-4
. X Y = { X, Y }
X Y =
.
.
7.7
A P( A) = { B | B A } .
P( A) A . P( A)
. .
S-6
A P( A) .
A P( A)
.
07. | 49
S-6 . A
B = { X | X A p( X ) }
A p( X ) . X A
X B X P( A) . B P( A) .
S-6 P(P( A)) B P( P( A)) B .
.
(universal class) .
7.8
.
U { x | C, x C }
.
.
. U .
S-2
.
. U .
7.9
.
, .
S-8
.
.
= { } , = { x | x =
/ x } .
.
7.11
A .
() A = A
() A =
() A U = U
() A U = A
() U c =
() c = U
() A A c = U
() A A c =
[ ] A A A = A .
() . A A U A U = U .
() .
.
50 | ,
7.12
A , B A B .
[ ] A B . P( P( A B)) .
AB P( P( A B)) .
( x, y) AB
x A { x } A B { x } P( A B)
. { x, y } P( A B) .
{ { x }, { x, y }} P( A B) { { x }, { x, y }} P( P( A B))
{ { x }, { x, y }} P( P( A B)) ( x, y) P( P( A B))
. AB P( P( A B)) .
7.13
A B R .
[ ] ,
.

.
7.14
A A B B .
[ ] B A .
. B .
7.15
R = { x | x x
/ } .
[ ] C R C .
R R
/ . R R R . .
R R R R R
/ . .
R . R
. R R
/ . R R
R R . , .
R .
7.16
U .
[ ] C U C U .
. U .

.
,
,
. S-1S-6
.
07. | 51
1. A , B A = B A c = B c .
2. { x, y } = { u, v } x = u y = v x = v y = u .
3. .
(1) a = { b } b a .
(2) { x } = { y } x = y .
(3) { x } a x a .
(4) { a, b } = { a } a = b .
4. .
5. F = { A i | i I } F .
6. R R .
7. G H GH .
8. A , B P( A) = P( B) A = B .
9. B P( B) = B , P( B) = .
10. { A i | i I } , { B j | j J } .
A i )( B j ) =
(1) (
i I
j J
( i, j) IJ
( A iB j )
A i )( B j ) =
(2) (
i I
j J
( i, j) IJ
( A iB j )
11. A B = { B i | i I } A B B A
(covering) . B = { B i | i I } , C = { C j | j J } A
{ B i C j | ( i, j) IJ } A .
12. .
13. .
14. (Berry) .
For the sake of argument, let us admit that all the words of the English language
are listed in some standard dictionary. Let T be the set of all the natural numbers
that can be described in fewer than twenty words of the English language. Since
there are only a finite number of English words, there are only finitely many
combinations of fewer than twenty such wordsthat is, T is a finite set. Quite
obviously, then, there are natural numbers which are greater than all the elements
of T; hence there is a least natural number which cannot be described in fewer than
twenty words of the English language. By definition, this number is not in T ; yet
we have described it in sixteen words, hence it is in T.
52 | ,
08
| Functions and Inverse Functions

|
.
| Definition of Function

. .
.
. ?
X Y X x Y y .
. .
.
.
f 1 = { ( 1, b), ( 2, a), ( 3, d ) }
f 2 = { ( 1, b), ( 2, a), ( 2, c), ( 3, d ), ( 4, c) }
f 3 = { ( 1, b), ( 2, c), ( 3, d ), ( 4, c) }
.
. f 1 4
Y . f 2 X
Y . 2 Y a c
. f 3 X Y .
f 3 .
y = f ( x) ( x, y) f .
8.1
X Y f
() x X y Y, ( x, y) f
Dom( f ) = X ,
() ( x, y) f ( x, z) f y = z
f X Y < f, X, Y > f : X Y
. < f, X, Y >
f f ( x) .
08. | 53
( a, b) f b = f ( a) . y = f ( x) x
f ( x) (variable) .
.
X Y f
() X x y = f ( x) Y y
() X x y = f ( x) z = f ( x) y = z
.
()
() X x y = f ( x) y
() () .
a b = f ( a) b
. b f a (image) , a f b
(preimage) .

2
f = { ( x, y) | x X y Y x +1= y }
.
,
f ( x) = x 2 +1
.
8.2
f : X Y , f : X Y , x X, f ( x) = g( x) f = g .
[ ] () f = g X x
y = f ( x) ( x, y) f ( x, y) g y = g( x)
f ( x) = g( x) .
() x X f ( x) = g( x)
( x, y) f y = f ( x) y = g( x) ( x, y) g
( x, y) f ( x, y) g . f = g .
f : X Y Y f (codomain) .
(range)
. Dom( f )
Rng( f ) .
.
f ( x) = x 2 0
. f : 0
' f : ' .
.
54 | ,
8.3
f : X Y Rng( f ) Z f 2 : X Z f 2 (x) = f( x)
f 2 .
[ ] f 2 : X Z
( x, y) f 2 x X y Rng( f 2 ) x X y Z ( x, y) XZ
f 2 X Z . f : X Y X
x ( x, y) f Y y . f 2
X x (x, y) f 2 Y y
. f 2 : X Z .

.
.
8.4
X Y f : X Y X x f ( x) = x
f X (identity function) I X .
X X I X = { ( x, x) | x X } .
X = { ( x, x) | x X } .
8.5
f : X Y
!c Y x X, f ( x) = c
f (constant function) K c .

f ( x) = x 2 + 2x + 1
.

f ( x) =
x ,
x
2 ,
x0
x<0
. f
.
8.6
f : X Y A X ,
f | A { ( x, y) | y = f ( x) x A }
f . f f | A .
f : f ( x) = x 3
f | f , f f | .
08. | 55
8.7
X , Y , Z X Y = , g : X Z , h : Y Z
f = g h f : X Y Z g = f | X h= f | Y .
.
.
8.8
f : A C , g : B D , x A B, f ( x) = g( x)
h = f g h : A B C D .
[ ] f , g f AC , g BD
h = f g ( A C ) ( BD )
. A C , B D ( A B )( C D)
( AC ) ( BD ) ( A B ) ( C D )
. h ( A B)( C D) . h A B C D
.
Dom( h) = Dom( f g) = Dom( f ) Dom( g) = A B
.
h () .
A B x .
(1) x AB
(2) x BA
(3) x A B
f : A C g : B D () .
A B x f ( x) = g( x)
h( x) . h ()
h h : A B C D .
A B h f g
h ( x) =
{ fg((x)x),,
x A
x B
| Inverse Functions
, ,
.
8.9
f : X Y X x 1 , x 2
f (x1)= f (x2) x1 = x2
(injective) (one to one) .
8.10
f : X Y ,
y Y x X, y = f ( x)
(surjective) (onto) .
56 | ,
8.11
f : X Y (bijective)
(one to one correspondence) .
f f - 1 .
.
8.12
f : X Y f - 1 = { ( y, x) | y = f ( x) } .
[ ] f XY f - 1 YX f - 1 . f
Im( f ) = Y Dom( f - 1 ) = Y .
( y, x 1 ) f - 1 ( y, x 2 ) f - 1 ( x 1 , y) f ( x 2 , y) f
y= f (x1) y = f (x2) f (x1) = f (x2) x1= x2
f
-1
. f - 1 .
f - 1 . Y y 1 y 2
f - 1 (y 1 ) = f - 1 (y 2 ) = x f ( x) = y 1 f ( x) = y 2 y 1 = y 2
f - 1 . f Im( f
f
8.13
-1
. f
-1
-1
) = Dom( f ) = X
f : X Y f - 1
, f - 1 : Y X f (inverse function) .
, .

y = f ( x) f - 1 ( y) = x .
8.14
x-1
f ( x) = x + 2 .
[ ] f x =/ 2 y =
/ 1 .
x-1
y = f ( x) y = x + 2 .
y=
( x + 2) - 3
3
= 1x+2
x+2
. x
y = 1-
3
x+2
3
( 1 - y)( x + 2 ) = 3
x+2
3
3
x+2 =
x=
-2
1-y
1-y
1-y =
. y = f ( x) f
f
-1
-1
(y) = x =
(y) = x =
3
- 2 .
1-y
3
-2 ( y=
/ 1 ).
1-y
08. | 57
8.15
f : X Y .
(1) Dom( f ) = Rng( f
-1
(2) Rng( f ) = Dom( f
-1
[ ] x Dom( f ) y, ( x, y) f y, ( y, x) f - 1 x Rng( f
x Dom( f ) x Rng( f
-1
-1
) (1) .
f f (invertible) . f
f .
8.16
f : X Y f .
[ ] Rng( f ) = Dom( f - 1 ) = Y f .
(x 1 , y) f ( x 2, y) f ( y , x 1 ) f - 1 ( y, x 2 ) f - 1 x 1 = x 2
f .
| Generalized Cartesian Product

6
n
A i A 1A 2A n { ( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) | i, a i A i }
i= 1
.
.
8.17
A , B B A A B .
A 2 A A { 0, 1 } .
8.18
A i . A
{ A i | i I } A =
i
i I
I
A i = { f | f A [ i I, f ( i ) A i ] }
i I
.
I = { 1, 2 } , A 1 = { a, b } , A 2 = { c, d } A i
f ( 1) A 1 , f ( 2) A 2 f : { 1, 2 } { a, b, c, d }
. 4 .
x
1
2
f ( x)
a
c
x
1
2
f ( x)
a
d
x
1
2
f ( x)
b
c
x
1
2
f ( x)
b
d
4 ( a, c) , ( a, d ) , ( b, c) , ( b, d ) 8.18
A i A 1 A 2 . 8.18 6.8 A
. .
58 | ,
P( A) 2 A , P( A) 2 A
. P( A) 2 A .
8.19
A X ,
A (x) =
{ 1,0,
x A
x A
/
A : X { 0, 1} X A .
8.20
A 2 A P( A) .
[ ] P( A) 2 A : P( A) 2 A .
B P( A) B 2 A .
B P( A), ( B) = B
. P( A) 2 A .
.
() B P( A) D P( A) . ( B) = ( D) B = D
{ x A | B (x) = 0 } = { x A | D (x) = 0 }
. B = D .
() f 2 A B = f - 1 ( { 1}) f = B = ( B) .
.
() () P( A) 2 A .
16 .
.
7 .
S-7
A f : A B B .
F = { A i | i I } I F .
i I, ( i) = A i
: I F . F
S-5 A = A i . f : I A f IA
f . .
I = { , { }} a , b F = { a, b} . f
f ( ) = a , f ( { }) = b
f : I F F . S-3 S-7
. S-3 .
08. | 59
1.
X = { x, y, z } , Y = { 1, 2, 3 } X Y
.
(1) f = { ( x, 1), ( y, 2), ( z, 3) }
(2) g = { ( x, 2), ( y, 3), ( z, 2) }
(3) h = { ( x, 2), ( y, 1) }
(4) i = { ( x, 1), ( x, 2), ( y, 1), ( z, 3) }
2. f : X X X f .
3. f : X Y , g : X Y f g f = g .
4. C b : X Y ? ?
5. X , Y n( X) = p , n( Y) = q X Y
.
6. X n( X) = m X X
.
7. A = { 1, 2, 3 } , B = { a, b } B A , 2 A , P( A) .
8. e f : e
.
9. f :
.
10. X X f : X X f
.
11. A f = { ( x, ( x, x)) | x A } A A
.
12. f : A B , g : C D
( x, y) AC, ( f g)( x, y) = ( f ( x) , g( y) )
f g A C B D .
13. { A i | i I } , { B i | i I } .
( A i ) ( B i ) = (A i Bi )
i I
i I
i I
14. { A i | i I } , { B j | j J } .
Ai) ( Bj) =
(1) (
i I
j J
( i, j) IJ
( A i B j )
Ai) ( Bj) =
(2) (
i I
j J
( i, j) IJ
( A i B j )
60 | ,
09
| Image and Composition of Functions

|
.
| Composition of Functions

f : X Y , y = f ( x)
g : Y Z , z = g( y)
, X x Z z z = g( f ( x)) X
, Z .
.
f : X Y g : Y Z
R = { ( x, z ) | y Y, ( x, y ) f ( y, z ) g }
. R f , g
x R z z = g( f ( x))
. x R z z f x g
. R f g .
9.1
f : X Y g : Y Z Im( f ) Dom( g )
R = { ( x, z ) | y Y, ( x, y ) f ( y, z ) g }
. R f g (composition)
gf . , x R z z = ( g f )( x) .
f g gf
g( f ( x)) x f g
. .
9.2
f : X Y g : Y Z z = ( g f )( x) z = g( f ( x)) .
[ ] .
z = ( g f )( x) ( x, z) gf y, ( x, y) f ( y, z) g
y, y = f ( x) z = g( y) y, z = g( f ( x))
z = g( f ( x)) y
y, z = g( f ( x)) z = g( f ( x))
. z = ( g f )( x) z = g( f ( x)) .
z = g( f ( x)) y y
. f ( x) y
y .
09. | 61
9.3
f : X Y , g : Y Z , h : Z W
( h g)f = h( gf )
.
[ ]
( x, y) ( hg)f y = ( ( hg)f )( x) y = ( hg)( f ( x) )
y = h( g( f ( x) ) y = h( ( g f )( x) ) y = ( h( g f ))( x)
( x, y) h( g f )
( h g)f = h( gf ) .
hgf
h( gf ) ( hg)f .
.
9.4
f ( x) = x + 1 , g(x) = x 2 gf fg
.
2
( g f )( x) = g( f ( x)) = g( x + 1) = ( x + 1) = x +2x+ 1
2
( fg )( x) = f ( g( x)) = f ( x ) = x +1
( g f )( x) = x 2 +2x+ 1 , ( f g)( x) = x 2 +1 .
X x i( x) = x i
I X .
.
9.5
f : X Y f - 1 : Y X ( f f - 1 )( y) = y
( f - 1f )( x) = x .
[ ] X x y = f ( x) x = f - 1 (y) .
x X, ( f - 1f )( x) = f - 1 ( f ( x)) = f - 1 (y) = x
. ( ff - 1 )( y) = y .
.
f : X Y f
-1
f = I X ff
I Y Y I : Y Y .
-1
= I Y .
62 | ,
,
.
9.6
f : X Y g : Y X gf = I X fg = I Y
f g g = f - 1 .
[ ] X x 1 x 2
f ( x 1 ) = f ( x 2 ) g( f ( x 1 )) = g( f ( x 2 )) I X (x 1 ) = I X (x 2 ) x 1 = x 2
f . g .
X x
x = I X (x) = ( g f )( x) = g( f ( x))
f ( x) = y g( y) = x .
x X y Y, x = g( y)
g . f . f g
. g = f - 1 .
( y, x) g x = g( y) f ( x) = f ( g( y)) = I Y (y) = y
x=f

-1
(y) ( y, x) f
-1
( y, x) f - 1 x = f - 1 (y) y = f ( x)
g ( y) = g( f ( x)) = I X (x) = x ( y, x) g
y Y, [ x = g( y) x = f
. f
9.7
-1
(y) = g( y) f
-1
-1
(y) ]
= g .
f : X Y g : Y Z (g f ) - 1 = f - 1g - 1 .
[ ] f - 1g - 1 gf
(f
-1
-1
)( gf ) = f
-1
( g
-1
( ( g
-1
)) = g( ( ff
-1
( gf )) = f
-1
g)f )
= f - 1( I Yf ) = f - 1f = I X
.

( g f )( f
-1
= g( I Yg
-1
-1
) = g( f( f
) = gg
-1
-1
= IZ
f - 1g - 1 gf .
-1
)g
-1
09. | 63
9.8
f g .
(1) Dom( g f ) Dom( f )
(2) Rng( gf ) Rng( g)
[ ] x Dom( g f ) y, ( x, y) gf
z, [ ( x, z) f ( z, y) g ] x Dom( f )
x Dom( g f ) x Dom( f ) (1) .
Rng( gf ) Rng( g) .
9.9
f : X Y gf = I X g : Y X .
[ ] f Rng( f ) = B . f : X B
. f - 1 : B X . X x 0
YB
g=f
-1
x 0
h : ( YB) X
h g : Y X . X x
f ( x) = y
( gf )( x) = g( f ( x)) = g( y) = f
-1
(y) = x
x X, ( g f )( x) = I X (x)
gf = I X . g .
9.10
f : X Y g : Y Z .
() f g gf .
() f g gf .
() gf f .
() gf g .
[ ] X x 1 , x 2
( g f )( x 1 ) = ( g f )( x 2 ) g( f( ( x 1 )) = g( f ( x 2 ))
f (x1)= f (x2) x1 = x2
() .
f , g Z z g( y) = z Y y
, y f ( x) = y X x .
( g f )( x) = g( f ( x)) = g( y) = z
() .
X x 1 , x 2
f ( x 1 ) = f ( x 2 ) g( f ( x 1 )) = g( f ( x 2 )) ( gf )( x 1 ) = ( g f )( x 2 )
. gf x 1 = x 2 . () .
gf Z z ( g f )( x) = z
X x . g( f ( x)) = z f ( x) Y
. () .
64 | ,
| Image and Inverse Image

.
.
9.11
f : X Y A X , f ( A)
f ( A) { y | ( x, y) f x A }
f A .
f : X Y ran( f ) = f ( X ) .
9.12
f : X Y A B X f ( A) f ( B) .
[ ] y f ( A) . y = f ( x) x A
A B
x B .
f ( x) f ( B)
y f ( B) .
9.13
f : X Y { A i | i I A i X }
A i ) = f ( A i)
() f (
i I
i I
A i ) f ( A i)
() f (
i I
i I
A i ) = f ( A i ) .
() f f (
i I
i I
.
A i ) x f ( A i ) y = f ( x)
[ ] () y f (
i I
i I
i I, x A i y = f ( x)
i I, f ( x) f ( A i )
i I, y f ( A i )
y f ( A i )
i I
A j A i f ( A j ) f ( A i ) .
() I i
j I
j I
A j ) f ( A i ) f ( A i ) f ( A i ) .
f (
j I
i I
i I
i I
f ( A i ) i I, y f ( A i ) i I x i A i, y = f ( x i )
() y
i I
f y x i . x 0

y f ( A i ) i I x 0 A i, y = f ( x 0 )
i I
x 0 A i, y = f ( x 0 )
i I
y f ( A i )
i I
09. | 65

.
9.14
f : X Y B Y , f - 1 (B)
f
-1
(B) { x | ( x, y) f y B }
f A .
9.15
f : X Y C D Y f - 1 (C) f - 1 (D) .
[ ] x
-1
x f (C) f ( x) C f ( x) D x f
.
-1
(D)
f : X Y C = D X f ( C) = f ( D)
. C = D Y f - 1 (C) = f - 1 (D)
.
.
9.16
f : X Y f ( ) = , f - 1 () = .
9.17
f : X Y { B i | i I B i Y }
() f
-1
() f
-1
( Bi ) = f
-1
( B i)
( Bi ) = f
-1
( B i)
i I
i I
i I
i I
.
f : X Y f ( C) , f - 1 (D) f
f( C) , f ( D) .
9.18
f : X Y f : P( X ) P( Y ) f : P( Y ) P( X ) .
[ ] dom f = P( X ) ran f P( Y ) .
C = D P( Y ) C = D Y f ( C) = f ( D)
f . f .
f .
66 | ,

1. f : A B , g : B C gf : A C .
2. .
3. f : A B g : B C f g gf
.
4. D g : B C h : B C .
(1) f : A B gf = hf g = h .
(2) f : C D fg = fh g = h .
5. f : B C g : A B , h : A B
fg = fh g = h .
6. f : A B g : B C , h : B C
gf = hf g = h .
7. f : A C g : A B f = hg h : B C
A x , y g( x) = g( y) f ( x) = f ( y)
. h .
8. f : C A , g : B A g . f = gh
h : C B ran( f ) ran( g) .
h .
9. f : X Y X A , B f ( A) f ( B) f ( AB)
.
10. f : X Y Y C , D .
(1) f - 1 (CD) = f - 1 (C) f - 1 (D)
(2) f - 1 (D c ) = ( f - 1 (D )) c
11. f : X Y A X B Y .
(1) A f - 1 (f ( A))
(2) f ( f
-1
( B)) B
(3) f f - 1 (f ( A)) = A .
(4) f f ( f
-1
( B)) = B .
12. f : A B .
(1) f f f f f .
(2) f f f f f .
(3) C A f ( f ( f ( C))) = f ( C) f f f = f .
09. | 67
13. f : A B .
(1) f C A , D A f ( C) = f ( D) C = D .
(2) f C B , D B f - 1 (C) = f - 1 (D) C = D .
14. A B = { B i | i I }
[ i I, B i A ] B A
.
15. { A i | i I } , { B i | i I } i I, A i B i
Ai Bi
i I
i I
.
16. { A i | i I } A = A i . I i A
a = ( a 1 , a 2, , a n ) p i ( a) = a i p i i -
p i ( B i ) = B i .
. , i I, B i A i
i I
i I
17. { A i | i I } A = A i . B A I i
B i .
B i = p i ( B) B
i I
18. A , B .
(1) (A B) c A c B c
(2) A c B c ( A B) c
19. A , B A B B A A B
.
20. A = { A i | i I } I A i A .
, A .
21. { B i | i I } B f : A B
{f
-1
(B i ) | i I }
A .
22. { A i | i I } A f : A B { f ( A i ) | i I }
f ( A) .
23. G B f : A B .
f ( G) = { ( x, y) | ( f ( x) , f ( y) ) G }
A .
24. f : A B
G = { ( x, y) | f ( x) = f ( y) }
A .
68 | ,
10
| The Natural Numbers

| | |
.
| Definition of Natural Number

.
.
.
.
[ ] .
1. 1
2. n n +
3. n , n + =
/1
4. n m , [ n + = m + n = m ]
5. [ X 1 X ( n X n + X ) ] X =
n n + n (successor) n + 1 . 1
2 1 2 , 3 , 4 , . 3
1 1
. 4
5 (mathematical induction) .
.
.
.
0=
1 = { 0}
2 = { 0, 1}
3 = { 0, 1, 2}
4 = { 0, 1, 2, 3}
.
0 = , 1 = { } , 2 = { , { }} , 3 = { ,{ },{ , { }}} ,
.
0 = , 1 = { } , a + = a { a}
a + a a + 1 .
10. | 69
A (successor set) .
() 1 A
() a A a + A

.
. .
S-8
.
.
,
. .
.
10.1
.
.
.
10.2
[ ] X
() 1 X
() n X n + X
X = .
[ ] () () X .
X . X X = .
10.3
n n + =
/ 1 .
[ ] n + = 0 n + = n { n} n n + . 0
. n n +
n n + =
/ 0 .
+
1 =
/ 0 n =
/ 0 n =
/ 0 0 .
0
/ . n + = 1 n = 0 0 . .
n + =
/ 1 .
4
.
10.4
m , n m n + m n m = n .
[ ] n + = n { n} m n m { n} .
{ n} m { n} m = n .
70 | ,
10.5
A x A x A A (transitive) .
3 . 3 , { } , { , { }}
3 .
10.6
.
[ ] X .
X .
1 = { } . { } .
n X . m n + m n
m = n . m n m n . n n + m n + .
m = n n n + m n + . m n + m n +
n + X . X =
.
10.7
n , m n + = m + n = m .
[ ] n , m n + = m + . n n + n m + .
n m n = m . m n m = n . n =
/ m
n m m n . n m m n .
n = m n =
/ m . n = m .

. 1 2
, 3 10.3, 4 10.7, 5 10.2 .
| Mathematical Induction

.
.
10.8
n P( n)
() P( 1) ,
() P( n) P( n + 1)
P( n) n .
[ ] M P( n) . ()
1 M . () n M n + = n + 1
M . (), () M 5 M
. P( n) .
10. | 71
.
n
( n) = 2 2 f .
() ( 1) = 4 , () ( n + 1) = f ( ( n)) = [ ( n) ] 2
.
(finite recursion theorem).
10.9
[ ] A c A f A A
.
() ( 1) = c
() n , ( n + ) = f ( ( n))
: A .
[ ] . A
(1) n x A, ( n, x)
(2) ( n, x 1 ) ( n, x 2 ) x 1 = x 2
(3) ( 1, c)
(4) ( n, x) ( n +, f ( x))
. (1) (2) A (3) (4)
(), () .
= { G | G A G satisfies ( 3) and ( 4) }
. A .
.
= G
G
. . (3) (4)
(1) (2) .
(1) . (3) ( 1, c) , 1 dom .
n dom
x A, ( n, x)
+
(4) ( n , f ( x)) . n + dom .

dom = .
(2) N .
N = { n | ( n, x) for no more than one x A }
N = .
c =
/ d ( 1, c) ( 1, d ) . * = { ( 1, d ) }
* (3) . (n, x) * ( n, x)
( n + , f ( x)) . n + =
/ 1 ( n + , f ( x)) =
/ ( 1, d ) .
(n + , f ( x)) * . * (4)
. * . *
72 | ,
. . , c =
/ d ( 1, c) ( 1, d )
1 N .
n N n N .
u =
/ f ( x) , ( n, x) ( n + , f ( x)) , ( n + , u)
. ' = { ( n +, u) } ( n + , u) =
/ ( 1, c) '
(4) . ( m, v) ' . ( m, v)
( m + , f ( v)) . m + n +
.
+
+
+
+
(a) m + =
/ n ( m , f ( v)) =
/ ( n , u) ( m , f ( v)) ' .
(b) m + = n + m = n ( m, v) = ( n, v) . n N
( n, x) A x . v = x
( m + , f ( v)) = ( n +, f ( x)) '
.
( m + , f ( v)) ' . '
(4) . ' .
' . . n + N .
N = .
. (), ()
. = .
M = { n | ( n) = ( n) }
( 1) = c = ( 1) 1 M . n M .
+
( n ) = f ( ( n)) = f ( ( n)) = ( n )
n + M .
10.10
f c
/ ran( f ) .
| Arithmetic of Natural Numbers

. .
.
10.11
S S S S f S .
.
+ ( 3, 2) = 5 3 + 2 = 5 .
10.12
+ .
+
m+1 = m ,
m+n = ( m + n)
m , n , m + n .
10. | 73
, ,
.
10.13
[ ] m , n , k ( m + n) + k = m + ( n + k) .
[ ] m n .
+
( m + n) + 1 = ( m + n) = m + n = m + ( n + 1)
k = 1 .
k ( m + n) + k = m + ( n + k) .
( m + n) + k + = ( m + n) + ( k + 1) = { ( m + n) + k } + 1= { m + ( n + k) } + 1
+
= { m +( n + k )} = m + ( n + k) = m +( n + k )
k + ( m + n) + k + = m+(n+k + ) .
.
10.14
n n + 1 = 1 + n .
[ ] n = 1 n + 1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + n .
n n + 1 = 1 + n .
+
n + 1 = ( n + 1) + 1 = ( n + 1) = ( 1 + n) = 1 + n
n + n + + 1 = 1 + n + .
.
10.15
[ ] m , n m + n = n + m .
[ ] m .
m+1 = 1+m
n = 1 .
n m + n = n + m .
+
m + n = ( m + n) = ( n + m) = ( n + m) + 1 = 1 + ( n + m) = ( 1 + n) + m
+
= ( n + 1) + m = n + m
n + m + n + = n + +m .
.
10.16
[ ] m , n , k m + k = n + k m = n .
[ ] m n .
+
m+1 = n+1 m = n
m=n
k = 1 .
k m + k = n + k m = n .
m + k + = n + k + ( m + k) + = ( n + k) + m + k = n + k m = n
k + m + k + = n + k + m = n .
74 | ,
.
10.17
.
m1 = m ,
mn + = mn + m
m , n , mn .
.
. n + mn ( n + m) n n + ( mn)
.
10.18
[ ] m , n , k ( m + n)k = mk + nk .
[ ] m n .
( m + n)1 = m + n = m1 + n1
k = 1 .
k ( m + n)k = mk + nk .
+
( m + n)k = ( m + n)k + ( m + n) = ( mk + nk) + ( m + n)

= { ( mk + nk) + m } + n = { ( nk + mk) + m } + n
+
= { nk + ( mk + m) } + n = ( nk + mk ) + n
+
= ( mk + nk) + n = mk + ( nk + n) = mk + nk
k + (m+n)k + = mk + + nk + .
.
10.19
[ ] m , n , k ( mn)k = m( nk) .
[ ] m , n .
( mn)1 = mn = m( n1)
k = 1 .
k ( mn)k = m( nk) .
( mn)k + = ( mn)k + mn = m( nk) + mn = m( nk + n) = m( nk + )
k + ( mn)k + = m( nk + ) .
.
10.20
n 1n = n .
[ ] 1n = 11 = n1 = n n = 1 .
n 1n = n
+
1n = 1n + 1 = n1 + 1 = 1 + n1 = 11 + n1 = ( 1 + n)1
+
= ( n + 1)1 = n 1 = n
n + 1n + = n + .
10. | 75
10.21
[ ] m , n mn = nm .
[ ] m .
m1 = m = 1m
n = 1 .
n mn = nm
+
mn = mn + m = nm + m = m + nm = 1m + nm = ( 1 + n)m
+
= ( n + 1)m = n m
n + mn + = n +m .
.
10.22
[ ] m , n , k k( m + n) = km + kn .
.
10.23
.
1
m =m,
n+
=m m
m , n , m n .
10.24
m , n , k .
() m n + k = m nm k
() (mn) k = m kn k
() (m n ) k = m nk
. .
| Order of Natural Numbers

. 1 3
1 < 3 . <
. .
10.25
<
m < n m n ,
m n m n m = n
. m , n .
R xRy yRx x = y R (antisymmetric)
. E , , E (order relation)
. .
10.26
[ ] m , n , k m < n n < k m < k .

[ ] n < k n k n k .
m < n m n . m n k m k .
76 | ,
10.27
n 1 n 1 = n .
[ ] n = 1 .
n 1 n 1 = n
1 n n + 1 n + 1= n n + 1 n +
n + 1 n + .
.
10.28
n , m n m n + m n + = m .
[ ] n .
m = 1 n m m n
/ 1 n
/ . 1 n 1 = n
1 = n . m = 1 .
m n m n + m n + = m
n m + n m { m} n m n = m
+
( n m n = m) n = m
.
+
n= m n = n { n} = m { m} = m
n + m n + = m n = m n + m + n + = m +
. m + n m + n + m + n + = m + .
.
10.29
m , n m n , n m , m = n .
[ ] m . 1 m 1 = m
n = 1 .
n m n n m m = n
m n m n n + m n +
+
n m n m n = m
m= n m n
n + m n + n + m m = n + .
.
10.30
[ ] m , n
m<n ,
m=n , n < m
.
10.31
[ ] , '
n , f ( 1) = 1' , f ( n + 1) = f ( n) + 1'
f : ' . 1 1'
' .
10. | 77
| Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
. = .
, A P( A) .
{ A i | i I } A i . B A B
.

.
.
1. A A B B C A C .
2. A , B A B , A B .
3. m , n .
(1) n n
/
+
(2) n =
/ n
(4) m n m + n
(3) m n n m
/
(5) n + n
4. n n =
/ { } .
5. n n = 1 n .
6. n .
(1) n + = n
(2) =
7. A A = A A = .
8. m m < k < m + k .
9. m , n , k .
(1) m = n mk = nk
(2) m < n m + k < n + k
(3) m < n mk < nk
(4) mk = nk m = n
10. m < n m + p = n p .
11. m , n , k .
(1) m + k < n + k m < n
(2) mk < nk m < n
78 | ,
11
| The Ordered Sets

| |
.
| Definition of Ordered Set

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , , n , n + 1 ,
.
.
.
. .
11.1
A R
() x A, xRx
(reflexive)
() xRy yRx
x=y
(anti-symmetric)
() xRy yRz
xRz
(transitive)
R A (partial order) .
A A (partially ordered set)
< A, > .
A .

.
() x , x x
() x y y x x = y
() x y y z x z
.
11.2
< A, > a , b a b b a ,
A (total order)
. < A, > (totally ordered set) .
,
. .
. A
B B A (chain) .
.
.
11. | 79
11.3
A = { a, b, c, d }
{ ( a, a), ( b, b), ( c, c), ( d, d ), ( a, c), ( a, b), ( a, d), ( c, b), ( c, d), ( b, d ) }
A . < A, >
. A a c b d .
11.4
< , > .
m , n m n n m
.
< , > < , > .
11.5
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } x y A
.
.
a b b a .
a b b c a c . 1 6
.
a |b a b A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
B = { 1, 2, 6 } < B, | > < A, | > .
.
11.6
= { a + bi | a, b , i = - 1 }
a + bi c + di ( a c a =
/ c ) ( a= c bd )
< , > . < , >
< , > < , > .

. 0 a , b 0 a + b , 0 ab
. 0 i i 2 =- 1 0 .
0 i 2 .

.
80 | ,
| Isomorphism
A = { a 1, a 2, a 3, }
a 1 a 2 a 3 a n a n + 1
< A, >
< A, >= { a 1 a 2 a 3 }
.
A = { 1 2 3 4 } B = { 2 4 7 9 } f : B A
f = { ( 2, 1), ( 4, 2), ( 7, 3), ( 9, 4)}
f A B .
B : 2 4 7 9
f :
A : 1 2 3 4
. f B A B A
.
11.7
< A, > , < B, > . f : A B A

x , y
x y f ( x) f ( y)
f . f A
x , y
[ xy x=
/ y ] [ f ( x) f ( y) f ( x) =
/ f ( y) ]
f .
11.8
x y f ( x) f ( y) f . d c
f ( d ) = f ( c) .
11.9
< A, > , < B, > . A x , y

x y f ( x) f ( y)
f : A B A B
f A B . A B
f : A B .
11. | 81
< A, > A a , b a b a =
/ b
a < b .
x < y f ( x) < f ( y)
. .
11.10
f : A B x < y f ( x) < f ( y) .
[ ] x < y x y f ( x) f ( y) . f ( x) = f ( y)
x = y .
x < y
f ( x) < f ( y) . .
11.11
A , B f : A B . f
f f - 1 .
[ ] f x A, f - 1 ( f ( x)) = x . f f - 1
.
f ( x) f ( y) f
-1
( f ( x)) f
-1
( f ( y)) x y
f . f f
. f ( x) f ( y) B
f ( x) f ( y) x y f
f
11.12
-1
-1
( f ( x)) f
-1
( f ( y))
A , B , C .
() I A : A A .
() f : A B f - 1 : B A .
() f : A B g : B C gf : A C
.
[ ] A x , y
x y I A (x) I A (y)
() .
f : A B f - 1 : B A
. f - 1 .
f
-1
(x) f
-1
(y) f ( f
-1
(x)) f ( f
-1
(y)) x y
-1
f .
() .
A , B A B .
.
AA, AB BA, AB BC AC

.
82 | ,
| Bounded Sets
.
11.13
< A, > ,
() x A, [ m x x = m] A m A ,
() x A, [ x n x = n] A n A ,
() x A, a x A a A ,
() x A, x b A b A
.

.
11.5 .
A 6 4 1 .
. A S = { 1, 2, 3, 6 } 6 .
1 .
. .
11.14
S = { x | 0 x } < S, >
0 . 0 .
.
11.15
( 0, 1) .
. < , >
.
11.16
< A, > B .
() A u B x x u u B .
() B u 0 B u u 0 u u 0 .
() A v B x v x v B .
() B v 0 B v v v 0 v 0 .
11. | 83
A lubA supA glbA infA

. .

. .
A A A A
. A A
A .
A v( A) A
( A) .
11.17
A , B , C .
() A a B b A B a b .
() B , C A B C v( C) v( B) .
() B , C A A B C
supB supC .
() B A B v( ( B)) .
() B A ( B) A . B A
infB = sup ( B) .
< A, G > G G - 1 . A
< A, G - 1 > . < A, G >
< A, G - 1 > . < A, G > ,
, , < A, G - 1 > , , , .
. 11.17 .
11.18
A , B , C .
() A a B b A B b a .
() B , C A B C ( C) ( B) .
() B , C A A B C
infC infB .
() B A B ( v( B)) .
() B A v( B) A . B A
supB = inf v( B) .
84 | ,
11.19
XR Y
X Y
Bi Bi
R . B = { B i | i I } A
A
i I
i I
B i , infB = B i .
. supB =
i I
i I
11.20
A B
B B
A (conditionally complete) .
B B .
.
11.21
A .
() A B B .
() A B B .
[ ] () ( B) =
/ . B ( B)
( B) . () ( B) .
11.18-() B . () ()
. () () .
a , b b a 
. .
< , > . S = { x | x x <
2 }
. S
=
/ 2 . <
2 < <
S S .
2 < . S .
11. | 85
1. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } < P( A), >

.
2. < A, > , < B, > A B
(a1, b1) (a2, b2)
[ a 1 < a 2 ( a 1 = a 2 b 1 b 2 )]
. .
3. A , B C A D B .
C D A B .
4. A G A
(xGz xyz ) yGz
. A/G H
H = { ( G x, G y ) | w G x z G y, w z }
H .
5. f : A B .
6. f : A B C A f ( C) B .
7. C
a C b C a x b x C
C (convex set) . A B
f : A B C B f - 1 (C) A
.
8. .
9. A , B f : A B .
(1) C A f ( C) B .
(2) [ a, b] A f ( [ a, b]) B .
10. A a I a = { x A | x a } .
T = { I a | a A } < T, > A .
11. A , B , C A B ( AC ) ( B C )
.
12. A , B , C B A , .
(1) B b b = supB .
(2) v( B) = v( ( v( B))) .
(3) C A ( B C ) = ( B) ( C ) .
(4) B b ( v( B)) v( B) = { b } .
86 | ,
12
| Deeper Properties of Ordered Sets

| |
.
| Lattices and Boolean Algebra

.
.
12.1
A A { x, y } A
A (lattice) .
sup{ x, y } x y , inf{ x, y } x y .
x y x y (join), x y x y (meet) .
12.2
< A, > a , b , c .
() a a b , b a b
() a b a , a b b
() a c b c a b c .
() c a c b c a b .
[ ] a b { a, b } a a b b a b .
() . a b { a, b } a b a a b b .
() . a c b c c { a, b } .

c a
c b
sup{ a, b } c () .
{ a, b } .
c inf{ a, b } () .
12.3
< A, > x , y , z .
() x x = x , x x = x
() x y = y x , x y = y x
() ( x y) z = x ( y z) , ( x y) z = x ( y z)
() ( x y) x = x , ( x y) x = x
[ ] () () .
() x x ( y z) y y z x ( y z) x y x ( y z)
. z y z x ( y z) ( x y) z x ( y z) .
x ( y z) ( x y) z . .
() x x y x { x y, x } . z { x y, x }
z x . x = inf{ x y, x } .
12. | 87
12.1 , 12.3
.
.
12.4
A , 12.3
x y x y = y < A, > .
[ ] x x = x .
[ x y y x ] [ x y = y y x = x ] x = y
.
[ x y y z ] [ x y = y y z = z ]
x z = x ( y z) = ( x y) z = y z = z
xz
. sup{ x, y } = x y .
[ x ( x y) = ( x x) y = x y y ( x y) = x y ]
[ x x y y x y ]
x y { x, y } . z { x, y }
[ x z y z ] [ x z = z y z = z ]
( x y) z = x ( y z) = x z = z
xyz
x y { x, y } .
inf{ x, y } = x y .
12.5
A B A
[ x B y B ] [ x y B x y B ]
B A (sublattice) .
12.6
A (Boolean algebra) .
() A x x 0 = x , x 1 = x 0 1 A
.
() A x x y = 0 , x y = 1 y A

() A x , y , z
x ( y z) = ( x y) ( x z) , x ( y z) = ( x y) ( x z)
.
. , sup{ A, B } = A B ,
inf{ A, B } = A B , 12.3
12.6 . 1 0
. . ,
12.3 12.6 .
AND-Gate, OR-Gate, COMPLEMENT-Gate .
88 | ,
(completeness)
.
12.7
A A A (complete
lattice) .
.
A A .
12.7 .
12.8
A .
() A .
() A .
[ ] () . A M A .
A m . B A B m
. () () .
.
| Well-Ordered Sets
< A, > a , b a b b a ,
< A, > .
, , , .
.
12.9
A B f : A B
f .
[ ] f ( x) f ( y) x y x y
y < x . y < x f ( y) f ( x) .
f ( y) = f ( x) y = x f ( y) < f ( x) .
x y .
12.10
< A, > A
< A, > . < A, >
A .
. A { x, y }
x y y x .
. . B A
v( B) =
/ v( B)
.
12. | 89
12.11
A a , b A a x } . T
z z x .
A . x 1 x 1 .
x 2 . x 2 x 3
x n x n + 1 .
12.12
< { 1, 2, 3, 4 }, > . < , >

.
.
X S( n) n X X
.
() 1X 1 X S( 1) .
() S( n) . n + 1X X { n} .
m . m X m X . m X
/
X x m = n n x . nX
/
X n + 1 x . n + 1 X
.
() () X .
12.13
< , >
. -
. +
.
2 E +
. < , >
.
12.14
W = 0,
1
3
7
1
3
7
1
3
7
,
,
, , 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , , 2, 2 , 2 , 2 ,
2
4
8
2
4
8
2
4
8
< W, > .
. 12.14
1 . < W, >
< W, > .
90 | ,
12.15
A a S a = { x A | x < a } A (segment)
. A B
x A, [ ( y B x y ) x B ]
B A (section) .
. A , A
A . A A .
12.16
x | y = x y S =< 100, | > A 60

, B 50 < A, | > < B, | > S
. k k .
< A B, | > < A B, | > S .
12.17
A = { 1 2 3 10 } S = { 1 2 3 4 } A
S 5 = { x A | x < 5 } . S
A A .
A S A .
.
12.18
A , B A B = A B A
.
[ ] B = A B A B A
. B A B =
/ A . AB
m . x S m x < m x B
. B A .

.

(Principle of Transfinite Induction) .
12.19
[ ] A P( x) A
. P( x)
y < x y P( y) P( x)
P( x) A x .
[ ] T ={ y A | P( y) } T
m . x < m x P( x) .
P( m) . m T P( m) .
A x P( x) .
12. | 91
| Isomorphism between Well-Ordered Sets

A , B A B B A
A B , .

.
. .
12.20
A S f : A S A
x x f ( x) .
[ ] P = { x A | x > f ( x) } .
P a . f ( a) < a . f
f ( f ( a)) < f ( a) < a
f ( a) P . a P . P
.
12.21
A S a .
[ ] f A S a .
/ a . S a f
12.20 a f ( a) f ( a) S
.
12.22
12.23
.
A , B A B B A
.
[ ] f : A S b A B .
A C g : B C .
f g . fg : B S b .
fg B S b . S b B
12.21 .
12.24
S x S y X x < y S x S y .
[ ] x < y S x S y .
[u S x v u ] v u < x v S x
S x S y .
X S x S y .
x < y , x = y , y < x . 12.24
X x < y S x S y .
92 | ,
.
12.25
A , B .
() A B .
() A B .
() B A .
[ ] A , B C = { x A | r B, S x S r } .
S x S r S x S t r < t S r S t
. C x S x S r B r .
F( x) S x S r B r . D = ranF B
F : C D . F .
() F( u) = F( v) = r S u S r S v . u =
/ v
S u S v S v S u . u = v
. F .
() u v r = F( u) , t = F( v) S u S r S v S t . t < r
S t S r S u S v .
(a) S v S r ,
(b) S r S v
. r t F( u) F( v) . F .
() () F .
C A . C c x < c x C
. F( c) = r S c S r . S c S r
g . g g | S : S x S g( x)
x
. S x S g( x) x C .

C A D B
(), (), () .
, D = S x D = S r . F : C D
C D , S x S r . x C x S x .
(), (), () .
(), (), () 12.21 12.23
.
12.26
A A A .
[ ] B A B . A
B . B A
. B A B B .
12. | 93
1. A , B f : A B . b B
f - 1 ( { b }) A .
2. A , B f : A B .
(1) a A f ( a) f ( A) .
(2) C A c C f ( c) f ( C) .
3. A , B f : A B .
(1) a A f ( a) B .
(2) a A f ( a) B .
(3) C A x C f ( x) f ( C) .
(4) b C f ( b) f ( C) .
4. A A
.
5. .
6. A B f : A B
f .
7. A B f : A B
.
8. A A .
9. A B , C B C B C .
10. A B A m B . B
S m B .
11. A A
.
12. A I A A A .
13. A , B f : A B g : B A g = f - 1
.
14. A , B f : A B .
15. A , B A B B A
A B .
16. A , B A B B A
A B .
94 | ,
13
| The Axiom of Choice

| | | |

.
| Introduction
(Ernst Zermelo, 18711953) 1904

. .
?

.
(Axiom of Choice)
.
(choice) .
.
13.1
A P '( A) = P( A){ } .
B P '( A) , r( B) B
r : P '( A) A A .
r( B) r B , r B B (representative) .
. A = { a, b, c }
r .
B
r( B)
{ a, b, c }
a
{ a, b }
a
{ a, c }
c
{ b, c }
c
{a }
a
{b }
b
{c }
c
.
.
S-9
[ ] .
.
.
Ch 1. A A
.
A i .
Ch 2. { A i | i I }
i I
13. | 95
| Applications of The Axiom of Choice

.
.
A A . A p
A .
A
.
A . A x
x f ( x) f : A A .
T x x g(T x ) T x
g . f ( x) = g( T x ) f ( x) x
. .
13.2
A B
() p B
() x B f ( x) B
() C B supC B
B p ( p sequence) .
p p . p p
. p P p
.
13.3
A p P y P
x P (select) .
13.4
x P P y y < x f ( y) x .
[ ] y P f ( y) P . x f ( y) x
x < f ( y) . x < f ( y) y < x y < x < f ( y)
f ( y) y . f ( y) x .
13.5
A p P x P
B x = { y P | y x f ( x) y }
p .
[ ] () p A p x . p B x .
() y B x y x y f ( x) .
(1) y < x f ( y) x f ( y) B x .
(2) y = x f ( y) = f ( x) f ( y) f ( x) f ( y) B x .
96 | ,
(3) y f ( x) , f ( y) > y f ( y) > f ( x) f ( y) B x .

f ( y) B x .
() B x C m . B x y f ( x) y
y x . f ( x) y y C y m
f ( x) m m B x . C y y x
x C m x . m B x .
B x 13.2 B x p .
13.6
x P y y x f ( x) y .
[ ] B x p P p P B x .
B x P P = B x . P y
y x f ( x) y .
13.7
p .
[ ] () P y p y p .
() x P y y x y f ( x)
. f ( x) .
() C m = supC . y P
. x C, y x y m . x C, x y
y C m y . m .
13.2 .
A A
. .
p .
13.8
A p P .
[ ] S p P S .
S P . P = S . S
. P .
13.8 . , m = supP 13.2
() P m P . ()
f ( m) P f ( m) m . f ( m) m
. .
13.9
A A . A p
A .
13. | 97
| Maximal Principles
(Hausdorff's Maximal Principle) .

.
13.10
[ ] A P
< P, > .
[ ] A P . P
. P
D
. C P K = D
C . K P .
x y K x E , y F E , F C
. C P D E E D . D E x
y E . E A x , y .
K A K P . K = supC .
D P . D < P, >
.
(Zorn's Principle)
.
(Zorn's Lemma) .
13.11
A A (inductive) .
13.12
[ ] A A .
[ ] A C . A
C m . x > m A x
. x C
/ , x C C { x }
. C x > m A x
. m A .
A A (weakly
inductive) .
.
.
13.13
A B ,
< B, > .
13.14
98 | ,
| The Well-Ordering Theorem

.
.
13.15
A < A, > (wellorder relation) . A A

( A can be well ordered ) .
< , <> . -
.
0 -1 1 -2 2 -3 3
< , > .
.
E = { n/m | n m }
0
1
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
1
2
1
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
< E, > .
E < +, > .
.
. A . B A
G B ( B, G ) .
( B, G ) ( B ', G ')
B B' G G' [ ( x B y B'B ) ( x, y) G' ]
. .
13.16
B i , G = G i
C = { ( B i, G i ) | i I } , B =
i I
i I
( B, G ) .
[ ] B A G B
. G B .
() x B x B i i I, ( x, x) G i G G .
() (x, y) G ( y, x) G i I j J, ( x, y) G i ( y, x) G j .
C G i G j G j G i . G i G j
(x, y) G j ( y, x) G j . G j x = y .
G .
() (x, y) G ( y, z) G i I j J, ( x, y) G i ( y, z) G j .
C G i G j G j G i . G i G j
(x, y) G j ( y, z) G j . G j (x, z) G j .
G .
13. | 99
(), (), () G . G B .
/ . D B i B i
D =
/ D B i I, D B i =
D B i ( B i , G i ) b .
y D B i, ( b, y) G i
. b ( B, G ) D .
/ i
D x x B i ( b, x) G i G . x B
/ i . ( B j, G j )
/ ( B i, G i )
j I, x B j B j B
( B i, G i ) ( B j, G j ) .
b B i , x ( B jB i ) , ( B i, G i ) ( B j, G j )
( b, x) G j G . b ( B, G ) D .
( B, G ) C . ( B i , G i ) C
/ i
B i B G i G . x B i , y B , y B
/ i ( B j , G j )
/ ( B i , G i ) .
j I, y B j . B j B
( B i, G i ) ( B j, G j ) .
x B i y ( B jB i ) ( x, y) G j G
( B i , G i ) ( B, G ) . .
13.17
[ ] .
[ ] ( B, G ) . AB
. AB x . x B
G B { x } G * . ,
*
G = G { ( a, x) | a B }
. ( B, G ) . AB .
A B , B A A = B .
B A .
13.18
f : A B fg = I B g : B A
.
[ ] fg = I B g : B A . y B
y = I B (y) = ( fg)( y) = f ( g( y))
. x = g ( y) A f .
f : A B . B y f - 1 ( { y })
A . A r g : B A
y B, g ( y) = r[ f
-1
( { y })]
. x = g ( y) x f - 1 ( { y}) f ( x) = y .
( fg)( y) = f ( x) = y = I B (y)
.
100 | ,
| Conclusion
A . A
B f ( B) B f A
. .
.
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
.
.
.
1880
.
1904
.

.

. , .

, .

1938
.
.
1963 (Paul Cohen) .
.
,
,
.
(New Jersey) (Princeton Institute for Advanced

Study) (Czechoslovakia)
25 . (A.N. Whitehead, 1861- 1947)
,

.
(quantification logic) ,
.
13. | 101
1. A , B f : A B B A
C .
2. A , B , C f : B C , g : A C ran( f ) ran( g)
gh = f h : B A .
3. I { A i | i I }
{ A i | i I } = { A j | j J } i, j J, ( A i = A j i = j )
I J .
4. f : A B fg = I B g : B A
.
5. .
() .
A , f ( A) A
f .
() E G EE . A = domG B = ranG f G
f : A B .
X .
() A = X

g : g * (B) g( B) g * : A
.
() A B f : A B .
g : C B ran( g) = ran( f )
A C f g .
6. A A
. C , D C D C D .
(1) .
(2) < , > .
(3) (2) 13.13 .
7. 6 13.14 .
8. .
9. A a A A a b b
.
10. A x A, f ( x) =
/ x
f : A A .
102 | ,
14
| Finite Sets and Infinite Sets

| |

.
| Definition of Infinite Set

,
.
,
.
.
.
. .
14.1
A B A B f : A B A
B (equipotent) , A B . f : X Y
f : X Y .

. .
A I A : A A
. A .
A , B A B f : A B .
f - 1 : B A .
B A . A B B C .
f : A B g : B C .
gf : A C . A C
. .
14.2
F .
n n .
{ } . = { }
.
k k .
.
14.3
A n A n A (finite set)
. (infinite set) .
14. | 103
| The Cardinalities of Infinite Sets

. A B A B
A B , B A A B
. A B B A
A B . ,
(cardinal number) .
.
. A B B A
, A B B A .
. .
?
.
.
.
S f : S .
f ( 0) , f ( 1) , f ( 2) , f ( 3) , , f ( k) , f ( k + 1) ,
S . S
s 0 , s 1 , s 2 , s 3 , , s k , sk+1 ,
S f : S
s k S, f ( k) = s k
S .
.
.
,
1
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
2
1 , 2 , 1 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 5 , 4 ,
.
1
1
1
2
3
1
1, 2 , 2, 3 , 3, 4 , 3 , 2 , 4, 5 ,
.
. 0 ,
,
1
1
1
1
0 , 1 , -1 , 2 , - 2 , 2 , -2 , 3 , - 3 , 3 , -3 ,
1
1
- ,
4 ,
4
. 0
.
.
104 | ,
( 0, 1)
.
( 0, 1) x 0.x 1 x 2 x 3
n x n 0 9 . 1/3 = 0.333
2/2 = 0.707106 .
1 9
. 0.25 0.250000 0.2499
. ( 0, 1)
, .
x = 0.x 1 x 2 x 3 , y = 0.y 1 y 2 y 3 k x k =
/ yk
x=
/ y . .
( 0, 1) . f : ( 0, 1)
( 0, 1) .
f (1)= 0.a
( 1, 1) a ( 1, 2) a ( 1, 3) a ( 1, 4)
( 1, k)
f (2)= 0.a
( 2, 1) a ( 2, 2) a ( 2, 3) a ( 2, 4)
( 2, k)
f (3)= 0.a
( 3, 1) a ( 3, 2) a ( 3, 3) a ( 3, 4)
( 3, k)
( k, 1) a ( k, 2) a ( k, 3) a ( k, 4)
( k, k)
f (k)= 0.a
f ( k) ( 0, 1) z
( 0, 1) . ,
/ a ( k, k) z k . z k 9
k z k =
. z = 0.z 1 z 2 z 3 z k 0 1
/ a ( 1, 1) z =
/ a ( 2, 2) z =
. z 1 =
/ f ( 1) , z 2 =
/ f ( 2) ,

zk =
/ a ( k, k)
z=
/ f ( k) .
z f
/ ( ) . f ( ) = ( 0, 1) z (
/ 0, 1) . z 0
1 . ( 0, 1)
.
. ( 0, 1) f
f ( x) = tan x -
f : ( 0, 1) . ( 0, 1) .
?
. P = ( 0, 1)( 0, 1) ( a, b)
a , b 1 . a = 0.a 1 a 2 a 3 , b = 0.b 1 b 2 b 3
. c = 0.a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a 3 b 3 c ( 0, 1)
.
14. | 105
. a + bi ( a, b)
. .
. .
.
+

.
A P( A) : A P( A)
. B B = { x A | x (
/ x) } B A
. B = ( y) A y . y ( y) y B
/
y (
/ y) . y (
/ y) y B y ( y)
. : A P( A)
. A P( A) S = { { x } | x A } .
.
14.4
A P( A) .
A P( A) . A P( A)
A P( A) P( A) A
.
.
14.5
A B f : A B A B
h : A B .
[ ] B = A A h . B A
C
n
f ( AB) . f 0 A
n0
k x A f k (x) = f ( f
k-1
(x))
. , z A h( z) .
h( z) =
{ fz,( z) ,
z C
z AC
AB C f ( C) C . m , n
f m (AB) f n (AB) . m < n AB
x , x' f m (x) = f n (x') f n - m (x') = f m - m (x) = f 0 (x) = x
. f 0 B x B . x AB x B
/ .
x B .
h .
n
h( A) = ( AC) f ( C ) = A f ( AB) f
n0
= A f ( AB) f
n0
(f
n1
(f
n0
( AB)
( AB) = A( AB) = B
h( A) = B . f h : A B .
106 | ,
14.6
[ - ] A , B A B
B A A B .
[ ] A , B A 0 , B 0 A B 0 , B A 0
f 0 : A B 0 , g 0 : B A 0 . f ( x) = g 0 ( f 0 (x))
f : A A 0 . h : A A 0
-1
-1
. h : A A 0 , g 0 : A 0 B g 0 h : A B
.
1890
(F. Bernstein) (E. Schrder) .
1902 (Alwin Korselt)
- .
- .
14.7
A B A B A
B .
[ ] B A . B A .
A B A B . A B . A B
. B A .
14.8
A A P( A) .
[ ] 14.4 A P( A) . A P( A)
14.7 A P( A) .
A , B , C A B B C A C .
f : A B g : B C gf : A C .
= K 1 , P(K 1 ) = K 2 , P(K 2 ) = K 3 , P(K i ) = K i + 1
K1 K 2 K3 Ki Ki + 1
K i K
. L 1 = i
i
K i P( K i ) = K i + 1 L 1 K i L 1 . P(L i ) = L i + 1
K 1 K 2 K3 L1 L2 L3
L i , P(M ) = M
. M 1 = i
i
i + 1
K 1 K 2 K3 L 1 L2 L3 M 1 M 2 M 3
.
.
.
14. | 107
| Equipotence of Sets
A , B A B .
.
14.9
A B B A
.
[ ] f : A B gf = I A g : B A .
g : B A gf = I A f : A B
. .
14.10
14.11
A B B A .
A , B , C , D A C = , B D = . f : A B
g : C D f g A C B D
.
[ ] f g
( f g) : A C B D
. f g .
f g f - 1 g - 1 .
. f
-1
(f
-1
-1
= ( f g) - 1
( f g)
-1
-1
) :BD AC
:BD AC
. f g .
.
f g X Y , Z W f g
/ x 2
. h = f g . X Z x 1 , x 2 x 1 =
.
/ f ( x 2 ) = h( x 2 ) .
() x 1 X x 2 X h( x 1 ) = f ( x 1 ) =
/ h( x 2 ) ,
() x 1 X x 2 Z h( x 1 ) =
h( x 1 ) = f ( x 1 ) Y h( x 2 ) = g ( x 2 ) W Y W = .
/ g ( x 2 ) = h( x 2 ) .
() x 1 Z x 2 Z h( x 1 ) = g ( x 1 ) =
h . h( X Z ) = h( X ) h( Z ) = f ( X ) g( Z ) = Y W
h . h = f g .
14.12
A , B , C , D A C = , B D = A B , C D
A C B D .
108 | ,
14.13
X , Y , Z , W X Y , Z W X Z Y W .
[ ] f : X Y , g : Z W fg : X Z YW
( x, z) XZ ( f g )( x, z) = ( f ( x) , g( z))
.
( y, w) YW
[ x X, f ( x) = y ] [ z Z, g( z) = w ]
( x, z) XZ, ( f ( x) , g( z)) = ( y, w)
( x, z) XZ, ( f g)( x , z) = ( y, w)
f g .
/ ( x 2 , z 2 ) . x 1 =
/ x 2 z 1 =
/ z 2 .
( x 1 , z 1 ) =
/ x2 f (x1)=
/ f ( x 2 ) ( f ( x 1 ), g ( z 1 )) =
/ ( f ( x 2 ), g ( z 2 )) .
() x 1 =
/ z2 g (z1)=
/ g ( z 2 ) ( f ( x 1 ), g ( z 1 )) =
/ ( f ( x 2 ), g ( z 2 )) .
() z 1 =
f g . X Z Y W
.
14.14
f g
A B C D A C B D .
[ ] f : A B , g : D C h : A C B D
. A C h() = fg . C
A . fg D B fg B D .
h .
14.15
A B P( A) P( B) .
[ ] A 2 A P( A) .
,
.

.
e .
. f : e f ( n) = 2n f
e .

325

.
.
14. | 109
1. A , B ( A B) ( BA) A B .
2. A B a A , b B ( A { a }) ( B{ b }) .
3. A B , C D , C A , D B ( AC) ( BD) .
4. { B i | i I } , { C i | i I } i I, B i C i
Bi Ci
i I
i I
.
5. { B i | i I } , { C i | i I } I
i, j I, ( B i B j C i C j B i B j C i C j )

Bi Ci
i I
i I
.
6. { B i | i I } , { C i | i I } i I, B i C i
Bi Ci
i I
i I
.
7. C, D , C D = (disjointed set) . F < F, >
.
8. A A .
B B
(finite character set) .
.
(1) < , > .
(2) < , > .
9. (vector space) V (basis) .

() V .
() V .
10. (group) G A G (identity element)
. G A
.
11. < A, > { a n }
a1 > a2 > a 3 > > ai > ai+1 >
(strictly decreasing) .
.
110 | ,
15
| Deeper Properties of Infinite Sets

| | |

.
| Enumerable Sets
.

.
15.1
(enumerable set) .
(countable set) .
X f : X .
f ( 1) = x 1 , f ( 2) = x 2 , f ( 3) = x 3 , , f ( k) = x k ,
X { x 1, x 2, x 3, , x k , } .

.
.

. X = { x 1, x 2, x 3, }

.

. .
.
.
.
15.2
A x A A{ x } .
[ ] f : A . f ( n) = x n
. g : A
g ( m) =
,
{ ff (( m)
m + 1) ,
m<n
nm
g A{ x } .
15.3
A A B AB
.
15. | 111
15.4
.
() A .
() A .
[ ] [() ()] A . A
.
() A .
() A .
() A .
A () () .
A S n . n N, A S n . A
.
[() ()] 1 = { 0 } .
n = { 0, 1, 2, , n - 1 } .
n + 1 = { 0, 1, 2, , n } . n + 1
n + 1{ n }
.
.

.
15.5
15.6
A B A B B A .
15.7
.
() A .
() A A .
[ ] [() ()] A B . b
B{ b }
f : B B{ b } . g : A A{ b }
g ( x) =
{ x,f ( x) ,
x B
/
x B
g A A{ b } .
[() ()] B A f : A B . c
AB
() ( 1) = c ,
() ( n + ) = f ( ( n))
: A . ran( f ) = B c AB
c
/ ran( f ) . . A
A .
112 | ,
| Properties of Enumerable Sets

A f : A . A B
g : A B . fg - 1 : B B
B .
.
15.8
.
[ ] . E
E n , E S n = n .
A B A f : A
. f ( B) f ( B) . f
B f ( B) . B .
15.9
A B A B .
[ ] .
f : f ( m, n) = 2 m3 n
f . Ran( f ) .
f Ran( f ) . Ran( f )
. Rng( f ) .
.
A = f : A A
f ( k , m) =
{ (( k1,+k1+, 1),
m - 1),
if m = 1
if m =
/ 1
.
f f ( k, m) = f ( n, p) = ( r, s) .
r = 1 m = 1 p = 1
( 1, s) = f ( k, m) = ( 1, k + 1) ( 1, s) = f ( n, p) = ( 1, n + 1)
k = n . r =
/ 1
( r, s) = f ( k, m) = ( k + 1 , m - 1) ( r, s) = f ( n, p) = ( n + 1 , p - 1)
k = n m = p . f .
: A .
() ( 1) = ( 1, 1) ,
() ( n + ) = f ( ( n))
f ( 1, 1) f .
k m n , ( k, m) = ( n)
.
() k + m = 2 ( k, m) = ( 1, 1) = ( 1) .
() k+m = n + . k = 1 ( k, m) = f ( m - 1 , 1)
15. | 113
q , ( m - 1 , 1) = ( q)
( k, m) = f ( m - 1 , 1) = f ( ( q)) = ( q + )
. k =
/ 1 ( k, m) = f ( k - 1 , m + 1)
p , ( k + m - 1 , 1) = ( p)
. ,
( p + 1) = ( 1, k + m) ,
( p + 2) = ( 1, k + m - 1) ,
( p + k + 1) = ( k, m)
.
(), () k + m 2 k , m
( n) = ( k, m) n .
.
1 ( 1, 1) , 2 ( 1, 2) , 3 ( 2, 1) , 4 ( 1, 3) , 5 ( 2, 2)
6 ( 3, 1) , 7 ( 1, 4) , 8 ( 2, 3) , 9 ( 3, 2) ,

( m, n) , f ( m, n) =
1
( m + n - 2)( m + n - 1) + m
2
. f
( 1, 1) 1 , ( 1, 2) 2 , ( 2, 1) 3 , ( 1, 3) 4 , ( 2, 2) 5
( 3, 1) 6 , ( 1, 4) 7 , ( 2, 3) 8 , ( 3, 2) 9 ,
f . f
.
15.10
A n .
A = { A n | n } = n
[ ] A n n f n : A n
. : ( k, m) = f k (m) .
x x A i i . x = f i (j) j
. ( i, j) = x .
:
. E .
E
. E .
A . A
A .
15.11
114 | ,
| Examples of Denumerable Sets

.
.
(nondenumerable set) (uncountable set) .
15.12
.
[ ] r
+
{ pq |p q }
.
n
f : + m , n f m = ( n, m)
( )
f . Ran( f ) +
. -
. = - { 0} + .

. ,
.
15.13
.
[ ] I .
I = { r 1, r 2, r 3, , r n, }
/ a 1 , b 1 )I a 1 , b 1 .
. r 1 (
a 2 , b 2 a 1 < a 2 < b 2 < b 1 r 2 (
/ a 2 , b 2 ) . a n , b n
/ a n + 1, b n + 1 )
a n + 1 , b n + 1 a n < a n + 1 < b n + 1 < b n r n + 1 (
. { a 1, a 2, } b 1 .
r . n a n < r .
n r < b n . m , b m r
n , a n < b m + 1 < b m r
b m + 1 { a 1, a 2, } . b m + 1 < r
. n r ( a n, b n ) ,
n , r =
/ rn
. r I
/ I .
.

. 15.13 (first uncountability
theorem) 14
.
15. | 115
| Properties of Infinite Sets

A , B A B . B
B n n . A B n
A n . B .
.
.
15.14
A , B A B .
[ ] A Ran( f ) =
/ A f : A A
. g : A B .
h = gfg - 1 : B B
h( B ) = ( gfg - 1 )(B ) = ( gf )( g - 1 (B )) =( gf )( A ) = g(f ( A ))
h( B ) = g( f ( A )) .
f ( A ) =
/ A g g( f ( A )) =
/ B .
h( B ) =
/ B B .
15.15
15.16
A , B A B .
A a A A{ a } .
[ ] A S 1 . S = S 1{ a }
. S S A . B = S{ a } B
B A{ a } . A{ a } .
. A
Ran( f ) =
/ A f : A A .
a Ran( f ) a
/ Ran( f ) A{ a }
g .
() a Ran( f ) , f ( b) = a b A .
g : A{ a} A{ a} .
g ( x) =
{ fc(,x) ,
if x =
/ a
if x = a
c A Ran( f ) . g
g( A{ a }) = f ( A { a, b }) { c } =
/ A{ a }
A{ a } .
() a A Ran( f ) , g : A{ a } A{ a } .
A{ a } x g ( x) = f ( x) .
f : A A g .
g( A{ a }) = f ( A ){ f ( a)} =
/ A{ a } .
/ X{ x 0 } X{ x 0 } .
g( X{ x 0 }) =
116 | ,
15.17
15.18
A S AS .
A , B A B .
[ ] A B A = ( A B)B
. A B .
.
A , B f : i A , g : j B . i j
. h : i + j AB .
h( n) =
{ fg((n)n -, i ),
i i
i
/ i
h AB i + j . AB
.
A B .
S 1 = AB , S 2 = BA , S 3 = A B
S 1 , S 2 , S 3 S 1 S 2 S 3
. A B = S 1 S 2 S 3 AB .
15.19
A B A , B .
.
.
.
.
,

.
11 a , b a m A
/ n .
4. A n B n A
B .
5. A , B m , n A m , B n AB mn
.
.
6. A B A ( A B) .
7. A x , A A ( A{ x })
.
8. A n A n P(A) 2 n
. .
9. 15.11 .
10. A AB B
.
11. n n .
12. 2 3 .
13. .
14. A A B
A B .
15. A B A B
.
2
16. a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x + a 3 x + + a n x
.
17. 13
2 .
118 | ,
16
| The Cardinal Numbers

| | |

.
| The Meaning of Cardinal Number

.
. A n( A) .

.

.
. .
S-10
[ ] CD .
K1. A A a CD a .
K2. A CD a , b A a A b a = b .
A CD a A a A a .

a = #A
. .
K1. A a = #A a .
K2. A a , b a = #A b = #A a = b .
A cardA |A |
n( A) . 0 .
, CD .
CD . CD
.
V= a
a CD
. P( V ) . P( V ) e e .
e CD e V , .
. A , B A B .
a = #A , b = #B a A , b B A b . b = #A .
a = b .
.
16. | 119
| Operations on Cardinal Numbers

A , B
n( A) + n( B) = n( A B) , n ( AB ) = n ( A )n ( B )
.
.
.
16.1
a , b a = #A , b = #B A , B ,
a , b a + b
a + b = #( A B)
.
a , b a = #A , b = #B A , B
. A = a { 0 } , B = b { 1 } A a , B b
A B = .
16.2
a , b a = #A , b = #B A , B ,
a , b ab
ab = #( AB )
.
a , b ab = #( ab) .
16.3
4 3 4 + 3 .
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } , B = { 5, 6, 7 } #A = 4 , #B = 3 , A B =
. 4 + 3 = #( AB) = #{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 } = 7 .
.
.
16.4
a , b , c .
() a + b = b + a
() ab = ba
() a + ( b + c) = ( a + b) + c
() a( bc) = ( ab)c
() a( b + c) = ab + ac
[ ] (), (), ()
AB = BA , A( BC ) = ( AB)C , A ( BC ) = ( A B ) ( A C )
. A B B A f ( x, y) = ( y, x)
f () . A ( B C )
( A B )C ( x, ( y, z)) = ( ( x, y), z)
() .
120 | ,
A , B B A A B .
.
A 3 B 2 A B
? 2 3
2 3 .
A = { a, b, c } , B = { 1, 2 } .
f : A B f ( a) 1 2 .
f ( b) f ( c) 1 2 .
f 1 = { ( a, 1), ( b, 1), ( c, 1) } ,
f 2 = { ( a, 1), ( b, 1), ( c, 2) } ,
f 3 = { ( a, 1), ( b, 2), ( c, 1) } ,
f 4 = { ( a, 1), ( b, 2), ( c, 2) } ,
f 5 = { ( a, 2), ( b, 1), ( c, 1) } ,
f 6 = { ( a, 2), ( b, 1), ( c, 2) } ,
f 7 = { ( a, 2), ( b, 2), ( c, 1) } ,
f 8 = { ( a, 2), ( b, 2), ( c, 2) }
. B = { f 1, f 2, , f 8 } B A 8 .
A 3 B 2 8=2 3 .
16.5
a , b a = #A , b = #B A , B ,
a , b a b
a b = #( A B )
. a , b 0 .
A .
f : A . A a
. f y , f ( a) = y
f .
B g
. g = { } , .
g x [ !y B, y = g( x) ]
. x .
B g . B =
.
, 0 a 0 , 1 0 a = 0 , a 0 = 1
.
.

c
a b + c = a b a c , (ab) c = a c b c , ( a b ) = a bc
. .
16. | 121
16.6
a , b , c .
() a b + c = a b a c
() (ab) c = a c b c
() ( a b ) c = a bc
[ ] A , B , C a = #A , b = #B , c = #C .
() : A
BC
A BA C .
f A
BC
, ( f ) = ( f | B , f | C )
f | B f | C f B , C .
( f ) = ( g )
( f | B, f | C ) = ( g | B, g | C )
f |B = f |C
g |B= g |C
.
f = f | B f | C = g | B g | C = g
.
B
(f 1 , f 2 ) A A .
f = f 1 f 2 A
BC
, f1= f |B, f2= f |C
( f 1 , f 2 ) = ( f ) .
A
BC
A B A C .
() : A C B C ( A B ) C .
( f 1 , f 2 ) A CB C, ( f 1, f 2 ) = f
, f ( A B ) C
c C, f ( c) = ( f 1 (c) , f 2 (c) )
.
f = ( f 1, f 2 ) = ( f 1', f 2' ) = f '
c C, ( f 1 (c) , f 2 (c) ) = f ( c) = f '( c) = ( f 1'( c) , f 2'( c) )
f 1 = f 1' , f 2 = f 2' .
( f 1 , f 2 ) = ( f 1 ', f 2' )
.
f ( AB ) C .
f 1 = { ( x, y) | ( x, ( y, z)) f } , f 2 = { ( x, z) | ( x, ( y, z)) f }

C
C
f 1 A , f 2 B , f = ( f 1, f 2 )
. .
A C B C ( A B ) C
.
122 | ,
()
B C
f ( A )
c C
B
f ( c) A .
b B
[ f ( c) ]( b) A . f : BC A f ( b, c) = [ f ( c) ]( b) .
: ( A B ) C A
BC
f ( A B ) C, ( f ) = f
.
f = ( f ) = ( f ' ) = f '
( b, c) BC, [ f ( c)] ( b) = f ( b, c) = f ' ( b, c) = [ f ' ( c)] ( b)
f = f ' .
. g A
BC
, c C f c
b B, f c (b) = g( b, c)
B
f c A . f f ( c) = f c f C A B
. g = ( f ) .
| Ordering of The Cardinal Numbers

.
16.7
a , b a = #A , b = #B A , B ,
a , b
ab
AB
.
-
.
16.8
a , b a b b a a = b .
16.9
.
[ ] a . a . a
. B = { b | b < a } . a
. B b ( b) b S x a
x . { ( b) | b B } a ( d )
. d B . b ( d ) ( b) B
S
( d ) S ( b) .
d S
( d )
(b)
d b . d B .
16. | 123
. 16.8
. .
.
16.10
< CD, > .

CD .
. A , B a = #A , b = #B a ,
b a b b a .
.
1) A , B A B B A .
2) A , B A B B A A B .
. ,
A , B f : A B
g : A B , h : B A .
.
16.11
a , b a b b = a + c c .
[ ] () a b a = #A , b = #B A , B
A B f : A B . A f ( A) a = #f ( A)
. C = Bf ( A) c = #C b = a + c .
() b = a + c c a = #A , b = #B , c = #C
A , B , C f : A C B .
f | A A B
16.12
A B .
a , b , c , d a c b d .
() a + b c + d
() a b c d
() ab cd
[ ] c = a + r , d = b + s r , s .
() c + d = a + r + b + s = ( a + b) + ( r + s) a + b c + d .
() cd = ( a + r)( b + s) = ab + as + rb +rs = ab + ( as + rb + rs) ab cd
.
() a = #A , b = #B , r = #R . : A B ( AR) B
B
f A , ( f ) = f
, f : B A f : B AR .
a b ( a + r) b a b c b .
b
b s
a = a 1c c = c
() .
b+s
=c
124 | ,
| Examples of Cardinal Arithmetics

(finite cardinal number)
(transfinite cardinal number) . 0
(aleph null) .
.
16.13
0 + 0 0 . e 0 = # e
o 0 = # o
0 + 0 = #( e o ) = # = 0
.
. m + n = m
n = 0 .
16.14
0 + . I = ( 0, 1) = #I .
I = 0 + = #( I ) . I
0 + = #( I ) # =
. 0 + = .
16.15
0 = # , = # 2
= .
f : P( )
a , f ( a) = { x | x < a}
.
a =
/ b a < b b < a . a < b
. a < r < b r . r f ( b)
r f
/ ( a) , a =
/ b f ( a) =
/ f ( b) . f .
P( ) = 2
. : { 0, 1}
f { 0, 1} , ( f ) = 0.f ( 1) f ( 2) f ( 3)
( f ) 0 1 . { 0, 1} f , g
f =
/ g n , f ( n) =
/ g( n) n
, ( f ) =
/ ( g) . : { 0, 1} .
2
. 2
= .
A P( A) A P( A) 2 A P( A)
. P( ) 2 0 < . 0

. .
16. | 125
1. a , b .
(2) a 1 = a
(1) 1a = a
(4) ab = 0 a = 0 b = 0
(3) 1 a = 1
(5) ab = 1 a = 1 b = 1
2. n na = a + a + + a .
a n .
3. n a n = aa a . a
n .
4. a , b A , B a = #A , b = #B ,
a + b = #( A B) + #( A B) .
5. a n n + a = a .
6. a a + 1 = a a .
7. b 0 + b = b .
8. a , b , c , d .
(1) a c < b c a < b .
(2) a c < a d c < d .
9. a , b , c , r , s a + b = c r as b ( r + s) c .
10. i a i
= a i
a1 < a2 < a3 < < an < an+1 <

.
(1) a 1 = 0
(2) a n + 1 = 2
an 0
.
2
11. a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x + + a n x = 0
. .
.
12. A .
(1) A A P ( AA ) A A P( A) .
(2) f A A, ( f ) = ran( f ) .
P(A) A A .
(3) A A P( A) A A 2 A
=2
13. A A 2 A .
126 | ,
17
| Deeper Properties of Cardinal Numbers

| | |
.
| Special Properties of Infinite Cardinal Numbers

, .
. m + n = m
n = 0 0 + = .
17.1
a aa = a .
[ ] A a = #A . A D .
D DD : D DD .
() B A
() D B ,
() f B B B ,
() f ,
( B, f ) .
(B 1 , f 1 ) ( B 2 , f 2 )
B 1 B 2 f 1 f 2
. ( D, ) .
, .
( C, g) .
a = #C . #C < a
. b = #C b < a . () CC C
bb = b .
b = 0+bb+b
b + b = ( 1 + 1)b bb = b
b = b + b . d = #( AC )
a = #A = #( AC ) + #C = d + b
. d b a = d + b b + b = b
b < d . b = #E AC E .
( C E ) ( CE ) = ( C C ) ( C E ) ( EC ) ( EE )
#[ ( CE )( EC ) ( EE )] = b + b + b = ( b + b) + b= b + b = b
.
h : E [ ( CE ) ( EC ) ( EE )]
. gh CE
( C C ) [ ( C E ) ( EC ) ( EE )] = ( C E ) ( CE )
( C E, gh ) > ( C , g) . ( C, g)
.
b < a b = a . aa = a .
17. | 127
17.2
a , b a .
() b =
/ 0 b a ab = a .
() a + a = a .
() b =
/ 0 b a a + b = a .
[ ] a = a1 ab ab aa = a ab = a .
a = 1a 2a aa = a 2a = ( 1 + 1)a = a + a a + a = a .
a = a + 0 a + b a + b a + a = a a + b = a .
. a , b
a + b = ab = max { a, b }
.
17.3
a , b a > 1 b a b a b = 2 b .
[ ] a < 2 a a b ( 2 a ) b = 2 ab . ab = b a b 2 b
. 2 a 2 b a b . a b = 2 b .
| Infinite Sums and Products of Cardinal Numbers

.
.
.
.
17.4
{ a i | i I } { A i | i I } i a i = #A i
ai
.
i I
a i = #( A i )
i I
i I
.
17.5
{ a i | i I } { A i | i I } i a i = #A i
.
.
ab a b . a b a b
.
. ,
.
128 | ,

.
17.6
a , b I b = #I i I, a = a i .
ai
() ab =
i I
()
[ ] { A i | i I } A i I, a = a i = #A i a = #A
. () A i . i I, A i A

{ f i : A A i | i I }
Ai
. f : AI
i I
f ( x, i ) = f i ( x)
f .
AI A i
i I
.
() i I, A i = A .
I
A = Ai
i I
.
I
A Ai
i I
.
17.7
{ a i | i I } , { b i | i I } i I, a i b i .
ai bi
()
i I
i I
()
[ ] { A i | i I } ,
{ B i | i I } I i a i = #A i ,
b i = #B i . i I, a i b i
{ f i : A i B i | i I }
.
Ai Bi
() f :
i I
i I
f = fi
i I
f . .
A i B i x A i , y B i ,
() f :
x y
i I
i I
i I
i I
f ( x) = y
i I, f i ( x i ) = y i
. f ( u) = f ( v)
i I, f i ( u i ) = f i ( v i )
. f i i I, u i = v i . u = v f
.
17. | 129
| More Examples of Cardinal Arithmetics

= .
.
17.8
0 + 0 = 0 2
= 2
=2
0 + 0
=2
=
0
. = .
= 2
17.9
= .
0 + 0 = 0 =
= = 2
. 2
0 + 0
=2
=2
= .
#{ f | f : } = # = #
= = (2
) =2
=2 >
. .
17.10
A B C( A, B)
#C( , ) = #C( , ) =
.
[ ] f : x , f | (x) = f ( x) f |
. f f |
: C( , ) C( , )
. .
x
lim x n = x < x >

n
n
. f : , g :
x' , f ( x' ) = g( x')
x , f ( x ) = g( x)
. . .
#C( , ) #C( , ) # =
= (2
=2
0 + 0
=2
K( , )
= #K( , ) #C( , )
. a f a () = { a } f a
= #K( , )
. #K( , ) #C( , ) .
= #K( , ) #C( , ) #C( , )
#C( , ) = #C( , ) = .
130 | ,
17.11
D( , ) .

K( , ) D( , ) C( , )
.
= #K( , ) #D( , ) #C( , )
D( , ) = .
17.12
(Hilbert space) .

x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + .
0
= (2
# = , .
17.13
{ 0, 1 } 2 .
n . n =
n
0 = = = ( 2
n
) =2
= 2 . , { 0, 1 }
n .
17.14
{ f | f : }
, n 0 ,
n=
= =
. = 2
n
(2 ) = 2
=2 =
.
.
17.15
.
() a + b = a + c
() ab = ac
b=c
b=c
[ ] a = b = 0 c = 1
a+b = a + c = 0
b =
/ c .
ab = ac = 0
b =
/ c .
j =
/ k j , k max { j, k } < i i
i + j = max { i, j } = max { i, k } = i + k
. jk =
/ 0
ij = max { i, j } = max { i, k } = ik
. j =
/ k .
17. | 131
| A Little Theories of Ordinal Numbers

.
.
A = {1234 } B = {135246 }
. A B B A
. B A .
.
S-11
[ ] OR .
O1. A A OR .
O2. A OR , A B = .
A = A .

.
< A, A > , < B, B > A B < A B, >
.
a b [ ( a A b B ) ( a A b ) ( a B b ) ]
. A B < AB, > .
.
17.16
, = A , = B A , B .

+ = ( A B ) , = ( A B )
.

. .

N1 = {1 2 3 4 5 } ,
N2 = {1 3 5 2 4 6 } ,
N3 = {1 4 7 258369 }
. N 1 .
A (initial
ordinal) . .
. .
.
.
132 | ,

. 0
. 1880 (continuum problem)
. 0
. .

?

.

. (continuum hypothesis) .
0 , 0 < x < x
.
. a 2 a
.
. (generalized continuum hypothesis) .
a a < x < 2 a x
.
1900 (David Hilbert, 18621943)
23
(Kurt
Gdel, 19061978) 1938
. .

.
.
1963 (Paul J. Cohen, 1934)
.
.
.

.
17. | 133
1. a a bc a b a c .
2. a 2 b , a = a b b < a .
3. a b , c ( b < a c < a ) b c < a a
(dominant) . a d < a 2 d < a
.
4. a , c , d b a + b c + d a c b d
.
5. a , b , c , d a < b c < d ac < bd a + c < b + d
.
(1) b d .
(2) b d .
6. a , b , c .
(1) a + a = a + b a b .
(2) a + b < a + c b < c .
(3) ab < ac b < c .
7. { a i | i I }
i I, a i = 0
.
a i a .
8. a i I, a i a , #I a
i I
9. a i I, a i a , #I a
a i
10. { a i | i I } j I, a j <
i I
.
b i = ab i .
11. { b i | i I } a a
i I
i I
12. f : A B B . B y
f - 1 ( { y }) A B .
13. A F( A) A .
, F( A) A . F n A n
A n F n .
C i ) #C i .
14. { C i | i I } # (
i I
i I
a i a i .
15. { a i | i I } , { a i | i J }
i I
i IJ
134 | ,
A1.1 | Extension of Natural Number

1.
2.
(minus) .
*
.
*
.
* = { ( m, n) | m n }
* = { ( p, q) | p q { 0 } }
* E .
* E .
( m, n) E ( m' , n')
m + n' = n + m'
( p, q) E ( p' , q')
pq' = p'q
E .
E .
= /E
= */E
. E *
.
( m, n)
[ ( m, n)] .
. E *
.
. 1/3 , - 7/5
.
4 , 0 , - 3
4 = [ ( 5, 1)] = [ ( 6, 2)] = [ ( 7, 3)] = ,
0 = [ ( 1, 1)] = [ ( 2, 2)] = [ ( 3, 3)] = ,
- 3= [ ( 1, 4)] = [ ( 2, 5)] = [ ( 3, 6)] =
. [ ( m, n)] m - n
. n < m [ ( m, n)]
, m < n [ ( m, n)]
1
= [ ( 1, 3)] = [ ( 2, 6)] = [ ( 3, 9)] =
3
7
- = [ ( - 7, 5)] = [ ( - 14, 10)] =
5
. [ ( p, q)] p/q
. pq > 0 [ ( p, q)] ,
pq < 0 [ ( p, q)] .

[ ( p, q)] + [ ( p' , q')] = [ ( pq' + p'q, qq')]
. [ ( m, n)] =-[ ( n, m)] .
[ ( p, q)][ ( p', q')] = [ ( pp', qq')]
[ ( m, n)] + [ ( m' , n')] = [ ( m + m' , n + n')]
. q > 0
.
[ ( m, n)] [ ( m', n')] = [ ( mm' + nn', m'n + mn')]
q' > 0
[ ( p, q)] [ ( p', q')]
pq' p'q
.
[ ( m, n)] [ ( m', n')]
m + n' m' + n
[ ( p, q)] p = kq k
[ ( m, n)]
m > n
m = n + p p .
[ ( p, q)] k
.
[ ( m, n)] p .
, .

| 135
3.
< xn > E < yn >

+ N , [ n > N | x n - y n | < ]
(sequence)
a 1 = 2, a 2 = 4, a 3 = 8, , a n = 2 n ,
.
.
< x n > < y n >

. E * .

{ a n }
< a n > . a n f ( n) (term)
= /E
.
a 1 .
(quotinent sequence) .
< a n >, , < c n >
< a n = 1/n > n

0 . < a n > 0
.
.
< a n > L
> 0 N , ( n > N |a n - L | < )
lim ( a n b n ) = lim a n lim b n

() n
n
n
lim ( a n b n ) = lim a n lim b n
() n
n
n
lim ( a n /c n ) = ( lim a n )/( lim c n )
() n
n
n
/ 0 .
. limc n =
, , ,
< a n > L L
lim a n = L .
n
() [ < r n >][ < s n >] = [ < r n s n >]
() [ < r n >][ < s n >] = [ < r n s n >]
lim 1 +
1
n
=e
, e 2.71828182845905
.
() [ < r n >]/[ < s n >] = [ < r n /s n >]

.
0 x
n
x 1,
.

.
-n
1
n
x
.
x n ,
.
x
< a n >
1
n
=y
y n = x
.
+ N ,
[ ( m > N n > N ) | a m - a n| < ]
< a n > (Cauchy quotient
r , r
< r n > . a 1

sequence) .
(real analysis)
.
a x = lim a
. a 1
* .
* = { < x n > | < x n > is Cauchy sequence }
*
E .
rn
ax=
.
( a1 )
-x
136 | ,

[ < r n >] [ < s n >]
+
N , ( n > N r n < s n + )
.
[ < r n >] q limr n = q
[ < r n >] q .

.
[ ] + .
A1 a, b , a + b
A2. a, b , a + b = b + a
A3. a, b, c , ( a + b) + c = a + ( b + c)
A4. 0 a , a + 0 = a
A5. a b , a + b = 0
[ ] .
M1. a, b , ab
M2. a, b , ab = ba
M3. a, b, c , ( ab)c = a( bc)
M4. 1 a , a1 = a
M5. a b , [ a =
/ 0 ab = 1]
[ ] .
D1. a, b, c , a( b + c) = ab + ac
[ ] .
O1. a, b , [ a + b ab ]
O2. a , [ a a = 0 - a ]
O3. a , [ a - a ]
/
[ ] S
S .
4.
i = - 1
a , b a + bi
.
,
( a, b ) . a + bi
( a, b) .
=
.
( a, b) + ( c, d ) = ( a + c , b + d )
( a, b)( c, d ) = ( ac - bd , ad + bc)
r ( r, 0) .

.
( a, b) a + bi .
.
z = a + bi | z |
| z | = | a + bi | =
a2+b2
. z = a + bi arg ( z)
arg ( z) = arg ( a + bi ) = tan

.
-1
( ab )
z = a + bi
= arg ( z)
z = a + bi = | z |( cos + i sin ) | z |e i
.
.
z 1
z 2
1 = arg ( z 1 ),
2 = arg ( z 2 )
, ,
(field)
.

.

.
.
,
.

.
z 1 z 2 = | z 1 || z 2 |( cos ( 1 + 2 ) + i sin ( 1 + 2 ))
. | z 1 || z 2 | = | z 1 z 2 |
arg ( z 1 z 2 ) = arg ( z 1 ) + arg ( z 2 )
.
,
.
.

.
1
a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x + + a n x = 0
,
.
| 137
A2.1Venn Diagram
Venn diagrams, Euler diagrams (pronounced "oiler") and
Johnston diagrams are similar-looking illustrations of
set, mathematical or logical relationships.
but was never satisfied with his five-set solutions. It

would be more than a century before a means
satisfying Venn's somewhat informal criteria of
symmetrical figureselegant in themselves was found.
In the process of designing a stained-glass window in
memoriam to Venn, A. W. F. Edwards came up with
cogwheels:
The Venn diagram above can be interpreted as the
three sets:
relationships of set A and set B which may have

some (but not all) elements in common.
The Euler diagram above can be interpreted as set A

is a proper subset of set B , but set C has no
four sets:
elements in common with set B .

Or, as a syllogism
All A s are B s
No C s are B s
Therefore No C s are A s.
Venn, Johnston, and Euler diagrams may be identical in
appearance. Any distinction is in their domains of
application, that is in the type of universal set that is
being divided up. Johnston's diagrams are specifically
applied to truth values of propositional logic, whereas
Euler's illustrate specific sets of "objects" and Venn's
concept is more generally applied to possible
relationships. It is likely that the Venn and Euler
versions have not been "merged" because Euler's
version came 100 years earlier, and Euler has credit for
enough accomplishment already.
The difference between Euler and Venn may be no
more than that Euler's try to show relationships
between specific sets, whereas Venn's try to include all
possible combinations. With that in mind:
There was some struggle as to how to generalize
too many sets. Venn got as far as four sets by using
ellipses:
five sets:
six sets:
Ref : Ian Stewart Another Fine Math You've Got Me

into 1992 ch4
Origins
John Venn was a 19th-century British philosopher and
mathematician who introduced the Venn diagram in
1881.
A stained glass window in Caius College, Cambridge,
commemorates his invention.
138 | ,
A3.1Historical Introduction
1. Mathematical Logic
(2) Topics in mathematical logic
Mathematical logic is a discipline within mathematics,

studying formal systems in relation to the way they
encode intuitive concepts of proof and computation as
part of the Foundations of mathematics.
The main areas of mathematical logic include model

theory, proof theory and recursion theory. Axiomatic set
theory is sometimes considered too. There are many
overlaps with computer science, since many early
pioneers in computer science, such as Alan Turing,
were mathematicians and logicians.
Although the layperson may think that mathematical

logic is the logic of mathematics, the truth is rather
that it more closely resembles the mathematics of logic.
It comprises those parts of logic that can be modelled
mathematically. Earlier appellations were symbolic logic
(as opposed to philosophical logic); and metamathematics, which is now restricted as a term to
some aspects of proof theory.
(1) History
Mathematical logic was the name given by Peano to
what is also known as symbolic logic. In essentials, it
is still the logic of Aristotle, but from the point of view
of notation it is written as a branch of abstract
algebra.
Attempts to treat the operations of formal logic in a
symbolic or algebraic way were made by some of the
more philosophical mathematicians, such as Leibniz and
Lambert; but their labors remained little known and
isolated. It was George Boole and then Augustus De
Morgan, in the middle of the nineteenth century, who
presented a systematic mathematical (of course
non-quantitative) way of regarding logic. The
traditional, Aristotelian doctrine of logic was reformed
and completed; and out of it developed an adequate
instrument for investigating the fundamental concepts
of mathematics. It would be misleading to say that the
foundational controversies that were alive in the period
1900-1925 have all been settled; but philosophy of
mathematics was greatly clarified by the new logic.
While the traditional development of logic put heavy
emphasis on forms of arguments, the attitude of current
mathematical logic might be summed up as the
combinatorial study of content. This covers both the
syntactic (for example, sending a string from a formal
language to a compiler program to write it as sequence
of machine instructions), and the semantic (constructing
specific models or whole sets of them, in model
theory).
Some landmark publications were the Begriffsschrift
and the Principia Mathematica.
The study of programming language semantics

derives from model theory, as does program
verification, in particular Model checking.
The Curry-Howard isomorphism between proofs and
programs relates to proof theory; intuitionistic logic and
Linear logic are significant here. Calculi such as the
lambda calculus and combinatory logic are nowadays
studied mainly as idealized programming languages.
Computer science also contributes to logic by
developing techniques for the automatic checking or
even finding of proofs, such as Automated theorem
proving and Logic programming.
(3) Some fundamental results

Putative proofs of universal validity of first-order
formulas can be checked for validity, algorithmically.
In technical language, the set of proofs is primitive
recursive. Essentially, this is Gdel's completeness
theorem, although that theorem is usually stated in
a way that does not make it obvious that it has
anything to do with algorithms.
The set of valid first-order formulas is not
computable, i.e., there is no algorithm for checking
for universal validity. There is, however, an
algorithm that behaves as follows: Given a
first-order formula as its input, the algorithm
eventually halts if the formula is universally valid,
and runs forever otherwise. If the algorithm has
been running for a trillion years, the answer
remains unknown. In other words, this set is
recursively enumerable, or, as it is sometimes
more suggestively put, semi-decidable.
The set of all universally valid second-order
formulas is not even recursively enumerable. This is
a consequence of Gdels incompleteness theorem.
The Lowenheim-Skolem theorem.
Cut-elimination in Sequent calculus.
The independence of the continuum hypothesis,
proved by Paul Cohen in 1963.
| 139
2. Axiomatic Set Theory

Set theory is a branch of mathematics created
principally by the German mathematician Georg Cantor
at the end of the 19th century. Initially controversial,
set theory has come to play the role of a foundational
theory in modern mathematics, in the sense of a theory
invoked to justify assumptions made in mathematics
concerning the existence of mathematical objects (such
as numbers or functions) and their properties. Formal
versions of set theory also have a foundational role to
play as specifying a theoretical ideal of mathematical
rigor in proofs. At the same time the basic concepts of
set theory are used throughout mathematics, the subject
is pursued in its own right as a speciality by a
comparatively small group of mathematicians and
logicians. It should be mentioned that there are also
mathematicians
using
and
promoting
different
approaches to the foundations of mathematics.
The basic concepts of set theory are set and
membership. A set is thought of as any collection of
objects, called the members (or elements) of the set. In
mathematics, the members of sets are any mathematical
objects, and in particular can themselves be sets. Thus
of natural numbers
{ 0, 1, 2, 3, } , the set of real numbers, and the set
of functions from the natural numbers to the natural
one speaks of the set
numbers; but also, for example, of the set { 0, 2, }

which has as members the numbers 0 and 2 and the
set .
Initially, what is now known as naive or
intuitive set theory was developed. (See naive set
theory). As it turned out, assuming that one could
perform any operations on sets without restriction led
to paradoxes such as Russell's paradox. To address
these problems, set theory had to be re-constructed,
this time using an axiomatic approach.
(1) The origins of rigorous set theory

The important idea of Cantor's, which got set theory
going as a new field of study, was to define two sets
A and B to have the same number of members (the
same cardinality) when there is a way of pairing off
members of
A exhaustively with members of B .

Then the set of natural numbers has the same
cardinality as the set of rational numbers (they are
both said to be countably infinite), even though is
a proper subset of . On the other hand, the set
of real numbers does not have the same cardinality as
or
, but a larger one (it is said to be
uncountable). Cantor gave two proofs that is not

countable, and the second of these, using what is
known as the diagonal construction, has been
extraordinarily influential and has had manifold
applications in logic and mathematics.
Cantor went right ahead and constructed infinite
hierarchies of infinite sets, the ordinal and cardinal
numbers. This was controversial in his day, with the
opposition led by the finitist Leopold Kronecker, but
there
is
no
significant
disagreement
among
mathematicians today that Cantor had the right idea.
Cantor's development of set theory was still naive
in the sense that he didn't have a precise
axiomatization in mind. In retrospect, we can say that
Cantor was tacitly using the axiom of extensionality,
the axiom of infinity, and the axiom schema of
(unrestricted) comprehension. However, the last of these
leads directly to Russell's paradox, by constructing the
set S = { A | A A
/ } of all sets that don't belong to
themselves. (If S belongs to itself, then it does not,
giving a contradiction, so S must not belong to itself.
But then S must belong to itself, giving a final and
absolute contradiction.) Therefore, set theorists were
forced to abandon either classical logic or unrestricted
comprehension, and the latter was far more reasonable
to most. (Although intuitionism had a significant
following, the paradox still goes through with
intuitionistic logic. There is no paradox in Brazilian
logic, but that was almost completely unknown at the
time.)
In order to avoid this and similar paradoxes, Ernst
Zermelo put forth a system of axioms for set theory in
1908. He included in this system the axiom of choice, a
truly controversial axiom that he needed to prove the
well ordering theorem. This system was later refined
by Adolf Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem, giving the
axioms used today.
(2) Axioms for set theory

The axioms for set theory now most often studied and
used, although put in their final form by Skolem, are
called the Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF). Actually,
this term usually excludes the axiom of choice, which
was once more controversial than it is today. When
this axiom is included, the resulting system is called
ZFC.
An important feature of ZFC is that every object
that it deals with is a set. In particular, every element
of a set is itself a set. Other familiar mathematical
objects, such as numbers, must be subsequently defined
140 | ,
in terms of sets.
The ten axioms of ZFC are listed below. (Strictly
speaking, the axioms of ZFC are just strings of logical
symbols. What follows should therefore be viewed only
as an attempt to express the intended meaning of these
axioms in English. Moreover, the axiom of separation,
along with the axiom of replacement, is actually an
infinite schema of axioms, one for each formula.) Each
axiom has further information in its own article.
Axiom of extensionality
Axiom of empty set
Axiom of pairing
Axiom of union
Axiom of infinity
Axiom of separation (or subset axiom)
Axiom of replacement
Axiom of power set
Axiom of regularity (or axiom of foundation)
Axiom of choice
The axioms of choice and regularity are still controversial today among a minority of mathematicians.
(3) Independence in set theory

Many important statements are independent of ZFC.
The independence is usually proved by forcing, that is
it is shown that every countable transitive model of
ZFC (plus, occasionally, large cardinal axioms) can be
expanded to satisfy the statement in question, and
(through a different expansion) its negation. An
independence proof by forcing automatically proves
independence from arithmetical statements, other
concrete statements, and large cardinal axioms. Some
statements independent of ZFC can be proven to hold
in particular inner models, such as in the constructible
universe. However, some statements that are true about
constructible sets are disproved by large cardinal
axioms.
Here are some statements whose independence is
provable by forcing:
Continuum hypothesis
Diamond principle
Suslin hypothesis
Kurepa hypothesis
Note: The Diamond Principle implies the Continuum
Hypothesis and the negation of the Suslin Hypothesis.
The constructible universe satisfies the Generalized
Continuum Hypothesis, the Diamond Principle, and the
Kurepa Hypothesis.
(4) Set theory foundations for mathematics

From these initial axioms for sets one can construct all
other mathematical concepts and objects: number discrete and continuous, order, relation, function, etc.
For example, whilst the elements of a set have no
intrinsic ordering it is possible to construct models of
ordered lists. The essential step is to be able to model
the ordered pair ( a, b) which represents the pairing
of two objects in this order. The defining property of
an ordered pair is that ( a, b) = ( c, d ) if and only if
a = c and b = d . The approach is basically to specify
the two elements and additionally note which one is the
first using the construction:
( a, b) = { { a, b }, { a }}
For another example, there is an minimalist
construction for the natural numbers, principally
drawing on the axiom of infinity, due to von Neumann.
We require to produce an infinite sequence of distinct
sets with a successor relation as a model for the
Peano Axioms. This provides a canonical representation
for the number as being a particular choice of set
containing precisely distinct elements.
At each stage we construct a new set with N
elements as being the set containing the (already
defined) elements 0 , 1 , 2 , , N - 1 . More formally,
at each step the successor of N is { N { N } } .
Remarkably this produces a suitable model for the
entire collection of natural numbers - from the barest
of materials.
Since relations, and most specifically functions, are
defined to be sets of ordered pairs, and there are
well-known constructions progressively building up the
integers, rational, real and complex numbers from sets
of the natural numbers we are able to model essentially
all of the usual infrastructure of daily mathematical
practice.
It is often asserted that axiomatic set theory is thus
an adequate foundation for current mathematical
practice, in the sense that in principle all proofs
produced by the mathematical community could be
written formally in set theory terms. It is also
generally believed that no serious advantage would
come from doing that, in almost all cases: the
axiomatic foundations normally used are sufficiently
closely aligned to the underlying set theory, that full
axiomatic translation yields only a little extra, compared
to argument in the usual, traditional informal style. One
| 141
area where a gap can appear between practice and
easy formalisation is in category theory, where for
example a concept like the category of all categories
requires more careful set-theoretic handling.
(5) Well-foundedness and hypersets

In 1917, Dmitry Mirimanov (also spelled Mirimanoff)
introduced the concept of well-foundedness:
a set, x 0 , is well-founded iff it has no infinite
descending membership sequence
x 2 x 1 x 0
In ZFC, there is no infinite descending -sequence by
the axiom of regularity (for a proof see Axiom of
regularity). In fact, the axiom of regularity is often
called the foundation axiom since it can be proved
within ZFC- (that is, ZFC without the axiom of
regularity) that well-foundedness implies regularity.
In variants of ZFC without the axiom of regularity,
the possibility of non-well-founded sets arises. When
working in such a system, a set that is not necessarily
well-founded is called a hyperset. Clearly, if A A ,
then A is a non-well-founded hyperset.
In 1988, Peter Aczel published an influential work,
Non-Well-Founded Sets. The theory of hypersets has
been applied in computer science (process algebra and
final semantics), linguistics (situation theory), and
philosophy (work on the Liar Paradox).
Three distinct anti-foundation axioms are well-known:
AFA (Anti-Foundation Axiom) due to M. Forti
and F. Honsell,
FAFA (Finslers AFA) due to P. Finsler,
SAFA (Scotts AFA) due to Dana Scott.
The first of these, AFA, is based on accessible pointed
graphs (apg) and states that two hypersets are equal if
and only if they can be pictured by the same apg.
Within this framework, it can be shown that the
so-called Quine atom, formally defined by Q = { Q } ,
exists and is unique.
It is worth emphasizing that hyperset theory is an
extension of classical set theory rather than a
replacement: the well-founded sets within a hyperset
domain conform to classical set theory.
(6) Objections to set theory

Since its inception, there have been some mathematicians who have objected to using set theory as a
foundation for mathematics, claiming that it is just a

game which includes elements of fantasy. Notably,
Henri Poincare said set theory is a disease from which
mathematics will one day recover, [note that this
quote is part of the folklore of mathematics, but it's
hard to find the original quote] and Errett Bishop
dismissed set theory as God's mathematics, which we
should leave for God to do.
The most frequent objection to set theory is based
on the constructivist view that, loosely, mathematics
has something to do with computation. See
mathematical constructivism. On the other hand this is
not really an objection to axiomatic set theory, as a
formal theory. It is a comment on the naive set theory
that is being formalised, and its admission of
non-computational elements.
142 | ,
A4.1Gdels Incompleteness Theorem

In mathematical logic, Gdel's incompleteness theorems
are two celebrated theorems proved by Kurt Gdel in
1930. Somewhat simplified, the first theorem states:
In any consistent formalization of mathematics that
is sufficiently strong to define the concept of
natural numbers, one can construct a statement that
can be neither proved nor disproved within that
system.
This theorem is one of the most famous outside of
mathematics, and one of the most misunderstood. It is
a theorem in formal logic, and as such is easy to
misinterpret. There are many statements that sound
similar to Gdel's first incompleteness theorem, but are
in fact not true. These are discussed in Misconceptions
about Gdel's theorems.
Gdel's second incompleteness theorem, which is
proved by formalizing part of the proof of the first
within the system itself, states:
No consistent system can be used to prove its own
consistency.
This result was devastating to a philosophical approach
to mathematics known as Hilbert's program. David
Hilbert proposed that the consistency of more
complicated systems, such as real analysis, could be
proven in terms of simpler systems. Ultimately, the
consistency of all of mathematics could be reduced to
basic arithmetic. Gdel's second incompleteness theorem
shows that basic arithmetic cannot be used to prove its
own consistency, so it certainly cannot be used to
prove the consistency of anything stronger.
1. Meaning of Gdel's Theorems

Gdel's theorems are theorems in first-order logic, and
must ultimately be understood in that context. In formal
logic, we write both mathematical statements and
proofs in a symbolic language, one where we can
mechanically check the validity of proofs so that there
can be no doubt that a theorem follows from our
starting list of axioms. In theory, such a proof can be
checked on computer, and in fact there are computer
programs that will check the validity of proofs.
To be able to perform this process, we need to
know what our axioms are. We could start with a
finite set of axioms, such as in Euclidean geometry, or
more generally we could allow an infinite list of

axioms, with the requirement that we can mechanically
check if each statement is an axiom or not. In
computer science, this is known as having a recursive
set of axioms. While an infinite list of axioms may
sound strange, this is exactly what's used in the usual
axioms for the natural numbers, the Peano axioms.
Gdel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any
such system that allows you to define the natural
numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains
statements that are neither provably true nor provably
false.
The existence of an incomplete system is in itself
not particularly surprising. For example, if you take
Euclidean geometry and you drop the parallel postulate,
you get an incomplete system. An incomplete system
can mean simply that you haven't discovered all the
necessary axioms.
What Gdel showed is that in most cases, such as
in number theory or real analysis, you can never
discover the complete list of axioms. Each time you
add a statement as an axiom, there will always be
another statement out of reach.
You can add an infinite number of axioms; for
example, you can add all true statements about the
natural numbers to your list of axioms, but such a list
will not be a recursive set. Given a random statement,
there will be no way to know if it is an axiom of your
system. If I give you a proof, in general there will be
no way for you to check if that proof is valid.
Gdel's theorem has another interpretation in the
language of computer science. In first-order logic,
theorems are recursively enumerable: you can write a
computer program that will eventually generate any
valid proof. You can ask if they satisfy the stronger
property of being recursive: can you write a computer
program to definitively determine if a statement is true
or false? Gdel's theorem says that in general you
cannot.
Many logicians believe that Gdel's incompleteness
theorems struck a fatal blow to David Hilbert's
program towards a universal mathematical formalism.
The generally agreed upon stance is that the Second
theorem is what specifically dealt this blow. However
some believe it was the first, and others believe that
neither did.
| 143
2. Examples of Undecidable Statements
The existence of an undecidable statement within a
formal system is not in itself a surprising phenomenon.
The subsequent combined work of Gdel and Paul
Cohen has given concrete examples of undecidable
statements (statements which can be neither proven nor
disproven): both the axiom of choice and the continuum
hypothesis
are
undecidable
in
the
standard
axiomatization of set theory. These results do not
require the incompleteness theorem.
In 1936, Alan Turing proved that the halting
problem; the question of whether or not a turing
machine halts on a given program is undecidable. This
result was later generalised in the field of recursive
functions to Rice's theorem which shows that all
non-trivial decision problems are undecidable in a
system that is turing complete.
In 1973, the Whitehead problem in group theory was
shown to be undecidable in standard set theory. In
1977, Kirby, Paris and Harrington proved that a
statement in combinatorics, a version of the Ramsey
theorem, is undecidable in the axiomatization of
arithmetic given by the Peano axioms but can be
proven to be true in the larger system of set theory.
Kruskal's tree theorem, which has applications in
computer science, is also undecidable from the Peano
axioms but provable in set theory. Goodstein's theorem
is a relatively simple statement about natural numbers
that is undecidable in Peano arithmetic.
Gregory Chaitin produced undecidable statements in
algorithmic information theory and in fact proved his
own incompleteness theorem in that setting.
One of the first problems suspected to be
undecidable was the word problem for groups, first
posed by Max Dehn in 1911, which states that there is
a finitely presented group that has no algorithm to
state whether two words are equivalent. It was not
proven to be undecidable until 1952.
3. Misconceptions about Gdel's Theorems

Since Gdel's first incompleteness theorem is so
famous, it has given rise to many misconceptions. They
are summarized here:
The theorem does not imply that every interesting

axiom system is incomplete. For example, Euclidean
geometry can be axiomatized so that it is a
complete system. (In fact, Euclid's original axioms
are pretty close to being a complete axiomatization.
The missing axioms express properties that seem so
obvious that it took the emergence of the idea of a

formal proof before their absence was noticed.)
The theorem only applies to systems that allow you
to define the natural numbers as a set. It is not
sufficient that the system contain the natural
numbers. You must also be able to express the
concept x is a natural number using your axioms
and first-order logic. There are plenty of systems
that contain the natural numbers and are complete.
For example, both the real numbers and complex
numbers have complete axiomatizations.
4. Discussion and Implications

The incompleteness results affect the philosophy of
mathematics, particularly viewpoints like formalism,
which uses formal logic to define its principles. One
can paraphrase the first theorem as saying that we
can never find an all encompassing axiomatic system
which is able to prove all mathematical truths, but no
falsehoods.
On the other hand, from a strict formalist
perspective this paraphrase would be considered
meaningless because it presupposes that mathematical
truth and falsehood are well-defined in an absolute
sense, rather than relative to each formal system.
The following rephrasing of the second theorem is
even more unsettling to the foundations of mathematics:
If an axiomatic system can be proven to be
consistent from within itself, then it is inconsistent.
Therefore, in order to establish the consistency of a
system S, one needs to utilize some other system T,
but a proof in T is not completely convincing unless
T's consistency has already been established without
using S. The consistency of the Peano axioms for
natural numbers for example can be proven in set
theory, but not in the theory of natural numbers alone.
This provides a negative answer to problem number 2
on David Hilbert's famous list of important open
questions in mathematics.
In principle, Gdel's theorems still leave some hope:
it might be possible to produce a general algorithm that
for a given statement determines whether it is
undecidable or not, thus allowing mathematicians to
bypass the undecidable statements altogether. However,
the negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem
shows that no such algorithm exists.
Note that Gdel's theorems only apply to sufficiently
strong axiomatic systems. Sufficiently strong means
that the theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out
144 | ,
the coding constructions needed for the proof of the
first incompleteness theorem. Essentially, all that is
required are some basic facts about addition and
multiplication as formalized, e.g., in Robinson arithmetic
Q. There are even weaker axiomatic systems that are
consistent and complete, for instance Presburger
arithmetic which proves every true first-order
statement involving only addition.
The axiomatic system may consist of infinitely
many axioms (as first-order Peano arithmetic does), but
for Gdel's theorem to apply, there has to be an
effective algorithm which is able to check proofs for
correctness. For instance, one might take the set of all
first-order sentences which are true in the standard
model of the natural numbers. This system is complete;
Gdel's theorem does not apply because there is no
effective procedure that decides if a given sentence is
an axiom. In fact, that this is so is a consequence of
Gdel's first incompleteness theorem.
Another example of a specification of a theory to
which Gdel's first theorem does not apply can be
constructed as follows: order all possible statements
about natural numbers first by length and then
lexicographically, start with an axiomatic system
initially equal to the Peano axioms, go through your list
of statements one by one, and, if the current statement
cannot be proven nor disproven from the current axiom
system, add it to that system. This creates a system
which is complete, consistent, and sufficiently powerful,
but not recursively enumerable.
Gdel himself only proved a technically slightly
weaker version of the above theorems; the first proof
for the versions stated above was given by Rosser in
1936.
In essence, the proof of the first theorem consists of
constructing a statement p within a formal axiomatic
system that can be given a meta-mathematical
interpretation of:
p = This statement cannot be proven
As such, it can be seen as a modern variant of the
Liar paradox. Unlike the Liar sentence, p does not
directly refer to itself; the above interpretation can only
be seen from outside the formal system.
If the axiomatic system is consistent, Gdel's proof
shows that p (and its negation) cannot be proven in
the system. Therefore p is true ( p claims not to be
provable, and it isn't) yet it cannot be formally proved
in the system. Note that adding p to the axioms of
the system would not solve the problem: there would
be another Gdel sentence for the enlarged theory.
Roger Penrose claims that this (alleged) difference

between what can be mechanically proven and what
can be seen to be true by humans shows that human
intelligence is not mechanical in nature. This claim is
also addressed by JR Lucas in Minds, Machines and
Gdel (http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/mmg.html).
This view is not widely accepted, because as stated
by Marvin Minsky, human intelligence is capable of
error and of understanding statements which are in fact
inconsistent or false. However, Marvin Minsky has
reported that Kurt Gdel told him personally that he
believed that human beings had an intuitive, not just
computational, way of arriving at truth and that
therefore his theorem did not limit what can be known
to be true by humans.
The position that the theorem shows humans to
have an ability that transcends formal logic can also be
criticized as follows: We do not know whether the
sentence p is true or not, because we do not (and can
not) know whether the system is consistent. So in fact
we do not know any truth outside of the system. All
we know is the following statement:
Either p is unprovable within the system, or the
system is inconsistent.
This statement is easily proved within the system. In
fact, such a proof will now be given.
5. Proof Sketch for The First Theorem

The main problem in fleshing out the above mentioned
proof idea is the following: in order to construct a
statement p that is equivalent to p cannot be
proved, p would have to somehow contain a reference
to p , which could easily give rise to an infinite
regress. Gdel's ingenious trick, which was later used
by Alan Turing to solve the Entscheidungsproblem, will
be described below.
To begin with, every formula or statement that can
be formulated in our system gets a unique number,
called its Gdel number. This is done in such a way
that it is easy to mechanically convert back and forth
between formulas and Gdel numbers. Because our
system is strong enough to reason about numbers, it is
now also possible to reason about formulas.
A formula F( x) that contains exactly one free
variable x is called a statement form. As soon as x is
replaced by a specific number, the statement form turns
into a bona fide statement, and it then is either
provable in the system, or not. Statement forms
themselves are not statements and therefore cannot be
| 145
proved or disproved. But every statement form F( x)

has a Gdel number which we will denote by G( F ) .
The choice of the free variable used in the form F( x)
is not relevant to the assignment of the Gdel number
G( F ) .
By carefully analyzing the axioms and rules of the
system, one can then write down a statement form
P( x) which embodies the idea that x is the Gdel
number of a statement which can be proved in our
system. Formally: P( x) can be proved if x is the
Gdel number of a provable statement, and its negation
self-unprovable. By definition of self-unprovable, we

conclude that SU( G( SU )) is provable, hence p is
provable. Again a contradiction. This one shows that
the negation of p cannot be provable either.
So the statement p can neither be proved nor
disproved within our system.
6. Proof Sketch for The Second Theorem

Let p stand for the undecidable sentence constructed
above, and let's assume that the consistency of the
system can be proven from within the system itself.
We have seen above that if the system is consistent,
P( x) can be proved if it isn't. (While this is good

enough for this proof sketch, it is technically not
completely accurate. See Gdel's paper for the problem
and Rosser's paper for the resolution. The key word is
omega-consistency.)
then p is not provable. The proof of this implication

can be formalized in the system itself, and therefore the
Now comes the trick: a statement form F( x) is

called self-unprovable if the form F , applied to its
own Gdel number, is not provable. This concept can
be defined formally, and we can construct a statement
But this last statement is equivalent to p itself

(and this equivalence can be proven in the system), so
form SU( z) whose interpretation is that z is the

Gdel number of a self-unprovable statement form.
Formally, SU( z) is defined as: z = G( F ) for some
particular form F( x) , and y is the Gdel number of
the statement F( G( F )) , and P( y) . Now the
desired statement p that was mentioned above can be
defined as:
p = SU( G( SU )) .
Intuitively, when asking whether p is true, we ask: Is
the
property
of
being
self-unprovable
itself
self-unprovable? This is very reminiscent of the
Barber paradox about the barber who shaves precisely
those people who don't shave themselves: does he
shave himself?
We will now assume that our axiomatic system is
consistent.
If p were provable, then SU( G( SU )) would be
true, and by definition of SU , z = G( SU ) would be
the Gdel number of a self-unprovable statement form.
Hence
SU would be self-unprovable, which by

definition of self-unprovable means that SU( G( SU ))
is not provable, but this was our p : p is not provable.
This contradiction shows that p cannot be provable.
If the negation of p = SU( G( SU )) were provable,
then by definition of SU this would mean that
z = G( SU ) is not the Gdel number of a selfunprovable form, which implies that SU is not
statement p is not provable, or P( p) can be

proven in the system.
p can be proven in the system. This contradiction

shows that the system must be inconsistent.
146 | ,
A5.1Mathematicians
1. Georg Cantor
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor (March 3, 1845
January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician who
is best known as the creator of modern set theory. He
is recognized by mathematicians for having extended
set theory to the concept of transfinite numbers,
including the cardinal and ordinal number classes.
Cantor is also known for his work on the unique
representations of functions by means of trigonometric
series (a generalized version of a Fourier series).
He was born in Saint Petersburg Russia, the son of
a Danish merchant, George Waldemar Cantor, and a
Russian musician, Maria Anna Bohm. In 1856 the
family moved to Germany and he continued his
education in German schools, earning his doctorate from
the University of Berlin in 1867.
Cantor recognized that infinite sets can have
different sizes, distinguished between countable and
uncountable sets and proved that the set of all rational
numbers Q is countable while the set of all real
numbers R is uncountable and hence strictly bigger.
The original proof of this, devised in December 1873
and published in early 1874, used a moderately
complicated reduction argument in which one starts
with a countable list of real numbers and an interval
on the real line. Then, one takes the first two elements
from the list that are in the interval, and forms an
interval from that. Exhausting onward, we find that
there exists an element that is not in the list. His later
1891 proof uses his celebrated diagonal argument. In
his later years, he tried in vain to prove the continuum
hypothesis. By 1897, he had discovered several
paradoxes in elementary set theory.
He also invented the symbol today used to represent
all real numbers.
Throughout the second half of his life he suffered
from bouts of depression, which severely affected his
ability to work and forced him to become hospitalized
repeatedly. This recurrent depression would probably be
diagnosed as bipolar disorder today. Indeed, one can
easily see this degeneration in his publication of a
verification of Goldbach's conjecture for all integers
less than 1000 (a verification up to 10000 had been
published decades before). He started to publish about
literature, attempting to prove that Francis Bacon was
the true author of Shakespeare's works, and religion in
which he developed his concept of the Absolute Infinite
which he equated with God. He was impoverished
during World War I and died in a mental hospital in
Halle, Germany.
Cantor's innovative mathematics faced significant
resistance, especially by Leopold Kronecker, Hermann

Weyl, L.E.J. Brouwer, Henri Poincare and Ludwig
Wittgenstein.
The
vast
majority
of
working
mathematicians accept Cantor's work on transfinite sets
and recognize it as a paradigm shift of major
importance. (See intuitionism and infinity)
No one shall expel us from the Paradise that
Cantor has created. David Hilbert
2. Ernst Zermelo
Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo (July 27, 1871May
21, 1953) was a German mathematician and philosopher.
Zermelo was born in Berlin, Germany. His secondary
school education was at the Luisenstadtisches
Gymnasium in Berlin where he graduated in 1889. He
then studied mathematics, physics and philosophy at the
universities of Berlin, Halle and Freiburg. He finished
his doctorate in 1894 and was awarded by the
University of Berlin for his dissertation on the calculus
of variations. Zermelo remained at the University of
Berlin where he was appointed assistant to Planck and
under his guidance began to study hydrodynamics. In
1897, Zermelo went to Gottingen, at that time the
leading centre for mathematical research in the world,
where he completed his thesis in 1899.
In 1900, in the Paris conference of the International
Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert challenged
the mathematical community with his famous Hilbert's
problems, a list of 23 unsolved fundamental questions
which mathematicians should attack during the coming
century. The first of these, a problem of set theory,
was the continuum hypothesis introduced by Cantor in
1878.
Zermelo began to work on the problems of set
theory and in 1902 published his first work concerning
the addition of transfinite cardinals. In 1904, he
succeeded in taking the first step suggested by Hilbert
towards the continuum hypothesis when he proved the
well-ordering theorem (every set can be well ordered).
This result brought fame to Zermelo, who was
appointed as professor in Gottingen, in December 1905.
His proof of the well-ordering theorem, which was
based on the axiom of choice, was not accepted by all
mathematicians,
partly
because
the
lack
of
axiomatization of set theory at this time. In 1908,
Zermelo succeeded in producing a much more
widely-accepted proof.
In 1905, Zermelo began to axiomatize set theory; in
1908, he published his results despite his failure to
prove the consistency of his axiomatic system. See the
article on Zermelo set theory for an outline of this
| 147
paper, together with the original axioms, with the
original numbering.
It should be noted that, in 1922, Adolf Fraenkel and
Thoralf Skolem independently improved Zermelo's
axiom system. The resulting system, now called
Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms (ZF), with ten axioms, is now
the most commonly used system for axiomatic set
theory.
In 1910, Zermelo left Gottingen when he was
appointed to the chair of mathematics at the Zurich
University. In 1916, he resigned his chair in Zurich. He
was appointed to an honorary chair at Freiburg im
Breisgau in 1926 but he renounced his chair in 1935
because of his disapproval of Hitler's regime. At the
end of World War II Zermelo requested that he be
reinstated to his honorary position in Freiburg and
indeed he was reinstated to the post in 1946.
Zermelo died in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
3. Kurt Gdel
Kurt Gdel [go:dl], (April 28, 1906 January 14, 1978)
was a mathematician whose biography lists quite a few
nations, although he is usually associated with Austria.
He was born in Brno in Austria-Hungary (which broke
up after World War I), became Czechoslovak citizen at
age 12, and Austrian citizen at age 23. When Hitler
annexed Austria, Gdel automatically became German at
age 32. After WWII, at age 42, he also obtained US
citizenship in addition to his Austrian one.
He was a deep logician whose most famous work
was the incompleteness theorem stating that any
self-consistent axiomatic system powerful enough to
describe integer arithmetic will allow for propositions
about integers that can neither be proven nor disproven
from the axioms. He also produced celebrated work on
the Continuum hypothesis, showing that it cannot be
disproven from the accepted set theory axioms,
assuming that those axioms are consistent. Gdel made
important contributions to proof theory; he clarified the
connections between classical logic, intuitionistic logic
and modal logic by defining translations between them.
Arguably, Kurt Gdel is the greatest logician of the
20th century and one of the three greatest logicians of
all time, with the other two of this historical
triumvirate being Aristotle and Frege. He published his
most important result in 1931 at age 25 when he
worked at Vienna University, Austria.
Kurt Gdel was born April 28, 1906, in Brno,
Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic) as the son of
Rudolf Gdel, the manager of a textile factory, and
Marianne Gdel (nee Handschuh). In his German
language family little Kurt was known as Der Herr
Warum (Mr. Why). He attended German-language
primary and secondary school in Brno and completed
them with honors in 1923. Although Kurt had first

excelled in learning languages he later became more
fond of history and mathematics. His interest in
mathematics increased when in 1920 his older brother
Rudolf (born 1902) left for Vienna to go to Medical
School at the University of Vienna (UV). Already
during his teens Kurt studied Gabelsberger shorthand,
Goethe's theory of colors and criticisms of Isaac
Newton, and the writings of Kant.
At the age of 18 Kurt joined his brother Rudolf in
Vienna and entered the UV. By that time he had
already
mastered
university-level
mathematics.
Although initially intending to study theoretical physics
he also attended courses on mathematics and
philosophy. During this time he adopted ideas of
mathematical realism. He read Kant's Metaphysische
Anfangsgrunde der Naturwissenschaft, and participated
in the Vienna Circle with Moritz Schlick, Hans Hahn,
and Rudolf Carnap. Kurt then studied number theory,
but when he took part in a seminar run by Moritz
Schlick which studied Bertrand Russell's book
Introduction to mathematical philosophy he became
interested in mathematical logic.
While at UV Kurt met his future wife Adele
Nimbursky (nee Porkert). He started to publish papers
on logic and attended a lecture by David Hilbert in
Bologna on completeness and consistency of
mathematical systems. In 1929 Gdel became an
Austrian citizen and later that year he completed his
doctoral dissertation under Hans Hahn's supervision. In
this dissertation he established the completeness of the
first-order predicate calculus (also known as Gdel's
completeness theorem).
In 1930 a doctorate in Philosophy was granted to
Gdel. He added a combinatorial version to his
completeness result, which was published by the
Vienna Academy of Sciences. In 1931 he published his
famous Incompleteness Theorems in Uber formal
unentscheidbare Satze der Principia Mathematica und
verwandter Systeme. In this article he proved that for
any axiomatic system that is powerful enough to
describe the natural numbers it holds that:
It cannot be both consistent and complete. (It is this
theorem that is generally known as the Incompleteness
Theorem.)
If the system is consistent, then the consistency of
the axioms cannot be proved within the system.
These theorems ended a hundred years of attempts
to establish a definitive set of axioms to put the whole
of mathematics on an axiomatic basis such as in the
Principia Mathematica and Hilbert's formalism. It also
implies that not all mathematical questions are
computable.
In hindsight, the basic idea of the incompleteness
theorem is rather simple. Gdel essentially constructed
148 | ,
a formula that claims that it is unprovable in a given
formal system. If it were provable it would be wrong,
so one could prove wrong statements in this system.
Otherwise there would be at least one true but
unprovable statement.
To make this precise, however, Gdel needed to
solve several technical issues, such as encoding proofs
and the very concept of provability within integer
numbers. Such formal details are the main reason why
his 1931 paper is rather long and not so easy to read.
Gdel earned his Habilitation at the UV in 1932 and
in 1933 he became a Privatdozent (unpaid lecturer)
there. When in 1933 Hitler came to power in Germany
this had little effect on Gdel's life in Vienna since he
had little interest in politics. However after Schlick,
whose seminar had aroused Gdel's interest in logic,
was murdered by a National Socialist student, Gdel
was much affected and had his first nervous
breakdown.
In this year he took his first trip to the USA,
during which he met Albert Einstein who would
become a good friend. He delivered an address to the
annual meeting of the American Mathematical Society.
During this year he also developed the ideas of
computability and recursive functions to the point
where he delivered a lecture on general recursive
functions and the concept of truth. This work was
developed in number theory, using the construction of
the Gdel numbers.
In 1934 Gdel gave a series of lectures at the
Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton entitled
On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical
systems. Stephen Kleene who had just completed his
Ph.D. at Princeton, took notes of these lectures which
have been subsequently published.
Gdel would visit the IAS again in the autumn of
1935. The travelling and the hard work had exhausted
him and the next year he had to recover from a
depression. He returned to teaching in 1937 and during
this time he worked on the proof of consistency of the
Continuum hypothesis; he would go on to show that
this hypothesis cannot be disproved from the common
system of axioms of set theory. He married Adele on
September 20, 1938. In the autumn of 1938 he visited
the IAS again. After this he visited the USA once
more in the spring of 1939 at the University of Notre
Dame.
After the Anschluss in 1938 Austria had become a
part of Nazi Germany. Since Germany had abolished
the title of Privatdozent Gdel would now have to fear
conscription into the Nazi army. In January 1940 he
and his wife left Europe via the trans-Siberian railway
and traveled via Russia and Japan to the USA. After
they arrived in San Francisco on March 4, 1940, Kurt
and Adele settled in Princeton, where he resumed his
membership in the IAS. At the Institute, Gdel's

interests turned to philosophy and physics. He studied
the works of Gottfried Leibniz in detail and, to a lesser
extent, those of Kant and Edmund Husserl.
In the late 1940s he demonstrated the existence of
paradoxical solutions to Albert Einstein's field equations
in general relativity. These "rotating universes" would
allow time travel and caused Einstein to have doubts
about his own theory.
He also continued to work on logic and in 1940 he
published his work Consistency of the axiom of choice
and of the generalized continuum-hypothesis with the
axioms of set theory which is a classic of modern
mathematics. In that work he introduced the
constructible universe, a model of set theory in which
the only sets which exist are those that can be
constructed from simpler sets. Gdel showed that both
the axiom of choice and the generalized continuum
hypothesis are true in the constructible universe, and
therefore must be consistent.
He became a permanent member of the IAS in 1946
and in 1948 he was naturalized as an U.S. citizen. He
became a full professor at the institute in 1953 and an
emeritus professor in 1976.
An amusing anecdote relating to Gdel relates that
he apparently informed the presiding judge at his
citizenship hearing, against the pleadings of Einstein,
that he had discovered a way in which a dictatorship
could be legally installed in the United States. Despite
this minor fiasco, the judge, who was apparently a
very patient person, still awarded Gdel his citizenship.
Gdel was awarded (with another nominee) the first
Einstein Award, in 1951, and was also awarded the
National Medal of Science, in 1974.
In the early seventies, Gdel, who was deeply
religious, circulated among his friends an elaboration on
Gottfried Leibniz' ontological proof of God's existence.
This is now known as Gdel's ontological proof.
Gdel was a shy and withdrawn person. Towards
the end of his life, he was extremely concerned about
his health; eventually he became convinced that he was
being poisoned. To avoid this fate he refused to eat
and thus starved himself to death. He died January 14,
1978, in Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
The Kurt Gdel Society (founded in 1987) was
named in his honor. It is an international organization
for the promotion of research in the areas of logic,
philosophy, and the history of mathematics.
| 149
A6.
1. You-Feng LinShwu-Yeng T. Lin, , ,
2. Charles C. Pinter, Set Theory, Addison Wesley Publishing Company
3. , ,
4. M. J. Greenberg, EUCLID EUCLID , ,
5. R. JohnsonbaughW. E. Pfaffenberger, , ,
6. Watson Fulks, Advanced Calculus, A Wiley Trans Edition
7. , ,
8. Herb Silverman, Complex Variables, Houghton Mifflin Company
9. John B. Fraleigh, Abstract Algebra, Addison Wesley
10. , 10-,
11. , 10- ,
12. ,
13. , ,
14. http://en.wikipedia.org
15. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk
150 | ,
A7.
enumerable set
110
De Morgan
21
countable set
110
power set
35
invertible
57
proposition
14
hypothesis
22
contradiction
18
family set
34
density of irrational numbers
indirect proof
23
consistency
13
open interval
35
infinite set
102
conclusion
22
asymmetric
75
join
86
reflective
41
connective
15
partial order
78
proper class
49
Venn diagram
variable
116
137
axiom
11
53
codomain
53
complex number
relation
40
convex set
85
intersection
32
sub lattice
87
meet
86
subset
32
recursion theorem
71
Boolean algebra
87
recursive
97
partition
43
graph
42
image
53
maximal
82
upper bound
82
minimal
82
constant function
54
cardinality
118
quotient set
43
cardinal power
120
supremum, least upper bound
82
relative prime
33
136
cardinal order
122
general product
127
ordinal
general sum
127
axiom of choice
94
cardinal product
119
choice function
94
cardinal sum
119
component
16
logical equivalent
16
lattice
86
injective, into
55
chain
78
simple proposition
15
mathematical induction
diagonal proof
114
isomorphic
80
equipotent
102
isomorphism
80
contraposition
22
ordered pair
38
symmetric
41
strictly increasing function
80
representative
94
initial ordinal
131
13
real number
135
density of real number
116
131
21, 70
independence
equivalent
equivalent relation
41
bidonditional
17
equivalent class
43
complement
33
16, 18
| 151
inverse
22
indexed family
34
inverse relation
40
index set
34
inverse image
65
hyperset
32
inverse function
56
transfinite recursion theorem
90
continuum hypothesis
132
maximum
82
complete lattice
88
minimum
82
preimage
53
transitive
41, 70
element
30
restricted function
tabular form
31
range
onto, surjective
55
cartesian product
39
bounded
83
- Cantor-Bernstein
106
rational number
density of rational number
unique
finite set
binary operation
72
binomial theorem
28
consistency
13
one to one correspondence
56
one to one function
55
natural number
69
bijective
134
54
42, 53
class
46
84
characteristic function
58
27
Peano axiom
68
p -
p-sequence
95
lower bound
82
infimum, greatest lower bound
82
quantifier
25
quantified proposition
25
function
52
value of function
53
56
implication
18
surjective
55
compositive relation
41
universal quantifier
24
compositive proposition
15
section
90
composition of function
60
segment
90
union
32
well order
98
identity function
54
well ordered set
88
tautology
18
theorem
20
extended function
54
integer
134
successor
69
domain
42, 53
conditional
16
conditionally complete
84
set builder form
31
existential quantifier
25
partial order
79
increasing function
80
proof
20
preceder
89
successor
89
truth value
15
proper subset
32
set
102
30, 49

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MATHEMATICSCRIPT*C OF AXIOMATIC SET THEORY

02. | Statements and their Connectives ................................................. 014

03. | Deductive Reasoning ............................................................................................ 018

04. | Quantification Rules .................................................................................................... 024

05. | Sets and their Operations ............................................................................ 030

06. | Relations and Partitions ....................................................................................... 038

07. | The Axioms of Set Theory ............................................................................. 046

08. | Functions and Inverse Function .......................................................... 052

09. | Image and Composition of Functions ........................................... 060

10. | The Natural Numbers .................................................................................................... 068

11. | The Ordered Sets ....................................................................................................... 078

12. | Deeper Properties of Ordered Sets ......................................................... 086

13. | The Axiom of Choice ................................................................................................. 094

14. | Finite Sets and Infinite Sets ............................................................. 102

15. | Deeper Properties of Infinite Sets ............................................................ 110

16. | The Cardinal Numbers ....................................................................................................... 118

17. | Deeper Properties of Cardinal Numbers ......................................................... 126

| Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 134

| Necessity of Set Theory

| Statements and their Connectives

| Implication and Equivalence

| Theorem and Proof

| Rule of Quantifier Negaton

[ ] (1) x x + 1 > x y = x + 1 y > x .

| Sets and their Operations

| The Concept of Set

AB= BA, AB= BA

13. (1) , (2) .

| Relations and Partitions

R = { ( 1, 2), ( 2, 4), ( 3, 6), ( 4, 8), ( 5, 10)}

R = { ( 1, 2), ( 2, 4), ( 3, 6), ( 4, 8), ( 5, 10)} .

= { ( 2, 1), ( 4, 2), ( 6, 3), ( 8, 4), ( 10, 5) }

(4) R (1), (2), (3) .

(2) Im( R - 1 ) = Dom( R)

| The Axioms of Set Theory

| Formal Definition of Set

| Functions and Inverse Functions

(2) Rng( f ) = Dom( f

| Generalized Cartesian Product

| Image and Composition of Functions

(2) Rng( gf ) Rng( g)

| Image and Inverse Image

| The Natural Numbers

| Definition of Natural Number

(4) ( n , f ( x)) . n + dom .

| Arithmetic of Natural Numbers

( m + n)k = ( m + n)k + ( m + n) = ( mk + nk) + ( m + n)

| Order of Natural Numbers

[ ] m , n , k m < n n < k m < k .

(2) m < n m + k < n + k

(3) m < n mk < nk

(2) mk < nk m < n

| The Ordered Sets

| Definition of Ordered Set

< A, > , < B, > . f : A B A

< A, > , < B, > . A x , y

A lubA supA glbA infA

1. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } < P( A), >

| Deeper Properties of Ordered Sets

| Lattices and Boolean Algebra

A a , b A a < b . a < c < b

< { 1, 2, 3, 4 }, > . < , >

x | y = x y S =< 100, | > A 60