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Chapter 1: What Is

Organizational Behavior?

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Management and Organizational
Behavior Hành vi quản lí và tổ chức

• Kỹ năng của người tốt rất quan trọng


• Nơi làm việc tốt có tài chính vượt trội hiệu suất
• Phát triển kỹ năng giao tiếp của người quản lý giúp thu hút
và giữ nhân viên có hiệu suất cao
• Có mối liên hệ chặt chẽ giữa chất lượng mối quan hệ tại nơi
làm việc và sự hài lòng trong công việc của nhân viên, căng
thẳng và doanh thu.
• Tăng cường các nguyên tắc OB có thể thúc đẩy trách nhiệm
xã hội nhận thức

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The Field of Organizational
Behavior Lĩnh vực hành vi tổ chức
• Organizational behavior studies the influence
that individuals, groups, and structure have on
behavior within organizations
– Its chief goal is to apply that knowledge toward
improving an organization’s effectiveness

Hành vi tổ chức nghiên cứu ảnh hưởng của các cá nhân, nhóm và
cấu trúc đối với hành vi trong tổ chức
– Mục tiêu chính của nó là áp dụng kiến ​thức đó vào
nâng cao hiệu quả của một tổ chức

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Focal Points of OB Trọng điểm của OB
1. Motivation 1. Động lực
2. Leader behavior and power 2. Hành vi và quyền lực của
3. Interpersonal communication người lãnh đạo
3. Giao tiếp giữa các cá nhân
4. Group structures and processes 4. Cấu trúc và quy trình
5. Attitude development and nhóm
perception 5. Phát triển thái độ và nhận
6. Change processes thức
6. Thay đổi quy trình
7. Conflict and negotiation 7. Xung đột và đàm phán
8. Work design 8. Thiết kế công trình

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Hoạt động quản lý hiệu quả và
thành công

Quản lý truyền thống


Ra quyết định, lập kế hoạch, kiểm soát
Giao tiếp
Trao đổi thông tin thường lệ và xử lý giấy tờ
Quản lý nguồn nhân lực
Động viên, kỷ luật, quản lý xung đột, nhân sự và đào tạo
Mạng lưới
Giao lưu, làm chính trị và tương tác với người ngoài

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Complementing Intuition with
Systematic Study
Bổ sung trực giác bằng nghiên
cứu có hệ thống
• Intuition: your “gut feeling” explanation of
behavior
• Systematic study improves ability to accurately predict
behavior
– Assumes behavior is not random
– Fundamental consistencies underlie behavior
– These can be identified and modified to reflect
individual differences

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Bổ sung trực giác bằng nghiên
cứu có hệ thống

Trực giác: lời giải thích “linh cảm” của bạn về hành vi
Nghiên cứu có hệ thống cải thiện khả năng dự đoán chính xác
hành vi
• Giả sử hành vi không ngẫu nhiên
• Sự nhất quán cơ bản làm nền tảng cho hành vi
• Những điều này có thể được xác định và sửa đổi để phản
ánh sự khác biệt của từng cá nhân

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Systematic Study Hệ thống học
• Examines relationships
• Attempts to attribute causes and effects
• Bases conclusions on scientific evidence:
– Data is gathered under controlled conditions
– Data is measured and interpreted in a reasonably
rigorous manner
Xem xét các mối quan hệ
Nỗ lực quy kết nguyên nhân và kết quả
Đưa ra kết luận dựa trên bằng chứng khoa học:
• Dữ liệu được thu thập trong điều kiện được kiểm soát
• Dữ liệu được đo lường và giải thích một cách hợp lý
• cách nghiêm khắc
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Evidence-Based Management
Quản lí dựa trên bằng chứng
• Evidence-based management: Bases decisions
on the best available scientific evidence
– Complements systematic study
– Forces managers to become more scientific in their
thinking

Quản lý dựa trên bằng chứng: Đưa ra quyết định dựa


trên bằng chứng khoa học tốt nhất hiện có
• Bổ sung nghiên cứu có hệ thống
• Buộc các nhà quản lý phải khoa học hơn trong suy
nghĩ

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Big Data Dữ liệu lớn
• Big data: the extensive use of statistical compilation and
analysis
– Identify persistent and predictive statistics
 Create targeted marketing strategies
• Using big data for managerial practices:
– Define objectives, develop theories of causality, test the theories to see which
employee activities are relevant to the objectives

Dữ liệu lớn: việc sử dụng rộng rãi việc tổng hợp và phân tích thống kê
Xác định số liệu thống kê liên tục và dự đoán
Tạo chiến lược tiếp thị có mục tiêu
Sử dụng dữ liệu lớn cho thực tiễn quản lý:
Xác định mục tiêu, phát triển lý thuyết nhân quả, kiểm tra lý thuyết để xem
hoạt động nào của nhân viên phù hợp với mục tiêu
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field
Đóng góp các môn học cho lĩnh vực OB
Vi mô: Cá nhân
Micro:
Psychology
The Individual

Tâm lý
Tâm lý xã hội Social Psychology
Xã hội học
Nhân chủng học
Macro:
Sociology
Groups &
Organizations Anthropology
VĨ mô: Nhóm & Tổ chức
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Few Absolutes in OB
Rất ít tuyệt đối trong OB
• Impossible to make simple and accurate
generalizations
• Human beings are complex and diverse
• OB concepts must reflect situational conditions:
contingency variables

• Không thể đưa ra những khái quát đơn giản


và chính xác
• Con người rất phức tạp và đa dạng
• Khái niệm OB phải phản ánh các điều kiện
tình huống:
biến dự phòng
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Những thách thức và cơ hội cho
OB
1. Responding to continuing globalization
2. Understanding workforce demographics
3. Managing workforce diversity
4. Impact of social media
5. Employee well-being at work
6. Creating a positive work environment
7. Improving ethical behavior
1. Đáp ứng với quá trình toàn cầu hóa đang diễn ra
2. Hiểu nhân khẩu học lực lượng lao động
3. Quản lý sự đa dạng của lực lượng lao động
4. Tác động của truyền thông xã hội
5. Phúc lợi của nhân viên tại nơi làm việc
6. Tạo môi trường làm việc tích cực
7. Cải thiện hành vi đạo đức 13
Lựa chọn việc làm

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Ứng phó với toàn cầu hóa
• Increased foreign assignments
• Working with people from different cultures
• Adapting to differing cultural and regulatory norms

• Tăng cường công tác nước ngoài


• Làm việc với những người từ các nền văn hóa khác nhau
• Thích ứng với các chuẩn mực văn hóa và quy định khác
nhau

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Managing Workforce
Demographics

Quản lý nhân khẩu học lực lượng


• Longevity lao động
• Birth rates
• Socioeconomic conditions
• Other changes in the workforce
• Tuổi thọ
• Tỉ lệ sinh
• Điều kiện kinh tế xã hội
• Những thay đổi khác về lực lượng lao động

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Managing Workforce Diversity
Quản lý sự đa dạng của lực lượng
lao động
• Workforce diversity: organizations are becoming a
more heterogeneous mix of people in terms of gender,
age, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation

Sự đa dạng của lực lượng lao động: các tổ chức đang trở thành
một sự kết hợp ngày càng không đồng nhất của con người về giới
tính, tuổi tác, chủng tộc, sắc tộc và khuynh hướng tình dục.

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Social Media Truyền thông xã hội
• Use of social media by employees
• Using social media to learn about employees
• Impact of social media on employee well-being

• Việc sử dụng mạng xã hội của nhân viên


• Sử dụng mạng xã hội để tìm hiểu về nhân viên
• Tác động của phương tiện truyền thông xã hội đến
phúc lợi của nhân viên

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Enhancing Employee Well-Being at
Work
Nâng cao phúc lợi của nhân viên
tại nơi làm việc
• The line between work and non-work has blurred and
managers are increasingly dealing with conflicts that
arise between work and life away from work

Ranh giới giữa công việc và không làm việc ngày càng mờ
nhạt và các nhà quản lý ngày càng phải đối mặt với
những xung đột nảy sinh giữa công việc và cuộc sống
ngoài công việc.

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Creating a Positive Work
Environment
Tạo môi trường làm việc tích cực
• Positive organizational scholarship: how
organizations develop human strengths, foster
vitality and resilience, and unlock potential
– Focus on what’s good about an organization, not
what’s bad

Học thuật tích cực về tổ chức: cách các tổ chức phát triển sức
mạnh con người, nuôi dưỡng sức sống và khả năng phục hồi cũng
như khai phá tiềm năng
– Tập trung vào những điểm tốt của tổ chức chứ không phải
có gì tệ

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Improving Ethical Behavior
Cải thiện hành vi đạo đức
• Managers facing ethical dilemmas or ethical choices are required
to identify right and wrong conduct
• Companies promoting strong ethical missions:
– Encourage employees to behave with integrity
– Provide strong leadership that influences employee decisions to behave
ethically

• Các nhà quản lý phải đối mặt với những tình huống khó xử về đạo
đức hoặc những lựa chọn có tính đạo đức phải xác định hành vi
đúng và sai
• Các công ty thúc đẩy sứ mệnh đạo đức mạnh mẽ:
 Khuyến khích nhân viên cư xử liêm chính
 Cung cấp sự lãnh đạo mạnh mẽ có ảnh hưởng đến quyết định của
nhân viên để hành xử có đạo đức
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Developing an OB Model
Phát triển mô hình OB
• A model is an abstraction of reality – a simplified version of some real-
world phenomenon
• Three types of variables:
– Inputs, processes, and outcomes
• Three levels of analysis
– Individual, group, and organizational

Mô hình là sự trừu tượng của thực tế – một phiên bản đơn


giản hóa của một số hiện tượng trong thế giới thực
Ba loại biến:
Đầu vào, quá trình và kết quả
Ba cấp độ phân tích
Cá nhân, nhóm và tổ chức

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Three Types of Variables Ba loại biến

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Implications for Managers
Ý nghĩa đối với người quản lý
• Đừng dựa vào sự khái quát
• Sử dụng các số liệu và biến số tình huống thay vì “linh cảm” để giải
thích mối quan hệ nhân quả
• Tăng tiềm năng lãnh đạo bằng cách cải thiện kỹ năng giao tiếp
• Cải thiện kỹ năng kỹ thuật và khái niệm bằng cách theo kịp các xu
hướng như dữ liệu lớn
• Nhận thức được vai trò của hành vi tổ chức đối với chất lượng và
năng suất làm việc của nhân viên
• Sử dụng hành vi tổ chức để giúp thiết kế và thực hiện các chương
trình thay đổi, cải thiện dịch vụ khách hàng và giải quyết xung đột
về cân bằng giữa công việc và cuộc sống

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Chapter 2: Diversity
in Organizations
Sự đa dạng trong tổ chức

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Biographical Characteristics
Đặc điểm tiểu sử

Age Gender

Race Disability

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Age Tuổi
• The relationship between age and performance is
important because:
– The workforce is aging
– Mandatory retirement is outlawed

Mối quan hệ giữa tuổi tác và hiệu suất rất quan trọng vì:
• Lực lượng lao động đang già đi
• Nghỉ hưu bắt buộc là ngoài vòng pháp luật

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Gender Giới tính
• Do women perform as well on the job as men?
– Few, if any, important differences, but:
 Women in male domains are perceived as less likeable, more hostile, and
less desirable as supervisors
 Women are less likely to be assigned challenging positons
 Women often earn less than men in the same position

Phụ nữ có thực hiện tốt công việc như nam giới không?
Rất ít, nếu có, những khác biệt quan trọng, nhưng:
• Phụ nữ trong các lĩnh vực của nam giới được coi là ít dễ mến
hơn, thù địch hơn và ít được mong muốn làm người giám sát
hơn
• Phụ nữ ít được giao những vị trí mang tính thách thức
• Phụ nữ thường kiếm được ít tiền hơn nam giới ở cùng vị trí
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Race and Ethnicity
Chủng tộc và Dân tộc
• Research shows that:
– Individuals slightly favor colleagues of their own race in performance
evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises
– Racial and ethnic minorities report higher levels of discrimination in the
workplace
– African Americans tend to fare worse than Whites in employment
decisions
– Some industries are less racially diverse than others
Nghiên cứu cho thấy rằng:
• Các cá nhân thường thiên vị đồng nghiệp cùng chủng tộc với họ trong việc đánh giá hiệu
suất, quyết định thăng chức và tăng lương
• Chủng tộc và dân tộc thiểu số báo cáo mức độ phân biệt đối xử cao hơn ở nơi làm việc
• Người Mỹ gốc Phi có xu hướng kém hơn người da trắng trong các quyết định việc làm
• Một số ngành ít đa dạng về chủng tộc hơn những ngành khác

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Disability Khuyết tật
• Americans with Disabilities Act requires employers to make reasonable
accommodations for people with physical or mental disabilities
• Japan case
• Vietnam case

• Đạo luật Người khuyết tật Hoa Kỳ yêu cầu người sử


dụng lao động phải tạo điều kiện hợp lý cho người
khuyết tật về thể chất hoặc tinh thần
• trường hợp Nhật Bản
• trường hợp Việt Nam

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Other differentiating characteristics
Các đặc điểm khác biệt khác

Tenure
nhiệm kỳ
tôn giáo
xu hướng tính dục và bản
dạng giới Religion
bản sắc văn hóa

Sexual
Orientation n
Gender Identity

Cultural Identity

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Ability Khả năng
Khả năng: Năng lực hiện tại của một cá nhân để thực hiện công việc
nhiệm vụ khác nhau trong một công việc

Intellectual Physical
Abilities Abilities

Khả năng trí tuệ Khả năng thể chất

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Intellectual Ability

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Physical Ability

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Implication of differences for OB
Ý nghĩa của sự khác biệt đối với OB
• Biographical characteristics and inner values/personalities/belief/norms, etc are foundations
for people behaviors and decision-making
• Individual differences shape preferences for rewards, communication styles, reactions to
leaders, negotiation styles, and many other aspects of behavior in organizations
• Impact significantly their job performance
• Differences build up diversity and discrimination
 Ultimately, Affect organizational performance

• Đặc điểm tiểu sử và các giá trị/tính cách/niềm tin/chuẩn mực bên trong, v.v.
là nền tảng cho hành vi và ra quyết định của con người
• Sự khác biệt giữa các cá nhân hình thành nên sở thích về phần thưởng,
phong cách giao tiếp, phản ứng với người lãnh đạo, phong cách đàm phán và
nhiều khía cạnh hành vi khác trong tổ chức.
• Tác động đáng kể đến hiệu suất công việc của họ
• Sự khác biệt tạo nên sự đa dạng và phân biệt đối xử
• Cuối cùng, Ảnh hưởng đến hiệu suất tổ chức
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Levels of Diversity Mức độ đa dạng
• Surface-level diversity - differences in age, race, gender, etc.
– Less significant over time
• Deep-level diversity - differences in personality and values
– More important in the long run

Sự đa dạng ở cấp độ bề mặt - sự khác biệt về tuổi tác, chủng


tộc, giới tính, v.v.
Ít quan trọng hơn theo thời gian
Sự đa dạng ở mức độ sâu sắc - sự khác biệt về tính cách và
giá trị
Quan trọng hơn về lâu dài

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Diversity in Groups
Sự đa dạng trong nhóm
• Diversity can both help and hurt team performance. How?
• Leverage differences for superior performance
• A positive diversity climate should be the goal

• Sự đa dạng có thể vừa giúp ích vừa làm tổn hại đến hiệu
suất của nhóm. Làm sao?
• Tận dụng sự khác biệt để có hiệu suất vượt trội
• Một môi trường đa dạng tích cực phải là mục tiêu

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Thực hiện chiến lược quản lý
đa dạng
• What can we do to deal with/overcome diversity’s
negative consequences?
• Give your opinions and solutions?
 At individual level
 At organizational level

Chúng ta có thể làm gì để giải quyết/khắc phục sự đa dạng


Những hậu quả tiêu cực?
Hãy đưa ra ý kiến và giải pháp của bạn?
Ở cấp độ cá nhân
Ở cấp độ tổ chức

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Thu hút, lựa chọn, phát triển và
giữ chân nhân viên đa dạng
• Target underrepresented groups
• Ensure that hiring and promotion is bias free
• Develop a positive diversity climate
– Workers prefer organizations that value diversity

Nhắm mục tiêu vào các nhóm ít được đại diện


Đảm bảo rằng việc tuyển dụng và thăng tiến không thiên vị
Phát triển môi trường đa dạng tích cực
– Người lao động thích những tổ chức coi trọng sự đa dạng

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Effective Diversity Programs
Chương trình đa dạng hiệu quả

• Hướng dẫn các nhà quản lý về khuôn khổ pháp lý về cơ hội


việc làm bình đẳng và khuyến khích đối xử công bằng với tất
cả mọi người, bất kể đặc điểm nhân khẩu học của họ
• Dạy cho các nhà quản lý cách lực lượng lao động đa dạng sẽ
có thể phục vụ tốt hơn nhiều nhóm khách hàng và khách
hàng đa dạng
• Thúc đẩy các hoạt động phát triển cá nhân nhằm phát huy
các kỹ năng và khả năng của tất cả người lao động

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Discrimination Phân biệt
Phân biệt đối xử: bắt nguồn từ sự khác biệt 
định kiến và giả định về người khác

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Ý nghĩa đối với người quản lý
• Hiểu kỹ các chính sách chống phân biệt đối xử của tổ chức bạn và
chia sẻ chúng với nhân viên của bạn
• Đánh giá và thách thức những niềm tin rập khuôn của bạn để
nâng cao tính khách quan
• Nhìn xa hơn các đặc điểm tiểu sử có thể quan sát được và xem
xét các năng lực của cá nhân trước khi đưa ra quyết định quản lý
• Đánh giá đầy đủ những điều kiện mà người khuyết tật sẽ cần và
sau đó điều chỉnh công việc phù hợp với khả năng của người đó
• Tìm cách hiểu và tôn trọng những đặc điểm tiểu sử độc đáo của
nhân viên của bạn; công bằng nhưng cá nhân

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Chapter 3: Attitudes
and Job
Satisfaction
Thái độ và sự hài lòng trong công việc

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Attitudes Thái độ
• Attitudes: Evaluative statements – either favorable or
unfavorable – concerning objects, people, or events
– Reflect how one feels about something

Thái độ: Những tuyên bố đánh giá – thuận lợi hoặc không
thuận lợi – liên quan đến đồ vật, con người hoặc sự kiện
- Phản ánh cảm xúc của một người về điều gì đó

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Ba thành phần chính của thái độ

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Thái độ theo sau hành vi: Sự bất
hòa về nhận thức
• Cognitive dissonance: any inconsistency
between two or more attitudes, or between
behavior and attitudes
– Individuals seek to minimize dissonance
• Desire to reduce dissonance is determined by:
– The importance of the elements creating the
dissonance
– The degree of influence the individual
believes he or
she has over the elements
– The rewards that may be involved in dissonance

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Thái độ theo sau hành vi: Sự bất
hòa về nhận thức

Sự bất hòa về nhận thức: bất kỳ sự mâu thuẫn nào giữa hai hoặc
nhiều thái độ, hoặc giữa hành vi và thái độ
Các cá nhân tìm cách giảm thiểu sự bất hòa

Mong muốn giảm bớt sự bất hòa được xác định bởi:
Tầm quan trọng của các yếu tố tạo ra sự bất hòa
Mức độ ảnh hưởng mà cá nhân tin rằng mình hoặc
cô ấy đã vượt qua được các yếu tố
Những phần thưởng có thể liên quan đến sự bất hòa

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Hành vi theo sau thái độ: Kiểm
duyệt các biến

Những người điều tiết mạnh mẽ nhất các mối quan hệ thái độ –
hành vi là:
Tầm quan trọng
Sự tương ứng với hành vi
Khả năng tiếp cận
Áp lực xã hội
Trải nghiệm cá nhân trực tiếp
Biết thái độ giúp dự đoán hành vi

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Major Job Attitudes
Thái độ công việc chính
• Job satisfaction • Mức độ hài lòng với công việc
• Job involvement • Tham gia công việc
• Trao quyền tâm lý
• Psychological empowerment • Cam kết của tổ chức
• Organizational commitment Cam kết tình cảm
– Affective commitment Cam kết liên tục
– Continuance commitment Cam kết chuẩn mực
• Nhận thức được sự hỗ trợ của tổ chức
– Normative commitment
• Sự tham gia của người lao động
• Perceived organizational support
• Employee engagement

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Đo lường sự hài lòng trong công việc
• Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics
• Measuring job satisfaction:
1. Single global rating method
 Only a few general questions
 Remarkably accurate
2. Summation score method
 Identifies key elements in the job and asks for specific feeling about them
Sự hài lòng trong công việc: cảm giác tích cực về công việc xuất phát từ việc đánh giá các
đặc điểm của nó
Đo lường sự hài lòng trong công việc:
1. Phương pháp đánh giá toàn cầu duy nhất
Chỉ có một số câu hỏi chung chung
Độ chính xác đáng chú ý
2. Phương pháp tính điểm tổng hợp
Xác định các yếu tố chính trong công việc và yêu cầu cảm nhận cụ thể về chúng
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Measuring Job Satisfaction (2 of 2)

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Job Satisfaction by Country

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Nguyên nhân nào tạo nên sự hài
lòng trong công việc?
• The Work Itself – the strongest correlation with
overall satisfaction
• Social Component – there is a strong correlation
with how people view the social context of their work
• Pay – not correlated after individual reaches a
level of comfortable living
• Corporate Social Responsibility – it’s good
for
the planet and good for people

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Nguyên nhân nào tạo nên sự hài
lòng trong công việc?

• Bản thân công việc – mối tương quan mạnh mẽ nhất với sự
hài lòng tổng thể
• Thành phần xã hội – có mối tương quan chặt chẽ với cách
mọi người nhìn nhận bối cảnh xã hội trong công việc của họ
• Trả lương - không tương quan sau khi cá nhân đạt đến mức
sống thoải mái
• Trách nhiệm xã hội của doanh nghiệp – tốt cho hành tinh và
tốt cho con người

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Tác động của sự không hài lòng
trong công việc
• Exit: directs behavior toward leaving the organization
• Voice: includes actively and constructively attempting to improve
conditions
• Loyalty: passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve
• Neglect: passively allows conditions to worsen

Thoát khỏi: hướng hành vi theo hướng rời bỏ tổ chức


Tiếng nói: bao gồm nỗ lực tích cực và mang tính xây dựng để cải
thiện điều kiện
Lòng trung thành: thụ động nhưng lạc quan chờ đợi điều kiện cải
thiện
Bỏ bê: thụ động cho phép các điều kiện trở nên tồi tệ hơn

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Hành vi làm việc phản tác dụng
• CWB: deviant behavior in the workplace, or
simply withdrawal behavior
– Job dissatisfaction predicts CWB

CWB: hành vi lệch lạc tại nơi làm việc, hay đơn giản là hành vi rút lui
– Sự không hài lòng trong công việc dự đoán CWB

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Lợi ích của sự hài lòng
• Better job and organizational performance
• Better organizational citizenship behaviors
– (OCB – Discretionary behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness but
are not part of employees’ formal job description)
• Greater levels of customer satisfaction
• Generally lower absenteeism and turnover
• Decreased instances of workplace deviance

• Hiệu suất công việc và tổ chức tốt hơn


• Hành vi công dân tổ chức tốt hơn
– (OCB – Những hành vi tùy ý góp phần vào hiệu quả của tổ chức nhưng
không nằm trong mô tả công việc chính thức của nhân viên)
• Mức độ hài lòng của khách hàng cao hơn
• Nhìn chung tỷ lệ vắng mặt và luân chuyển công việc thấp hơn
• Giảm các trường hợp sai lệch nơi làm việc

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Ý nghĩa đối với người quản lý
• Hãy chú ý đến mức độ hài lòng trong công việc của nhân viên
như những yếu tố quyết định hiệu suất, doanh thu, sự vắng
mặt và hành vi rút lui của họ.
• Đo lường thái độ công việc của nhân viên một cách khách
quan và định kỳ để xác định cách nhân viên phản ứng với công
việc của họ.
• Để nâng cao sự hài lòng của nhân viên, hãy đánh giá sự phù
hợp giữa sở thích công việc của nhân viên và các phần nội tại
của công việc để tạo ra công việc mang tính thử thách và thú vị
cho cá nhân.
• Hãy xem xét thực tế rằng chỉ trả lương cao thôi thì không thể
tạo ra một môi trường làm việc thỏa mãn.

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Chapter 4: Emotions
and Moods
Cảm xúc và tâm trạng

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Ảnh hưởng, cảm xúc và tâm trạng

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Những cảm xúc cơ bản: Chưa có kết
luận nào được chấp nhận rộng rãi
• Six universal emotions
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise
7. Other
unable-to-name emotions

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Cảm xúc trong các nền văn hóa
khác nhau
• Read case study about smiling
• Discussion about how to use emotion display (e.g., smile) to communicate
and achieve our goals
• Consider cultural values in international and cross-border
management

Đọc nghiên cứu điển hình về nụ cười


Thảo luận về cách sử dụng cách thể hiện cảm xúc (ví dụ: mỉm cười)
để giao tiếp và đạt được mục tiêu của chúng ta
Xem xét các giá trị văn hóa trong quản lý quốc tế và xuyên biên giới

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Moral Emotions Cảm xúc đạo đức
• Em otions that have moral implicati ons because of our
ant judgment of the situation th at evokes them
inst ware of the moral aspects of s ituations that trigger
• Be aotions our
em ke sure we understand the cont
• Ma ext before we act,
espe
ciall
y in
the
work
plac
e
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Những tâm trạng cơ bản: Ảnh
hưởng tích cực và tiêu cực
• Positive affect: a mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as
excitement, enthusiasm, and elation at the high end

• Negative affect: a mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety


at the high end

Ảnh hưởng tích cực: khía cạnh tâm trạng bao gồm
những cảm xúc tích cực như phấn khích, nhiệt tình và
phấn chấn ở mức cao

Ảnh hưởng tiêu cực: một khía cạnh tâm trạng bao gồm
sự lo lắng, căng thẳng và lo lắng ở mức cao

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The Affect Circumflex
Vòng tròn ảnh hưởng

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Experiencing Moods and Emotions
Trải nghiệm tâm trạng và cảm xúc

Tâm trạng tích cực có phần phổ biến hơn tâm trạng tiêu cực
– Độ lệch tích cực: ở mức đầu vào bằng 0, hầu hết mọi người đều có
tâm trạng tích cực nhẹ
Trải nghiệm tâm trạng và cảm xúc cũng nhạy cảm với các nền văn hóa
khác nhau: Nhật Bản, Mỹ và Trung Quốc
Một số nền văn hóa coi trọng những cảm xúc nhất định hơn những cảm
xúc khác  Các cá nhân thay đổi quan điểm về việc trải nghiệm những
cảm xúc này

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Chức năng của cảm xúc và tâm trạng:
Cảm xúc và tính hợp lý
– Displaying emotions such as sadness and crying: Toxic to a
career?
– Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help us
understand the world around us
• Thể hiện những cảm xúc như buồn bã, khóc lóc: Độc hại cho sự
nghiệp?
• Cảm xúc rất quan trọng đối với suy nghĩ hợp lý: chúng giúp
chúng ta hiểu thế giới xung quanh

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Chức năng của cảm xúc và tâm trạng:
Cảm xúc và đạo đức
– New research suggests that ethical behavior may be
based to some degree on emotions and feelings
– To some degree, our beliefs are actually shaped by our
groups, which influence our perceptions of others, resulting
in unconscious responses and a feeling that our shared
emotions are “right.”
• Nghiên cứu mới cho thấy hành vi đạo đức có thể dựa trên một
mức độ nào đó về cảm xúc và tình cảm
• Ở một mức độ nào đó, niềm tin của chúng ta thực sự được định
hình bởi các nhóm của chúng ta, điều này ảnh hưởng đến nhận
thức của chúng ta về người khác, dẫn đến những phản ứng vô
thức và cảm giác rằng những cảm xúc chung của chúng ta là
“đúng”.
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The Function of Emotions and Moods:
Communication Channel

Chức năng của cảm xúc và tâm trạng:


Kênh giao tiếp
• Emotional display
Hiển thị cảm xúc
• Sympathy
Sự đồng cảm
• Emotional reaction Phản ứng cảm xúc
• Emotional contagion Sự lây lan cảm xúc

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Sources of Emotions and Moods
Nguồn cảm xúc và tâm trạng

• Personality
– Some people experience certain moods and emotions
more frequently than others
– Affect intensity: experiencing the same emotions with different intensities
• Time of day
– People vary in their moods by time of day
• Day of the week
– People tend to be in their best mood on the weekend
Nhân cách
Một số người trải qua những tâm trạng và cảm xúc nhất định
thường xuyên hơn những người khác
Cường độ ảnh hưởng: trải nghiệm cùng một cảm xúc với cường độ khác nhau
Thời gian trong ngày
Mọi người thay đổi tâm trạng theo thời gian trong ngày
Ngày trong tuần
Mọi người thường có tâm trạng tốt nhất vào cuối tuần

15
Sources of Emotions and Moods (1
of 2)

• Personality
– Some people experience certain moods and emotions
more frequently than others
– Affect intensity: experiencing the same emotions with
different intensities
• Time of day
– People vary in their moods by time of day
• Day of the week
– People tend to be in their best mood on the weekend

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Sources of Emotions and Moods (1
of 2)

Nhân cách
Một số người trải qua những tâm trạng và cảm xúc nhất định
thường xuyên hơn những người khác
Cường độ ảnh hưởng: trải nghiệm cùng một cảm xúc với cường độ
khác nhau
Thời gian trong ngày
Mọi người thay đổi tâm trạng theo thời gian trong ngày
Ngày trong tuần
Mọi người thường có tâm trạng tốt nhất vào cuối tuần

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Sources of Emotions and Moods (2
of 2)
Time-of-Day Effects on Moods of U.S. Adults as Rated from Twitter Postings

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Even More Sources
• Age
– Older people experience negative emotions less
frequently (isolation more intense in the youth, BBC)
• Sex
– Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more
intensely, and display more frequent expressions of emotions
– Could be due to socialization

Tuổi
Người già ít trải nghiệm những cảm xúc tiêu cực hơn
thường xuyên (sự cô lập mạnh mẽ hơn ở giới trẻ, BBC)
Giới tính
Phụ nữ thể hiện cảm xúc nhiều hơn, trải nghiệm cảm xúc mãnh liệt
hơn và thể hiện cảm xúc thường xuyên hơn
Có thể là do xã hội hóa

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Emotional Labor
• To perform a job: Physical (body) and mental resources (mind)
needed. For some jobs, emotions are also needed.
• Name some of the jobs you can think of categorized as
emotional labor jobs?

• Emotional dissonance: when an employee has to project one emotion


while simultaneously feeling another
Để thực hiện một công việc: Cần có nguồn lực vật chất (cơ thể) và tinh thần
(tâm trí). Đối với một số công việc, cảm xúc cũng cần thiết.
Kể tên một số công việc mà bạn có thể nghĩ đến được xếp vào loại công việc
lao động tình cảm?

Sự bất hòa về cảm xúc: khi một nhân viên phải thể hiện một cảm xúc đồng
thời cảm nhận một cảm xúc khác

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Cảm xúc so với cảm xúc được hiển
thị
• Felt Emotions:
– The individual’s actual emotions
• Displayed Emotions:
– The learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and
considers appropriate in a given job
– Surface Acting - hiding one’s true emotions
– Deep Acting - trying to change one’s feelings based
on display rules
Cảm xúc được cảm nhận:
• Cảm xúc thực tế của cá nhân
Cảm xúc được thể hiện:
• Những cảm xúc đã học được mà tổ chức yêu cầu người lao động thể
hiện và cho là phù hợp trong một công việc nhất định
• Diễn Xuất Bề Mặt - che giấu cảm xúc thật của mình
• Diễn xuất sâu sắc - cố gắng thay đổi cảm xúc của một người
• quy tắc hiển thị
21
Affective Events Theory
Lý thuyết sự kiện tình cảm
• How do emotions and moods influence job performance and
satisfaction?
• Affective events theory (AET): employees react emotionally to things that
happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and
satisfaction
• Notice: Emotions can be cumulated: examples in love, family, workplace, and
society issues

Cảm xúc và tâm trạng ảnh hưởng như thế nào đến hiệu suất và sự hài
lòng trong công việc?
Lý thuyết sự kiện tình cảm (AET): nhân viên phản ứng theo cảm xúc
với những điều xảy ra với họ tại nơi làm việc và phản ứng này ảnh
hưởng đến hiệu suất công việc và sự hài lòng của họ
Lưu ý: Cảm xúc có thể được tích lũy: ví dụ về các vấn đề tình yêu, gia
đình, nơi làm việc và xã hội
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Emotional Intelligence
Trí tuệ cảm xúc
• Emotional intelligence: a person’s ability to:
– Perceive emotions in the self and others
– Understand the meaning of these emotions
– Regulate one’s emotions in a cascading model

Trí tuệ cảm xúc: khả năng của một người để:
• Nhận biết cảm xúc của bản thân và người khác
• Hiểu ý nghĩa của những cảm xúc này
• Điều chỉnh cảm xúc của một người theo mô hình xếp
tầng

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Emotional Intelligence (2 of 2)
A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence

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Emotion Regulation Điều tiết cảm xúc
• Emotion regulation: identifying and modifying the emotions you
feel
• Effective emotion regulation techniques include:
– Acknowledging emotional responses to situations
– Social sharing
– Deep acting
– Cognitive reappraisal

Điều tiết cảm xúc: xác định và điều chỉnh cảm xúc mà bạn cảm
nhận
Các kỹ thuật điều chỉnh cảm xúc hiệu quả bao gồm:
Thừa nhận phản ứng cảm xúc với các tình huống
Chia sẻ xã hội
Diễn xuất sâu sắc
Đánh giá lại nhận thức
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Ứng dụng OB của Cảm xúc và
Tâm trạng
• Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that
demand a high degree of social interaction
• Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-
solving skills and help us understand and analyze new
information
• Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity

Lựa chọn – Nhà tuyển dụng nên coi EI là một yếu tố khi tuyển dụng những công
việc đòi hỏi mức độ tương tác xã hội cao
Ra quyết định – Cảm xúc tích cực có thể nâng cao kỹ năng giải quyết vấn đề và
giúp chúng ta hiểu và phân tích thông tin mới
Sáng tạo – Tâm trạng và phản hồi tích cực có thể làm tăng khả năng sáng tạo

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Các ứng dụng OB khác về Cảm
xúc và Tâm trạng
• Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce
• Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively
• Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions
from employees, called emotional contagion

Động lực – Thúc đẩy tâm trạng tích cực có thể mang lại lực lượng lao
động có động lực hơn
Lãnh đạo – Cảm xúc giúp truyền tải thông điệp hiệu quả hơn
Chăm Sóc Khách Hàng – Khách hàng “bắt” được cảm xúc
từ nhân viên, được gọi là sự lây lan cảm xúc

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Thậm chí nhiều ứng dụng OB hơn
về cảm xúc và tâm trạng
• Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry
over to the next day
• Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are
more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work
• Safety and Injury at Work – Bad moods can contribute to injuries
on the job
Thái độ trong công việc – Cảm xúc tại nơi làm việc được mang về
nhà nhưng hiếm khi chuyển sang ngày hôm sau
Hành vi lệch lạc tại nơi làm việc – Những người có cảm xúc tiêu cực
có nhiều khả năng thực hiện hành vi lệch lạc tại nơi làm việc
An toàn và thương tích tại nơi làm việc – Tâm trạng tồi tệ có thể
góp phần gây thương tích trong công việc

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Ý nghĩa đối với người quản lý

• Nhận thức được rằng cảm xúc là một phần tự nhiên của nơi
làm việc và quản lý tốt không có nghĩa là tạo ra một môi
trường không có cảm xúc
• Để thúc đẩy việc ra quyết định sáng tạo, tính sáng tạo và
động lực ở nhân viên, hãy mô hình hóa những cảm xúc và
tâm trạng tích cực nhất có thể.
• Cung cấp phản hồi tích cực để tăng tính tích cực của nhân
viên. Tất nhiên, việc thuê những người có tâm trạng tích
cực cũng hữu ích.

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Implications for Managers

• Trong lĩnh vực dịch vụ, khuyến khích thể hiện cảm xúc tích cực,
khiến khách hàng cảm thấy tích cực hơn và do đó cải thiện các
tương tác và đàm phán về dịch vụ khách hàng
• Hiểu được vai trò của cảm xúc và tâm trạng để cải thiện đáng kể
khả năng giải thích và dự đoán hành vi của đồng nghiệp và nhân
viên

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Chapter 5: Personality and
Values
Tính cách và giá trị

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Đánh giá và đo lường tính cách
• Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions
– Help managers forecast who is best for a job
• Self-report surveys (Pros and Cons?)
– Most common
– Prone to error
• Evaluate on a series of factors: self-report and observers (Pros and
Cons)
Các bài kiểm tra tính cách rất hữu ích trong quyết định tuyển dụng
- Giúp người quản lý dự đoán ai là người phù hợp nhất cho công việc
Khảo sát tự báo cáo (Ưu điểm và nhược điểm?)
- Chung nhất
- Dễ bị lỗi
Đánh giá trên hàng loạt yếu tố: tự báo cáo và người quan sát (Ưu và nhược điểm)

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Yếu tố quyết định tính cách
• Heredity: Factors determined at conception;
one’s biological, physiological, and inherent
psychological makeup (~ NATURE)
Di truyền: Các yếu tố được xác
định khi thụ thai; cấu tạo tâm lý
sinh học, sinh lý và vốn có của một
người (~ BẢN THÂN)

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Đo lường đặc điểm tính cách: Mô
hình Big-Five
• Five Traits:
– Extraversion
– Agreeableness
– Conscientiousness
– Emotional Stability
– Openness to Experience
• Strongly supported relationship to job performance (especially
conscientiousness)
Năm đặc điểm:
hướng ngoại
Tính dễ chịu
Sự tận tâm
Ổn định cảm xúc
Cởi mở để trải nghiệm
Mối quan hệ được hỗ trợ mạnh mẽ với hiệu suất công việc (đặc biệt là sự tận tâm)

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Big Five Traits and OB

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The Dark Triad Bộ ba đen tối
• The Dark Triad
1. Machiavellianism
 High machs tend to be pragmatic, emotionally distant, and
believe the ends justify the means
2. Narcissism
 A person with a grandiose view of self, requires excessive
admiration, has a sense of self-entitlement, and is arrogant
3. Psychopathy
 A lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse
when their actions cause harm

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The Dark Triad Bộ ba đen tối
Chủ nghĩa xảo quyệt
Những người có năng lực cao có xu hướng thực dụng, xa cách về
mặt cảm xúc và tin rằng mục đích biện minh cho phương tiện.
Tự kiêu
Một người có cái nhìn vĩ đại về bản thân, đòi hỏi quá nhiều
ngưỡng mộ, có ý thức tự cho mình quyền và kiêu ngạo
Bệnh tâm thần
Thiếu quan tâm đến người khác và thiếu cảm giác tội lỗi hoặc hối
hận
khi hành động của họ gây tổn hại

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Những đặc điểm tính cách khác
có liên quan đến OB
• Core self-evaluation
– People with positive core self-evaluation like themselves and see
themselves as capable and effective in the workplace
• Self-monitoring
– Adjusts behavior to meet external, situational factors
• Proactive personality
– Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action,
and perseveres
Tự đánh giá cốt lõi
Những người có khả năng tự đánh giá cốt lõi tích cực thích bản thân và coi mình là người có năng
lực và hiệu quả tại nơi làm việc
Tự giám sát
Điều chỉnh hành vi để đáp ứng các yếu tố hoàn cảnh, bên ngoài
Tính cách chủ động
Xác định cơ hội, thể hiện sáng kiến, hành động,
và kiên trì
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Tính cách và hoàn cảnh
• The effect of particular traits on organization
behavior depends on the situation
• Two frameworks
1. Situation Strength
2. Trait Activation

Ảnh hưởng của những đặc điểm cụ thể đến hành vi của tổ chức phụ
thuộc vào tình huống
Hai khung
1. Sức mạnh tình hình
2. Kích hoạt đặc điểm

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Personality and Situations (2 of 2)
• Situation strength theory – the way personality translates into behavior
depends on the strength of the situation
• Analyze situation strength in terms of:
– Clarity
– Consistency
– Constraints
– Consequences
• Trait activation theory (TAT) – predicts that some situations, events, or
interventions “activate” a trait more than others
Lý thuyết sức mạnh tình huống – cách chuyển hóa tính cách thành hành vi phụ thuộc vào sức
mạnh của tình huống
Phân tích sức mạnh tình hình về mặt:
Trong trẻo
Tính nhất quán
Hạn chế
Hậu quả
Lý thuyết kích hoạt đặc điểm (TAT) – dự đoán rằng một số tình huống, sự kiện hoặc biện pháp
can thiệp “kích hoạt” một đặc điểm nhiều hơn những đặc điểm khác 12
Trait Activation Theory
Lý thuyết kích hoạt đặc điểm
• Theory that predicts that some situations, events,
or interventions “activate” a trait more than others
• Using TAT, we can foresee which jobs suit certain personalities
• Give some examples?
• Personality and the situation both affect work behavior, but when the situation is
right, the power of personality to predict behavior is even higher
• Lý thuyết dự đoán rằng một số tình huống, sự kiện,
• hoặc các biện pháp can thiệp “kích hoạt” một đặc điểm nhiều hơn những
đặc điểm khác
• Sử dụng TAT, chúng ta có thể thấy trước công việc nào phù hợp với những
tính cách nhất định
• Đưa ra vài ví dụ?
• Tính cách và hoàn cảnh đều ảnh hưởng đến hành vi làm việc, nhưng khi tình
huống phù hợp thì khả năng dự đoán hành vi của tính cách càng cao hơn.

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Values Giá trị
• General expression of what is the most important to you
• When we rank values in terms of intensity, we obtain
that person’s value system
• We all have a hierarchy of values according to the relative importance we assign to
values such as freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, and equality
• Values tend to be relatively stable and enduring (link personality with values)

• Biểu hiện chung về điều gì là quan trọng nhất đối với bạn
• Khi chúng tôi xếp hạng các giá trị theo cường độ, chúng tôi thu được
• hệ thống giá trị của người đó
• Tất cả chúng ta đều có một hệ thống phân cấp giá trị tùy theo tầm quan
trọng tương đối mà chúng ta gán cho các giá trị như tự do, niềm vui, lòng tự
trọng, trung thực, vâng lời và bình đẳng.
• Các giá trị có xu hướng tương đối ổn định và lâu dài (liên kết tính cách với
các giá trị)

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IMPLICATION:
• Values are the foundation for
attitudes, motivation, and behavior
• Influence perception and cloud
objectivity

Ý NGHĨA:
Giá trị là nền tảng cho thái độ,
động lực và hành vi
Ảnh hưởng đến nhận thức và tính
khách quan của đám mây

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Rokeach Value Survey
Khảo sát giá trị Rokeach
• Terminal values:
desirable end-states of • Instrumental values:
existence preferable modes of
behavior or means of
• Goals that a person would
achieving the terminal
like to achieve during his
values
or her lifetime
Giá trị đầu cuối: trạng thái tồn Giá trị công cụ: phương thức
tại cuối cùng mong muốn hành vi hoặc phương tiện
Mục tiêu mà một người muốn thích hợp hơn để đạt được
đạt được trong suốt cuộc đời giá trị cuối cùng
của mình

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Generational Values: Labor Work Force
in the US

Giá trị thế hệ: Lực lượng lao động ở Hoa Kỳ

NOTE: However, these information lacks research support

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Person–organization fit
Sự phù hợp giữa con người và tổ chức
• A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that
match their values, and leave when there is not compatibility
• A recent meta-analysis of person–environment: the dimensions of person–
organization and person–job fit: the strongest predictors of positive work
attitudes and performance in North America, less important in Europe, and
the least important in East Asia

• Một lý thuyết cho rằng mọi người bị thu hút và lựa chọn bởi các tổ chức phù hợp
với giá trị của họ và rời đi khi không có sự tương thích
• Một phân tích tổng hợp gần đây về con người-môi trường: các khía cạnh của con
người-tổ chức và sự phù hợp giữa con người với công việc: những yếu tố dự đoán
mạnh mẽ nhất về thái độ và hiệu suất làm việc tích cực ở Bắc Mỹ, ít quan trọng hơn
ở Châu Âu và ít quan trọng nhất ở Đông Á

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Cultural Values Giá trị văn hóa
• Values differ across cultures
– Two frameworks for assessing culture:
1. Hofstede
2. GLOBE

Giá trị khác nhau giữa các nền văn hóa


Hai khuôn khổ để đánh giá văn hóa:
1. Hofstede
2. KHỐI CẦU

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Hofstede’s Framework for
Assessing Cultures
Khung đánh giá văn hóa của
Hofstede
• Five factors:
1. Power Distance
2. Individualism vs. Collectivism
3. Masculinity vs. Femininity
4. Uncertainty Avoidance
5. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation
Năm yếu tố:
1. Khoảng cách quyền lực
2. Chủ nghĩa cá nhân vs Chủ nghĩa tập thể
3. Nam tính vs Nữ tính
4. Tránh sự không chắc chắn
5. Định hướng dài hạn và ngắn hạn
22
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
Khung của Hofstede dành cho Đánh giá văn hóa

Power Distance Uncertainty Long-term


Country Rank Individualism Rank Masculinity Rank Avoidance Rank Orientation Rank

Australia 41 2 16 37 22-24
Great Britain 42-44 3 9-10 47-48 28-29
Greece 27-28 30 18-19 1
Guatemala 2-3 53 43 3
Hong Kong 15-16 37 18-19 49-50 2
Japan 33 22-23 1 7 4
Malaysia 1 36 25-26 46
Pakistan 32 47-48 25-26 24-25 34
Singapore 13 39-41 28 53 9
Sweden 47-48 10-11 53 49-50 20
United States 38 1 15 43 27

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GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures
Khung GLOBE để đánh giá văn hóa

• Ongoing study with nine factors:


• Nghiên cứu liên tục với chín yếu tố
• Assertiveness
• Individualism/
• Future orientation collectivism
• Gender differentiation • In-group collectivism
• Uncertainty avoidance • Performance orientation
• Power distance • Humane orientation

• Sự quyết đoán
• Chủ nghĩa cá nhân/chủ nghĩa tập thể
• Định hướng trong tương lai
• Chủ nghĩa tập thể trong nhóm
• Phân biệt giới tính
• Định hướng hiệu suất
• Tránh sự không chắc chắn
• định hướng nhân văn
• Khoảng cách quyền lực

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Closing Case: Personal Values and
Ethics in the Workplace
Trường hợp kết thúc: Giá trị cá nhân và
đạo đức tại nơi làm việc

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Implications for Managers

• Cân nhắc sàng lọc ứng viên có tính tận tâm cao
• Sử dụng MBTI trong đào tạo và phát triển để giúp nhân viên hiểu
rõ hơn về bản thân và các thành viên trong nhóm, đồng thời tạo
điều kiện thuận lợi cho việc giao tiếp
• Đánh giá công việc của nhân viên, nhóm làm việc của họ và tổ
chức để xác định sự phù hợp tính cách tối ưu
• Tính đến các yếu tố tình huống của nhân viên khi đánh giá các
đặc điểm tính cách có thể quan sát được của họ và giảm sức
mạnh tình huống để xác định rõ hơn các đặc điểm tính cách
• Hãy xem xét các nền văn hóa khác nhau của mọi người

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Chapter 6: Perception and
Individual Decision
Making
Nhận thức và ra quyết định cá nhân

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Perception Sự nhận thức
• Definition: A process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment

Định nghĩa: Một quá trình trong đó


các cá nhân tổ chức và diễn giải
những ấn tượng giác quan của
mình nhằm mang lại ý nghĩa cho
môi trường của họ

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Person Perception: Attribution Theory
Nhận thức của con người: Lý thuyết quy kết

• Attribution Theory: Suggests that perceivers try to


“attribute” the observed behavior to a type of cause:
– Internal – behavior is believed to be under the personal control of the
individual
– External – the person is forced into the behavior by outside
events/causes

Lý thuyết quy kết: Gợi ý rằng người nhận thức cố gắng “quy kết” hành
vi được quan sát cho một loại nguyên nhân:
• Nội bộ – hành vi được cho là nằm dưới sự kiểm soát cá nhân của cá
nhân
• Bên ngoài – cá nhân bị ép buộc thực hiện hành vi bởi các sự
kiện/nguyên nhân bên ngoài

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Attribution Theory Lý thuyết phân bổ

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Attribution Errors and Biases
Lỗi phân bổ và thành kiến
• Fundamental attribution error:
– Tendency to underestimate the influence of external
factors and overestimate that of internal factors
• Self-serving bias: Occurs when individuals overestimate their own (internal)
influence on successes and overestimate the external influences on their failures
– The basic process of attribution applies across cultures, but Western cultures tend to be
more individualist, while Asian cultures are more group oriented

Lỗi ghi cơ bản:


Xu hướng đánh giá thấp ảnh hưởng của bên ngoài
các yếu tố bên trong và đánh giá quá cao các yếu tố bên trong
Thành kiến tự phục vụ: Xảy ra khi các cá nhân đánh giá quá cao ảnh hưởng
(nội bộ) của chính họ đối với những thành công và đánh giá quá cao những
ảnh hưởng bên ngoài đối với những thất bại của họ
Quá trình quy kết cơ bản được áp dụng giữa các nền văn hóa, nhưng văn hóa
phương Tây có xu hướng chủ nghĩa cá nhân hơn, trong khi văn hóa châu Á
thiên về nhóm hơn 6
Shortcuts Used in Judging Others
Các phím tắt được sử dụng trong việc đánh giá
người khác
• Selective Perception: A perceptual filtering process based on interests,
background, and attitude
• Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic
• Contrast Effects: Our reaction is influenced by others we have recently
encountered (the context of the observation)
• Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of the perception of the group to
which they belong

Nhận thức có chọn lọc: Một quá trình lọc nhận thức dựa trên sở thích, nền tảng và
thái độ
Hiệu ứng hào quang: Vẽ ấn tượng chung dựa trên một đặc điểm duy nhất
Hiệu ứng tương phản: Phản ứng của chúng ta bị ảnh hưởng bởi những người khác
mà chúng ta gặp gần đây (bối cảnh quan sát)
Khuôn mẫu: Đánh giá ai đó trên cơ sở nhận thức về nhóm mà họ thuộc về

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Small exercise: Read the statements and
decide which type of short cut used

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Specific applications of shortcuts in
organizations
• Employment Interview: This person is good or
bad? Can he/she work successfully?
• Performance expectation: If this person graduated with
high distinction, he/she must perform very well…
• Performance evaluation

 As a manager, how can we avoid these


mistakes?

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Case study: Myth or Science?
All Stereotypes Are
Negative?

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The Link Between Perception and
Decision Making
• Decision making occurs as a reaction to a
perceived problem
• Perception influences:
– Awareness that a problem exists
– The interpretation and evaluation of information
– Bias of analysis and conclusions

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Rational Decision-Making Model
• Rational decision-making model
1. Define the problem
2. Identify the decision criteria
3. Allocate weights to the criteria
4. Develop the alternatives
5. Evaluate the alternatives
6. Select the best alternative
• This model is seldom actually used: it’s more of a
goal than a practical method

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Bounded Rationality
• The limited information-processing capability of
human beings makes it impossible to assimilate and
understand all the information necessary to optimize
– People seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient, rather than optimal (they “satisfice”)
• Bounded rationality is constructing simplified
models that extract the essential features from
problems without capturing all their complexity

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Decision Making in Bounded
Rationality
• Simpler than rational decision making, decision
making under bounded rationality is composed of
three steps:
1. Limited search for criteria and alternatives – familiar
criteria and easily found alternatives
2. Limited review of alternatives – focus on alternatives,
similar to those already in effect
3. Satisficing – selecting the first alternative that is “good
enough”

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Intuitive Decision Making
• Intuitive decision making: A non-conscious
process created out of distilled experience
– Increases with experience
– Can be a powerful complement to rational analysis in
decision making

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Common Biases and Errors
• Overconfidence Bias: As managers and employees
become more knowledgeable about an issue, the less likely
they are to display overconfidence
• Anchoring Bias: A tendency to fixate on initial
information and fail to adequately adjust for
subsequent information
• Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information that
reaffirms our past choices and discounting information that
contradicts past judgments
• Availability Bias: Basing judgments on readily
available information

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More Biases and Errors
• Randomness Error: Our tendency to believe we
can predict the outcome of random events
• Escalation of Commitment: Staying with a
decision even when there is clear evidence that it is
wrong
• Risk Aversion: Preferring a sure thing over a
risky outcome
• Hindsight Bias: Believing falsely that we could
have predicted the outcome of an event after that
outcome is already known

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Individual Differences on Decision
Making

Nudges

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Organizational Constraints on
Decision Making
• Performance evaluations
• Reward systems
• Formal regulations
• System-imposed time constraints
• Historical precedents

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Ethical Frameworks for Decision
Making
• Utilitarianism
– Provide the greatest good for the greatest number
• Rights
– Make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and
privileges
• Justice
– Impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that
there is equal distribution of benefits and costs

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Behavioral Ethics
• Behavioral ethics
– Analyzing how people actually behave when
confronted with ethical dilemmas

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Creativity in Organizations
• Creativity: The ability to produce novel and useful
ideas
• Helps people:
– See problems others can’t see
– Better understand the problem
– Identify all viable alternatives
– Identify alternatives that aren’t readily apparent

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Creative Behavior
Steps:
1. Problem formulation: identify a problem or
opportunity that requires a solution as yet
unknown
2. Information gathering: possible solutions
incubate in an individual’s mind
3. Idea generation: develop possible solutions
from relevant information and knowledge
4. Idea evaluation: evaluate potential solutions
and identify the best one

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Causes of Creative Behavior
• Cause of creative behavior:
1. Intelligence
2. Personality
3. Expertise
4. Ethics
• Creative environment
– Motivation
– Rewards and recognition

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Creative Outcomes
• Creative outcomes: ideas or solutions judged
to be novel and useful by relevant
stakeholders
• Is creativity always GOOD?

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Closing Case: Work in groups
Max’s Burger: The Dollar Value of Ethics

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Implications for Managers
• Behavior follows perception, so to influence employee
behavior at work, assess how employees perceive their
work.
• Make better decisions by recognizing perceptual biases and
decision-making errors we tend to commit.
• Adjust your decision-making approach to the national
culture you’re operating in and to the criteria your
organization values.
• Combine rational analysis with intuition.
• Try to enhance your creativity.

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Chapter 7 + 8: Motivation
From Concepts to
Applications
Fourteenth Edition

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Learning Objectives
1. Describe the three key elements of motivation.
2. Compare the early theories of motivation.
3. Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and
goal-setting theory.
4. Demonstrate the differences between self-efficacy theory,
reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory.
5. Identify the implications of employee job engagement for
managers.
6. Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation
complement one another.

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Learning Objectives
1. Describe how the job characteristics model (JCM) motivates by
changing the work environment.
2. Compare the main ways that jobs can be redesigned.
3. Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can
motivate employees.
4. Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate
employees.
5. Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can
increase employee motivation.
6. Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators.
7. Identify the motivational benefits of employee recognition
programs.

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Opening questions
• Why did you choose TDTU?
• Why are you studying?
• Why are you taking a part-time job?
• Why do people like travelling?
• How much time do you spend on social media and
network on an average? Why?
• Which kind of jobs do you want to do after
graduation? What do you expect to get?
• Which type of people do you want to
become?
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What is motivation?
= intensity + direction + persistence

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Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene)
Theory
• McClellan’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs
Theory)

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1 of 2)

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Two-Factor Theory
Not Dissatisfied
Satisfied

• Quality of • Promotional

Motivation Factors
supervision opportunities
Hygiene Factors

• Pay • Opportunities for


• Company personal growth
policies
• Recognition
• Physical working
conditions • Responsibility
• Relationships • Achievement
• Job security

Dissatisfied
Not Satisfied
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2 of 2)

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McClelland's Theory of Needs
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel
• Need for Power (nPow)
– The need to make others behave in a way they would not
have behaved otherwise
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships

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McClelland's High Achievers
• High achievers prefer jobs with:
– Personal responsibility
– Feedback
– Intermediate degree of risk (50/50)
• High achievers are not necessarily good
managers
• High nPow and nAff is
related to managerial success

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Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
• Self-Determination Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives

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Management by Objectives
• Management by objectives (MBO): Converts
overall organizational objectives into specific
objectives for work units and individuals
• Common ingredients:
– Goal specificity
– Explicit time period
– Performance feedback
– Participation in decision making

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Cascading of Objectives

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Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
• Self-Efficacy Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Theory
– Organizational Justice
• Expectancy Theory

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Job Engagement
• Job Engagement: The investment of an
employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional
energies into job performance
• Organizations where employees are highly
engaged have:
– Higher levels of productivity
– Fewer safety incidents
– Lower turnover

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Integrating Theories

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Case study and discussion: Goals get You
to Where You Want to be

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Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Applications of Motivation to OB

707018 - Chapter 7 + 8 Motivation Concept to application


Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Money is an EXTREMELY
POWERFULL motivator
 Money is NOT EVERYTHING to
some people

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Motivating employees by Job Design:
The Job Characteristics Model
• Job characteristics model: jobs are described in
terms of five core dimensions:
– Skill variety
– Task identity
– Task significance
– Autonomy
– Feedback

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The Job Characteristics Model

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Designing Motivational Jobs
• JCM-designed jobs give internal rewards
• Individual’s growth needs are moderating factors
• Motivating jobs must:
– Be autonomous
– Provide feedback
– Be meaningful

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Redesigning Jobs: Job Rotation
• Job Rotation
– The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to
another
 Also called cross-training
– Increases job satisfaction and organizational
commitment

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Redesigning Jobs: Relational Job
Design
• Relational Job Design
– Designing work so employees are motivated to
promote the well-being of the organization’s
beneficiaries
 Relate stories from customers who have benefited from the
company’s products or services
 Connect employees directly with beneficiaries

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Using Alternative Work
Arrangements to Motivate
• Flextime
– Some discretion over when worker starts and leaves
• Job Sharing
– Two or more individuals split a traditional job
• Telecommuting
– Work remotely at least two days per week

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Employee Involvement
• Employee involvement: A participative process
that uses the input of employees to increase their
commitment to the organization’s success
• Two types:
1. Participative management
2. Representative participation

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Participative Management
• Participative management: Subordinates share a
significant degree of decision-making power with
superiors
– To be effective:
 Followers must have confidence and trust in leaders
 Leaders should avoid coercion and stress organizational
consequences of decisions
– Only a modest influence on productivity, motivation,
and job satisfaction

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Representative Participation
• Representative participation: Workers are
represented by a small group of employees who
participate in decisions affecting personnel
– Works councils
– Board membership
• Redistribute power within an organization
• Does not appear to be very motivational

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Using Pay to Motivate Employees
• Major strategic rewards decisions:
– What to pay employees
– How to pay individual employees

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What to Pay
• Establishing a pay structure
– Balance between:
 Internal equity – the worth of the job to the organization
 External equity – the external competitiveness of an
organization’s pay relative to pay elsewhere in its industry
– A strategic decision with trade-offs

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How to Pay
• Variable-Pay Programs
– Base a portion of the pay on a given measure of
performance
 Piece-rate pay plan
 Merit-based pay
 Bonuses
 Profit-sharing plans
 Employee-stock ownership plan (ESOP)

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Variable-Pay Programs
1. Piece-Rate Pay: workers are paid a fixed sum
for each unit of production completed
2. Merit-Based Pay: pay is based on individual
performance appraisal ratings
3. Bonuses: rewards employees for recent
performance
4. Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) –
plans in which employees acquire stock, often at
below-market prices

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Using Benefits to Motivate
• Benefits are both an employee provision and an
employee motivator
• Individual employees value the components of
benefits packages differently
• A flexible benefits program turns the benefits
package into a motivational tool

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Using Intrinsic Rewards to
Motivate
• Employee recognition programs
– Can be as simple as a spontaneous comment
– Can be formalized in a program
– Recognition is the most powerful workplace motivator –
and the least expensive – but fairness is important

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Closing case study
• Choose one among 3 cases at the end of the chapter,
work in groups, and answer the questions

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Implications for Managers
• Recognize individual differences
• Use goals and feedback
• Allow employees to participate in decisions that
affect them
• Link rewards to performance
• Check the reward system for equity

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Chapter 9: Foundations of
Group Behavior

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After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Distinguish between the different types of groups.
2. Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group
development.
3. Show how role requirements change in different
situations.
4. Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an
individual’s
behavior.
5. Show how status and size differences affect group
performance.
6. Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity can be
integrated for group effectiveness.
7. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision
making.
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Groups and Group Identity
• Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who come together to achieve
particular objectives
– Formal: Defined by the organization’s structure
– Informal: Neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined

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Social Identity
• Social identity theory
– Perspective that considers when and why individuals
consider themselves members of groups

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Ingroups and Outgroups
• Ingroup favoritism
– Occurs when we see members of our group as better than
other people and people not in our group as all the same
• Outgroup
– The inverse of an ingroup
 Can mean anyone outside the group, but usually it is an
identified other group

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Punctuated Equilibrium Model for
Temporary Groups

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Group Property 1: Roles
• Role: The set of expected behavior patterns that are
attributed to occupying a given position in a social
unit
– Role perception – our view of how we’re supposed to
act in a given situation
– Role expectations – how others believe you should
act in a given situation
– Role conflict – conflict experienced when multiple
roles are incompatible

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Group Property 2: Norms
• Norms:
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that
are shared by the group’s members
– Norms and emotions
– Norms and conformity
– Norms and behavior

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Norms and Conformity
• Reference groups: Groups in which a person is
aware of other members, defines self as a member,
believes group members to be significant
– Individuals try to conform to norms of these groups
• Asch Studies
– Members avoid being visibly different
– Members with differing opinions feel extensive
pressure to align with others

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Norms and Behavior
• Lessons from the Hawthorne studies:
– Productivity increased because groups were paid attention
to by the observers – not because of changes in environment
– Workers in groups do not maximize individual
economic rewards
– Group standards are set and enforced by the group itself

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Deviant Workplace Behavior (1 of 2)
• Deviant Workplace Behavior: Voluntary behavior
that violates significant organizational norms and, in
doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization
or its members
• Likely to flourish when:
– Supported by group norms
– People are in groups

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Deviant Workplace Behavior (2 of 2)
• Production • Political
– Leaving early – Showing favoritism
– Intentionally working – Gossiping and
slowly spreading rumors
– Wasting resources – Blaming
• Property coworkers
– Sabotage • Personal
– Lying about hours aggression
worked – Sexual harassment
– Stealing from the – Verbal abuse
organization – Stealing from
coworkers
Group Property 3: Status
• Status: A socially defined position or rank given to
groups or group members by others
• Determined by:
– The power a person wields over others
– A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals
– An individual’s personal characteristics

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Impact of Status (1 of 2)
• Status and Norms
– High-status members often have more freedom to
deviate from norms and are better able to resist
conformity pressures
• Status and Group Interaction
– High status people are more assertive
– Low status members may not participate
– Group creativity may suffer

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Impact of Status (2 of 2)
• Status and Inequity
– Perceived inequity creates disequilibrium
• Status and Stigmatization
– People who are stigmatized can “infect” others
– Stigma by association
• Group Status
– Us versus them mentality

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Group Property 4: Size
• Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks –
members perform better
• Large groups are consistently better at problem
solving
• Social loafing: tendency for individuals to expend
less effort when working collectively than alone
– Consistent with individualistic cultures

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Preventing Social Loafing
• Set group goals
• Increase inter-group competition
• Engage in peer evaluation
• Select members who have high motivation and like
to work in groups
• Distribute group rewards based on members’
individual contributions

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Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
• Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of
the group are attracted to each other and motivated to
stay in the group
– Performance-related norms are the moderating
variable for productivity and cohesiveness
 High cohesiveness with high norms gives higher
productivity

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Encouraging Cohesiveness
1. Make the group smaller
2. Encourage agreement with group goals
3. Increase the time spent together
4. Increase the status and perceived difficulty of
group membership
5. Stimulate competition with other groups
6. Give rewards to the group rather than to
individual members
7. Physically isolate the group

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Group Property 6: Diversity
• Diversity: the degree to which members of the
group are similar to or different from one another
– Diversity increases group conflict but may improve
group performance in the long term
• Types of group diversity
– Surface level diversity
– Deep level diversity

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Challenges of Group Diversity
• Fault lines: perceived divisions that split groups
into two or more subgroups based on individual
differences such as gender, race, age, work
experience, and education
– Splits are generally detrimental to group functioning
and performance

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Group Decision Making
Strengths Weaknesses
• Generate more • Takes longer
complete information • Conformity pressures
and knowledge • Discussions can be
• Increased diversity of dominated by one or a
views few members
• Increased acceptance of • Ambiguous
a solution responsibility for the
final outcome
Effectiveness and Efficiency
• Effectiveness
– Accuracy – group is better than average individual but
worse than most accurate group member
– Speed – individuals are faster
– Creativity – groups are better
– Degree of acceptance – groups are better
• Efficiency
– Groups are generally less efficient

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Groupthink and Groupshift
• Groupthink: relates to norms and describes
situations in which group pressures for conformity
deter the group from critically appraising unusual,
minority, or unpopular views
• Groupshift: describes the way group members
tend to exaggerate their initial positions when
discussing alternatives and arriving at solutions

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Groupthink
• Groupthink: deterioration of individual’s mental
efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgments as a
result of group pressures
– Members:
 Rationalize away resistance to assumptions
 Pressure doubters to support the majority
– Doubters keep silent/minimize their misgivings
 Interpret silence as a “yes” vote

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Minimizing Groupthink
• Limit group size to less than 10
• Encourage group leaders to actively seek input from
all members and avoid expressing their own opinions
• Appoint a “devil’s advocate”
• Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of
diverse alternatives

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Groupshift or Group Polarization
• Groupshift: Group discussions lead members to
assume new, more extreme, positions
– Groups often take positions of greater risk or greater
caution
– May be due to diffused responsibility or greater comfort
level among members

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Group Decision-Making
Techniques
• Interacting groups
Meet face to face and rely on verbal and non-
verbal interactions to communicate
• Brainstorming
Generates a list of creative alternatives
– Problem: production blocking
• Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
Restricts discussion during the decision-making
process to encourage independent thinking

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Evaluating Group Effectiveness

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Implications for Managers
• Recognize that groups can dramatically affect individual
behavior in organizations, to either a positive or negative
effect.
• To decrease the possibility of deviant workplace
activities, ensure that group norms do not support
antisocial behavior.
• Pay attention to the status aspect of groups.
• Use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller
groups for action-taking tasks.
• To increase employee satisfaction, ensure people
perceive their job roles accurately.

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Chapter 10: Understanding
Work Teams

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After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Analyze the growing popularity of teams in
organizations.
2. Contrast groups and teams.
3. Contrast the five types of team arrangements.
4. Identify the characteristics of effective teams.
5. Explain how organizations can create team
players.
6. Decide when to use individuals instead of
teams.

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Why Are Teams So Popular?
• Increased competition has forced companies to
restructure to compete more efficiently
• Teams:
– Better utilize employee talents
– Are more flexible and responsive to change
– Democratize and motivate

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Groups and Teams
• Work group: Interacts primarily to share
information and to make decisions to help one
another perform within each member’s area of
responsibility
• Work team: Generates positive synergy through
coordinated effort; individual efforts result in a level
of performance that is greater than the sum of those
individual inputs

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Comparing Work Groups and Work
Teams

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Four Types of Teams

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Problem-Solving Teams
• Members often from the same department
• Share ideas or suggest improvements
• Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement
any of their suggested actions

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Self-Managed Work Teams
• 10-15 employees in highly related jobs
• Team takes on supervisory responsibilities:
– Work planning and scheduling
– Assigning tasks
– Operating decisions/actions
– Working with customers
• May select and evaluate members
• Effectiveness is dependent on the situation

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Cross-Functional Teams
• Members from same level, but diverse areas,
within and between organizations
• Exchange information
• Develop new ideas and solve problems
• Coordinate complex projects
• Development may be time consuming due to
complexity and diversity

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Virtual Teams
• Computer technology ties dispersed team
together
• Managing virtual teams:
– Ensure trust is established among members
– Monitor progress closely
– Publicize the efforts and products of the team
throughout the organization

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Multiteam Systems
• Collections of two or more interdependent teams that
share a superordinate goal
– A ‘team of teams’
• Can be the best choice

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Creating Effective Teams

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Context Factors in Team Success
• Presence of adequate resources
• Effective leadership and structure
• Climate of trust in the team
• Performance evaluation and reward system that
reflects team contributions

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Team Composition and Success
• Abilities of members • Allocation of roles
– High-ability • Diversity of members
– Adaptability – Organizational
• Personality of members demography
– Conscientious and • Cultural
open-minded differences
• Size of teams
• Member
preferences
Potential Team Member Roles

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Team Process and Success (1 of 2)

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Team Process and Success (2 of 2)
1. Common plan and purpose
2. Specific goals
3. Team efficacy
4. Team identity
5. Team cohesion
6. Mental models
7. Conflict levels
8. Social loafing

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Turning Individuals into Team
Players
• Selection: Need employees who have the
interpersonal as well as technical skills
• Training: Workshops on problem-solving,
communications, negotiation, conflict-
management, and coaching skills
• Rewards: Encourage cooperative efforts rather
than individual ones

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Teams Aren’t Always the Answer
• Complexity of Work: Can the work be done
better by more than one person?
• Common Purpose: Does the work create a
common purpose or set of goals for the people in the
group that is more than the aggregate of individual
goals?
• Interdependence: Are the members of the group
interdependent?

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Implications for Managers
• Effective teams have adequate resources, effective
leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance
evaluation system that reflects team contributions.
• Effective teams tend to be small.
• Effective teams have members who believe in the team’s
capabilities, are committed to a common plan and purpose,
and have an accurate shared mental model of what is to be
accomplished.
• Select individuals who have the interpersonal skills to be
effective team players; provide training to develop teamwork
skills; and reward individuals for cooperative efforts.
• Do not assume that teams are always needed.

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Chapter 11: Communication

9/12/2023 1
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After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Describe the functions and processes of communication.
2. Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication
through small-group networks and the grapevine
3. Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.
4. Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of
communication channel.
5. Differentiate between automatic and controlled
processing of persuasive messages.
6. Identify common barriers to effective
communication.
7. Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-
cultural communication.
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Functions of Communication
• Managing behavior
• Feedback
• Emotional sharing
• Persuasion
• Information exchange

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The Communication Process

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Channels of Communication
Formal Informal
• Path follows the authority • Spontaneous
chain channels from
• Messages relate to individual choice
professional activities • Messages often
personal or social

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Direction of Communication

Executive
Upward
Lateral

Manager Manager Manager

Downward
Employee

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Downward Communication
• Communication that flows from one level to a
lower level
– One-way communication
• Managers explain why a decision was made but do
not solicit advice or opinions of employees

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Upward Communication
• Communication that flows to a higher level
• Keeps managers aware of how employees feel about
their jobs, coworkers, and the organization

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Lateral Communication
• Communication that occurs between members of a
work group, members at the same level in separate
work groups, or any other horizontally equivalent
workers
– Saves time and facilitates coordination

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Formal Small-Group Networks

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Effectiveness Criteria

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The Grapevine
• Informal communication network
– Word-of-mouth

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Modes of Communication
• Three modes of communication
1. Oral
2. Written
3. Nonverbal

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Oral Communication
• Advantages
– Speed
– Feedback
– Simple to correct
• Disadvantages
– Potential for distorted message when passed through a
number of people

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Written Communication
• Any method that conveys written words or
symbols
– Letters
– E-mail
– Instant messaging
– Organizational periodicals

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Nonverbal Communication
• Body language conveys
– The extent of affinity for another
– The relative perceived status between a sender and
receiver
• Meaning changes with
– Intonation
– Facial expression
– Physical distance

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Channel Richness

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Choosing Communication Method
• Channel choice depends on whether the message is
routine
– Oral communication
– Written communication
– Nonverbal communication

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Choosing Oral Communication
• Use of oral communication when gauging the
receiver’s receptivity is important
– But consider:
 The receiver’s preference
 Pace of work environment
 Your speaking ability

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Choosing Written Communication
• Written communication:
– Provides a tangible and verifiable record that can be
stored for an indefinite period of time
– Message is physically available for later reference
– Messages are more likely to be well thought-out,
logical, and clear
– Grammar mistakes can be problematic

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Persuasive Communication
• Automatic processing: superficial consideration
of evidence and information making use of heuristics
– Takes little time and minimal effort
– Easy to be fooled
• Controlled processing: detailed consideration of
evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and
logic
– Requires effort and energy
– Less likely to be fooled

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Automatic versus Controlled
Processing
• The choice of processing depends on:
– Interest level
– Prior knowledge
– Personality
– Message characteristics

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Barriers to Effective
Communication
1. Filtering
2. Selective perception
3. Information overload
4. Emotions
5. Language
6. Silence
7. Communication apprehension
8. Lying

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Cultural Factors
• Cross-cultural communication barriers
– Semantics
– Word connotations
– Tone differences
– Differences in perception
• Cultural context
– High context culture
– Low context culture

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A Cultural Guide
1. Know yourself.
2. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and
democracy.
3. State facts, not your interpretation.
4. Consider the other person’s point of view.
5. Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

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Implications for Managers
• Remember that your communication mode will partly
determine your communication effectiveness.
• Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain
your messages are understood.
• Remember that written communication creates more
misunderstandings than oral communication.
• Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate
to your audience and the type of message you’re sending.
• Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and
culture.

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Chapter 12: Leadership

9/12/2023 1
707018 - Chapter 12: Leadership
After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of leadership.
2. Identify the central tenets and main limitations of
behavioral theories.
3. Contrast contingency theories of leadership.
4. Describe the contemporary theories of leadership and their
relationship to foundational theories.
5. Discuss the roles of leaders in creating ethical
organizations.
6. Describe how leaders can have a positive impact on their
organizations through building trust and mentoring.
7. Identify the challenges to our understanding of
leadership.

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What Is Leadership?
• Leadership: The ability to influence a group
toward the achievement of a vision or a set of
goals
• Trait theories of leadership: focus on personal
qualities and characteristics
– Leadership emergence
– Leadership effectiveness

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Trait Theories of Leadership
• Two conclusions:
1. Traits can predict leadership
2. Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of
leaders and the appearance of leadership than
distinguishing between effective and ineffective
leaders

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Personality Traits and Leadership
• Big Five Traits
– Extraversion has strongest relation to leadership
– Conscientiousness and openness to experience also
strongly relate to leadership
– Agreeableness and emotional stability are not
correlated with leadership
• Dark Side Traits
– Normative scores on Machiavellianism, narcissism, and
psychopathy are optimal
• Emotional intelligence
– EI contributes to emergence of leaders

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Behavioral Theories
• Behavioral theories of leadership: we can
determine leadership effectiveness by leader
behavior, and perhaps train people to be leaders
• The Ohio State Studies

27/12/2019 6
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Ohio State Studies

Initiating
Consideration
Structure

• Attempts to organize • Concern for followers’


work, work comfort, well-being,
relationships, and status, and satisfaction
goals
Cultural Differences
• GLOBE Leadership Project Results:
– Brazil – Leaders are participative and humane
– France – Leaders are bureaucratic, task oriented, and
autocratic
– China – Initiating structure and consideration important:
status differences but participation valued

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Contingency Theories
• Fiedler leadership model: Effective group
performance depends on the proper match
between the leader’s style and the degree to
which the situation gives the leader control

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Fiedler Leadership Model
• Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) determines
leadership style (fixed trait)
– Relationship oriented
– Task oriented
• Match leader’s style with degree of situational
control
– Leader-member relations
– Task structure
– Position power

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Matching Leaders to Situations

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Situational Leadership Theory
• Situational leadership theory (SLT): successful
leadership depends on selecting the right leadership
style, contingent on the followers’ readiness to
accomplish a task
1. Unable and unwilling
2. Unable but willing
3. Able but unwilling
4. Able and willing

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Path–Goal Theory
• Path–goal theory: it’s the leader’s job to provide
followers with information, support, or other
resources necessary to achieve goals
– Directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when
tasks are ambiguous or stressful
– Supportive leadership results in high performance and
satisfaction when tasks are structured
– Directive leadership is perceived as redundant by
employees with high ability or experience

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Leader-Participation Model
• Leader-participation model: provides a set of
rules to determine the form and amount of
participative decision making in different situations

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Leader-Member Exchange
• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory:
supports leaders’ creation of ingroups and
outgroups
– Subordinates with ingroup status will likely have higher
performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job
satisfaction

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LMX Theory

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Charismatic Leadership
• Charismatic leadership theory: Attributions of
heroic leadership abilities when followers observe
certain behaviors
– Vision and articulation
– Personal risk taking
– Sensitivity toward followers
– Unconventional behaviors

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Charismatic Leaders: Born or
Made?
• Charisma is partially attributed to genetics and
partially to training and experience
– Developing an aura of charisma:
 Be optimistic
 Be passionately enthusiastic
 Communicate with body, not just words
 Draw others in – inspire others
 Tap into emotions – bring out the potential in others

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How Charismatic Leaders
Influence Followers
• Articulate an appealing vision
• Communicate a new set of values
• Model behaviors for those values
• Express dramatic behavior

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Charisma and Situational
Dependency
• Charisma is strongly correlated to high
performance and satisfaction
– Best used when
 Environment is uncertain or stressful
 Ideology is involved
– Most closely associated with upper-level
executives
– People are most receptive to charisma when there is a crisis

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The Dark Side of Charismatic
Leadership
• Some leaders:
– Use organizational resources for personal benefit
– Remake companies in their own image
– Allow self-interest and personal goals to override
organization’s goals

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Transactional and
Transformational Leadership
• Transactional leaders:
Motivate their followers in the direction of
established goals by clarifying role and task
requirements
• Transformational leaders:
Inspire followers to transcend their own self-
interests for the good of the organization

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Characteristics of Transactional
and Transformational Leaders

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Full Range of Leadership Model

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How Transformational Leadership
Works
• Organizations with transformational leaders have
– Greater decentralization of responsibility
– Managers willing to take risks
– Compensation geared toward long-term results

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Evaluation of Transformational
Leadership
• Transformational leadership:
– Is effectively used in various job levels and disparate
occupations
– Tends to be more effective in smaller companies
– Works better when the leader directly interacts with
followers
– Can be learned

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Transformational versus
Transactional Leadership
• Transformational leadership is more strongly
correlated with:
– Lower turnover
– Higher productivity
– Lower employee stress and burnout
– Higher employee satisfaction

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Authentic Leadership: Ethics and
Trust
• Authentic leaders know who they are, what they
believe in and value, and act on those values and
beliefs openly and candidly
– Create trust
– Encourage open communication
– People have faith in them

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Ethical Leadership
• Ethics and leadership intersect at many junctures
• Executives set the moral tone for an organization, so
they must set and adhere to high ethical values
• Leadership is not value free, and the means by which a
leader achieves their goal must be framed by ethics
• Socialized charismatic leadership: leadership
that conveys other-centered values by leaders who
model ethical conduct

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Servant Leadership
• Servant Leaders: Go beyond their own self-
interest and focus on opportunities to help
followers grow and develop
• Effects of servant leadership:
– Higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-
efficacy, and perceptions of justice
– Increased team potency and higher group
performance
– Higher levels of creative performance
• Servant leadership may be more effective in
certain cultures

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Trus
t

Information
Taking Risks
Sharing

Trust

Effective Enhanced
Groups Productivity

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Developing Trust

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Mentoring
• Mentor: a senior employee who sponsors and
supports a less-experienced employee, a protégé
– Mentoring programs benefit both mentors and protégés
• Benefits of mentoring are primarily psychological

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Leadership as an Attribution
• Attribution Theory of Leadership
– Performance outcomes are attributed to leaders’
actions
– Appearance has more to do with leadership than actual
accomplishments

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Substitutes and Neutralizers
• Substitutes
– Replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to
create structure
• Neutralizers
– Organizational variables can neutralize the leader’s
influence or act as substitutes for leadership
– Leader becomes irrelevant

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Substitutes for and Neutralizers of
Leadership

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Online Leadership
• Identification-based trust: trust based on a
mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and
appreciation of each other’s wants and desires

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Implications for Managers
• Ensure that your preferences on the initiating structure and
consideration dimensions match work dynamics and culture.
• Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership
qualities and who have demonstrated success in working
through others to meet a long-term vision.
• Hire candidates who are ethical and trustworthy; train
managers in ethical standards.
• Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers.
• Consider investing in leadership training.

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Chapter 13: Power and
Politics

9/12/2023 1
707018 - Chapter 13: Power and Politics
After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Contrast leadership and power.
2. Explain the three bases of formal power and the two
bases of personal power.
3. Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.
4. Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.
5. Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.
6. Describe how politics work in organizations.
7. Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political
behavior.

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A Definition of
Power
• Power: The capacity that A has to influence the
behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s
wishes
– The most important aspect of power is that it is a
function of dependence

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Contrasting Leadership and Power

Differences Leadership Power


Goal Compatibility Requires goal congruence Only needs dependence
Concerned with
Direction of Influence Focuses on downward influence
influence in all directions
Broader topic: focuses
Research Emphasis Emphasizes leadership style on tactics used by
individuals and groups

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Formal Bases of Power
• Formal power is based on an individual’s
organizational position
– Coercive Power: Complies from fear of the negative
results
– Reward Power: Complies due to desire for positive
benefits
– Legitimate Power: From the formal authority to control
and use organizational resources

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Personal Bases of Power
• Personal power stems from an individual’s unique
characteristics
– Expert: Influence wielded as a result of expertise,
special skill, or knowledge
– Referent: Based on identification with a person who
has desirable resources or personal traits
 Charisma

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Effective Power Bases
• Expert and referent power are positively related to
performance and commitment
• Reward and legitimate power are unrelated to
organizational outcomes
• Coercive power is negatively related to employee
satisfaction and commitment

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General Dependence Postulate
• The greater B’s dependence on A, the more
power A has over B
• What creates dependence?
– Importance
– Scarcity
– Non-substitutability

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Social Network Analysis

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Power Tactics
• Power tactics: Used to translate power bases
into specific actions that influence others
– Some are more effective than others

27/12/2019 10
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Nine Influence Tactics
1. Legitimacy
2. Rational persuasion
3. Inspirational appeals
4. Consultation
5. Exchange
6. Personal appeals
7. Ingratiation
8. Pressure
9. Coalitions

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Influence Tactic Effectiveness
• Most Effective
• Least Effective
• Rational persuasion
• Inspirational appeals • Pressure
• Consultation

• Combining tactics increases effectiveness


• Direction, sequencing, individual skill, and
organizational culture modify effectiveness

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Preferred Power Tactics by
Influence Direction

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Cultural Preferences for Power
• Culture affects preference for power tactics
– Individualistic cultures
 See power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of
advancing personal ends
 Engage in more self-enhancement behaviors
– Collectivistic cultures
 See power in social terms and as legitimate means of helping
others

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Political Skill
• Political skill: ability to influence others to
enhance one’s own objectives
– Politically skilled are more effective users of all the
influence tactics
– Political skill is more effective when the stakes are high
– Those with political skill can exert their influence
without others detecting it

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How Power Affects
People
• People with power:
– Put their interests ahead of others
– Objectify others
– React to threats against their competence
– Tend to be overconfident
• But there can be positive effects of power
– Depends on personality

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Sexual Harassment
• Sexual harassment is any unwanted activity of a
sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment
or creates a hostile work environment
– More prevalent in male-dominated societies
• Managers have a responsibility to protect their
employees from a hostile work environment

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Organizational Politics
• Political behavior: consists of activities that are
not required as part of an individual’s formal role
but that influence, or attempt to influence, the
distribution of advantages and disadvantages within
the organization

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The Reality of Politics
• Politics arise in organizations because of:
– Conflicting interests
– Limited resources
– Ambiguity in decision making
• Politicking: Twisting facts to support one’s own
goals and interests

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Factors Contributing to Political
Behavior

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Responses to Organizational
Politics
• Organizational politics may threaten employees
– Decreased job satisfaction
– Increased anxiety and stress
– Increased turnover
– Reduced performance

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Qualifiers to Responses to
Organizational Politics
• The politics-performance relationship is moderated
by individual’s understanding of who makes
decisions and why they were selected
• Political behavior at work moderates the effects of
ethical leadership
• When politics are perceived as a threat, people
respond with defensive behaviors

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Defensive Behaviors

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Impression Management
• Impression management: The process by which
individuals attempt to control the impression others
form of them

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Using Impression Management
• IM and interviews:
– Self-promotion and ingratiation work well
• IM and performance evaluations:
– Ingratiation positively related
– Self-promotion is negatively related
• IM by culture:
– Are our conclusions about responses to politics
globally valid?
– We don’t really know

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The Ethics of Behaving Politically
Questions to consider:
1. What is the utility of engaging in politicking?
2. How does the utility of engaging in the political
behavior balance out any harm it will do to others?
3. Does the political activity conform to standards of
equity and justice?

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Mapping Your Political Career

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Implications for Managers
• To maximize your power, increase others’ dependence on
you.
• You will not be alone in attempting to build your power
bases.
• Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel
they have no power.
• By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better
predict the actions of others and use that information to
formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you
and your work unit.
• Help others understand the importance of becoming
politically savvy.

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Chapter 14: Conflict and
Negotiation

9/12/2023 1
707018 - Chapter 14: Conflict and Negotiation
After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Describe the three types of conflict and the three loci of
conflict.
2. Outline the conflict process.
3. Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.
4. Apply the five steps of the negotiation process.
5. Show how individual differences influence negotiations.
6. Describe the social factors that influence negotiations.
7. Assess the roles and functions of third-party negotations.

2
707018 - Chapter 14: Conflict and Negotiation
Definition of Conflict
• Conflict: Process that begins when one party
perceives that another party has negatively
affected, or is about to negatively affect,
something that the first party cares about

3
707018 - Chapter 14: Conflict and Negotiation
Perspectives of Conflict
• Functional conflict:
Supports the goals of the group and improves its
performance
• Dysfunctional conflict:
Hinders group performance

4
707018 - Chapter 14: Conflict and Negotiation
Effect of Levels of Conflict

5
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Types of Conflict
• Three categories of conflict:
1. Task conflict:
Work content and goals
2. Relationship conflict: Interpersonal relationships
3. Process conflict:
How the work is done

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Desired Conflict Levels

Source of Conflict Level of Conflict


Low Moderate High
Task Functional Dysfunctional
Relationship Dysfunctional
Process Functional Dysfunctional

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Loci of Conflict
• Three sources of conflict:
1. Dyadic conflict:
Conflict between two people
2. Intragroup conflict:
Conflict occurring within a group or team
3. Intergroup conflict:
Conflict between groups or teams

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The Conflict Process

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Stage I: Potential Opposition
• Communication
– Barriers exist
– Too much or too little
• Structure
– Group size, age, diversity
– Organizational rewards, goals, group dependency
• Personal Variables
– Personality types
– Emotionality

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Stage II: Cognition and
Personalization
• Potential for conflict is actualized
• Parties “make sense” of conflict by defining it and
its potential solutions
• Emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions
– Perceived conflict: awareness needed for
actualization
– Felt conflict: emotional involvement - parties
experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility

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Stage III: Intentions (1 of 2)
• Intentions:
Decisions to act in a given way
– Inferred (often erroneous) intentions may cause greater
conflict
• Five conflict handling intentions:
1. Competing
2. Collaborating
3. Avoiding
4. Accommodating
5. Compromising

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Stage III: Intentions (2 of 2)
Stage IV: Behavior

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Stage V: Outcomes
• Functional Outcomes:
– Improves decision quality
– Stimulates creativity and innovation
– Encourages interest and curiosity
– Problems are aired
– Accepts change and self-evaluation
• Dysfunctional Outcomes:
– Group is less effective
– Reduces cohesiveness and communications
– Leads to the destruction of the group

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Managing Conflict
• Minimize counterproductive conflict:
– Recognize when there really is a disagreement
– Encourage open, frank discussion focused on interests
– Have opposing groups pick important issues and work for
mutual satisfaction
– Emphasize shared interests

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Cultural Influences
• Culture influences conflict resolution strategies
– Collectivist cultures try to use indirect methods to
preserve relationships
 Promote the good of the group as a whole
– Individualist cultures confront differences of opinion
directly and openly

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Negotiation
• Negotiation: Process that occurs when two or
more parties decide how to allocate scarce
resources

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Bargaining Strategies

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Distributive Bargaining

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Integrative Bargaining
• Integrative bargaining:
A win-win solution is possible
• But:
– Parties must be open with information and candid
about their concerns
– Both parties must be sensitive regarding the other’s
needs
– Parties must be able to trust each other
– Both parties must be willing to be flexible

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The Negotiation Process

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Individual Differences in
Negotiation Effectiveness
• Personality Traits
– Little evidence to support
– Disagreeable introvert is best
• Moods & Emotions
– Showing anger helps in distributive negotiations
– Positive moods help integrative negotiations
• Culture
– Negotiating styles vary across national cultures
• Gender Differences
– Men are slightly better
– Many stereotypes – low power positions

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Negotiating in a Social Context
• Reputation
– Trustworthiness
 Competence and integrity
• Relationships
– What is best for the relationship as a whole

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Third-Party Negotiations
• Basic third party roles:
1. Mediator: neutral third party who facilitates a
negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and
suggestions for alternatives
2. Arbitrator: third party to a negotiation who has the
authority to dictate an agreement
3. Conciliator: trusted third party who provides an
informal communication link between the negotiator
and the opponent

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Implications for Managers
• Choose an authoritarian management style in
some situations.
• Seek integrative solutions in some situations.
• Build trust.
• Consider compromise.
• Consider the tradeoffs between distributive and
integrative bargaining.

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Chapter 15: Foundations of
Organizational Structure

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After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Identify the seven elements of an organization’s structure.
2. Identify the characteristics of the functional structure, the
divisional structure, and the matrix structure.
3. Identify the characteristics of the virtual structure, the
team structure, and the circular structure.
4. Describe the effects of downsizing on organizational
structures and employees.
5. Contrast the reasons for mechanistic and organic
structural models.
6. Analyze the behavioral implications of different
organizational designs.

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What Is Organization Structure?
• Organizational Structure:
Defines how job tasks are formally divided,
grouped, and coordinated
– Key elements:
1. Work specialization
2. Departmentalization
3. Chain of command
4. Span of control
5. Centralization and decentralization
6. Formalization
7. Boundary spanning

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Key Questions and
Answers

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Work Specialization
• Work specialization:
Describes the degree to which activities in the
organization are subdivided into separate jobs
– Also known as division of labor
– Benefits
 Greater efficiency and lower costs
– Costs
 Human costs when carried too far
 Job enlargement as a solution

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Work Specialization Economies

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Departmentalization
• Departmentalization:
Basis by which jobs are grouped together so that
common tasks can be coordinated
• Common bases:
– Functional
– Product or service
– Geography
– Process and customer

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Chain of Command
• Chain of command:
Unbroken line of authority that extends from the top
of the organization to the lowest echelon and
clarifies who reports to whom
– Authority: positional rights
– Unity of command: one boss
• Fewer organizations find this is relevant

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Span of Control
• Span of control:
The number of employees a manager is expected
to effectively and efficiently direct
– Determines the number of levels and managers an
organization has
 Trend is toward wider spans of control
 Wider span depends on knowledgeable employees
 Affects speed of communication and decision making

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Contrasting Spans of Control

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Centralization and Decentralization
• Centralization:
Degree to which decision making is concentrated
at a single point in the organization
– Only includes formal authority: positional rights
– Highly centralized when top managers make all the
decisions
– Decentralized when front line employees and
supervisors make decisions
– Trend is toward increased decentralization

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Formalization
• Formalization:
Degree to which jobs within the organization are
standardized
– Formal: minimum discretion over what is to be done,
when it is done, and how
– Informal: freedom to act is necessary

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Boundary Spanning
• Boundary spanning:
When individuals form relationships outside their
formally assigned groups
– Liaison roles
– Development activities
 Job rotations
– Organizational goals and shared identity

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Common Organizational Designs
• Three common organizational frameworks:
1. Simple structure
2. Bureaucracy
3. Matrix structure

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Simple Structure
• Low degree of departmentalization
• Wide spans of control
• Authority centralized in a single person
• Little formalization
• Difficult to maintain in anything other than small
organizations

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Bureaucracy
• Highly routine operating tasks achieved through
specialization
– Formal rules and regulations
– Centralized authority
– Narrow spans of control
– Tasks grouped by functional departments
– Decision making follows the chain of command

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Functional and Divisional
Structures
• Functional structure: groups employees by their
similar specialties, roles, or tasks
• Divisional structure: groups employees into units
by product, service, customer, or geographic market
area

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Matrix Structure
• Combines two forms of departmentalization
– Functional
– Product
• Dual chain of command
• Advantages:
– Facilitates coordination and efficient allocation of
specialists
• Disadvantages:
– Possible confusion, fosters power struggles, stress

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Matrix Structure for a College of
Business Administration

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New Design Options
• Virtual Organization:
A small core organization that outsources its major
business functions
– Highly centralized with little or no departmentalization
– Provides maximum flexibility while concentrating on
what the organization does best
– Reduced control over key parts of the business

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A Virtual Organization

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The Team Structure
• Team structure:
– Eliminates the chain of command
– Has limitless spans of control
– Replaces departments with empowered teams
– Breaks down geographical barriers

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The Circular Structure
• Circular structure: Top management is at the center
of the organization with its vision spreading outward
in rings grouped by function
– May be confusing for employees
– May be used to spread CSR initiatives

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The Leaner Organization:
Downsizing
• Downsizing:
A systematic effort to make an organization leaner by
selling off business units, closing locations or reducing
staff
– Controversial because of the negative impact on
employees
– Impact on organizational performance has been very
controversial

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Organizational Design Models

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Determinants of Structure
• Organizational Strategy
– Innovation strategy: introduce new offerings-prefer
organic structures
– Cost-minimization strategy: cost control–prefer
mechanistic structures
– Imitation strategy: minimal risk and maximum profit–
both structures used

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Optimal Structural Option

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More Determinants of Structure
• Organization Size
– Move toward mechanistic structure as size increases
• Technology
– Routine activities prefer mechanistic structures, non-
routine prefer organic structures

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Still More Determinants of
Structure
• Environment
– Dynamic environments lead to organic structures
– Capacity
– Volatility
– Complexity
• Institutions
– Act as guidelines for appropriate behavior

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The Environment

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Organizational Designs and
Employee Behavior
• Cannot generalize any link between structure and
performance
• Consider employee preferences for:
– Work specialization
– Span of control
– Centralization
– Predictability versus autonomy
• National culture influences organizational
structure
– High power distance cultures accept mechanistic
structures

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Implications for Managers
• Specialization can make operations more efficient, but excessive
specialization can create dissatisfaction and reduced motivation.
• Avoid designing rigid hierarchies that overly limit employees’
empowerment and autonomy.
• Balance the advantages of remote work against the potential pitfalls
before adding flexible workplace options.
• Downsize your organization to realize major cost savings, and focus the
company around core competencies-but only if necessary because
downsizing can have a significant negative impact on employee affect.
• Consider the scarcity, dynamism, and complexity of the environment, and
balance the organic and mechanistic elements when designing an
organizational structure.

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Chapter 16: Organizational
Culture

9/12/2023 1
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After studying this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Describe the common characteristics of organizational
culture.
2. Compare the functional and dysfunctional effects of
organizational culture on people and the organization.
3. Identify the factors that create and sustain an
organization’s culture.
4. Show how culture is transmitted to employees.
5. Describe the similarities and differences in creating an
ethical culture, a positive culture, and a spiritual culture.
6. Show how national culture may affect the way
organizational culture is interpreted.

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Organizational Culture
• Organizational culture:
A system of shared meaning held by members that
distinguishes the organization from other
organizations

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Characteristics of Organizational
Culture
1. Innovation and risk taking
2. Attention to detail
3. Outcome orientation
4. People orientation
5. Team orientation
6. Aggressiveness
7. Stability

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Culture Is a Descriptive Term
• Culture • Job Satisfaction
• Organizational culture is • Measures affective
concerned with how responses to the work
employees perceive an environment:
organization’s culture, not concerned with how
whether or not they like it employees feel about
• Descriptive the organization
• Evaluative
Do Organizations Have Uniform
Cultures?
• The dominant culture expresses the core
values that are shared by a majority of the
organization’s members
• Subcultures tend to develop in large
organizations to reflect common problems,
situations, or experiences of members
– Subcultures mirror the dominant culture but may add to or
modify the core values

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Strong versus Weak Cultures
• In a strong culture, the organization’s core
values are both intensely held and widely shared
• Strong cultures will:
– Have great influence on the behavior of members
– Increase cohesiveness
– Result in lower employee turnover

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Culture versus Formalization
• High formalization creates predictability,
orderliness, and consistency
• A strong culture achieves the same end without the
need for written documentation

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The Functions of Culture
• Defines boundaries
• Conveys a sense of identity
• Generates commitment beyond oneself
• Enhances social stability
• Sense-making and control mechanism

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Culture Creates Climate
• Organizational climate:
The shared perceptions organizational members have
about their organization and work environment
– Positive climate is linked to higher customer
satisfaction and financial performance

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The Ethical Dimension
• Ethical work climate (EWC):
Shared concept of right and wrong behavior in the
workplace that reflects the true values of the
organization and shapes the ethical decision making of
its members

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Culture and Sustainability
• Sustainability:
Organization practices that can be sustained over a
long period of time because the tools or structures that
support them are not damaged by the processes

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Culture and Innovation
• Culture and innovation:
Innovative companies are characterized by their open,
unconventional, collaborative, vision-driven, and
accelerating cultures
• Culture as an asset:
Culture can contribute to an organization’s bottom
line

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Culture as a Liability
• Institutionalization
Behaviors and habits go unquestioned – can stifle
innovation
• Barriers to change
Culture is slow to change – even in a dynamic environment
• Barriers to diversity
Culture seeks to minimize diversity
Can embed prevalent bias and prejudice
• Barriers to acquisitions and mergers
Cultural incompatibility can be a problem

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How a Culture Begins
• Ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its
founders
• Founders create culture in three ways
1. Hiring and keeping those who think and feel the same way
they do
2. Indoctrinating and socializing those employees to their
way of thinking and feeling
3. Acting as a role model and encouraging employees to
identify with them

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Keeping a Culture Alive
• Selection: seek out those who fit in
• Top management: establish norms of behavior by
their actions
• Socialization: help new employees adapt to the
existing culture

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A Socialization
Model

• Pre-arrival: initial knowledge about the


organization and own unique ideas
• Encounter: exposed to the organization
• Metamorphosis: member changed to fit within
the organization
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Entry Socialization Options
• Formal: new workers • Informal: new workers
separated for training immediately put to work
• Collective: group basis • Individual: one-on-one
• Fixed: planned • Variable: no timetables
activities • Random: on your own
• Serial: role models
• Investiture: accepts and
used
• Divestiture: strip away confirms existing
characteristics to build up characteristics
new ones
Summary: How Cultures Form

• Success in employee socialization depends on


management’s selection of socialization methods and
the closeness of new employees’ values to those of
the organization
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How Employees Learn Culture
• Culture is transmitted to employees through:
– Stories: provide explanations
– Rituals: reinforce key values
– Material symbols: convey importance, degree of
egalitarianism desired, and appropriate behaviors
– Language: identify and segregate members

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Creating an Ethical Organizational
Culture
• A strong culture with high risk tolerance, low-to-
moderate aggressiveness, and a focus on means as
well as outcomes is most likely to shape high ethical
standards
– Managers must be visible role models
– Communicate ethical expectations
– Provide ethical training
– Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones
– Provide protective mechanisms

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Creating a Positive Organizational
Culture
• A positive organizational culture emphasizes:
– Building on employee strengths
– Rewarding more than punishing
– Encouraging vitality and growth
– Recognizing outside context

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A Spiritual
Culture
• Workplace spirituality: recognizes that people have
an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of
community
• Characteristics of a spiritual organization:
– Benevolence
– Strong sense of purpose
– Trust and respect
– Openmindedness

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The Global Context
• Organizational culture can reflect national culture
and it can transcend national boundaries
– Managers need to be culturally sensitive:
 Talk in a low tone
 Speak slowly
 Listen more
 Avoid discussing religion and politics
• Ethical decision making can be culture-bound

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Impact on Employee Performance
and Satisfaction

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Implications for Managers
• Realize that an organization’s culture is relatively fixed in
the short term.
• Hire individuals whose values align with those of the
organization; these employees will tend to remain
committed and satisfied.
• Understand that employees’ performance and socialization
depend to a considerable degree on their knowing what to do
and not do.
• You can shape the culture of your work environment.
• Understand the cultural relevance of your organization’s
norms before introducing new plans or initiatives overseas.

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Chapter 17: Organizational
Change and Stress
Management

9/12/2023 1
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After studying this chapter you
should be able to: (1 of 2)
1. Contrast the forces for change and planned
change.
2. Describe ways to overcome resistance to
change.
3. Compare the four main approaches to managing
organizational change.
4. Demonstrate three ways of creating a culture for
change.

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After studying this chapter you
should be able to: (2 of 2)
5. Identify the potential environmental, organizational,
and personal sources of stress at work as well as the
role of individual and cultural differences.
6. Identify the physiological, psychological, and
behavioral symptoms of stress at work.
7. Describe individual and organizational
approaches to managing stress at work.

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Forces for Change
• Nature of the workforce
• Technology
• Economic shocks
• Competition
• Social trends
• World politics

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Reactionary versus Planned
Change
• Change:
Making things different
• Planned change:
Change activities that are intentional and goal
oriented
• Change agents:
People who act as catalysts and assume the
responsibility for managing change activities

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Resistance to Change
• People tend to resist change, even in the face of
evidence of its benefits
– Can be positive if it leads to open discussion and
debate
• Remember, not all change is good
– Change agents need to carefully think through the
implications

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Sources of Resistance

Individual Organizational
• Habit • Structural inertia
• Security • Limited focus of change
• Economic factors • Group inertia
• Fear of the unknown • Threat to expertise
• Selective information • Threat to established
processing power relationships and
resource allocations
Overcoming Resistance to Change
1. Communication
2. Participation
3. Building support and commitment
4. Developing positive relationships
5. Implementing changes fairly
6. Manipulation and cooptation
7. Selecting people who accept change
8. Coercion

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Approaches to Managing
Organizational Change
• Lewin’s Three-Step Model of Change
• Kotter’s Eight-Step Model of the Change Process
• Action Research
• Organizational Development

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Lewin’s Three-Step Model

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Unfreezing the Status Quo

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Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan
1. Create urgency 5. Empower others
2. Form coalition 6. Reward “wins”
3. Create new vision 7. Consolidate
4. Communicate the improvements
vision

Movement Refreezing

Unfreezing 8. Reinforce the


change
Action Research
• Action research: Change process based on the
systematic collection of data and the selection of a
change action based on what the analyzed data indicate
• Five steps:
1. Diagnosis
2. Analysis
3. Feedback
4. Action
5. Evaluation

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Organizational Development
• Organizational development:
A collection of change methods that try to improve
organizational effectiveness and employee well- being

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OD Interventions
1. Sensitivity Training
Change behavior through unstructured group interaction
1. Survey Feedback
Gathering data and acting on it
2. Process Consultation
Using outside consultants
3. Team Building
Increase trust and openness
4. Intergroup Development
Change attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions
5. Appreciative Inquiry
Discovering what the organization does right

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Creating a Culture for Change
• Paradox theory:
The key paradox in management is that there is no
final optimal status for an organization

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Stimulating a Culture of Innovation
• Innovation: A new idea applied to initiating or
improving a product, process, or service
• Sources of innovation:
– Organic structure
– Long tenure in management
– Slack resources
– High interunit communication
• Context and innovation
• Idea champions and innovation

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Idea Champions
• Idea champions: Managers who actively and
enthusiastically promote an idea, build support,
overcome resistance, and ensure that innovation is
implemented
– Have high self-confidence, persistence, energy, and
acceptance of risk
– Use inspiration and vision to gain commitment
– Have decision-making discretion

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Creating a Learning Organization
• Learning organization:
An organization that has developed the continuous
capacity to adapt and change
• Managing learning:
– Establish a strategy
– Redesign the organization’s structure
– Reshape the organization’s culture

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Characteristics of a Learning
Organization

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Work Stress
• Stress: A dynamic condition in which an individual
is confronted with an opportunity, demand, or resource
related to what is desired and for which the outcome is
perceived to be both uncertain and important

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Types of Work Stress
• Challenge Stress: associated with workload,
pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency
– Can be positive
• Hindrance Stress: comes from obstacles to
achieving goals
– Mostly negative
• Usually stress is associated with demands and
resources

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A Model of
Stress

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Managing Stress

Organizational Individual
1. Selection and placement • Time management
2. Goal-setting programs • Physical activity
3. Job redesign • Relaxation techniques
4. Employee involvement
• Social support network
5. Employee sabbaticals
6. Organizational
communication
7. Wellness
programs
Implications for Managers
• You are a change agent for your organization. The decisions that you make
and your role-modeling will help shape the organization’s change culture.
• Your management policies and practices will determine the degree to which
the organization learns and adapts to changing environmental factors.
• Some stress is good.
• You can help alleviate harmful workplace stress for you and any
employees you supervise by accurately matching workloads to
employees, providing employees with stress-coping resources, and
responding to their concerns.
• You can identify extreme stress when performance declines, turnover
increases, health-related absenteeism increases, and engagement declines.
Stay alert for early indicators and be proactive.

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