Міністерство освіти і науки України

Сумський державний університет

МЕТОДИЧНІ ВКАЗІВКИ

до самостійної роботи з навчальної дисципліни

«ІСТОРІЯ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ»

для студентів спеціальності

6.030507 “Переклад”
денної форми навчання

Суми
Видавництво СумДУ
2010

3
 Методичні вказівки до самостійної роботи з навчальної
дисципліни «Історія англійської мови» / Укладач І.К. Кобякова.
- Суми: Вид-во СумДУ, 2010. – 30 с.

Кафедра германської філології

Методичні вказівки до навчальної дисципліни «Історія

англійської мови» укладено з метою наочного і компактного
викладення досить великого за обсягом програмного матеріалу,
який містить основну лексику і термінологію курсу.

4
 Організація методичних вказівок при якій кожне питання
займає, як правило, не більше однієї сторінки, а інформація
викладається у вигляді таблиць та схем, в яких найголовніші
положення виділені графічно, сприяє чіткому засвоєнню
найсуттєвіших понять і швидкому знаходженню відповідей на
питання.
Таблиці висвітлюють такі розділи курсу як:
1) Германські мови, їх класифікація і характеристика.
2) Періодизація в історії давньогерманських мов. Племінні
і територіальні германські діалекти. Писемність.
Пам’ятки писемності.
3) Фонетичні система давньогерманських мов, їх
граматична будова.
4) Давньогерманський словниковий склад: індоєвропейська
спадщина і власне германська лексика.
Окрім таблиць з основних питань, містяться таблиці, що
нададуть відповіді на численні питання студентів, які
виникають у процесі вивчення курсу. Зазвичай відповіді на такі
питання не існують в готовому вигляді, чи їх пошук пов'язаний з
опрацюванням багатьох чи важкодоступних джерел.
Зазначаються витоки писемності, джерела виникнення
латинського, готського та рунічного алфавітів, назви, значення
та інтерпретація рун. Наводяться ілюстрації рунічних пам’яток,
зразки латинських шрифтів, список текстових та діакритичних
знаків з їх назвами і значеннями у порівняльному мовознавстві,
правила читання латинської, готської, давньоанглійської та
давньоверхньонімецької мов.
Порівняльні таблиці тематичних груп слів, що є
індоєвропейською спадщиною, та найтиповіших груп слів
германського походження в англійській, німецькій,
нідерландській, датській, швецькій, норвезькій мовах надають
можливість студентам побачити і порівняти власноруч в чому
виявляється схожість і розбіжності в наведеній лексиці
сучасних германських мов. Окрім кращого засвоєння знань з
теми «Давньогерманський словниковий склад» - знаходження
лексем, що належать до різних етимологічних рівнів англійської
5
мови, цей додаток можна використовувати і при виконанні
вправ з порівняльної фонології германських мов (вправи на
закони Гріма та Вернера, другий пересув приголосних, західно
германське подовження приголосних).

TABLE 1
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE ANCIENT
GERMANS

6
Archeology and ethnography data Borrowings in the languages of the
neighbouring nomadic tribes Written sources
The written sources are as follows:
PYTHEAS IV an account of a sea voyage to the
from Massilia, century ВС Baltic Sea. Has not come down to us.
the Greek astronomer, Was used by Greek and Roman
traveller and geographer writers, historians, geographers
JULIUS CAESAR, the I described some militant Germanic
Roman general,writer and century ВС tribes who bordered on the Celts of
statesman Gaul in the North-East in his
'Commentaries on the War in Gaul'
("Записки про галльську війну")
PLINY THE ELDER, I made a classified list of the Germanic
the Roman scientist and century AD tribes grouping them under six
writer headings in 'Natural History'
("Природна історія")
CORNEOUS TACITUS, the І-П compiled a detailed description of the
Roman historian and senator century AD life and customs of the ancient
Germans. Reproduced Pliny's
classification of the Germanic tribes,
characterized their social stucture.
'Germania' ("Германія"), 'Annales'
("Анали")
JORDAN, VI century his work 'On the Origin and History of
the Gothic historian the Goths' ("Про походження та
історію готів" чи "Гетика") was
written in Latin and comprised the
description of historical events from
Cassiodor's history (533) and legends
of the Goths of those times.
Cassiodor's history has not come down
to us
BEDE the Venerable, the VIII 'Ecclesiastical History of the English
English scholar and monk century People' ("Церковна історія народу
англів")
SNORRI SIURLUSON, the XIII century 'Younger Edda' ("Молодша Едда") -
Old Icelandic statesman, poet prose Edda
and historian
TABLE 2
THE ORIGIN OF SOME PROPER NAMES AND NOTIONS

7
VIKING The word 'viking' is controversial:
1) ONorw vikingr - vikja 'to turn' - a man who left his home
and sailed far away
2) vik 'bay', 'gulf - a person who is tied to bays with the further
meaning of attacking assing ships from the bays
3)Vík - a province adjoining to Oslo-fiord
4) vig 'battle', 'fight'
VARANGIAN ONorw várar 'oath', 'promise', 'vow' and ganga 'go'

SCANDINAVIA *skaðin 'harm', 'danger' and *aujo 'island'. The word must have
denoted a dangerous island
Skone, a province in Southern Sweden, Cape Scagen,
StraitSkagerrak comprise the same root
SWEDEN OSw Swearkie 'the Sweds' state'

NORWAY *Norðvegr ‘a northern way, northern place, locality’. At first it

might have denoted the sea way along the coast. Later on it
shifted and began to denote a country stretching along the
way adjoining the coastal line
DENMARK Olcel Danmork ‘frontier land of the Danes’ was the name of
the frontier provinces in the south of the Jutland Peninsula
Dane Mark (Датська марка)
ZEALAND О Dan Selund. There must have lived the tribe of silingi
(силінги) in the island

The long slim boats of the Vikings (20-50 m. in length, 5 m.

in width) were pointed at both ends that allowed sailing in the
opposite direction without turning the boat about. The front end had
a carved figure of a snake or dragon on it. Such a figure aimed at
frightening evil spirits and horrifying enemies.
A boat was moved either by a large square sail when the wind
was right or by oars. At least twenty men sat at the oars of a Viking
boat. While they were rowing, other men were resting. Boats could
admit up to 150 persons and could be carried by men in case of
necessity. By this method the Vikings could make long journeys over
water.
TABLE 3
THE NORWEGIANS

8
 The first raids of the Vikings began from Norway

793 The Vikings attacked the Lindisfarne monastery

Established the bases in the Shetlands and Orkneys
Discovered the Faeroe Islands
836 Founded Dublin as a trading post and military base for
raids. Raided various coasts of the Irish Sea, the Isle of
Man, the Hebrides (832-847)
872 Harold Fairhair united most of Norway
874 The first settlement in Iceland
891 Eric the Red discovered Greenland
995-1000 Olaf Tryggvason Christianized the Norwegians
1000 Eric's son Lief discovered and explored 'Viniland'
1015-1030 Olaf Haraldsson completed the Christianization of the
country. He was canonized and became St. Olaf
1030-1035 The Danish king Canute ruled the country after Olaf
Haraldsson's death
1035-1047 Canute's rale proved unpopular and in 1035 the
Norwegians elected Olafs young son Magnus as king
1042 After Hardecanute's death in 1042 Magnus also became
1047 king of Denmark Magnus died in battle and was
succeeded in Norway by his uncle, Harald Hardrade
with whom he shared the kingdom since 1046. He had
to battle with Canute's nephew Sweyn Estridson,
1066 elected as Danish king Harald was killed in vain
attempt to conquer England

TABLE 4
THE DANES

9
 The Danes came from Southern Sweden into Zealand and the
Jutland Peninsula. The Eider River became the established southern
frontier

834 The Danes attacked Dorestad in Frisia and Paris

844 Raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula
859-862 Attacked Provence and Toscana
865 (870) Conquered East Anglia (Great Britain)
874 Conquered Mercia
876 Conquered Northumbria
878 Aelfred the Great routed the Danes at Edington.
According to Wedmore peace a part of England was
yielded to the invaders and recognized as Danisl
territory - Danelaw
911 The valley of the Seine seized by the Danes in 895
became known as Normandy (Dukedom of Normandy)
940-960 Gorm became king of Jutland
Gorm's son, Harold Bluetooth completed the
unification of Denmark, conquered Norway and
Christianized the Danes. Sweyn Forkbeard conquered
England and formed the Anglo-Danish Empire
1016-1035 Sweyn's son, Canute, reigned the empire uniting
Denmark, England, part of Sweden and in 1028-1035
Norway
1042-1047 Norway elected a native king Magnus. He also ruled in
Denmark from 1042 to 1047
1047 Denmark elected Canute's nephew Sweyn Estridson.
He battled with the
Norwegian king Harold Hardrade for reunification with
the result mat each
recognized the other's sovereignty

TABLE 5
EVOLUTION OF WRITING

10
 PICTURES (No Creations resulting from an artistic-aesthetic urge +
writing) Writing had its origin in simple pictures - Pictures do
not form part of a conventional system
FORERUNNERS OF DESCRIPTIVE-REPRESENTATIONAL1
AND
WRITING DESCRIPTIVE-MNEMONIC DEVICES2
+Lack the embellishments that form part of an artistic
picture -Lack of systematic correlation between the visual
marks and linguistic elements
LOGO-SYLLABIC The introduction of the strict order of the signs that
corresponds to the order of the spoken words. The most
WRITING important step in the history of logographic ideographic
writing was phonetization.3
Has also applied word signs functioning as syllabic signs
from the earliest times
Sumerian Egyptian Hittite Chinese
3100 ВС- 3000 ВС- 1500 ВС- 1300 ВС
- AD 71 - AD400 - ВС 700 -present
Mesopotamia Egypt Anatolia China
Syria
SYLLABIC Used only syllabic signs omitting word signs entirely
WRITING Some descendants of the Proto-Babylonian systems, etc.
ALPHABETIC Throughout the 2 nd millennium ВС several attempts
WRITING were made to find a way to indicate vowels in syllabaries
of the Egyptian-Semitic type
The Greeks evolved a system of vowel signs, and
thus for the first time created a full alphabetic system of
writing
The Semites in turn learned to use of vowel marks

1
Contain the elements important for the transmission of
communication.
2
Are represented by the recordings of objects, persons, ceremonial
songs.
3
Phonetization - attaching a phonetic value to a sign independent of the
meaning that this sign has as a word.

TABLE 6
THE ORIGIN OF THE FIRST ALPHABET

11
 Pictography or picture writing was the first step toward true
writing.
Ideographic writing extended the possibilities of pictography.
The earliest fully developed system of writing was cuneiform (IV
mil. ВС)

The second oldest developed script was the Egyptian

hieroglyphic style

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics Both cuneiform and

hieroglyphic scripts comprised not less than 600 signs and were not
convenient in practical usage.
The North Semitic alphabet, forming Early Hebrew,
Phoenician and Aramic branches, appeared between 1700 and 1500
ВС.
The Phoenician alphabet comprised 22 consonants. It became
the direct ancestor of all Western alphabets. The Phoenicians wrote
from right to left.
The Greek alphabet was created early in the 1 st millennium
ВС. It comprised 24 letters, both consonants and vowels. Names of

12
Greek letters are Phoenician words by origin which correspond to
Egyptian hieroglyphics by meaning.

The system of writing in Old English was changed with the

introduction of Christianity. Before that, the English used the runes
– symbols that were very vague, that might at the same time denote
a sound a syllable or a whole word.
Runes are the 24 letters (later 16 in Scandinavia and 30 or
more in Anglo-Saxon England) of an ancient Germanic alphabet
used from the 2rd or 3nd to the 16 th century. Perhaps derived
ultimately from the Etruscan alphabet, the runic alphabet was used
mainly for charms and inscriptions, on stone, wood, metal, or
bone. Each letter had a name, which was itself a meaningful word.
The rune \ , for instance, could stand for either the sound “f” or
the fehu, “cattle”, which was the name given to the rune.

TABLE 7
THE LATIN ALPHABET

13
 Developed from the Etruscan alphabet in c. made in 7 ВС.
The earliest inscriptions were made in boustrophedon style1 , but
after c. 4 ВС the Latin writing reads from left to right. Only 20 letters
at first: ABCDEFHIKLMNOPQRSTUX. The Latin alphabet
became one of 23 symbols by с. I ВС when G,.Y and Z2 were added.

The signs for ‘U’ and ‘V’, for ‘I’ and ‘J’ were written
interchangeably for vowels and consonants. They were
conventionalized as ‘U’ and ‘I’ for vowels and ‘V’ and ‘J’ for
consonants in the Middle Ages4.
From c.VII AD the Latin alphabet was used by lots of West
European 1-ges (West Germanic VII-XII, North Germanic XII -
XIII)
The modern national alphabets are, strictly speaking, adaptations
of the Latin to these 1-ges.There were added different diacritical
marks ( ́ ,̀ ˙˙ , ~)5, ligatures (ǽ, œ, ŋ, β), rj, Я), transformed letters
of the Latin alphabet (đ, 3 ). All of them reflect the specific features
of different national sound systems appropriately

14
 1
The boustrophedon style (meaning in Greek) ‘as the ox draws the
plow’ – “письмо по борознах” or “поворот плуга” in which lines
run alternately from right to left and left to right.
2
The letter ‘G’ appeared in 230 ВС. It was made by adding a bar to
the lower end of ‘C’. ‘Z’ and ‘Y’ appeared in с. I ВС after the
conquest of Greece to transliterate Greek borrowings.
3
Most of the Latin letter names, such as ‘be’, ‘ce’, ‘de’ for the
Greek ‘alpha’, ‘beta’, ‘gamma’ and so on, were taken over from the
Etruscans.
4
W was introduced by the Norman scribes to differentiate the
bilabial semivowel ‘W’ from ‘V’. ‘J’ appears at the at the Epoch of
the Renaissance. The regular usage of ‘J’ and ‘W’ refers to the epoch
of the Renaissance as well.
5
See Table 11. App. for the names of diacritical marks.

TABLE 8
PERIODIZATION OF PG

The separation and development of PG from PIE took a long

period of time. This process can be divided into two main periods.

15
 Separation of PG from the West IE (Centum branch) to its
I stabilization as a separate system
Early PG It possessed a lot of linguistic features typical of PIE:
XV/V BC – • the existence of the fixed and movable stress types
- I/ IV AD • there didn't exist any difference between a stressed and
an unstressed syllable
• the three-morphe structure of the word
• the existence of two tense-aspect stems in the
system of the verb: the Infect and Perfect stems
II From stabilization of PG to its dispersal into separate
Late PG groups of Germanic dialects
IV/VII AD – It acquired a lot of specific features of its own:
- XI/ XVI AD • the dynamic stress fixed on the first root syllable
• the opposition between stressed and unstressed
syllables
• the three-morpheme structure of the word developed
into the two-morpheme structure
• PG tense forms developed from РШ tense-aspect
stems

It is believed that certain dialectal peculiarities appeared in early

PG. They deepened in late PG causing further division of the
linguistic language areal.
After the Age of Migrations there developed the territorial
dialects from the former tribal Germanic dialects.
The territorial Germanic dialects gave birth to the languages of
different Germanic nationalities.
Formation of Old Germanic languages is connected with
formation of Germanic tribes and tribal units and their gradual
consolidation.

TABLE 9
THE FIRST CONSONANT SHIFT OR GRIMM'S LAW

IE and Germanic languages are compared

Essence: the type of articulation changes while the place of
16
articulation remains unchanged. As a result there appeared more
fricatives in Germanic 1-ges than there were in IE l-ges. The
correspondences were grouped under three categories or acts. Each of
the acts covered quite a long period of time of 100 years and more
I IE Germanic
ACT voiceless voiceless
plosives fricatives
p > f L pater > E father
t > θ R три > E three
к > h R кепка > E hat
kw > hw L quod > Gt ha
II voiced voiceless
A C T plosives plosives
b > p R болото > E pool
d > t R два > E two
g > k R иго > E yoke
gw > kw Gr qunē > OE cwene
IIІ voiced voiced
A C T aspirated plosives
plosives
bh > b Skr bhratar > E brother
dh > d Skr madhu > OE medu
gb > g Skr *gh > Gt gasts, L hostis
gwh > gw IE seήgwh > Gt siggwan
correspond to/
were shifted to/
were reflected as/
developed in
Exceptions:
1 The shifting didn't take place after fricatives:
L stare - Gt standan s + p(≠f) = p
t(≠θ) = t
fric [f], [θ], [h] k(≠h) = k
2 The second of the consonants didn't undergo shifting:
L octo Gt ahtau 1 k>h
12 12 2 t=t
TABLE 10
VERNER'S LAW. RHOTACISM
Soon another exception to the first act of Grimm's Law was noticed

17
TABLE 11
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF THE VOWEL SYSTEM
CLASSIFICATION
18
 TONGUE – POSITIONS OF VOWELS

THERE EXIST VARIOUS DIAGRAMMATIC

REPRESENTATIONS OF VOWELS
Table of English Vowels Vowels Trapezium

Vowel Ellipse Vowel Triangle

19
TABLE 12
DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE
PRONOUNS

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
ORIGIN IE stems *to- and *so-
Grammatical Categories
GENDER 3 Masculine, Neuter, Feminine
NUMBER 2 Singular, Plural
4
CASE /5 + Instrumental

20
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
ORIGIN IE steins *kwo-, *kwi > Germ xwa-, xwi
Combine the interrogative and the relative functions in all IE
languages
Grammatical Categories
GENDER 3 Masculine, Neuter, Feminine
NUMBER - Have only singular forms
4
CASE /5 + Instrumental

TABLE 13
21
 WEAK VERBS

I II III IV
PG -i- PG -O- Gt Gt -n- (-na-)
Gt nasjan Gt salbon -ai- Preterite -no –Preterite
- nasida - salboda stem stem
- nasiþs - salboþs Gt haban Gt fullnan
OE nerian (PG –oja- > OE – -habaide - fullnōda
- nerede i-) - habaiþs - -----
- nered OE habban
OE cēpan OE macian - hæfde
- cepte - macode - hæfd
- cept2 - macod
OE tecan
- tohte
- toht3 OHG -e-
OHG nerian OHGmachôn OHG haben
- nerita - machôta - habêta
- gi (nerit) - gimachot - gihabet
Origin & Origin & Origin & Origin &
Meaning Meaning Meaning Meaning
From From From From
Adj, N, V stems N, Adj stems & Adj stems (OHG) V (Sv), Adj stems
Transitive verbs Verbs borrowed Verbs denoting Intransitive verbs
with causative from other passing to a new denoting an action
meaning languages (In)/ state Are not of a state
transitive numerous
1
The suffix –d- originated from the preterite from of the Germanic
verb ‘do’:
22
-d- <PG* don < IE* dhē/dhō: Run dedun, OSk dādun, OHG tātun
“робили”, Gt hausi-dēd-um “чули”.
The suffix -t- < ІB to in PLL:L deletus “зруйнований”, L audips
“почутий’, R paзбитый (F.Bopp).
2
The stem-forming suffix -i- was weakened to -e- after a short root-
syllable (OE nerian) and was dropped after a long one (OE cēpan). If
the preceding consonant was voiceless, the dental suffix was
devoiced to [t].
3
There were two subgroups in Class I of OE Weak verbs: the regular
verbs a d the irregular verbs. All the forms of the regular verbs (OE
cēpan) had a mutated vowel in the root; the irregular (OE tecan) had
a mutated vowel in the form of the Infinitive while the other two
forms retained the original non- mutated vowel. The Past and P II
forms of the irregular verbs had no the stem-forming suffix -i-when
the process of i-umlaut developed in OE (V-VII c. AD).

TABLE 14
ANOMALOUS (IRREGULAR) VERBS
23
 IE PG
Athematic > Anomalous
Verbs Verbs

In all Germanic languages:

Suppletive “6ymu” Mod E ‘BE’

IE root JE root lB root

*es- (Present forms) *ues- (Present forms) bhu (In West G)
Gt OHG
wisan OE wesan
beon/ wesan
“хoтimu” Mod E ‘WILL’

Gt OE OHG
wiljan willan wellen
In West Germanic languages:

“poбumu” ModE ‘DO’

-------------------- OE OHG
don tuon
Suppletive “imu” ModE ‘GO’

-------------------- OE OHG
gan gān
In OHG, OSax:
“cтояmu” ‘STAND’
-------------------- ------------------------ OHG OSax
stān stān

24
TABLE 15
PARADIGMS OF GT, OE & OHG VERBS
STRONG VERBS WEAK VERBS
ACTIVE Present Indicative ACTIVE Present Indicative
Gt OE OHG Gt OE OHG
I, III, IV II I II III
Sg 1 -a -e -u, -o -a, - ― - ― -e -u -ôm, - êm,
ôn ên
2 -is -st -is(t), - -is -ō-s -st -is(t) - ôs(t) -ês(t)
est
3 -iþ -ð -it, -et -iþ -ō-þ -ð -it -ôt -êt
DL 1 ōs ― ― -ōs -ō-s ― ― ― ―
2 -ats ― ― -ats -ō-t ― ― ― ―
PL 1 -am -u/-a -am -ō -e/a -ômês, -êmês,
/mês, -m / mês, - ô(ê)n -ê(ê)n
-emês, -êm
-êm
2 -iþ -að -et,-at,- -iþ -ō-þ -að -et,-at -ôt -êt
ent
3 -and -ant,-ent -and -ō-nd -ent,-ant -ônt -ênt
Presen Subjunctive Present Subjunctive
Sg 1 -au -e -au ― -e - ôe êe
2 -ais -e -ês(t) -ais -ō-s -e -ês(t) - ôs(t) -ês(t)
3 -ai -e -ai ― -e - ôe -êe
DL 1 -aiwa ― ― -aiwa -ō-wa ― ― ― ―
2 -aist ― ― -aist -ō-ts ― ― ― ―
PL 1 -aima -êm, -ên -aima -ō-ma -êm, -ên -ôm(ês), -êm(ês),
-a/-e/ -a/-e/ - ôn, -ên,
-mês -mês -ôêm -êêm
2 -aiþ -en -êt, -ênt -aiþ -ō-þ -en -êt -ôt,-ôêt -ê(ê)t
3 -aina -ên -aina -ō-na -ên -ôn, -ên,
-ôên -êên
MEDIOPASSIVE MEDIOPASSIVE
Present Indicative Present Indicative
Sg 1 -ada ― ― -ada - ōda ― ― ― ―
2 -aza ― ― -aza - ōza ― ― ― ―
3 -ada ― ― -ada - ōda ― ― ― ―
PL -anda ― ― -anda - ōnda ― ― ― ―
Present Subjunctive Present Subjunctive
Sg 1 -aidau ― ― -aidau -ōdau ― ― ― ―
2 -aizau ― ― -aizau -ōzau ― ― ― ―

25
3 -aidau ― ― -aidau -ōdau ― ― ― ―
PL -aindau ― ― -aindau -ōndau ― ― ― ―
THE STEM SUFFIX OF CERTAIN GOTHIC WEAK VERBS
BELONGING TO THE 2ND AND THE 3D CLASSES MERGES WITH THE
VOWEL OF THE ENDING WHEN THEY COINCIDE.
STRONG VERBS WEAK VERBS
ACTIVE Past Indicative ACTIVE Past Indicative
Gt OE OHG Gt OE OHG
I-VT VII
Sg 1 x’1 -— R2 — x’— x’-— -d-a -d-e -t-a
2
2 x -t R-(t ↓)st x”-e x”- i -d-ēs -d-es(t) -t-os(t)
3 x-— R- — x’- — x’- — -d-a -d-e -t-a
DL 1 x”-u R-u — — -d-ēdu — —
2 x”-uts R-uts — — -d-ēdu — —
P1 1 x”-um R-um x”-um(ês), -d-ēdum -t-um(ēs),
-un,-en -un
2 x”-uþ R-uþ x”-on x”-ut,-ent -d-ēduþ -d-on -t-ut
3 x”-un R-un x”-un,-en -d-ēdun -t-un
Past Subjunctive Past Subjunctive
Sg 1 x”-jau R-jau x”-i,-e -d-edjau -t-i
2 x”-eis R-eis -x”-e x”-is,-îs(t) -d-edeis -d-e —
3 x”-i R-i x”-i,-e -d-edi -t-i
Dl 1 x”- R-eiwa — — -d-ēdeiwa — —
eiwa
2 x”-eits R-eits — — -d-ēdeits — —
P1 1 x”-eima R-eima x”-îm(ês) -d-ēdeima -t-îm(ês)
2 x”-eiþ R-eiþ x”-en x”- ît, în -d-ēdeiþ -d-en -t-ît
3 x”-eina R-eina x”-în -d-edēina -t-în
Imperative Imperative
Sg2 3 — -— -— -ei-o-a-n — —
3 -adau — — -adau4 — -i
D12 -ats — — -ats — —
P1 1 -am — -a/-e/mês, -am — -e/-a/mês,
-êm,-ên -o(ê)n,- êên
2 -iþ -að -êt,-at, -iþ -að -et,-at,
-ênt -ôt,-êt
3 -andau — — -andau — —
1
x’ denotes that the past singular stem of the strong verb is used;
x” denotes that the past plural stem of the strong verb is used.
2
R - the reduplication is used in form-building.
3
The Imperative stem coincides with the Infinitive stem.

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4
The stem suffixes vary from the 1 to the 4th classes. A completer table should be
consulted for details.

PROTO-GERMANIC VOCABULARY
TABLE 16
OLD GERMANIC VOCABULARY

ETYMOLOGICAL CHRONOLOGICAL LAYERS

COMMON Lexical isoglosses cover all the

INDO- areals of the Indo-European
EUROPEAN language community. The areal of
LAYER the isoglosses can be wider,
narrower, or it can cover only two or
three areals, as: Germanic-Baltic
lexical isoglosses OE Зrindan, Lith
Germanic-Slavonic Germanic- gréndu
Baltic-Slavonic OIcel borr, OR δоръ
OIcel vax, Lith vaskas,
Gennanic-Celtic OSlav воск
Gennanic-Italic OE rūm, Olr rún
Celtic-Italic-Germanic OE Зræs, L grāmen
OIr cnū, L núx, OE
hnutu
COMMON These words do not have
GERMANIC etymological parallels in other IE
LAYER languages. These isoglosses do not
cross the boundaries of the
Germanic language community
Gothic-Scandinavian lexical Gt fraiw, Olcel fræ,
isoglosses(68) frjo 'family'
West Germanic lexical isoglosses OE cninht, OHG
(60) kneht 'servant'
NATIONAL Words which appeared in different OE clipian 'to call'
WORDS Old Germanic languages after their OE brid 'bird'
separation from the Common OE hlafōrd 'lord'
Germanic language community
STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION

27
NEUTRAL Commonly used words denoting productive
VOCABULARY activity of men, elementary notions and things
STYLISTICALLY Poetic words used in Old OE swan-rad (way of
COLOURED Germanic epic texts: swans) 'sea'
WORDS metaphors, kennings, epithets,
comparisons Words used in
philosophical, law, religious
texts - learned words
Texts of runic inscriptions -
stereotyped formulas, usage of
specific sacred words, Alu, auja, erliaR, lau,
deliberate omission or laukaR
addition of certain runes in
inscriptions
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIATION
Depending on the lexical meaning the words fell into different semantic spheres
as natural phenomena, productive activity, names of men, animals, plants, main
qualities, actions, etc.

OE vocabulary is believed to comprise from 30.000 to 100.000

words. Up to 70% of the Modern English vocabulary consist of the
loan words, and only 30% of the words are native.
The Common IE word-stock and the Common Germanic words
form the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of
speech (no less than 80% of 50% of the most frequent words of
Modem English).

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TABLE 17
COMMON INDO-EUROPEAN VOCABULARY

NOUNS
Natural phenomena and environment
- meteorological phenomena snow, rain,
cold
- physical objects hill, dale, mar-
- seasons, parts of the day
Names of animals, birds, plants
Parts of the human body
heart, ear, nose, tooth, head, foot
Terms of kinship
father, mother, daughter, sister
Productive activity
- stock-breeding, agriculture cattle, cow,
sheep, milk, wool, com, barley, crops,
plough
-some metals and their processing copper,
iron
VERBS
- denoting basic activities of men be, live,
die, eat, sleep, hear, see, go, stand, sit, run,
know
- agricultural activity plough, till, sow, milk
ADJECTIVES
big, new, old, young, hot, red
PRONOUNS
Personal, interrogative...
cold: IE*gel-, Gt calds, OE ceald, OHG kalt
hill: OE hyll, L Collis, Lith calnas
crane: Gr geranos, L grьs, OE cran
apple: OE appel, OHG apful, Lith obelis, R
яблоко
heart: Gt hairto, OE heorte, Gr kardia, L cor
father: Gt fadar, OE fæder, OHG fater, L pater
cattle: Skr páçuh, L pecus, Gt faíhu, OE fēoh
corn: Gt caúrn, OHG korn, OE corn, L grānum
copper: Gt aíz, OE ār, OHG êr, L aes, OInd
ayas
know: Gr gignōskō, L cognōscō, Gt kunnan
plough: Gr aróō, L arō, Gt arjan
milk: Gr amélgein, L mulgeō, OE melcan,
OHG melchan
red: Skr rudhiráh, L ruber, U рудий, Gt rauÞs
I: Skr ahám, L egō, OE ic
who: Skr kah, L quis, Gt has, R кто

NUMERALS eight: Skr astā, Gr óctō, L óctoō, Gt ahtau

hundred: Skr catám, Gr (he)catón, L centum, R
сто, Avest satm
PREPOSITIONS AND of: Skr àра, Gr apó, L ab, OE of
CONJUNCTIONS for: Skr pra-, L pro, Gt faúr, OE for, R про

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TABLE 18
COMMON GERMANIC VOCABULARY

NOUNS
The most important objects and natural
phenomena
- atmospheric phenomena
- physical objects
- seasons, time
Names of animals, birds, plants
Names of men and parts of a human body
Names of different objects. clothes
house, ship, bridge, cloth, shirt Abstract
notions
VERBS
bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, like,
send, drink, hold, speak
ADJECTIVES
broad, sick, own, little, high, green, blue
frost: OE, OSax, Olcel frost, OHG vrost
storm: OE storm, OHG sturm, Olcel stormr
sea: Gt saiws, OE sæ, OHG sēo, OIcel sǽr
time: OIcel tið, OE tīd, OHG zît horse: OE
hor, OHG (h)ros, OIcel hross
hand: OE hand, OHG hant, OIcel hend
bridge: OE ЬrусЗ, OHG brucka hope: OE
пора, OHG hoffe, Sw hopp
drink: Gt drigkan, OE drincan, OHG trinkan
send: Gt sandjan, OE sendan, OHG senten
own: OE аЗеn, OHG eigan, OIcel eiginn

PRONOUNS
such, they, their, them, some, both such: Gt swaleiks, OE swile, OHG solih
ADVERBS often: Gt ufta, OE, OHG, OIcel oft

LOAN WORDS
CELTIC BORROWINGS
iron Celt *isarno, Oh- iarann > Gt eisarn,
whisky, Exe, Esk OE isern,
Avon, Evan, Loch Ness iren, OHG isarn, Olcel isarn, iarn
London < L Londiniun < Celt Llyndūn Celt usige ‘water’, avon ‘river’, loch
‘lake’
Celt dūn ‘hill’
THE EARLIEST LAYER OF LATIN BORROWINGS

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Refer to material culture, trade,
agriculture, cooking:
port, -caster, -ehester (Lancaster, Man-
chester, Portsmouth), wall, street, mile,
ketue, dish, kitchen, cup, pound, inch,
butter, cheese, cherry, pear, wine, mint,
pepper, mill...
31
port < L portus ‘harbour’
-caster < L castra ‘camp, fort’
wall < L vallum ‘sheft, fencing’
street < L strata via ‘paved road’
mile < Lmilliapassum ‘one thousand steps’