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Tmrm ui bcihuitc j` fijfvfjucs (uim pconmbfòi, uim eu`strm, uim l`i`rmbfòi, `tb) s`
pu`j` bmnbunmr su e`jfm y su vmrfmizm. Nm e`jfm pmrm `s` rmslc s`rí `n vmncr
g`ictåpfbc e`jfc y nm vmrfmizm s` bcrr`spcij`rí bci nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm c vmrfmizm
tctmn. M su v`z, nm pmrtfbfòi j` nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm `i
g`ictåpfbm `i vmrfcs bcepci`it`s s`råm8
?
ς
T 5 ς L? + ?
ς + ς
@
?
Lx@
M su v`z,
v`z, nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm p
pu`j`
u`j` j`sbcep
j`sbcepci`rs`
ci`rs` `i vmrfcs su
suobcepci`it`s
obcepci`it`s,, tmn`s
bcec nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm mjftfvm, nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm j`ofjm m nm jcefimibfm, c nm
j`ofjm m nm `pfstmsfs.
Bumijc s` bcicb`i ncs vmncr`s g`ictåpfbcs y vmrfmizms pmrm jcs nåi`ms purms y pmrm nm
G? `s fit`r`smit` bcistrufr uim lrígfbm bci nm e`jfm j`n vmncr g`ictåpfbc `i nms mosbfsms
y nm vmrfmizm `i nms crj`imjms. @stm lrígfbm pu`j` s`r euy øtfn pmrm cot`i`r ncs
vmncr`s j` k`r`jmofnfjmj y ncs bcepci`it`s j` nm vmrfmizm. Rf `n bmríbt`r s` bcepcrtm
j` gcrem purme`it` mjftfvm, `itcib`s `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc pmrm nms e`jfms j` nm G = y nm
G? s`rí `n efsec y bcfibfjfrí bci `n vmncr e`jfc `itr` nms jcs nåi`ms purms. Bcec s`
trmtm j` jcs nåi`ms purms, nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm s`rí flumn m b`rc y tcjm nm vmrfmizm qu`
eu`str`i `stms nåi`ms s`rí j`ofjm mn meof`it`.
Nm k`r`jmofnfjmj `i s`itfjc mepnfc (K?) s` bmnbunm bcec `n bcbf`it` `itr` nm vmrfmizm
k`r`jmofnfjmj `i
- ;= -
l`iætfbm y nm vmrfmizm tctmn. Flumn qu` pmrm `n bmsc j` nms vmrfmizms, `n sup`råijfb` ? ic
fijfbm `n`vmjc mn bumjrmjc.
?
? W L ς
K 5 5 ? ? ?
L
W T L + ς @ + ς Lx@
ς
?
? W Lmjftfvm ς
k 5 5 ? ? ?
M
W T ς
L + ς @ + ς Lx@
Kmy jfv`rscs eætcjcs pmrm bmnbunmr nm k`r`jmofnfjmj. Pic j` `nncs `s `stfemijc ncs
vmncr`s j` nms vmrfmizms l`iætfbms y meof`itmn`
meof`itmn`ss (pcr `h`epnc kmbf`ijc uim nåi`m purm
y `stfemijc `i `nnm `n vmncr j` nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm qu` s` bcrr`spcij`rí bci `n vmncr
j` nm vmrfmizm meof`itmn, pu`stc qu` nms nåi`ms purms ic pr`s`itmi vmrfmizm l`iætfbm).
Ctrc omsíijcs` `i `n pmr`bfjc `itr` pmrf`it`s. Pi t`rb`r eætcjc utfnfzm nm `stfem j`
jfv`rscs pmríe`trcs `i ui prcb`sc j` s`n`bbfòi mrtfgfbfmn.
mrtfgfbfmn. @i `st` øntfec bmsc,
omstmråm bci mpnfbmr nm sfluf`it` gòreunm8
L x= x4
k? 5 5
J xR x4
jcij` L r`pr`s`itm nm lmimibfm c prclr`sc j` s`n`bbfòi, J `n jfg`r`ibfmn j` s`n`bbfòi
y ncs vmncr`s j` x sci ncs vmncr`s e`jfcs pmrm `n rmslc `i nm l`i`rmbfòi fifbfmn mit`s
j` nm s`n`bbfòi (x4), ncs fijfvfjucs s`n`bbfcimjcs (xR) y nm l`i`rmbfòi prcjubtc j` nm
s`n`bbfòi (x=).
N= N? ?
i5 ?
;ς L
jcij` N= y N? sci ncs vmncr`s g`ictåpfbcs j` bmjm nåi`m y ¿L nm vmrfmizm j` crfl`i
ς
Rf s` bcicb` qu` ui iøe`rc j` ncbf ofmnænfbcs (i) bcitrfouy` j` gcrem mjftfvm ` flumn m
j`t`refimr ui rmslc s` pu`j` j`jubfr `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc j` ncs jfv`rscs l`ictfpcs
l`ictfpcs
pmrm `scs ncbf. Tmrm bmjm uic j` `scs ncbf kmoråm jcs mn`ncs (M y m) qu` bcitrfoufr
bcitrfoufråmi
åmi
bci ui bf`rtc vmncr mn rmslc, j` tmn gcrem qu` `n r`pr`s`itmjc pcr nm n`trm emyøsbunm
s`råm `n j` emycr bcitrfoubfòi. Mså, `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc (WG) s`råm
WG 5 x E + ?i x e
jcij` x `s `n iøe`rc j` mn`ncs j` eíxfem bcitrfoubfòi, (?i- x) `n iøe`rc j` mn`ncs j`
- ;? -
?i!
Gr`bu`ibfm j` nm bnms` bci x mn`ncs j` eíxfem bcitrfoubfòi5
M x m
?i x
x! ?i x !
jcij` M y m sci nm gr`bu`ibfm j` `scs mn`ncs `i nm prcl`if`. Tmrm `n bmsc j` uim G ?,
`stcs vmncr`s `qufvmn`i m =/?
?. T_CON@EMR _@RP@NZCR
Trcon`em =. M pmrtfr j` uim eu`strm imturmn j` Jrcscpkfnm suocsburm s` cotuvf`rci
pcr s`n`bbfòi jcs nåi`ms qu` jfg`råmi `i nm ncilftuj j` nms mnms `stfemjm bcec nm
ncilftuj j` vmrfms j` nms v`ims qu` eu`strmi nms mnms j` `stcs fis`btcs. @i uim j` nms
nåi`ms ncs embkcs pr`s`itmomi `i prce`jfc mnms j` 7: °e j` ncilftuj, y `i nm ctrm
mnms j` ;7 °e. Nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm cos`rvmjm `i bmjm nåi`m gu` j` =,?0 °e?.
Bumijc s` bruzmrci y s` cotuvc nm G ?, s` cos`rvò qu` nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm gu` j`
=4,?: °e?.
Rupcif`ijc qu` nm ncilftuj j`n mnm `i ncs embkcs sflu` uim k`r`ibfm pcnflæifbm
purme`it` mjftfvm y qu` nms jcs nåi`ms s` pu`j`i bcisfj`rmr purms,
m) J`t`refimr `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc pmrm `st` rmslc `i nm G=, nm G?
o) Bmnbunmr nm k`r`jmofnfjmj
b) J`t`refimr ncs vmncr`s g`ictåpfbcs j` ncs r`trcbruzmef`itcs `itr` nm G= y nms nåi`ms
pmr`itmn`s.
_`spu`stm
Tmrm r`scnv`r `st` prcon`em `s fit`r`smit` r`pr`s`itmr ncs vmncr`s g`ictåpfbcs y nms
vmrfmizms `i uim lrígfbm jcij` s` `igr`it`i vmncr g`ictåpfbc (bcec mosbfsms) y
vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm (bcec crj`imjms)8
- ;2 -
Rf s` trmtm j` jcs nåi`ms purms, nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm s`rí flumn m b`rc y tcjm nm
vmrfmizm qu` eu`str`i `stms nåi`ms s`rí j`ofjm mn meof`it`. @i `st` prcon`em, `stí
vmrfmizm `qufvmn` m =,?0 °e?. @i nm G= tcjcs ncs fijfvfjucs sci l`iætfbme`it`
kceclæi`cs y su vmrfmizm l`iætfbm tmeofæi s`rí b`rc. Rfi `eomrlc, `i nm G ? s`
prcjub`i iu`vms bceofimbfci`s l`iætfbms y `stí l`i`rmbfòi ecstrmrí tmitc vmrfmizm
l`iætfbm bcec meof`itmn. Nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm j` nm G? s`rí nm jfg`r`ibfm `itr` nm
vmrfmizm tctmn j` nm G? y nm vmrfmizm meof`itmn (nm qu` eu`strmi tmitc N =, bcec N? y G=).
@i `st` bmsc nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm `s
W l ;,60
K ? 5 5 5 4,;<;
W ZCZMN =4,?4
M pmrtfr j` nm Gflurm `s gíbfn j`t`refimr tmitc nm vmrfmizm tctmn bcec `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc
j` nms prcl`if`s cot`ifjms `i ncs r`trcbruzmef`itcs `itr` nm G= y nms nåi`ms pmr`itmn`s.
Rf nnmemecs m `stms prcl`if`s OB = (r`trcbruzmef`itc N= x G=) y OB? (r`trcbruzmef`itc
N? x G=), `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc j` OB= s` sftumrí `i nm e`jfm `itr` ncs vmncr`s g`ictåpfbcs
j` N= y G=, y j` gcrem sfefnmr pmrm OB?. Mj`eís, nm vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm pmrm `stms
prcl`if`s s` sftumrí `i nm e`jfm `itr` nms vmrfmizms j` N= y j` G?, tmn y bcec s` fijfbm
`i nm gflurm.
_`suntmjcs8
(m)
Wmncr g`ictåpfbc e`jfc j` nm G=8 <0 °e
Wmncr g`ictåpfbc e`jfc j` nm G?8 <0 °e
(o)
K`r`jmofnfjmj8 4,;<;
(b)
Wmncr g`ictåpfbc e`jfc j` nm OB=8 76,0 °e
Wmncr g`ictåpfbc e`jfc j` nm OB?8 ;4,0 °e
Trcon`em ?. M pmrtfr j` ncs jmtcs j`n prcon`em mit`rfcr ³`s pcsfon` j`t`refimr `n
iøe`rc j` ncbf qu` bcitrcnmi `n rmslc ncilftuj j`n mnm `i embkcs3
_`spu`stm
@s pcsfon` cot`i`r uim `stfem eåifem j` `st` iøe`rc. Mså, `n iøe`rc j` ncbf qu`
bcitrfouy`i
suocsburm s`mpu`j`
`st` bmnbunmr
rmslc bumitftmtfvc
bcec8 `i qu` jfgf`r`i `stms nåi`ms j` Jrcscpkfnm
- ;: -
N= N? ?
i5 ?
;ς L
Zrms `n bcrr`spcijf`it` r`jcij`c pcj`ecs bcibnufr qu` `n rmslc `stí bcitrcnmjc pcr
ui eåifec j` < ncbf.
_`spu`stm
Trcon`em :. R` kmi cot`ifjc jcs nåi`ms purms j` emåz qu` eu`strmi mnturms e`jfms
j` =?4 y =;4 be. Rupcilmecs qu` `n rmslc `stí bcitrcnmjc pcr 0 l`i`s qu`
bcitrfouy`i
mm oo bb jj ``j` ygcrem flumn ymnturm
nm j` emycr mjftfvm
`sy MM
qu`
OOnmBB
nåi`m
BB JJ j`
@@.e`icr mnturm
Mn bruzmr `s j`
meoms l`ictfpc
nåi`ms ³quæ
vmncr g`ictåpfbc t`ijrí nm G=3 ³Bòec s`rí nm jfstrfoubfòi g`ictåpfbm `i nm G ?3
_`spu`stm
_`mne`it` pcj`ecs bmnbunmr buín s`rí `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc (WG) e`jfc j` ncs jfv`rscs
l`ictfpcs, pu`stc qu` `n meof`it` tmeofæi ecjfgfbmrí `n vmncr g`ictåpfbc j` bmjm
fijfvfjuc. Rf nms nåi`ms purms tf`i`i WG j` =?4 y =;4 be, pcj`ecs bmnbunmr bumitc
bcitrfouy` bmjm mn`nc mn vmncr j`n rmslc8
Nåi`m MM OO BB
BB JJ @@ (=;4 be), pcr nc tmitc bmjm mn`nc „emyøsbunm
„emyøsbunm―― bcitrfoufrí
=;4 be/=4 mn`ncs5 =; be.
Nm G? t`ijrí tmeofæi ui WG e`jfc j` =04 be, p`rc s` ics pfj` qu` bmnbun`ecs nm
jfstrfoubfòi j` g`ictfpcs y ic scnc `n vmncr e`jfc. Tmrm kmb`r `stc `s mj`bumjc p`ismr
qu` `i nm G? kmorí uim jfstrfoubfòi j` bnms`s g`ictåpfbms qu` jfgf`r`i `itr` `nnms `i nm
pr`s`ibfm j` mn`ncs emyøsbunm. Mså t`ijr`ecs bnms`s j` 4 mn`ncs emyøsbunm, j` =
mn`nc emyøsbunm, j` ? mn`ncs emyøsbunm, `tb. kmstm nn`lmr m nm bnms` j` =4 mn`ncs
emyøsbunms. Nm gr`bu`ibfm j` `stms bnms`s vf`i` jmjm pcr `n j`smrrcnnc j` nm oficefmn8
?i!
Gr`bu`ibfm j` nm bnms` bci x mn`ncs j` eíxfem bcitrfoubfòi 5
M x m ?i x
x! ?i x !
- ;7 -
_`spu`stm
Nms nåi`ms purms ic pr`s`itmi vmrfmbfòi j` crfl`i l`iætfbc, fepnfbmijc qu` tcjm nm
vmrfmbfòi g`ictåpfbm qu` eu`strmi `s j` crfl`i meof`itmn. Mså, nm nåi`m purm j`n
prcon`em eu`strm uim vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm tctmn `qufvmn`it` m nm vmrfmizm meof`itmn
(W@5 ? be).
Rfi `eomrlc, nm pconmbfòi crflfimn eu`strm uim vmrfmizm g`ictåpfbm tctmn (W Z) qu` `s nm
suem j` nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm y nm vmrfmizm meof`itmn W Z5 WL+ W@5 0 be.
M pmrtfr
pmrtfr j` `stm `xp
`xpr`sfòi
r`sfòi s` pu`
pu`j`
j` cot`i`r `n vm
vmncr
ncr j` nm vmrfmi
vmrfmizm
zm l`iætfbm8
WL5 0 be ‒ W @, sf`ijc W@5 ?be y pcr tmitc nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm WL5 2 be.
W l 2be
K ? 5 5 5 4,7
W ZCZMN 2be + ?be
Trcon`em =. Zrms
=. Zrms cot`i`r jcs nåi`ms purms j` bf`rtc fis`btc, s` bruzmrci y s` cotuvc nm
G= y nm G?. Tmrm `n bmríbt`r ncilftuj j`n mnm s` cotuvf`rci ncs sfluf`it`s r`suntmjcs8
- ;< -
Trcon`em ?. Rf 2 ncbf qu` s`lr`lmi fij`p`ijf`it`e`it` bci ? mn`ncs bmjm uic ( Mm, Oo,
Bb), j`t`refimi nm mnturm `i uim pnmitm, j` ecjc qu` nm pr`s`ibfm j` ncs mn`ncs
r`pr`s`itmjcs pcr nms n`trms emyøsbunms mýmj` ? bes. m nm mnturm oms` j` ? bes.
m) J`t`refimr nm mnturm qu` `sp`rmråmecs `i nm G= j` ui bruzmef`itc `itr` nms b`pms
kcecbflòtfbms8 MMOO
MMOOBB BB (=: bes.) x mmoobb (? bes.).
o) J`t`refimr nm jfstrfoubfòi j` nms mnturms (g`ictfpcs y gr`bu`ibfms) qu` s` `sp`rm `i ui
bruzmef`itc G= x G=.
b) ³]uæ prcpcrbfòi j` `stm G? t`ijrí nm efsem mnturm qu` nms b`pms pmt`rims3
j) ³]uæ prcpcrbfòi j` nm G? sf`ijc kcecbflòtfbm t`ijråm nm efsem mnturm j` nm G =.
Trcon`em 2. Rupcilmecs qu` nm jfg`r`ibfm `itr` uim rmzm j` b`omjm qu` prcjub` : lr.
pcr pnmitm y uim qu` prcjub` =4 s` j`o` m tr`s gmbtcr`s eøntfpn`s flumn`s y j` mbbfòi
mbueunmtfvm, MMOO BB. Brøb`s` ui tfpc bci `n ctrc.
MMOOBB
Trcon`em :. Rupcilmecs
:. Rupcilmecs qu` `i nms bmnmomzms nm jfg`r`ibfm j`n p`sc j`n grutc `itr` ui
tfpc j` =204 lrmecs y ctrc j` ?<44 s` j`o` m tr`s l`i`s Mm, Oo y Bb, bcitrfouy`ijc
bmjm uic j` ncs bcitrfoutfvcs `i ??0 lrmecs j` p`sc j`n grutc. Brøb`s` uim pnmitm j`
=204 lrmecs (mmoobb) bci uim j` ?<44.
Trcon`em 7.
7. Bf`rtm rmzm j` bci`hcs tf`i` ui p`sc bcrpcrmn prce`jfc j` 2.744 l. Ctrm
rmzm tf`i` ui prce`jfc j` =.;<0l. Ncs mpmr`mef`itcs `itr` `stms jcs rmzms prcjub`i
uim G= fit`re`jfm bci uim j`svfmbfòi tåpfbm j` =7? l. Nm vmrfmofnfjmj j` nm G ? `s emycr,
pu`s su j`svfmbfòi tåpfbm `s ?24 l.
Bmnbunmr `n iøe`rc j` l`i`s qu` bcitrfouy`i mn p`sc bcrpcrmn j` ncs bci`hcs mjuntcs.
Trcon`em <. M
<. M pmrtfr j` uim pconmbfòi j` Jrcscpkfnm e`nmiclmst`r qu`
qu` pr`s`itmom uim
ncilftuj vmrfmon` `i `n mnm bci uim e`jfm x4 5 2,:=0 y uim vmrfmizm Wp4 5 4,704, s`
cotuvc pcr bcismlufifjmj uim nåi`m purm qu` pr`s`itmom uim e`jfm j` pmrm `st`
bmríbt`r x= 5 2,=;4 y uim vmrfmizm Wp4 5 4,:42.
- ;; -
Bmnbøn`s` nm k`r`jmofnfjmj pmrm `st` bmríbt`r ncilftuj j`n mnm `i jfbkm pconmbfòi
= ? 2 : 0 7 < ; 6 =4 == =? =2 =: =0
L4 ? 6 =? ?= 2: 24 =< =2 : ? =::
L= 2 == =? =0 ?< =7 =4 0 ? =4=
Trcon`em =4. @i
=4. @i uim lrmi pconmbfòi j` lmnnfims, `n p`sc e`jfc `s j` ?,6; al bci uim
vmrfmizm j` =,?<;. M pmrtfr j` `stms lmnnfims k`ecs s`n`bbfcimjc uim nåi`m purm pmrm `n
p`sc y `i `stm pconmbfòi nm e`jfm j`n p`sc `s j` 2,0< al bci uim vmrfmizm j` 4,;=2.
Tmrm cot`i`r nm l`i`rmbfòi sfluf`it`, s`n`bbfcimecs scnme`it` m nms eís lcrjms j` nms
jcs pconmbfci`s, t`if`ijc nm pconmbfòi s`n`bbfcimjm m pmrtfr j` nm pconmbfòi lrmij` uim
e`jfm j` :,:0 al y nm pconmbfòi j` lmnnfims s`n`bbfcimjms m pmrtfr j` nm nåi`m purm uim
e`jfm j` :,0< al.
Trcon`em =.
m) : ncbf.
o) @i mn e`ics : ncbf.
Trcon`em ?.
m) ; be.
- ;6 -
o)
b) ?/7:
j) B`rc.
Trcon`em 2.
m) nm G= `s l`iætfbme`it` kceclæi`m y bci ui vmncr e`jfc j` <l
o) @i nm G? s` cos`rvmi < bnms`s g`ictåpfbms (sf nm vmrfmizm meof`itmn `s euy omhm)8
Trcon`em :.
Trcon`em 0. Mpr
0. Mprcxf
cxfemj
emjme`
me`it`
it` =40 fij
fijfvf
fvfjuc
jucss
Trcon`em 7. =: ncbf
- 64 -
Trcon`em ;.
m) k¿54,0;0
o) Bcigcre` mvmizm `n prcb`sc j` s`n`bbfòi, bmjm v`z nm vmrfmizm l`iætfbm `s e`icr y
pcr nc tmitc nm k`r`jmofnfjmj s`rí bmjm v`z e`icr.
Trcon`em =4. @n p`sc e`jfc j` ncs j`sb`ijf`it`s j` ncs fijfvfjucs s`n`bbfcimjcs s`rí
j` 2,0= al. @n p`sc e`jfc j` nm nåi`m s`rí 2,0< al.
- 6= -