‫‪Common‬‬

‫‪Logical Fallacies‬‬
‫المغالطات المنطقية‬
‫الشائعة‬
The Ad Hominem Fallacy_____________________
The Tu Quoque Fallacy________________________________
The Straw Man Fallacy________________________________

The Appeal to Ignorance_______________________________

The Slippery Slope Fallacy____________________________

The Petitio Fallacy_________________________________
The Questionable Fallacy______________________________
The Non Sequitur Fallacy_________________________ _______

The Appeal to Pity Fallacy____________________________

The Bandwagon Fallacy_____________________________

The Dilemma Fallacy________________________________

The Red Herring Fallacy_______________________________

The Appeal to Authority Fallacy_______________________

The Equivocation Fallacy_____________________________

 What is a logical
fallacy?
‫ما هي المغالطة المنطقية؟‬
 A logical fallacy is a fault in reasoning. It is an
illogical step in the formulation of an argument.
‫ إنها‬.‫المغالطة المنطقية هي خطأ في االستنتاج والتفكير‬
‫خطوة غير منطقية في صياغة الحجة‬.

Logical fallacies are used to confuse and convince

the other.
‫تستخدم المغالطات المنطقية عادًة بشكل خادع‬
‫َق‬ ‫ْأ‬
‫في ي اع اآلخر في الَحْي َرة وإقناعه‬.
 ‫‪Ad Hominem‬‬
‫الشخصنة‬
‫‪Literally translated as ‘’ to the man’’ subtly or overtly distorts a person’s‬‬
‫‪character, destroying their credibility no matter how valid their argument‬‬
‫‪is.‬‬
‫ُتترجم حرفيًا عىل أنها "للرجل" تشوه شخصية شخص ما بشكل واضح أو علني ‪،‬‬
‫‪.‬وتدّم ر مصداقيته بغض النظر عن مدى صحة حجته‬
‫أن تتهجم عىل شخصية خصمك أو صفاته الذاتية في محاولة إلضعاف حجته بدًال‬
‫‪.‬من مهاجمة حجته‬

‫‪Example: I was surprised you agreed with her. She is kind of an‬‬
‫‪extremist.‬‬
‫‪.‬مثال‪ :‬لقد فوجئت أنك وافقت معها‪ .‬إنها نوع من المتطرفين‬
 ‫‪The Tu Quoque Fallacy‬‬
‫الرد عىل النقد بالنقد‬
‫”‪“tu quoque”, Latin for “ you too,” is also called the “appeal to hypocrisy‬‬
‫"يمكن تشبيه هذه المغالطة بمبدأ “وحتى أنت!” " تسمى أيًض ا "نداء النفاق‬

‫‪it distracts from the argument by pointing out hypocrisy in the opponent‬‬
‫إنها تصرف االنتباه عن الجدل من خالل اإلشارة إىل النفاق في الخصم‬
‫حيث يحاول متلقي النقد تجنب اإلجابة عن النقد الموجه إليه من خالل توجيه نقد‬
‫‪.‬مشابه إىل الطرف اآلخر بغرض صرف األنظار وتشتيت األنتباه عنه‬
‫‪Example: Jack says that stealing is wrong, but he is a thief‬‬

‫مثال‪ :‬يقول جاك أن السرقة خطأ ‪ ،‬ولكنه لص‬

‫مثال‪ :‬عبد السالم انتقد عبد الفتاح عندما تجاوز اإلشارة الحمراء‪ ،‬فرد عبد الفتاح بانتقاده‬
‫‪.‬عبد السالم بأنه لم يربط حزام األمان‬
 ‫‪The Straw Man Fallacy‬‬
‫مغالطة رجل القش‬
‫‪It is responding to an altered version of the argument presented rather than the‬‬
‫‪argument itself. It makes use of misrepresentations to make an argument look‬‬
‫‪weak.‬‬
‫إنها تستجيب لنسخة معدلة من الحجة المقدمة بدًال من الحجة نفسها‪ .‬إنها تستخدم‬
‫‪.‬التحريفات لجعل الحجة تبدو ضعيفة‬
‫أن تعيد صياغة حجة الشخص اآلخر بشكل غير دقيق لَي ْس هل عليك نقدها‪ ،‬وذلك باللجوء‬
‫إما إىل المبالغة أو التحريف أو تصوير حجته بشكل مغاير تمامًا‬
‫‪Example: Prolonging semesters might help students get better grades.‬‬
‫‪.‬مثال‪ :‬قد تساعد الفصول المطولة الطالب عىل الحصول عىل درجات أفضل‬
‫‪Why do you want to overwork professors and students? Why do you want the‬‬
‫?‪number of those who drop out of school every year increase‬‬
‫لماذا تريد إرهاق األساتذة والطالب؟ لماذا تريد زيادة عدد الذين يتركون المدرسة كل عام؟‬
 The Appeal to Ignorance
‫استخدام حجة الجهل‬
Also called “ Ad ignorantiam’’

A statement is true as long as there’s no evidence that it’s wrong.

‫الَحِديث صحيح طالما أنه ال يوجد دليل عىل أنه خطأ‬.

Example: Since students have no questions ,they have all understood the lesson
very well
‫ فهموا جميًع ا الدرس جيًدا‬، ‫ بما أن الطالب ليس لديهم أسئلة‬:‫مثال‬
 The Slippery Slope Fallacy
‫مغالطة المنحدر الزلق‬
‫او االنزالق بالنتائج‬
It is a conclusion based on the premise that one small step will lead to a chain of events resulting in
significant negative effects.
‫إنه استنتاج يستند إىل الفرضية القائلة بأن خطوة واحدة صغيرة ستؤدي إىل سلسلة من األحداث تؤدي إىل آثار سلبية‬
‫كبيرة‬.
‫ لذا ال يجب السماح لـ”س” بالحدوث‬،‫ فإن “ص” سيحدث نتيجة لذلك‬،‫أن تؤكد عىل أنه إذا ُس مح لـ”س” أن يحدث‬.
Example 1:
-> If you do not wear clothes while it rains, you will be sick
-> If you get sick, you will not attend an important test
-> If you do not attend the test, you will not succeed.
‫ فسوف تمرض‬، ‫> إذا لم ترتدي مالبس أثناء هطول األمطار‬- :1 ‫مثال‬
-> ‫ فلن تحضر اختباًرا مهًم ا‬، ‫إذا مرضت‬
-> ‫ فلن تنجح‬، ‫إذا لم تحضر االختبار‬.
Example 2: If I give you a raise, then I’ll need to give everyone a raise, and the company will go
bankrupt
‫ وستفلس الشركة‬، ‫ فسوف أحتاج إىل منح الجميع زيادة‬، ‫ إذا أعطيتك زيادة‬:2 ‫مثال‬
 ‫‪The Petitio Fallacy‬‬
‫المنطق الدائري‬

‫’’‪Also known as ‘’Begging the question‘’ Or ‘’Circular reasoning‬‬

‫"ُيعرف أيًض ا باسم "طرح السؤال" أو "المنطق الدائري‬
‫‪This fallacy leans you an argument that may not be true in the first place.‬‬
‫‪.‬تميل هذه المغالطة إىل حجة قد ال تكون صحيحة في المقام األول‬
‫‪It’s when the conclusion and the premise are exactly the same.‬‬
‫‪The conclusion is a paraphrased premise.‬‬
‫أن تستخدم منطقا دائريا بحيث يكون االستنتاج مربوطًا بالنتيجة‬
‫هذه المغالطة غير المتسقة منطقيا تحصل عادة عندما يؤمن الناس بافتراضات عىل مستوى‬
‫عميق جدًا‪ ،‬ويرونها كمسلمات ال جدال فيها‬
 Nike makes the best shoes in the world
‫نايك تصنع أفضل األحذية في العالم‬

The company that makes the best shoes in the world can pay its employees more
.
‫يمكن للشركة التي تصنع أفضل األحذية في العالم أن تدفع لموظفيها أكثر‬.

Companies that pay their employees more can hire the best people.
‫يمكن للشركات التي تدفع لموظفيها أكثر توظيف أفضل الناس‬.

The best people can make the best shoes in the world.
‫أفضل الناس يمكنهم صنع أفضل األحذية في العالم‬
 The Questionable Fallacy
‫المغالطة المشكوك فيها‬

Also called ‘’ Non Causa Pro Causa ‘’

‫" ُيطلق عليه أيًض ا‬Non Causa Pro Causa"
The fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa is presuming that a real or perceived
relationship between things means that one thing is the cause of another one.
‫تفترض أن العالقة الحقيقية أو المتصورة بين األشياء تعني أن شيًئا ما هو سبب شيء آخر‬
 Example 1: We have never had a problem with this elevator until you moved
into the building
‫ لم نواجه مشكلة في هذا المصعد حتى انتقلت إىل المبنى‬:1 ‫مثال‬

Example 2: They had a very successful business, and then they decided to adopt a
child, and they immediately went bankrupt
‫ وأفلسوا عىل الفور‬، ‫ ثم قرروا تبني طفل‬، ‫ كان لديهم عمل ناجح للغاية‬:2 ‫مثال‬
 The Non Sequitur Fallacy
‫مغالطة عدم التسلسل‬

Translated as ‘’it does not follow’’

‫"تمت ترجمته "ال يتبع‬

Non sequitur refers to any claim that doesn’t follow from its premises or is
supported by irrelevant premises.
‫" يشير المصطلح‬
‫إىل أي ادعاء ال يتبع من فرضيته أو مدعوًم ا بفرضية غير ذات صلة‬.

Example: I should not receive a C in this course. I never get Cs

‫ ال يجب أن أحصل عىل معدل متدني في هذه الدورة‬:‫مثال‬
‫الني ال احصل ابدا عىل مثل هذه المعدالت‬
 The Appeal to Pity Fallacy
‫استجداء العاطفة‬

The appeal to Pity ,is a fallacy through which one tries to gain support for an
argument or idea by exploiting their opponent's feeling or Pity or guilt.
‫ هو مغالطة يحاول من خاللها كسب التاييدالدعم لحجة أو فكرة من‬، ‫إن النداء إىل الشفقة‬
‫خالل استغالل شعور الخصم أو الشفقة أواالحساس بالذنب‬.
Example: I know I made a poor decision, but let’s just look at how hard my job is.
‫ ولكن يجب مراعاة مدى صعوبة عملي‬، ‫ أعلم أنني اتخذت قراًرا سيًئا‬:‫مثال‬
 Example 2: Boss :you are late for work I have
to write you up.
‫ أنت متأخر عن العمل يتوجب علي ان ارفع تقريرا‬: ‫رئيس العمل‬
Employee :please do not write me up, if I get
fired I will lose my house and not have any
way to feed my family.

‫ إذا طردت سأفقد منزلي ولن يكون لدي أي طريقة إلطعام‬، ‫ من فضلك ال تفعل‬:‫الموظف‬
‫أسرتي‬
 The Bandwagon Fallacy
‫مع الجماعة‬
Also called ‘’Appeal to popularity ‘’
‫"ُيطلق عليه أيًض ا "جاذبية الشعبية‬
It is a logical fallacy through which one argues that the opinion of the majority is
always valid and that one should accept or reject an opinion because everyone
accepts or reject it. As everyone believes it, you should do too.
‫أن تحاول إثبات صحة فرضية ما عبر االستناد لشعبيتها أو توافقها مع العرف السائد‬.
‫إنها مغالطة منطقية يجادل من خاللها أن رأي األغلبية صالح دائًم ا وأنه يجب عىل المرء قبول‬
‫ يجب أن تفعل ذلك أيًض ا‬، ‫ كما يعتقد الجميع‬.‫أو رفض الرأي ألن الجميع يقبله أو يرفضه‬
 Example 1 : Marcus wants to go to a small community college close to
home, but most of students in his class are applying to larger colleges out of
state. Marcus decides that he should also apply to those colleges.

‫ ولكن معظم‬، ‫ يريد ماركوس الذهاب إىل كلية مجتمعية صغيرة قريبة من المنزل‬:1 ‫مثال‬
‫ يقرر ماركوس أنه يجب عليه أيًض ا‬.‫الطالب في فصله يتقدمون إىل كليات أكبر خارج الوالية‬
‫التقدم لهذه الكليات‬
 Example 2: Cathy is opposed to social media because she would rather have
a face- to-face conversation. However, more and more of Cathy's friends have
joined social media sites, so Cathy feels like she needs to create an account as
well

‫ ومع ذلك‬.‫ تعارض كاثي وسائل التواصل االجتماعي ألنها تفضل إجراء محادثة مباشرة‬:2 ‫مثال‬
‫ لذلك تشعر كاثي‬، ‫ انضم المزيد والمزيد من أصدقاء كاثي إىل مواقع التواصل االجتماعي‬،
‫بأنها بحاجة إىل إنشاء حساب أيًض ا‬
 The Dilemma Fallacy
‫مغالطة الحيرة‬
This fallacy has a few other names:" black and white fallacy" "either-or fallacy"
and "false dichotomy".
‫هذه المغالطة لها عدد قليل من األسماء األخرى‬:
"‫«مغالطة إما أسود أو أبيض‬
"‫«مغالطة إما أو‬
"‫"الثنائية الزائفة‬
Dilemma fallacy is defined as presenting only two choices for an issue when there
may actually be additional options .

‫ بينما في‬،‫مغالطة الحيرةأن تعرض خيارين عىل اعتبار أنهما الخيارين الوحيدين المتاحين‬
‫الحقيقة هناك خيارات أخرى ممكنة‬
 Example "one of us has to be right“
‫"مثال "يجب أن يكون أحدنا عىل حق‬

Example 2: ” Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists” President Bush

‫ "إما أن تكون معنا أو مع اإلرهابيين" الرئيس بوش‬:2 ‫مثال‬

 The Red Herring Fallacy
‫الرنجة الحمراء‬
A red herring is an emotionally charged issue brought up to divert attention from
something the manipulator wants to avoid.

‫الرنجة الحمراء هي مشكلة مشحونة عاطفية تم طرحها لتحويل االنتباه عن شيء يريد‬
‫المتالعب تجنبه‬.

Example: ‘’you asked me why the unemployment rate has risen again, but I’ll tell
you what’s affecting this country’s morale in even worse ways than that.’’
‫ لكني سأخبرك ما الذي يؤثر عىل‬، ‫ "لقد سألتني لماذا ارتفع معدل البطالة مرة أخرى‬:‫مثال‬
‫معنويات هذا البلد بطرق أسوأ من ذلك‬
 The Appeal to Authority Fallacy
‫استخدام السلطة أو التوسل بالُّس لطة‬

Traditionally called Argumentum ad Verecundiam

It is when someone uses the testimony of an authority in order to warrant their
conclusion, but the authority appealed to is not an expert in the field in question.
‫أن تقول أن تبني شخص ذو سلطة معينة لرأي معين ماهو إال دليل عىل صحة هذا الرأي‬.
‫لكن السلطة التي يتم االستدالل بها ليست خبيرة في المجال المعني‬.
Example: “This is a brand Oprah uses”
“ Steve jobs used to drink a cup of Twinnings
tea every morning at 9. He says it boosted
his creativity”
‫مثال‬:
"‫"هذه عالمة تجارية تستخدمها االعالمية الشهيرة أوبرا‬

"‫ ويقول إنه عزز إبداعه‬.‫اعتاد ستيف جونز أن يشرب كوًبا من شاي توينينينج كل صباح في التاسعة‬
 ‫‪The Equivocation Fallacy‬‬
‫مغالطة المراوغة‬
‫االلتباس في المعنى‬
‫‪Also known as doublespeak. It is the use of an ambiguous word in a argument .‬‬
‫‪ُ.‬يعرف أيًض ا باسم التحدث المزدوج‪ .‬هو استخدام كلمة غامضة في حجة‬

‫‪The fallacy of equivocation occurs particularly in arguments involving polysemic words‬‬

‫تحدث مغالطة المراوغة بشكل خاص في الحجج التي تنطوي عىل كلماتمتعدد المعاني‬
‫و األحكام المبهمة التعريف أو المصطلحات الواسعة والغامضة‬

‫مثال‪ :‬سأل القاضي المدعى عليها لماذا لم تدفع غرامة ركن سيارتها في مكان ممنوع‪ ،‬فأجابت بأنه ال‬
‫يتوجب عليها دفع الغرامة ألن اللوحة كانت غامضه حيت أشارت إىل منع الوقوف في أوقات الذروه‬
‫ولكن اللوحة لم تحدد ماهي أوقات الذروة بالضبط‬
 Qualities and Variety of Scientific Evidence

Scientific claims must be based on scientific evidence

Evidence is anything that you see, experience, read, or are told that causes you to
believe that something is true or has really happened.
Evidence in general means information, facts or data supporting (or contradicting) a
claim, assumption or hypothesis – like the use of ‘evidence’ in legal settings. In fact,
anything might count as evidence if it’s judged to be valid, reliable and relevant.
 Scientific evidence is evidence
which serves to either support or
counter a scientific theory or
hypothesis. It is also dependent on
the statistical evaluation of data,
which can take many approaches.
It results from experience,
reasoning, use of instrument.
 Scientific evidence is most often presented in court by an expert
witness testifying on expert opinions. It also includes expert
testimony that goes beyond science. It’s important to use the
evidence to figure out what is true—not to defend what You wish to
be true.

There are many different kinds of of evidence in science:

Experimental vs. observational
Exploratory vs. confirmatory
Basic science vs. applied science
We arrive at scientific laws and theories through a process of logic and
evidence.
Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only two,
pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based.
Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe, and
observations help validate or refine existing theory or construct new
theory.
Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or authority,
cannot be considered science.
In order to make sense of the scientific evidence, one need to know how
to assess an individual study. Then, to be able to pull it all together,
balancing all of the available evidence to compare different studies to
each other.

On any complex topic, there’s going to be contradictory evidence, so you

can’t look at any single piece of evidence and get a full picture as to
what is going on.
 The different kinds of scientific studies are roughly divided into two
broad categories: experimental and observational.

Experimental studies Observational studies

They are designed to perform a specific
intervention; they do something to affect
nature or people and then measure some
specific outcome. The goal of a well-
designed experimental study is to control
for as many specific variables as possible.
Ideally, one variable will be completely
isolated so that the effects of that
variable can be determined. For example,
scientists can inject a drug versus a
placebo, or fake drug, into lab rats and
then measure some specific outcome.
To observe the world without doing any
specific intervention—or with only minimal
intervention.
Scientific studies in which the behavior of
groups are observed in the real world—
without experimenter intervention.
For example, you can correlate a risk
factor to a disease. For example, how
many people who smoke get lung cancer
compared to those who don’t smoke?
 Great Scientific Blunders
Science has come a long way in the last 30 years; however, the success
has not come without its fair share of blunders, some of the greatest
mistakes and blunders in the history of science.

The scientists involved in each case made major cognitive blunders; they
either were controlled by their own biases or failed to question
themselves. Hereby, initial skepticism is the best response to any new
claims.
 Common
Logical Fallacies
The Ad Hominem Fallacy_____________________________
The Tu Quoque Fallacy________________________________
The Straw Man Fallacy________________________________
The Appeal to Ignorance_______________________________
The Slippery Slope Fallacy____________________________
The Petitio Fallacy_________________________________
The Questionable Fallacy______________________________
The Non Sequitur Fallacy_________________________ _______
The Appeal to Pity Fallacy____________________________
The Bandwagon Fallacy_____________________________
The Dilemma Fallacy________________________________
The Red Herring Fallacy_______________________________
The Appeal to Authority Fallacy_______________________
The Equivocation Fallacy_
 What is a logical fallacy?

A logical fallacy is a fault in reasoning. It is an illogical step in the

formulation of an argument.

Logical fallacies are used to confuse and convince the other.

 Ad Hominem
Literally translated as ‘’ to the man’’ subtly or overtly distorts a person’s
character, destroying their credibility no matter how valid their argument
is.

Example: I was surprised you agreed with her. She is kind of an extremist.
 The Tu Quoque Fallacy
“tu quoque”, Latin for “ you too,” is also called the “appeal to hypocrisy”

it distracts from the argument by pointing out hypocrisy in the opponent

Example: Jack says that stealing is wrong, but he is a thief

 The Straw Man Fallacy
It is responding to an altered version of the argument presented rather
than the argument itself. It makes use of misrepresentations to make an
argument look weak.

Example: Prolonging semesters might help students get better grades.

Why do you want to overwork professors and students? Why do you want
the number of those who drop out of school every year increase?
 The Appeal to Ignorance
Also called “ Ad ignorantiam’’

A statement is true as long as there’s no evidence that it’s wrong.

Example: Since students have no questions ,they have all understood the
lesson very well
 The Slippery Slope Fallacy
It is a conclusion based on the premise that one small step will lead to a
chain of events resulting in significant negative effects.

Example 1:
-> If you do not wear clothes while it rains, you will be sick
-> If you get sick, you will not attend an important test
-> If you do not attend the test, you will not succeed.

Example 2: If I give you a raise, then I’ll need to give everyone a raise, and
the company will go bankrupt
 The Petitio Fallacy
Also known as ‘’Begging the question‘’ Or ‘’Circular reasoning’’

This fallacy leans you an argument that may not be true in the first place.

It’s when the conclusion and the premise are exactly the same. The
conclusion is a paraphrased premise
 Nike makes the best shoes in the world

The company that makes the best shoes in the world can pay its
employees more .

Companies that pay their employees more can hire the best people.

The best people can make the best shoes in the world.
 The Questionable Fallacy
Also called ‘’ Non Causa Pro Causa ‘’

The fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa is presuming that a real or perceived
relationship between things means that one thing is the cause of another
one.
 Example 1: We have never had a problem with this elevator until you
moved into the building

Example 2: They had a very successful business, and then they decided to
adopt a child, and they immediately went bankrupt
 The Non Sequitur Fallacy
Translated as ‘’it does not follow’’

Non sequitur refers to any claim that doesn’t follow from its premises or is
supported by irrelevant premises.

Example: I should not receive a C in this course. I never get Cs

 The Appeal to Pity Fallacy
The appeal to Pity ,is a fallacy through which one tries to gain support for
an argument or idea by exploiting their opponent's feeling or Pity or guilt.

Example: I know I made a poor decision, but let’s just look at how hard my
job is.
 Example 2:

Boss :you are late for work I have

to write you up.

Employee :please do not write me up, if I get

fired I will lose my house and not have any
way to feed my family.
 The Bandwagon Fallacy
Also called ‘’Appeal to popularity ‘’

It is a logical fallacy through which one argues that the opinion of the
majority is always valid and that one should accept or reject an opinion
because everyone accepts or reject it. As everyone believes it, you should
do too.
 Example1 : Marcus wants to go to a small community college close to
home, but most of students in his class are applying to larger colleges
out of state. Marcus decides that he should also apply to those
colleges.
Example 2: Cathy is opposed to social media because she would rather
have a face- to-face conversation. However, more and more of Cathy's
friends have joined social media sites, so Cathy feels like she needs to
create an account as well
 The Dilemma Fallacy
This fallacy has a few other names:" black and white fallacy" "either-or
fallacy" and "false dichotomy".

Dilemma fallacy is defined as presenting only two choices for an issue

when there may actually be additional options .
 Example "one of us has to be right“

Example 2: ” Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists”
President Bush
 The Red Herring Fallacy
A red herring is an emotionally charged issue brought up to divert
attention from something the manipulator wants to avoid.

Example: ‘’you asked me why the unemployment rate has risen again, but
I’ll tell you what’s affecting this country’s morale in even worse ways than
that.’’
 The Appeal to Authority Fallacy
Traditionally called Argumentum ad Verecundiam

It is when someone uses the testimony of an authority in order to warrant

their conclusion, but the authority appealed to is not an expert in the
field in question.

Example: “This is a brand Oprah uses”

“ Steve jobs used to drink a cup of Twinnings
tea every morning at 9. He says it boosted
his creativity”
 The Equivocation Fallacy
Also known as doublespeak. It is the use of an ambiguous word in a
argument .

The fallacy of equivocation occurs particularly in arguments involving

polysemic words

She cannot bear children .

Meaning N' 1 : She is unable to give birth to children . New sentence : she
cannot bear children because she is sterile .

Meaning N '2 : She cannot tolerate children

New Sentence : She cannot bear children If they are noisy .
 Example 1:
- Every good law should be obeyed .
- The law of gravitation is a good law .
- Therefore , the law of gravitation
should be obeyed .

Example2:

-The priest told Tom he should have faith.

Tom has faith that his son will do well in school this year.

Therefore, the priest should be happy with Tom.